A SEMINAR REPORT ON

SATELLITE COMMUNICATIION SYSTEM

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements For the award of the degree of

Bachelor of Technology In Computer Science & Engineering

BY P.KRISHNA MURTHY
Regd No: 08FH1A0529

Dr.K.V.SUBBA REDDY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to J.N.T.U, Anantapur & Approved by AICTE)
KURNOOL 518 218

2011 2012

Dr. K. V. SUBBA REDDY INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

(Affiliated to J.N.T.U, Anantapur & Approved by AICTE) Department of Computer Science & Engineering

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that this seminar report entitled SATELLITE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM is a bonafied record of work done by P.KRISHNA MURTHY (08FH1A0529), submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree in Computer Science & Engineering from JAWAHARLAL NEHRU TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY, ANANTAPUR.

Mr.M.VEERESHA, M.Tech.
Head of the Department Department of C.S.E., Dr.K.V.S.R.I.T. G.Mahesh Babu, B.tech Project Guide

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

It is by the guidance of the Mr.M.Veeresha, that I am able to complete my documentation successfully for which I am eternally indebted to him. I am extremely grateful thanks to Dr.K.V.Subba Reddy, Director of Dr K.V.S.R I.T. For providing infrastructure and facilities during my course. I am extremely thanks to Mrs. Dr. M.Lilly Padmaja Joshi, principal of Dr K.V.S.R I.T. For providing facilities during my course. It gives me immense pleasure to express my sincere thanks to Mr.M.Veeresha, H.O.D of Computer Science &Engineering. For his encouragement and valuable suggestions during my course. I am very much grateful to my beloved parents who have shaped my life in proper direction. This is the time to express my thanks to friends and classmates for their help and co-operation during my course.

Abstract
A communications satellite (sometimes abbreviated to COMSAT) is an artificial satellite stationed in space for the purpose of telecommunications. Modern communications satellites use a variety of orbits including geostationary orbits, Molniya orbits, other elliptical orbits and low (polar and non-polar) Earth orbits. or fixed (point-to-point) services, communications satellites provide a microwave radio relay technology complementary to that of communication cables. They are also used for mobile applications such as communications to ships, vehicles, planes and hand-held terminals, and for TV and radio broadcasting, for which application of other technologies, such as cable television, is impractical or impossible.

Index

CONTENTS

1.

Introduction

2.

History

3.

Basic purpose of satellites

4.

Orbits of satellite communication

5.

Functionality of satellite

6.

Applications

7. Conclusion

8. Bibliography

Satellite Communication System INTRODUCTION

Satellite communication systems consist of Earth-orbiting communications platforms that receive and retransmit signals from earth-based stations. A typical television satellite receives a signal from a base station and broadcasts it to a large number of terrestrial receivers. Signals to satellites are called "uplinks," and signals from satellites are called "downlinks." Uplinks have also been called "shooting the bird". The downlink covers an area called the "footprint," which may be very large or cover a focused area. Satellites use microwave frequencies. Since they are overhead, the transmissions are line of sight to the receiver.

Communication-satellite:
A communications satellite (sometimes abbreviated to COMSAT) is an artificial satellite stationed in space for the purpose of telecommunications. Modern communications satellites use a variety of orbits including geostationary orbits, Molniya orbits, other elliptical orbits and low (polar and non-polar) Earth orbits. For fixed (point-to-point) services, communications satellites provide a microwave radio relay technology complementary to that of submarine communication cables. They are also used for mobile applications such as communications to ships, vehicles, planes and hand-held terminals, and for TV and radio broadcasting, for which application of other technologies, such as cable, is impractical or impossible.

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Satellite Communication System HISTORY

One of the most remarkable prophe-cies of the twentieth century was published in the magazine Wireless World in 1945. In a short article, Extra-Terrestrial Relays, British scientist and fiction writer Arthur C. Clarke described the use of, in 24-hour orbits positioned above the worlds land masses, to pro-vide global communications. An artificial satellite at the correct distance from the earth could make one revolution every 24 hours, i.e., it would remain stationary above the same spot and would be within optical range of nearly half of the earth's surface. Three repeater stations, 120 degrees apart in the correct orbit, could give television and microwave coverage to the entire planet. Clarkes theory made little impact un-til John R. Pierce of AT&Ts Bell Laboratories evaluated the various technical options and financial prospects of satel-lite communications. In a 1954 speech followed by an article published in 1955, Pierce, unaware of Clarkes article 10 years earlier, elaborated on the utility of communications mirrors in space: a medium-orbit repeater and a 24-hour orbit repeater. Pierce compared the communications capacity of a satellite, estimated to be 1,000 simultaneous tele-phone calls, and the communications ca-pacity of the first transatlantic telephone cable (TAT-1), which could carry 36 si-multaneous telephone calls. Since the cable cost $30-50 million, Pierce won-dered if a satellite would be worth a billion dollars. Communications by Moon Relay The U.S. Navy be-gan conducting experi-ments in 1954 bouncing radio signals off of the moon. These experi-ments led to the world's first operational space communications sys-tem, called Communi-cation by Moon Relay (CMR) (Fig. 11-2), The relay was used between 1959 and 1963 to link Hawaii and Washington, DC. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched the worlds first artificial satellite, Sputnik I. This sparked great interest and speculation, as many began to consider AU Space Primer 7/23/2003 11 - 1 the benefits, profits and prestige associated with satellite communications.

