A Comprehensive Course in Pure Mathematics - Alegra I-C.S. Lee

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A Com prehensiye Course in
P RE MATHEMATICS
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(Et I
P rlync ,miol &Ec uotic lh
neqL relity oCc mF le r- Nu mbe rs
c, a B.Sc., Dip.Ed.
LEARNER'S SERIES
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Questions from the Hong Kong Advanced Level
Examination [HKALE] and Higher Level
Examination IHKHLE] papers are reproduced by
permission of Hong Kong Examination Authority.
Copyright C.S. Lee 1996
All right resenred, No part of this publication may be

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t
Preface
Algebro, which has a glorious history of more than three thousand years,
might very well be called a universal language of civilization. It provides a
foundation upon which higher mathematics is built and it is the language of
modern science and technology.
Algebro I begins with an introduction, to the language of mathematics -

statements, sets, the methods of proof which can usefully be referred to from
time to time. There follows the binomial theorem, polynomials, theory of
equation, rational function, algebraic inequality, complex numbers.
Algebro ll covers only mapping and linear algebra. It gives a good clear
presentation of the mapping and a firll account of linear algebra, including
the form of the solution of system of linear equations and the basic method
of obtaining it. vectors and matrices are described in detail and are used to
derive general properties.
The contents of these two volumes comprise the appropriate parts of algebra
so far as are commonly required for Hong Kong Advanced Level course in
Pure Mathematics. Its aim is to give a clear and elementary account of the
fundamental ideas, definitions, and theorems concerning the subject.
These books are no mere collection of problems. Its most important feature
is the systematic arrangement of the material which aims to stimulate the
reader to independent work and to suggest to him useful lines of though. We
have devoted more time, care and detailed effort to devising the most
effective presentation of the material than might be apparent to the
uninitiated at first glance.
There are included many worked examples and unworked exercises with
which the reader may test his (or her) understanding of the text. Suggested
solutions of many of the exercises are given at the end of the book. Answers
to those questions which require a specific answer are also given.
Many of the exercises are taken from Hong Kong Advanced Level
Examination papers and reproduced here by kind permission of Hong Kong
Examination Authority.
C.S. Lee
July 1996.
A Comprehenslve Course rn
PURE MATHEMATICS
* AlgcDra I
0 lntroduction to Pure Mothemqlics
I BinomiolTheorem
2 Polynomiols
3 Theory of Equotion
4 Rotionol Functions
5 Algebroic lnequolities
6 Complex Numbers
* Algebra ll
7 Funclion (Mopping)
8 System of Lineor Equotion
9 Motrix ond Determinont
r0 Moirix ond System of Lineor Equotions
ll The Vecior Spoce R2 ond R3
12 Lineor Tronsformotion
LEARNER'S SERIES
Contents
O Introductlon to Pure ftathematlcs T
o.l STATEMENT CAICUIUS 2

o.l.r Stotements 2
o.1.2 Truth Volue of o Stotement 2
o.1., Composite Stotement 3
o.l .4 Toutologies ond Conirodiction l0
o.l.t lmplicotion ond Equivolence ll
EXERCISE OA 14
o.2 SET NNGUAGE l5

o.2.1 Sets ond Subsets 15
o.2.2 Set Operoiions 22
(o) Union (b) lntersection (c) Difference (d) Complement
EXERCISE OB 33
o.t MATHEMATICAI PROOF 36

o.r.1 Moihemoiicol System 36
o.1.2 Logicol Reosoning 38
o.r., Methods of Proof 39
l. Direct Proof by Deduction 2. Proof by Exhoustion
3. Counter-exomple, 4. Proof by Controdiction
5. Proof by Coniropositive 6. Mothemoiicollnduclion
EXERCISE OC 58
o.4 SUM AND PRODUCT 62

o.4.1 The X ond fI Nototion 62
o.4.2 Finite Series 66
o.4., The Method of Difference 71
EXERCISE OD 74
I Binomlal fheorcm t8
.l Binomiol Coefficients 78
.2 Binomiol Theorem 8l
EXERCISE IA 86
7 Properties of Binomiol Coefficients 90
4 Multinomiol Exponsion 97
EXERCISE I B 100
, Polynomlals I05
2.1 Polynomiol 105
EXERCISE 2A 109
2.2 Division Algorithm |2

2.7 Divisibility ll5
2.4 Greotest Common Divisor ll8
EXERCISE 2B 123
2.' The Remoinder ond Foctor Theorem 127

2.6 Zeros of o Polynomiol 128
EXERCISE 2C 133
I rheor"t of EquaGlon trf

,.1 Polynomiol Equotion 137
EXERCISE 3A 142
1.2 Relotion between Roots ond Coefficients 145
EXERCISE 3B 155
,.1 Multiple Roots 162

,.4 Rotionol Roots 166
,., Complex Roots 168
,.6 lnotionol Roois 170
1.7 Appendix: Solution of Polynomiol Equotions 172
EXERCISE 3C 174
+ Rafional Functlons lao

4.1 Rotionol Function 180
EXERCISE 4A 184
4.2 Portiol Froctions 185
EXERCISE 4B 203
5 Algebralc lncquallclcs toa

,.1 lntroduction 208
,.2 Elementory lnequoliiies 209
,., Further Useful lnequolities 220
EXERCISE 5A 229
5.4 The lnequolity of the Meons 237

,.4.1 The Arithmetic Meon ond Geomeiric Meon 237
,.4.2 Hormonic Meon 248
,.4.' Root Meon Squore 249
,.4.4 Weighted Meon 251
,.4.5 The Meon of m-th Power 252
EXERCISE 5B 254
,., Some Well-known lnequoliiies 264
5.5.1 Couchy-Schwoz's nequolity
I 264
,.r.2 Tchebychef's nequolity
I 268
,.r., Hii lde/s lnequolity 269
,.r.4 Minkowski's lnequolity 271
EXERCISE 5C 272
5 Gompler llumber.s ,ta

6.t lntroduction 278
6.2 Complex Conjugote 283
6.' Modulus ond Argument of o Complex Number 285
6.4 Polor Form of o Complex Number 294
EXERCISE 6A 302
6.' Equotions of Curves in the Complex Plone 309
EXERCISE 5B 315
6.6 De Moivre's Theorem 320
6.7 Applicotion in Trigonometry 323
EXERCISE 6C 329
6.8 Roots of o Complex Number - Binomiol Equotion ,n = o 334

EXERCISE 6D 349
Answerc and Suggested Soluflons t55

ckaprcrO
lntroductlon to
Pure flathematlcs
The Pure Mathematics course forms the basic for any serious further study. It consists
of an introduction to some fundamental ideas of mathematics and to methods of developing
them.
The emphasis is on concepts and general results and the content is intended to be
intellectually stimulating and challenging The course should encourage the student to think
clearly and to express mathematics in meaningful statements (in which, possibly, groups of
works have been replaced by symbols).
The course contains a systematic development of algebra, co-ordinate geometry, and

calculus, staring from axioms, and carried through in some depth. While flre treatnent is
logically self-contained, the student will know from elsewhere that the results form the
basis of mathematical techniques that are indispensable for many important applications.
Apart from the specific results proved, a further important purpose is to establish
standards of rigor. A student of this course should gain a mature understanding of what
constitutes a proof.
To achieve the above objectives, the treatment of this chapter is deliberately

comprehensive, brief and concise on
0.1 Statement Calculus _a brief introduction to the language of togic as used in

mathematics;
0.2 Set Language _ an informal, non-axiomatic treatment to the set theory as used
as afoundation of all lmown mathematics;
0.3 Mathematical Proof _including in a simple way some of the elementary logic
concepts that provide a basis for appreciating sound proof;
0.4 Sum and Product _ an account of mathematical manipulation as used in

handling the computational techniques in advanced mathemafics.
It is widely accepted that these integral parts lead to a greater understanding of essential
mathematical ideas and can usefully be referred to from time to time.
2 Introduction to Pure Mathematics
Statement Calculus
The fundamental principles of logic which are used in mathematical reasoning are of sufftcient
importance to warrant consideration. This section is a simple presentation of those concept of
logic upon which mathematical arguments are built.
0.1.1 Statements
A sentence of which it is meaningful to say, whether it is true or false, is called a statement or

proposition. It is usual to denote a statement by a single letter p, q, r , . .
.
lllustrotions
Each of the following sentences is a statement:

(a) p:6 is less than 7.
(b) q'. George Boole was the inventor of symbolic logic
(c) r : Division by zero is a mathematical crime.
(d) s:Sunisaplanet.
2. None of the following sentences is a statement:

(a) How sweet!
(b) This statement is false.
O.1.2 Truth Value of a Statement
Every statement must be either true or false. No statement can, however, be both. That is, given
any statement p exactly one of the following must hold:
(a) p is true;
(b) p is false
This enables us to talk of the truth value of a statement. If a statement is true, we say that it has
the truth value Z , and if it is false, then we say that it has the truth value F . Thus a statement
has exactly one truth value, either T or F .
lllustrotions
Let p for '6
stands is less than 7'
and q stands for '6 is a prime number',
then p has the truth value T and q has the truth value F
Introduction to Pure Mathematics
3
0.1 .3 Composite Statements
Som-b statements are composite, that is, composed of substatements

by various connectives such
a| "and", "or", "if ... then,,, and, ,,if and only tf, or modified by the word ,,not,, which will
be
discussed subsequently.
(o) Coniunclions In ordinary speech, we frequently join two statements by the word and.
DEtlNlTloN Theconjunctionoftwostatements p and q,denotedby pnq,

[read p and q]
is a statement obtained by joining two statements
by "and", or it is a statement which has the
same meaning as two statements joined by ,,and,,.
I llustrotion Consider the following statements:

p:Lee is intelligent q:Leeis industrious
then the conjunction of p and q is
p : Lee is intelligent andLee is industrious
^q
The truth value of the composite statement p n q satisfies the following properties:
I : If p is true and q is true, then pnq is true; otherwise pnq isfalse
Accordingly' if p and q be any two statements, then p nq is the statement whose truth values
are given by the following table:
p q p^q
T T T
T F
F T F
F F F
Figure 0.1 Truth table for p nq
lllustr:otion Let
p : 2issmallerthan3 q : 3 isaprimenumber r : 2+2=5.
determine the true value of each of the composite statements (a) p nq , @) p nr
SOLUTION Asastatementofarithmetic, p and q aretnrc(O but r isfalse(Fl Bv Ti,

(a) p nq is a true (Q statement in arithmetic;
(b) p nr is a false (O statement,
(b) Disjunclion A second and equally familiar mode of composition consists in joining two
statements, by the connective or in the inclusive sense.
DEFINITION Thedisjunctionoftwostaternents p and q, denotedby puq lread p or qlis

a staternent obtained by joining two statements by "or", or it is a statement which has the same
meaning as two statements ioined by "or".
I llustrotion Consider the following statements:
p:Lee is intelligent q'.Lee is industrious

then the disjunction of p and q is
Pv Q : Lee is intelligent or Lee is industrious.
The truth value of the composite statement p v q satisfies the following prope4y
Tr If p is true or q is true or both p and q are true, then pvq is true;

otherwise, pv q isfalse.
Accordingly, tf p and q be any two statements, then pv q is the statement whose truth values
are given by the following table:
p q pvq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
Tabfe 0.2 Truth table for Pv q
lllustrotion Let
p : 1+l= 3, q : A decade is 10 years, r :2x2=5
Determine the truth value of (a) pv q, (b) pvr.
SOLUTION Itisknownthat p and r arefalse(F), q istrue(O. By (T2),

(a) pv q is true (?"; and
(b) pv r isfalse (F). I
(c) Negolion The negation of a statement is a statement obtained by prefixing the words "it
is not true" to the statement , or it is a statement which has "it is not true that". That is,
DEFINIIION Let p be a statement, the statement 'not p' is called the negdion of p and is
written as '- p'
5
lllustrotion Let p be " Itiscold" andlet q be" Itisraining. " Giveasimpleverbal sentence
which describes each of the following statements.
(a) -p.O) --p (c) qv-p
SOLUTION
(a) -p reads "it is not cold."
O) - -p reads "it is not true that it is not cold."
(c) qv - p reads "it is raining or it is not cold." t
The truth value of the negation of a statement satisfies the following property:
Tr: If p istrue, then -p isfalse; rf p isfatse, then -p istrue.
Accordingly, the table below gives the truth values of - p corresponding to the two possible
truth values of p.
p -p
T F
F T
Table 0.3 Truth table for -p
(d) Condilionols The 'if - then' combination in ordinary speech, such as in regarding a
luriangleABC:
If "A isa right angle," then ,, AB2 + AC2 - BC2"

provides us with another important binary composition called the conditional.
DEFIN|IION Condilional is a statement obtained by combining two statements p and q by

"if p then q", and is denoted by
using the words
p-+q
The first component p is called the hypotheses (or antecedent) and the second q is called the
consequent (or conclusion) of the condi ti on al.
The conditional p -+ q can also be read:

(a) p implies q
(b) p is suficientfor q
(c) p only if q
(d) q isnecessaryfor p
The truth value of the conditional statement P -+ q satisfies the following property:
To : The conditionql p -+ q is true unless p is true and q is false'
Accordingly, if p and q be any two statements, then p -> q is tlte statement whose truth
values are given by the following table:
p q p-+q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
Table 0.4 Truth table lot p -+ q
lllustrotion Frank told his friend, "If Harold was paid today, then he purchased food for
outing" which can be separate into two parts p and q :
p : Harold was paid today.
q : Harold purchased food for the outing.
Under what conditions would we consider Frank's statement incorrect or untruthfirl?
Cose (i) When p q

and are both true. This means that Harold was paid today and he
purchased food for the outing. Certainly we would agree that Frank's conditional statement was
true. This corresponds to saying ttmlt p -+ q
is true if both p
and q are true.
Cose (ii) When p is true but q is false. This means that tlarold was paid but he did not buy
food for the outing . In this case Frank's statement is not true, that is, p -+ q is false.
Cose (iii) When p

isfalse but q is true. This means that Harold was not paid today but he
bought food for the outing. This does not prove that frank was wrong, and we would not feel that
f
he was untruthful. He merely stated what Harold would do he were paid. He made no
prediction as to what would happen if he were not paid. Therefore we consider his conditional
statement:rs true. Thus p -+ q is considered true if p is false and 4 is true.
Cose (iv) When p and q are bothfalse. Would Frank be proved incorrect if Harold did not get
paid and he did not buy food for the outing? Obviously not, for Frank told what Harold would do
fhe were paid. There was no condition that had to be satisfied if he were not paid. Thus if p and
q are both false the conditional statement is not incorrect or false. It must therefore be true. If
then, p and q are both false, p -+ q is true. I
7
(e) Bicondilionol Two statements may be connected by ' if and only if ,

This produces a
biconditional as illustrated in the following example.
A triangle is equilateral if and onty f it is equiangular.
This single statement contains two conditionals; namely
If atiangle is equilateral, then it is equiangular.

and If atiangleis equiangular, then itis equilateral.
DEFIN|TION A bicondilional is a statement by combining two statements

,, and is
p and q by using
the words 'f and only if denoted by
p€q
and it may be expressed as ' p is a necessury and sufficient conditionfor q ,.
The truth value of the biconditional statement p €q satisfies the following property:
Tt:If p and q havethesametruthvalue,then p<+q istrue;{p and q have

opposite truthvalues, then p <+ q isfalse.
Accordingly, if p and g be any two statements, then p e q is the statement whose truth
values are given by the following table:
p q peq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
Table 0.5 Truth table tot p + q
lllusirotion Given that

p :Pairs is inFrance q:2+2=5 r:pairs is in England s:2+2=4
consider the truth values of the following composite statements: (a) pes; (b) r<+s; (c)
p<->s; (d) r<+q
According to the truth table for the biconditional, we have

(a) since p istruebut q isfalse,therefore poq isfalse.
(b) since r is false but s is true, therefore r <> s is also false.
(c) since both p and s are true, therefore, p <+ s is true.
(d) since both r and q are false, therefore r <+ q is true. t
Our question conceming the nature of composite statements is now answered- Since the truth-
tables assign to each composite statement a truth-value, each composite statement
is a true-false
statement.
Two examples will give some practice in determining truth-values of composite statements.
EXAAAPTE I
Given p : It is raining.
q : A triangle has three sides.
Investigate the statements (D pnq (ii) pvq; (iii) p-+q; (iv)peq; (v) -p;and
(vi) - q.
SOLUTION
l'. Let us consider the case when it is raining. Then p is true, and q is always true.
Therefore p and 4 are both true and
(D by the conjunction tablepnq is true.

(iD by the disjunction table pv q is true when both p and q are true;
(iii) by the conditional table p -+ q is true when both p and q are true; and
(rv) by thebiconditional table p e q is true ifboth aretrue.
(v) -p if p is true
is false
(vi) - q is false if q is true.

(These results can be read quickly from the top line of Table 0.6.)
p q p^q pvq p-+q peq -p -q

T T T T T T F F
F T F T T F T F
Table 0.6
2o. Considernowtlecasewhenitisnotraining;then p isfalse.Also pnq isfalse, pvq

istrue, p-+q istrue, pQq isfalse, -p istrue,and -q isfalse.Theseresultscanbe
read from the second row of the Table 0.6. I
EXAMPTE 2
Find the truth table of each propositions.