The DSCS frequency plan falls within the SHF spectrum (X band) with uplink frequencies of 7900MHz to 8400 MHz which the transponders down-translate to the downlink Dept. of CSE Dr.K.V.S.R.IT Page 2

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frequencies of 7250 MHz to 7750 MHz. Any type of modulation or multiple access may be used since none of the transponders process or demodulate the signals. In addition to the six wide-band SHF transponders, a Single Channel Transponder (SCT) provides secure and reliable dissemination of EAM and the SIOP communications from command post ground stations and aircraft world wide. The SCT receives communications from the ground terminals and airborne command posts at SHF or UHF, and transmits them at UHF and SHF.

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Satellite Communication System BASICS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION

It introduces satellite communication technology from a non-specialist point of view. The basic principles will be introduced along with a list of generic functions that satellite technology can perform (broadcast, unicast, bi-directional, multicasting). The chapter traces a broad history of satellite technology and discusses the developments currently taking place, covering broadcast type functions and additional applications and services.It will further introduce general trends within the overall ICT sector that have an influence on the evolution of satellite technology. Although some issues and topics may not seem directly related to the use of satellites in an educational context, it is important to understand the fundamentals of the technology. This chapter is not the easiest part of the report and the reader may consider skipping to the following chapter which discusses the practical applications and return to this chapter at a later stage. Both chapters are self contained and can be read inependently of the rest of the report.

Terrestrial Systems:
A satellite is an object that orbits or revolves around another object. For example, the Moon is a satellite of Earth, and Earth is a satellite of the Sun. In this document, we will examine human-made satellites that orbit Earth. They are highly specialized wireless receiver/transmitters by a rocket and placed in orbit around the Earth. There are hundreds of satellites currently in operation. Satellite communication is one particular example of wireless communication systems. Similar and maybe more familiar examples of wireless systems are radio and television broadcasting and mobile and coreless telephones. Systems of this type rely on a network of ground-based transmitters and receivers. They are commonly referred to as 'terrestrial' systems as opposed to satellite systems. Satellite communication systems differ from terrestrial systems in that the transmitter is not based on the ground but in the sky: the transmitter here consists of a ground-based part

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Satellite Communication System

called the uplink, and the satellite-based part that 'reflects' the signals towards the receivers. This part is called the transponder.

Purpose :
Satellites come in many shapes and sizes and have many uses. The first artificial satellite, called Sputnik, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957 and was the size of a basketball. Its purpose was simply to transmit a Morse code signal repeatedly. In contrast, modern satellites can receive and transmit hundreds of signals at the same time, from simple digital data to complex television programmes. They are used for many purposes such as television broadcasting, amateur radio communications, Internet communications, weather forecasting and Global Positioning Systems (GPS).

Communications-satellites:
Communications satellites act as relay stations in space. One could imagine them as very long, invisible poles that relay high frequency radio waves. They are used to bounce messages from one part of the world to another. The messages can be telephone calls, TV pictures or Internet connections. Certain communications satellites are, for example, used for broadcasting: they send radio and TV signals to homes. Nowadays, there are more than 100 such satellites orbiting Earth, transmitting thousands of different TV (and radio) programmes all over the world

System-elements:
Although the purpose of this report is not to train future satellite engineers, there are certain parts of a satellite system that are worth knowing about and which can help the reader understand how satellites behave and how they can be used for different purposes. From this point onwards we will focus almost exclusively on communication satellites, particularly those parts and elements that are relevant to satellite communications. The two most important elements of the communications system are the satellite itself and the Earth station.

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Satellite Communication System

Earth Stations:
Earth station is the common name for every installation located on the Earth's surface and intended for communication (transmission and/or reception) with one or more satellites. Earth stations include all devices and installations for satellite communications: handheld devices for mobile satellite telephony, briefcase satellite phones, satellite TV reception, as well as installations that are less familiar, eg: VSAT stations and satellite broadcast TV stations. The term Earth station refers to the collection of equipment that is needed to perform communications via satellite: the antenna (often a dish) and the associated equipment (receiver/decoder, transmitter). Antennas vary in size to match the particular service for which they are designed. For example, a 70 cm antenna may be sufficient for direct reception of satellite TV programmes in the home, but would not be suitable for, for example, transmitting television programmes.

Handheld satellite telephone, antenna for satellite TV reception, satellite transmitting Earth station The other part of the Earth station is the application device which, in the case of reception, translates radio signals into information that can be displayed on a TV screen or processed by a computer. In the case of transmission, this device will transform information into a signal that is suitable for transmission via the antenna, using modulation, amplification and other processing techniques. In the case of VSAT- type two-way systems, both send and receive functions can be carried out at the same time. The parts in the sky: Dept. of CSE Dr.K.V.S.R.IT Page 6

Satellite Communication System

The two main parts in the sky common to all satellites are called the payload and the bus.

Payload-- transponders, antennas:

The payload represents all equipment a satellite needs to do its job. This can include antennas, cameras, radar and electronics. The payload is different for every satellite. For example, the payload for a weather satellite includes cameras to take pictures of cloud formations, while the payload for a communications satellite includes large antennas to transmit TV or telephone signals to Earth. The transponder is the key component for satellite communications: it is the part of the payload that takes the signals received from the transmitting Earth station, filters and translates these signals and then redirects them to the transmitting antenna on board. Communications satellites carry a large number of transponders on board (normally from six to more than 24), enabling them to deliver multiple channels of communication at the same time. These channels are called carriers.

There are two main types of transponders. The 'bent pipe repeater' does not actually process the signal at all. The second type of transponder, the 'onboard processor', can introduce digital detection for the uplink signal and subsequent digital switching and modulation for the downlink. Onboard processing is a major step in the implementation of new technologies onto satellites. In the case of Iridium and many of the Internet access satellites, satellites act as mini switchboards in the sky. Communications satellites carry, as part of their payload, antennas that receive the original signal from the transmitting Earth station and re-transmit this signal to the receive stations on Earth. The antennas that were used in the past to do this were omni-directional (transmitting signals in every direction) and not very effective. They were replaced by more efficient high-gain antennas (most often dish shaped) pointing quite precisely towards the areas they were servicing. To allow for flexibility in services or areas covered, later developments allowed the re-pointing of the so-called steerable antenna to cover a different area or to reshape or reformat the beam. Future developments will allow for a highly precise and efficient reshaping of the transmitted beam in order to cover very small areas (pencil beams). This will Dept. of CSE Dr.K.V.S.R.IT Page 7

Satellite Communication System

greatly facilitate the differentiation of services within large regions. The antennas on board the satellite are typically limited in size to around 2-3 m by the space that is available on the satellite structure.

Bus--physical platform, remote control :

The bus is the part of the satellite that carries the payload and all its equipment into space. It is the physical platform that holds all the satellite's parts together and that provides electrical power, navigation, control and propulsion to the spacecraft. The bus also contains equipment that allows the satellite to communicate with Earth, a kind of 'remote control'.

Development in satellite communication:

Some of the first communications satellites were designed to operate in a passive mode. Instead of actively transmitting radio signals, they served merely to reflect signals that were beamed up to them by transmitting stations on the ground. Signals were reflected in all directions, so receiving stations around the world could pick them up. Echo 1, launched by the United States in 1960, consisted of an aluminized plastic balloon 30 m (100 ft) in diameter. Launched in 1964, Echo 2 was 41 m (135 ft) in diameter. The capacity of such systems was severely limited by the need for powerful transmitters and large ground antennas. Score, launched by the United States in 1958, was the first active communications satellite. It was equipped with a tape recorder that stored messages received while passing over a transmitting ground station. These messages were retransmitted when the satellite passed over a receiving station. Telstar 1, launched by American Telephone and Telegraph Company in 1962, provided direct television transmission between the United States, Europe, and Japan and could also relay several hundred-voice channels. Launched into an elliptical orbit inclined 45 to the equatorial plane, Telstar could only relay signals between two ground stations for a short period during each revolution, when both stations were in its line of sight. Hundreds of active communications satellites are now in orbit. They receive signals from one ground station, amplify them, and then retransmit them at a different frequency to another station. Satellites use ranges of different frequencies, measured in hertz (Hz) or cycles Dept. of CSE Dr.K.V.S.R.IT Page 8

Satellite Communication System

per second, for receiving and transmitting signals. Many satellites use a band of frequencies of about 6 billion hertz, or 6 gigahertz (GHz) for upward, or uplink, transmission and 4 GHZ for downward, or downlink, transmission. Another band at 14 GHZ (uplink) and 11 or 12 GHZ (downlink) is also much in use, mostly with fixed (nonmobile) ground stations. A band at about 1.5 GHZ (for both uplink and downlink) is used with small, mobile ground stations (ships, land vehicles, and aircraft). Solar energy cells mounted on large panels attached to the satellite provide power for reception and transmission.

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Satellite Communication System ORBITS OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATION:

Orbits: MEO,LEO,GEO:
The most common type of communications satellites, particularly the broadcast satellites like AfriStar, Intelsat, PanAmSat, Eutelsat and ASTRA, are in geosynchronous orbit (from geo = Earth + synchronous = moving at the same rate). That means that the satellite always stays over one spot on Earth. It does this by placing the satellite in a position 35,786 km out in space perpendicularly above the equator. The imaginary ring around the Earth where all geostationary satellites are stationed for their lifetime is called the Clarke belt. The consequence of this type of fixed location is that Earth stations (receive as well as transmit stations on the Earth surface) can almost be permanently fixed because they are constantly pointed to the same point in the sky where they 'see' the satellite.

Medium earth orbiting satellite system:

A medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellite is one with an orbit from a few hundred miles to a few thousand miles above the Earth's surface. Satellites of this type are in a higher orbit than low Earth orbit (LEO) satellites, but lower than geostationary (GEO) satellites. The orbital periods (the time in between two successive passes over one particular place on Earth) of MEO satellites range from about 2 to 12 hours. Some MEO satellites orbit in near perfect circles, therefore they have constant altitude and travel at a constant speed. Others have a more elliptical shaped orbit, which results in different fly-over times according to the place on Earth from where they can be seen. A fleet of several MEO satellites with properly coordinated orbits can provide global coverage. There are several advantages of the use of MEO satellites: because they are closer to the Earth's surface than geostationary satellites, they require less power to transmit. The Earth stations (transmitters and receivers) by consequence can be much smaller and have a small rod-shaped antenna. It is possible to use mobile and even handheld terminals with such systems.

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Satellite Communication System

Low earth orbiting satellite system :

A low Earth orbit (LEO) satellite system consists of a large number of satellites each in a circular orbit at a constant altitude between 320 and 800 km. Because they orbit so close to Earth, they must travel very fast so gravity does not pull them back into the atmosphere. Satellites in LEOs circle around the Earth at 27,359 km per hour. The orbits take the satellites over the geographic poles. Each revolution takes from less than 90 minutes up to a few hours. The fleet is arranged in such a way that from any point on the surface at any time at least one satellite is in line of sight. The system operates in a cellular network structure (almost like mobile phones). The main difference is that in a mobile telephone network the relay towers or aerials are fixed on the Earth while with satellites these aerials (called transponders or wireless receiver/transmitters) are moving in space. LEO systems may form the space segment of future mobile phone systems (such as S-UMTS) that will allow true mobile, global, broadband multimedia connectivity. But although telecoms experts predicted a bright future for this technology in the beginning of this century, to date only a few systems have actually got off the ground. Most geostationary telecommunication satellites cover large regions (continents or sub-continents). Sometimes satellites cover different areas at the same time from where they are positioned. For example: the Eutelsat W1 satellite, a typical broadcast satellite, positioned at 10 degrees East, provides a high-power coverage of Europe with a total of 20 channels. In addition, the satellite provides a high-power steerable narrow coverage carrying another eight channels directed towards southern Africa (see map above).