(a) - p^q O) -@-+-q) (c) (pnq)-+(pvq\ (d) -(pnq)u-(q<+ p)
SOLUTION
9
(a) To construct the true table for - p AQ, we first draw the following table,
p q -p -p^q
T T
T F
F T
F F
Tablet 0.7{a)
Truth values are then entered into the truth table in various steps by applyrng q- T,
p q -P -p^q
T T F F
T F F F
F T T T
F F T F
Table 0.7(b)
O) Similarly
p q -q p-+-q - (p -+- q)
T T F F T
T F T T F
F T F T F
F F T T F
Table 0.8
(c) Again,
p q p^q pv (l (p nq)-+(pv q)
T T T T T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F F F T
Table 0.9
(d) And
p lI p^q qep - (p nq) -(q<+p) - (p nq)v - (q <+ p)

T T T T F F F
T F F F T T T
F T F F T T T
F F F T T F T
Table 0.10
r0 Introduction to Pure Mathematics
O.1 .4 Tautologies and Contradiction
DEFINfIfON A compound proposition P(p,q,...) is a tautolagt if P(p,q,...) is always

truefor all possible truth values of its components-
EXA'iAPLE 3
Showthattheproposition "p ornot p" i.e. pv-p isatautology
SOLUTION
This fact is verified by constructing a truth table.
p -p pv- p
T F T
F T T
Table 0.11
We see that pv - p is always true, therefore it is a tautolory
DEF|NITIoN A compound proposition P(p,q,...) is a c:ontradiction if P(p,q,"') js
always false for all possible truth values of its components.
EXAMPTE 4
(a) Showthattheproposition " p and not p " i.e. pn- p isacontradiction.

O) [The Low of controdiction] Showthat -(pn- p) isatautolory.
SOLUTION
(a) This fact is verified by the following truth table
p -p p^- p
T F F
F T F Table 0.12
p^- p is always false so that it is a contradiction.
O) Again, we have the following truth table.
p -p p^- p -(pn- p)
T F F T
F T F T
Table 0.13
- (pn- p) is always true, therefore, it is a tautolory. I
REMARK We see that the negation of a tautologt is a contradiction and the negation of a
contradiction is a tautologt.
11
EXAAAPI-E 5
[Low of Syllogism] If p implies q and q implies r, then p implies r. In other words, the
proposition
[@ -+ il n(a -+ r)] -+ @ -> r).

is a tautologt.
SOLUTION
This fact is verified by the following truth table
p q r P-+ q q-+r p-+r (p -+ q) n(q -+ r) (p -+ q) n(q -+ r) -+ (p -+ r)

T T T T T T T T
T T F T F F F T
T F T F T T F T
F T T T T T T T
T F F F T F F T
F T F T F T F T
F F T T T T T T
F F F T T T T T
Table 0.14 I
0.1.5 lmplication and Equivalence
Both in logic and in mathematics there are conditionals for which the truth-value is never false.
The statement from plane geometry that two triangles are similar whenever they are congruent is
an example from mathematics. Similarly, there are biconditional for which the truth-value is
never false.
DEFINITION An implication is a conditional which never has afalse truth-value.
When we need to emphasize that the conditional p -+ q is an implication we shall wite p > q,
which read "p implies q".
DEFINITION An equivalence is a biconditional which never has afalse truth-value.
That is, two dffirent composite proposition P(p,q,...) and e(p,q,...) are said to be
logicaUy equivalentrf they hove the same truth values no matter what truth values their
constituent propositions have and denote by
P(p,q, ...)=Q@,q,-..)
When we need to emphasize that the biconditional p <) q is an equivalence we shall write
p e q, which is read. " p is equivalent to q ,, or ', p and q are equivalent ".
We see that
IHEOREM 0.1 P(p,q, "')=Q(p,q, "') if andonlyif the proposition
P(p, q, "') e Q(p' q, "')

is a tautologt.
EXAMPTE 6
Given two statements:

(I) x(x-5)=0-+(x =O or x=5)
(D [x(x-5)=o and x*o]-+x=5
Show that (I) and (II) are logically equivalent.
SOLUTION
Let p denote x(x-5) =0, 4 denote x=0, r denote x=5. Weareaskedtoprovethatthe
statements
p-+(qvr) and (pn -q)--rr
are equivalent. Consider the truth table of statements (I) and (II).
PlAlr qvr p -+ (qv r) Plalr -q p^- q (pn- q) -+ r