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Satellite Communication System

Being on the edge of the satellite footprint means the curvature of the Earth starts to disrupt transmission. It also means being further away from the satellite and therefore having to transmit or receive over larger distances through the atmosphere than would be required if transmitting/receiving from the centre of the footprint. Antenna size and power by consequence are invariably increased at the edge of the footprint. These values can be deducted from the footprint maps that are published by satellite service operators (see maps above). The numbers on the circles on the maps above indicate the signal strength received at that location expressed in dBW. From tables like the one below, users who wish to receive a transmission can read what size antenna they need. The size varies depending on the meteorological conditions of the location: places with regular heavy rainfall will need the larger dimension.

Antenna Size and Signal Strength

Geosynchronous earth orbiting satellite system:

Satellite in a geosynchronous orbit follows a circular orbit over the equator at an altitude of 35,800 km (22,300 mi), completing one orbit every 24 hours, in the time that it takes the earth to rotate once. Moving in the same direction as the earth's rotation, the satellite remains in a fixed position over a point on the equator, thereby providing uninterrupted contact between ground stations in its line of sight. The first communications satellite to be placed in this type of orbit was Syncom 2, launched by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1963. Most communications satellites that followed were also placed in geosynchronous orbit.

Commercial-communication Satellites:
Deployment and operation of communications satellites on a commercial basis began with the founding of the Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) in 1963. When the International Telecommunications Satellite Organization (INTELSAT) was formed in 1964, Dept. of CSE Dr.K.V.S.R.IT Page 12

Satellite Communication System

COMSAT became the U.S. member. Based in Washington, D.C., INTELSAT is owned by more than 120 nations. Intelsat 1, known as Early Bird, launched in 1965, provided either 240 voice circuits or one two-way television channel between the United States and Europe. During the 1960s and 1970s, message capacity and transmission power of the Intelsat 2, 3, and 4 generations were progressively increased. The first of the Intelsat 4s, launched in 1971, provided 4,000 voice circuits. With the Intelsat 5 series (1980), innovations in signal focusing resulted in additional increases in capacity. A satellite's power could now be concentrated on small regions of the earth, making possible smaller-aperture, lower-cost ground stations. An Intelsat 5 satellite can typically carry 12,000 voice circuits. The Intelsat 6 satellites, which entered service in 1989, can carry 24,000 circuits and feature dynamic on-board switching of telephone capacity among six beams, using a technique called SS-TDMA (satellite-switched time division multiple access). In the early 2000s, INTELSAT had 21 satellites in orbit, providing the world's most extensive telecommunications system. Other systems also provide international service in competition with INTELSAT.

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Satellite Communication System FUNCTIONALITY OF SATELLITES

Frequency Bands:
Satellite communications, like any other means of communication (radio, TV, telephone, etc), use frequency bands that are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic radiation spectrum starts with the longest waves (including those in the audible range) and extends through radio waves and the visible light, which is effectively a very small part of the spectrum, all the way to the extremely short wavelengths such as radioactive radiation. Within this broad range of frequencies, the International Telecommunications Union (the United Nations institution that regulates worldwide use of airwaves) has allocated parts of the spectrum that are suitable for and dedicated to transmission via satellite. Some of these bands are exclusively dedicated to satellite transmission; others are shared with terrestrial transmission services

Satellite communications spectrum:

The satellite transmission bands that are of interest to us are the C-, Ku- and Kabands. C-band is the oldest allocation and operates in the frequency range around 6 GHz for transmission (uplink) and between 3.7 and 4.2 GHz for reception (downlink).

Ku-band is the most common transmission format in Europe for satellite TV and uses around 14 GHz for uplink and between 10.9 and 12.75 GHz for downlink.

Ka-band uses around 30 GHz up- and between 18 and 20 GHz downlink frequency. C-band and Ku-band are becoming congested by an increasing amount of users, so satellite service operators are more and more turning to the use of Ka-band. The selection of the band is not something that individual service providers decide, but is rather chosen by large satellite operators based on different factors:

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Availability: C-band is still the most widely available worldwide. Ku-band is becoming more available recently in regions which were less covered in the past (South America, Asia, Africa)

C-band is more prone to interference from other transmission services that share the same frequencies (adjacent satellites or terrestrial transmissions) than the higher bands

While the C-band technology is cheaper in itself, it requires larger dishes (1 to 3 m) than Ku- and Ka-band (0.6 to 1.8 m) and therefore imposes relatively higher (installation) costs on the end-user

Ku- and especially Ka-band make better use of satellite capacity Higher frequency bands (Ku- and especially Ka-) suffer significantly more from signal deterioration caused by rainfall: to ensure availability in bad weather conditions, the signal has to be much stronger. Note that 0.1% of unavailability means in fact that the service will be interrupted for almost 9 hours over a 1-year period. 1% unavailability represents 90 hours or almost 4 full days

C-band:
C-Band (3.7 - 4.2 GHz) - Satellites operating in this band can be spaced as close as two degrees apart in space, and normally carry 24 transponders operating at 10 to 17 watts each. Typical receive antennas are 6 to 7.5 feet in diameter. More than 250 channels of video and 75 audio services are available today from more than 20 C-Band satellites over North America. Virtually every cable programming service is delivered via C-Band.