TiTiT T T T iT iT F F T
rirlF T T rlriF F F T
riFir T T riFir T T T
F ir ir T T F ir ir F F T
ririe F F ririr T T F
pirip T T pirip F F T
FiFir T T ririr T F T
FiFiF F T FiFiF T F T
Table 0.15(a) Table 0.15(b)
We see that the statements (I) and (II) have the same truth value for all possibilities, therefore
they are logically equivalent. We may write
{x(x-5)=0-+(x=0 orr=5)}={[x(r-5) =0 and x*0)-+t=5] I
EXAMPTE 7
[De Morgon's Lows] Veri$ by truth tables that

(a) -@nq)=- Pv-q
(b) -(pvq)=- P,.*q
SOLUTION
Introduction to Pure Mathematics 13
(a) Construct separate truth tables for - (pnq) and - pv - q

p q p^q - (p nq) p q -p -q -pv-q
T T T F T T F F F
T F F T T F F T T
F T F T F T T F T
F F F T F F T T T
Table 0.16(a) Table 0.16(b)
The above tables have identical truth values in the last columns, therefore
- (p nq)=- pv - q
Alternative The above two truth tables can be combined as the following table.
p q p^q - (p nq) -p -q - pv-q -(pnq)e- pv-q

T T T F F F F T
T F F T F T T T
F T F T T F T T
F F F T T T T T
Table 0.17
We see nq)€-
that - (p pv -q is atautolory, therefore
-(pnq)=- pv-q
O) Similar to (a),
p q pvq - (pvq) -p -q -p^-q - (pv q) e- p^- q

T T T F F F F T
T F T F F T F T
F T T F T F F T
F F F T T T T T
Tablet 0.18
We see - (pv q) e- p^ - q
that is a tautology, therefore
-(pvq)=- p -q
Reference z
K.T. Leung & D. Chen : Elementary Set Theory, (Ilong Kong University press.)
EXERCISE OA
t. Let p '. x2 + x +l= 0 has a real root ,

q :2+2 = 4,
r '.2x2 = 5.
Evaluate the truth value of (a) - pv- (q nr) and (b) -lf n(O nDl
2. Let p'. x2 +I> 0 for all real values of x,

q :2+2 = 4,
r:4 isodd.
(a) Represent the statement
Either x2 +l > 0 for all real values of x and it is not the case that 2+2 = 4', or 4
is odd.
symbolically and
(b) determine whether it is true or false.
3 (a) Let p be ,"He is short" and let q be "He is ugly". Write each of the following
statements in symbolic form using p and q-
(i) He is short and ugly.
(ii) He is short but not ugly.
(iii) It is false that he is tall or ugly.
(iv) He is neither short nor ugly.
(v) He is short, or he is tall and ugly.
(vi) It is not true that he is tall or not ugly.
(b) Make a statement for the proposition
(pn- q) -+ ? pvq)
using p and q as defined above, and construct a truth table of the proposition;
showing all necessary steps.
4 Determine the truth value of each of the following composite statements

(a) If 3+2 = 7, then 4 +4 = 8.
(b) It is nottruethat 2+2=5 ifand onlyif 4+4=I0.
(c) Itisnottruethat 1+l=3 or 2+l=3.
Introduction to Pure Mathematics t5
Set Language
A fundamental concept in all branches of mathematics is that of a set. Concepts in set theory,
such as function and relation, appqr explicitly or implicitly in every branch of mathematics.
This subioct, which wos dcvclopcd by Boola qnd Contor in lhc lottcr pon of thc I 9lh cantury hos
hod o profound influcncc on lhc dcvolopmcnl of molhomolics in lho 20th contury. [Goorga'8oolo
(1815 ' 1864) wos on English molhomolicion ond logicion. His book, An tnlrodvction of -the Lows
of lfiougAt, publishcd in 1854, morkcd lhc crcolion of lha first workoblo rystcm of symbolic logic.
Gcorgc F.L.P. Ccntor {1845 - l9l8l ond his school craotad tho modcrn lhcory of scts during iha
pcriod 1874 - 1895.1
This section is an informal, non-:xiomatic treatment of the set language.
0.2.1 Sets and Subsets
Intuitively, a set is any well-defined list, collection, or class of objects.
(Well-defined in the sense, that we should be able to decide whether a particular object belongs to
that collection or not).
A set is usually denoted by capital letters