Ku-Band:
Fixed Satellite Service (FSS): Ku Band (11.7 - 12.2 GHz) - Satellites operating in this band can be spaced as closely as two degrees apart in space, and carry from 12 to 24 transponders that operate at a wide range of powers from 20 to 120 watts each. Typical receive antennas are three to six feet in diameter. More than 20 FSS Ku-Band satellites are in operation over North America today, including several "hybrid" satellites which carry both C-Band and Ku-Band transponders. Prime Star currently operates off Satcom K-2, an FSS or so-called Dept. of CSE Dr.K.V.S.R.IT Page 15

Satellite Communication System

"medium-power" Ku-Band satellite. Alpha Star also uses an FSS-Ku Band satellite, Telestar 402-R.. Broadcasting Satellite Service (BSS): Ku-Band (12.2 - 12.7 GHz) - Satellites operating in this band are spaced nine degrees apart in space, and normally carry 16 transponders that operate at powers in excess of 100Watts. Typical receive antennas are 18 inches in diameter. The United States has been allocated eight BSS orbital positions, of which three (101, 110 and 119 degrees) are the so-called prime "CONUS" slots from which a DBS provider can service the entire 48 contiguous states with one satellite. A total of 32 DBS "channels" are available at each orbital position, which allows for delivery of some 250 video signals when digital compression technology is employed. DBS: DBS (Direct Broadcast Satellite) -The transmission of audio and video signals via satellite direct to the end user. More than four million households in the United States enjoy CBand DBS. Medium-power Ku-Band DBS surfaced in the late 1990s with high power Ku-Band DBS.

Satellite control and Lifetime:

In principle, geostationary satellites occupy a fixed position in space and consequently the ground-based antennas do not need to be constantly redirected to follow the satellites movements. The fact that the orientation of ground-based antennas is fixed is a major advantage of the geostationary satellite orbit used by satellite broadcasters. In practice however, the satellite wanders slightly around its nominal orbital position under the gravitational influence of bodies such as the Sun and the Moon, as well as other influences such as Sun radiation pressure and Earth asymmetry. It is therefore necessary to take corrective actions in order to keep the satellite within acceptable margins from its ideal position. This is achieved by activating the so-called thrusters that are mounted on the body of the satellite as part of its propulsion system. Dept. of CSE Dr.K.V.S.R.IT Page 16

Satellite Communication System

As long as the satellite has enough fuel left to operate its thrusters, it can be kept in the correct position. As soon as the satellite is out of fuel, it will drift out of control and into space, which brings an end to its operational life. The satellite service operator can decide to save on fuel (and by consequence extend the lifetime expectancy of a satellite) by allowing the satellite to drift a little bit. Although this may bring down the costs for the communication via the satellite considerably, there is a consequence on the Earth station side. These stations have to be equipped for tracking (following the drift of) the satellite. The Earth stations that are used with LEO and GEO systems use omni-directional antennas that make precise pointing of the antenna unnecessary. However, for this application, the ability to see the satellite (line of sight should not be obstructed by walls, roofs, excess foliage) is still required, which means that indoor use is excluded. The communication functions of a satellite (antennas, processors) are powered by electricity provided through a combination of solar energy and batteries. These batteries automatically take over the power supply from the large wing-shaped solar cell panels at moments when the satellite finds itself in the shadow of the Earth. LEOs and MEOs spin around the Earth at high speeds in order to resist the Earths gravitational forces. They are designed to be cheaper and therefore are smaller and lighter than large GEOs. They take less fuel to correct their flight paths and in most cases have a shorter life expectancy than GEOs. LEO operators expect to renew their satellite fleet between 5 and 7 years. GEO operators estimate the lifetime of their satellites to be between 10 and 12 years. What is the Course structure of the Satellite Communication course? Aspirants can opt for five core modules in addition to an optional module and one project. The Core modules are:

Signal Processing Satellite Communications Advanced Communications Systems Dr.K.V.S.R.IT Page 17

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Microwave and Optical Communications Research and Development Skills Communications Project

The Optional modules included are:

Real Time Data Processing Mobile and Digital Broadcasting Broadband Networks

Recent technical advances:

Launched on October 4, 1957, the Sputnik 1 was the first craft in Earth's orbit. Named after the Russian word for "traveling companion of the world" (Sputnik Zemli), it was a small satellite measuring only 58 cm (23 in) across. It circled the earth once every 96.2 minutes and transmitted atmospheric information by radio. After three months aloft, it was destroyed while reentering the atmosphere. Communications satellite systems have entered a period of transition from point-topoint high-capacity trunk communications between large, costly ground terminals to multipointto-multipoint communications between small, low-cost stations. The development of multiple access methods has both hastened and facilitated this transition. With TDMA, each ground station is assigned a time slot on the same channel for use in transmitting its communications; all other stations monitor these slots and select the communications directed to them. By amplifying a single carrier frequency in each satellite repeater, TDMA ensures the most efficient use of the satellite's onboard power supply.

A technique called frequency reuse allows satellites to communicate with a number of ground stations using the same frequency by transmitting in narrow beams pointed toward each of the stations. Beam widths can be adjusted to cover areas as large as the entire United States or as small as a state like Maryland. Two stations far enough apart can receive different messages transmitted on the same frequency. Satellite antennas have been designed to transmit several beams in different directions, using the same reflector. Dept. of CSE Dr.K.V.S.R.IT Page 18

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A method for interconnecting many ground stations spread over great distances was demonstrated in 1993 with the launch of NASA's ACTS (Advanced Communications Technology Satellite). The satellite uses what is known as the hopping spot beam technique to combine the advantages of frequency reuse, spot beams, and TDMA. By concentrating the energy of the satellite's transmitted signal, ACTS can use ground stations that have smaller antennas and reduced power requirements. The concept of multiple spot beam communications was successfully demonstrated in 1991 with the launch of Italsat, developed by the Italian Research Council. With six spot beams operating at 30 GHZ (uplink) and 20 GHZ (downlink), the satellite interconnects TDMA transmissions between ground stations in all the major economic centers of Italy. It does this by demodulating uplink signals, routing them between up- and downlink beams, and combining and re-modulating them for downlink transmission. Laser beams can also be used to transmit signals between a satellite and the earth, but the rate of transmission is limited because of absorption and scattering by the atmosphere. Lasers operating in the blue-green wavelength, which penetrates water, have been used for communication between satellites and submarines.

The latest development in satellites is the use of networks of small satellites in low earth orbit (2,000 km (1,200 mi) or less) to provide global telephone communication. The Iridium system uses 66 satellites in low earth orbit, while other groups have or are developing similar systems. Special telephones that communicate with these satellites allow users to access the regular telephone network and place calls from anywhere on the globe. Anticipated customers of these systems include international business travelers and people living or working in remote areas.

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Satellite Communication System APPLICATIONS

Employment opportunities available for aspirants of this course are many these days. Upon the completion of their studies in satellite communication and the relevant research projects, it is possible for them to get jobs with industries based on satellite-based communication and the telecom industry etc. Career opportunities are also at hand at areas such as biodiversity management, public health and the agricultural sector. Aspirants can do their projects in any of the given fields:

Sectors such as navigation systems Transportation planning & engineering Automatic vehicle location systems As individuals who have good training in this field are scarce, the job

opportunities are quite high. Job notifications will be available in leading newspapers. Aspirants can get more information from the internet as well. Applications of Satellite Communications Technology: Satellite communications systems differ from terrestrial systems in one obvious and important aspect - the transmitter is no longer located on the ground but rather in the sky. Because it's positioned in space, it is able to serve a very large geographical area. This has several advantages.

As few as three geostationary satellites can cover almost the whole of the Earth's surface, with the exclusion of the sparsely populated polar regions. To achieve the same coverage by terrestrial means would require a very large and expensive network of ground-based transmitters.

Services can be established quickly, since coverage is available for everyone from the day transmissions start. There is no need for a phased introduction as is the case with groundbased transmissions where antennas need to be added to meet the expansion of the serviced area. Dept. of CSE Dr.K.V.S.R.IT Page 20

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With satellite communications, even users in very remote locations enjoy the same level of service as any other user in the coverage area Satellites can overcome national boundaries, providing possibilities for truly international services.

Although terrestrial systems may be better suited generally to provide communications services, in many cases the need to be connected can only be met effectively and rapidly by the implementation of satellite services.

Radio and TV Broadcasting:

The most familiar use of satellites is television broadcasting. TV satellites deliver hundreds of television channels every day throughout the world. These satellites are even used to supply television signals to terrestrial transmitters or cable-head end stations for further distribution to the home, or to exchange signals between television studios. The bandwidth required to transmit multiple programmes at the same time can easily be provided using satellites. In addition, developments in broadcast technology (digitalization , multiplexing and compression) allow different types of transmissions to be sent sharing the same satellite signal. To address the largest possible number of viewers, the cost to the viewers must be small, requiring small receive antennas and cheap receivers.

Satellite service operators such as Intelsat, Eutelsat, ASTRA, PanAmSat, NileSat, AsiaSat and AfriStar carry the signals for satellite broadcasters such as BSkyB, CanalPLus, Multichoice, DirecTV and WorldSpace. These in turn bundle programmes from different public and private broadcasters in order to make them accessible for their viewers in an open ('free-to-air') or closed (restricted) way. Some satellite broadcasters bundle special offers into so-called 'bouquets of services' that are offered at additional cost. The importance of satellite TV broadcasting is enormous: at the moment Eutelsat broadcasts over 900 TV channels and 560 radio stations to more than 84 million satellite and cable homes, the vast majority of them via the five HOT BIRD satellites at 13 degrees East. ASTRA, another European direct-to-home satellite system, transmits more than 1,000 television and radio channels in analogue and digital format to an audience of more than 89 million homes Dept. of CSE Dr.K.V.S.R.IT Page 21

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throughout Europe. It does this via 12 satellites at the orbital positions of 19.2 degrees, 24.2 degrees and 28.2 degrees East.

In order to make their offer more attractive to broadcasters, satellite service operators try to place their satellites aimed at the same regional market as far as possible in one single position. This is why we find the Eutelsat HotBird constellation at 13 degrees East or the ASTRA position at 19 degrees East, where in each case a number of satellites are clustered. In consequence, viewers need to point their antennas in one direction only in order to receive a large number of satellite programmes coming effectively from different satellites but looking as if they come from only one.

Satellite TV reception antenna:

There are many different applications of satellite TV viewing, depending on the needs and objectives of the broadcaster or the viewers. Direct-to-Home or DTH - also called DBS or Direct Broadcast via Satellite - speaks for itself, the TV programmes are aimed at the consumer and transmitted in such a way that residential customers can buy and install the equipment to receive the programmes at the lowest possible expense. This requires a network of local resellers that offer the hardware (satellite receive equipment), installers (technicians that assist the customer in setting up the receive equipment) and service suppliers (who provide and administer subscriptions). The Eutelsat HotBird position at 13 Degrees East Programme suppliers can opt for free-to-air programming, where every viewer with a standard satellite receiver can receive and view the programme without restrictions. However, some programmes contain information that is not for public viewing. To protect these programmes so that only those who are the targeted audience will be able to view the contents, some type of conditional access can be applied. What happens is that programmes are encrypted and must then be unscrambled with a specific device (usually integrated in the receiver and therefore often called an Integrated Receiver Decoder or IRD) to view the contents.