A, B, X, y, ....
The objects which constitute the set are called the elements or the members of the set. They are
usually designed by small letters
a, b, c, d, ....
If I be any set and a be a member of l, then we write

aeA
and read it as "a belongs to the set A, or a is an element of the set A or a is member of the
setA't.If a isnotamemberof A, thenwewrite
a eA.
and read it as "a does not belong to the set A".
Represenlolion of o sel There are two ways by which the sets can be denoted.
(1) TUBULAR FORM: Let A consistof the members a1,a2, ... ,dn, wewrite
A = {or, az, ... , an}.
lllustrotion Let S be the solution set of the equation xz -3x+2= 0, we write

s={12}
(21 SET-BUILDER FORM: The notation
A = {x: a statement P(r)

involvingx }
is used to mean that "A is the set of obiects x for which the statement P(x) is true".
lllustrotion Let B be the set of all even numbers, then we use a lefter, say t, to represent
an arbitrary element and we write
B={x: x iseven}.
which read " B is the set of numbers x such that x is even". I
In much of our study of sets, sets of numbers will naturally appear in many of examples and
problems. For convenience we shall now reserve
N to denote the set of all natural numbers, i.e.

N=tL 2,3,...\
Z to denote the set of all integers'.
z={ ..., _2,_1,0, l, 2, ... }
a to denote the set of all rational numbers
a Iz p,qez
lq
R to denote the sel ofall real numbers.
C to denote the set of all complex numbers
lllustrotion l
(a) The set

E={neN:l<n<100}
is the collection consisting of the first 100 positive integers.
O) The set
F ={n eZ'.1<r< 100}
also describes the collection consisting of the first 100 positive integers. I
(c) The set
G ={t eQ: I <t<2}
describes the set of rational numbers lyingbetween I and2.
(d) The set

H={xeR:l<r<2}
describes the set of real numbers lying between I and 2. More generally, if
a,b eR with a< 6 then the closed interval [a,b] is defined to be
l",bl={xeR:a<x<b},
and the open interval (a,D) is defined to be
(a,b)={xeR: a<x<b}.
We can also define the half-open or half-closed intervals
(a,bl={xeR:a<x<b};
fa,b)={xeR a<x<b}.
(e) The set
I ={, eC:lzl=r}
describes the set of complex numbers lying on the unit circle in the Argand diagram. I
lllustrotion 2 Consider the set described by

X ={, eE : (x+5)(x-2)(3x-711x2 -211x2 +t) =0},
where .E is one of N, Z, Q, R, C. The following table describes X in each case:
EX
N {2}
z {-s,z}
a -t, ,, +\
{
R
{
-5, 2, !, Jr, -Jt\
c
{
-5, 2, !, A, -J-r, ,, -,\ T
Finite ond lnfinite Sets
Sets can be finite or infinite. Intuitively, a set is finite if it consist of a specific number of
different elements, i.e., if in counting the different members of the set the counting process can
come to the end. Otherwise a set is infinite.
lllustrotions
(a) Let M be the set of the days of the week. Then M is finite.
(b) Let N ={2, 4,6, 8, ... }. fnen i/ isinfinite.
(c) Let P ={x:x isariverontheearth }. although it maybe diffrcultto count the number
of rivers in the world, P is still a finite set. I
Null Set (Empty Set)
DEFINITION A set which contains no elements is called a null set (or empty set) and we denote
it by the symbol A.
We say that such a set is void or empty,
lllustrotion Let
A ={*'. x2 = 4, x is odd
}
Then B is the empty set.
Equolity of Sets
DEFINII|ON Set A is equal to set Bf they both have the same members. lile denote the
equality of sets A and B by
A=B
i.e. if every element which belongs to I also belongs to B and if every element which belongs
to B also belongs to l.
lllustrotion Let
p={z,I} and c={1,2,2, l}.
"={t:*2-2"+2=0},
ThenE=F=G.
Subseis
Ifevery element in a set I is also a member of a set B, then I is called a subset of ,8. More
specifically,
DEFINITION I is a subset of B if xeA implies xeB. We denote this relationship by

writing
AcB
B'. If A + B, we call A a proper subset of B, or read
which can also be read "A is contained
'A isproperlycontainedin 8". Moreoftenandinparticularwhenthepossibility A=B isnot
excluded, we shall write
A=B
From the definition, if I is not a subset of B, that is, rf A c. B, then there is at least one
element in A that is not a member of B.
lllustrotion I Theset C={1 f, s} isasubsetof D={s,+,1,2, 1}, sinceeachnumber