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The move from analogue to digital-services:
The number of analogue channels transmitted and the number of homes receiving analogue continues to decrease. However, analogue takes up a significant portion of the range of frequencies available. In addition, even in space, transmission capacity is limited. Where an analogue signal will occupy a full transponder consuming a bandwidth of 36 or even 72 MHz, digital broadcasting makes it possible to compress signals, vastly increasing the number of channels available by combining multiple programmes onto one single transponder.

Nowadays, most digital TV signals are compliant to the MPEG-2/DVB standard and can be received with standard consumer digital reception equipment that decodes the signal and separates the different types of content out of the data stream. With transmission bit rates between 34 and 38 Mbps, a digital signal can carry a combination of up to 12 television channels, along with numerous radio transmissions and data. Consequently, it is digital television that is now driving the satellite TV market, aiming at large numbers of consumers equipped with small antennae of typically 50 to 80 cm in diameter in Western Europe and 1.2 to 1.5 m in diameter in other regions. Digital technology has spurred the development of interactivity and aided the convergence of the worlds of television, radio, personal computing and telephony. It appeals to the end-user by providing better video and audio quality, improved programme and service choice and greater control over content delivery. Pay TV is a service where the viewer is charged according to the programmes she/he views, selected from the TV programme on offer. Video on Demand and Near Video on Demand enables individual viewers to decide at any given moment (in the case of real Video on Demand) or at a later time to be scheduled (in the case of Near Video on Demand) to view the programme of his/her own choice. IP-TV is a Video on Demand application using compression technologies that allow highly efficient distribution of video and audio using common multimedia formats such as MPEG-1, 2 and 4. Streaming technologies are based on the Internet Protocol, which allows delivery over all kinds of networks including the Internet.

The latest development in advanced television applications including delivery via Dept. of CSE Dr.K.V.S.R.IT Page 23

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satellite is the Personal Video Recorder (PVR). These devices are used both to digitally record and play back programmes: the programme provider sends the content the normal way (TV networks, cable, satellite). At the receive end the content is fed into the PVR. Compression such as MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 is used to decrease the bandwidth. The PVR unit is basically a computer that saves the incoming live TV signal from the cable or antenna onto its large internal hard drive. In this way, the viewer can play it back with a few seconds delay. The viewer is then watching off the computer hard drive, instead of straight from the antenna or cable connection. This allows the viewer to rewind, slow down, stop and pause at any point. Broadcasters and content providers are able to improve their service offers. New satellite facilities that are being offered or under development are Pay TV services, (Near) Video on Demand, IP-TV delivery and Personal TV using devices such as the Personal Video Recorder (PVR) or the Multimedia Home Platform (MHP1), services that are called interactive TV or enhanced TV. While the concept of interactive TV (iTV) is not new (there have been numerous interactive TV pilot services and some limited applications have been rolled in parts of the world), the broadcast world seems to be waiting for final and concrete iTV standard protocols and definitions to give the public uptake the expected boost. Interactive or enhanced services such as electronic programme guides, on-screen games, quizzes, enhanced TV with retrievable background information on demand, recording, rewinding, even Internet services such as mail and web browsing, are all applications that are not only appealing new services for leisure TV but will also find applications within the education domain where the high degree of penetration of TV sets and transmit capacity combined with the low threshold of the television programmes for the end-user, may well become a strong argument for the use of interactive TV in educational communities.

The Multimedia Home Platform (MHP) is a software specification that will be implemented in set-top boxes, integrated digital TV receivers as well as multimedia PCs. The MHP will connect the broadcast medium with the Internet, television, computer and telecommunication and enables digital content providers to address all types of terminals ranging from low-end to high-end set-top boxes, integrated digital TV sets and multimedia PCs.

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But even if the broadcasting world is rapidly going digital, analogue TV and radio are set to remain for several years yet. For some services, analogue is still the most attractive option due to the large installed audience base and the widespread availability of consumer equipment that is less expensive than digital equipment. Analogue is particularly popular for free-to-air broadcasting. Moreover, the capacity to transmit several audio sub-carriers on one analogue TV signal allows multilingual TV programmes. As for analogue radio broadcasting, up to eight mono channels or four stereo pairs can be transmitted as sub-carriers of an analogue television signal. However, due to the heavy use of analogue sub-carriers and the decreasing number of transponders used for analogue TV, analogue sub-carriers are becoming less and less available. Service providers considering new audio services should therefore consider digital. When you take into account the cost of transmission and the numerous innovative applications that are becoming available, such as the PVR, encryption and the ability to carry data for multicasting, the appeal of digital broadcasting is hard to resist.

Business radio and TV:

Narrowcasting or business TV and radio is a term used for satellite broadcasters who use transmission time to reach a very specific audience. Technically speaking, there is no difference with broadcast satellite TV applications described in the previous section. Digital television has made it possible to distribute information within organisations and companies that are geographically dispersed, or to deliver distance education. Similarly, digital radio allows for the delivery of radio services to relatively small closed user groups.

MPEG-2/DVB technology is the dominant standard for digital television, but other computer-based media coding techniques (such as MPEG-1, Real Video, etc) are also used to embed video and/or audio into data streams, often integrated with other multimedia or Internet services. Transmission via satellite requires there to be digital receivers available at relatively low prices on the consumer market. The advantage is that more advanced or popular audio coding techniques (for example MP3) can also be used and that the same stream can be used for other applications, such as data distribution, outside broadcast hours.

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Mobile satellite telephony:

Mobile telephony allows the user to make telephone calls and to transmit and receive data from wherever he/she is located. Digital cellular mobile telephony such as GSM has become a worldwide standard for mobile communications, but its services lack coverage over areas that are sparsely populated or uninhabited (mountains, jungle, sea), because it is not economically viable or practical for the network operators to build antennas there. Satellite telephony seems to be able to provide a possible solution to the problem of providing voice and data communications services to these other locations.

Inmarsat:

Inmarsat was the world's first global mobile satellite communications operator, founded in the late 1970s. It focuses on communications services to maritime, land-mobile, aeronautical and other users. Inmarsat now supports links for phone, fax and data communications at up to 64 Kbps to more than 210,000 ship, vehicle, aircraft and portable terminals. The range of Inmarsat systems includes mobile terminals from handhelds to consoles, with easy set-up mechanisms that allow users wherever they are to connect via a global fleet of geostationary Inmarsat satellites to the terrestrial communications network and to carry out telephone conversations, data transfers, and increasingly multimedia applications and Internet access. Inmarsat is aimed at professionals who need a reliable communications system wherever they are: ship owners and managers, journalists and broadcasters, health and disaster-relief workers, land transport fleet operators, airlines, airline passengers and air traffic controllers, government workers, national emergency and civil defence agencies, and peacekeeping forces. The cost is rather high while the capacity is still rather limited: voice/fax/data systems achieve a maximum data rate of 64 Kbps at connection costs starting at almost US$ 3 per minute. Dedicated mobile IP systems can achieve maximum download speed of up to 144 Kbps.

End-user services for home or small office:

Broadband access for end-users is usually considered a 'wired' solution: fibre Dept. of CSE Dr.K.V.S.R.IT Page 26

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optic backbones, cable modems on coax, xDSL and ISDN on twisted copper. ADSL can only be provided up to a distance of between 4 and 6 km from the local telephone exchanges, depending on various factors. The cost to upgrade the existing copper network is very high. This means that many households, particularly those in rural and remote areas, will probably never be able to receive ADSL. Similarly, the cost of laying bi-directional cables for interactive TV and Internet means that cable distribution is also unlikely to be available to those living in small towns or in the countryside.

Satellite broadband connectivity has never been considered seriously, as long as it did not allow for interactivity. However, nowadays satellites can provide interactivity via either the satellite return channel or by using a hybrid solution with narrow-band return path via a telephone line. With Internet via satellite, every user with the correct equipment and living within the satellite footprint can now have a broadband connection.

Satellite has the capability to reach everywhere, thus effectively removing local loop difficulties, especially in areas with poorly developed infrastructure. The subscriber requests (eg the click on a hyperlink in a web page) can still be routed through terrestrial telephone lines, but the downloaded data can now be routed via satellite directly to the Earth station of the end-user. The typical asymmetry of home and small business Internet use opens up the possibility of using a slow, small pipe in one direction and a fast, wide pipe in the other. The average user does not need in-bound high-bandwidth connectivity around the clock and needs even less out-bound high-bandwidth2. So the hybrid of high-speed satellite for in-bound matched to a low-cost, low-speed request path may well be the most cost-effective solution. Using phone lines and a satellite downlink path means that you don't pay for more technology than you need.

Most Internet-type traffic is asymmetric by nature: on average, the downlink (from ISP to end-user) is 20 times greater than the uplink (from end-user towards the Internet). It is worth noting however, that this is not true for certain particular end-users, web builders, content distributors etc, where the ratio is, of course, different or wireless broadband become available. Because it is impossible to predict when such services will become available, it may be better to opt for satellite telecommunications technology as it is

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immediately available. While financially it may seem to make sense to wait for the best solution that will become available in the future, in the short to medium term this could mean a high cost of lost (educational) opportunity.

Mobile data communications:

We talk about fixed or mobile services depending on the specific application. Fixed services are aimed at Earth stations that stay in the same place while operating. The antenna does not move during transmission and reception. Mobile services in contrast are aimed at users that need to receive or transmit while moving. Euteltracs and some Inmarsat applications are examples of mobile satellite data communication services. Euteltracs equips cars, trucks, ships etc, with a small antenna, an onboard terminal with keyboard and LCD, plus software linking the on-board information system via the Euteltracs Network Management Centre based in France with the vehicle's home base. This set-up enables low data-rate services between the mobile vehicle's home base and the vehicle itself while on the move, which allows for:

Vehicle or vessel localisation with an accuracy of 100 m Transmission of alarm and distress messages Message exchange between the mobile terminal and base Data collection and transmission from the vehicle or vessel Access to external databases for example, for weather or traffic conditions This type of system is extremely rugged but allows only for very limited amounts of

data to be transferred. It is therefore not an evident choice for multimedia applications

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Satellite Communication System CONCLUSION

Looking at the rate of advancement in satellite communication one would foresee the use of satellites in every field where communication is required such as relaying television and radio signals. Special telephones that communicate with these satellites allow users to access the regular telephone network and place calls from anywhere on the globe.

Satellite networks promise a new era of global connectivity, but also present new challenges to common Internet applications. In this work, we have shown that many popular Internet applications perform to user expectation over satellite networks, such as video teleconferencing, multicast, bulk data transfer, background electronic mail, and non-real-time information dissemination. Some other applications, especially highly interactive applications such as Web browsing, do suffer from the inefficiencies of the current TCP standard over highbandwidth long-latency links. However, performance of these applications can be improved by utilizing many of the techniques discussed in this paper. In the long term, further improvements can be made at the protocol level by extending the current TCP standard, although much work needs to be done on possible extensions to ensure that they do not negatively affect the Internet as a whole.

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Satellite Communication System BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. www.google.com 2. www.experts-exchange.com 3. www.scribd.com 4. www.whereisdoc.com 5. www.123seminarsonly.com

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