l, 3 and 5 belonging to C also belongs to D. Thus
Cc.D. I
Introduction to Pure Mathematics l9
lllustrotion 2
Let N, Z, Q, and R C
be the sets of natural numbers, integers, rational
numbers, real numbers and complex numbers respectively, then
NcZcQcRcC. I
lllustrotion 3 The set .E = {2, +,6} is a subset of F ={6, z, 4}, since each numbers 2,4
and 6 belonging to .E also belongs to ,F. Thus,
E c.F
Note, in particular, that E = F. In a similar manner it can be shown that every set is q subset of
itself. I
THEOREM o.2.1 Twosets A and B areequal,i.e. A=8, ifandonty,f Ac.B andBc.A.
PROOF From definition of equality of sets. ll
EXAN'IPtE 8
Provethat { n eN :n iseven}={, eN :12 iseven}.
SOLUTION
In fact, let the left-hand side be the set A and the right-hand side the set B. Then A c. B since
n eA n=2m n2 =4mz n eB
= = =
and Bcl since
n eA = n=2m+I = n2 =4m2 +4m+L
= n eB,
which is logically equivalent to the statement {see prove by contradiction in section 0.31
neB = neA.
Hence A=B I
IHEOREM 0.2.2 The null set A is considered to be a subset of every set.
PROOF Given any set B,

A c B ifandonly rf x eO> x eB
But Q has no element, therefore the latter implication is true, (though trivially)
IHEOREM O.2.3 If A isasubsetof B and B isasubsetof C then A isasubsetof C, i.e

AcB and BcC implies AcC
PROOF (Notice that we must show that any element in I is also an element in C.) In fact,
xeA = xeB as AcB
+ xeC as BcC
Accordingly, by definition, A c.C.
Sets of Sets ond Power Sei
It sometimes will happen that the objects of a set are sets tlemselves; for example, the set of all
subset of I . In order to avoid gylng set of sets" , it is common practice to say "family of sets"
"
ot, "class of sets". Under this circumstances, and in order to avoid confusion, we sometimes will
let script letters
-4, ts, C
denote families, or classes, of sets since capital letter already denote tleir elements.
I
lllustrotion In geometry we usually say "a family of lines" or "a family of curves" since lines
and curves are themselves sets of points. I
lllustrotion 2 The set {{ 2,3}, {2} md { s, 0 }} is a family of sets. Its members are the sets
{2,3}, {z} and {s,6}. I
REMARK Theoretically, it is possible that a set has some members which are sets tlemselves
and some members which are not sets although in any application of the theory of sets this case
arises infrequently.
llustrotion 3 Let A = { 2, { t, : }, +, {2, s} } Then A is not a family of sets; here some

elements of A are sets and some are not. I
DEFINITION The family of all the subsets of any set A is called the power set of A. lI/e
denote the power set of A by Q@)
lflustrotion Let M ={o,b,c}. then

e(M) = { a, {o},{b }, { " }, {o,t}, {t,"}, {r, o}, {a, b, c} }
IHEOREM O.2.4 If a set A isfinite, say A has n elements, then the power set of A has 2'
elements.
pROOF Let A={or,a2, ... ,an}

The subsets each of which has exactly one element out of z elements of A are the type
{"' }, t or}, ... ,{o"}

The number of such subsets is Ci.
Ingeneral,for r=0,l,2,...,r,thenumberofthosesubsetswhichhasexactly r elementsof
AisC!
Hence the total number of subsets of I is
c[ +ci +Ci +'.' +C:=(l+l)'

=2'
Thus, if A is afinite set of order n, then the power set of I has 2n elements. ll
Universql Set
In any application ofthe theory ofsets, all the sets under investigation witl likely be subset ofa
fixed set. We call this set the universal set or universe of discourse. ll/e denote this set by U.
lllustrotion I In plane geometry, the universal set consists of all the points in the plane. I
lllustrotion 2 Consider the equation

(x + 1)(2x - 3)(3x + 4)(x2 - 2)(*2 + l) =0
whose solution set, that is, the set whose elements are the roots of the equation, is
s={ - ,,:. -+, Jt, -Jr,,, -,

lL i
provided the universal set is the set of all complex numbers, C. However, if the universal set is
R - the set of all real numbers, the solution set is
s= jI -r, ;,I -;,4 Jz,

- _Jz
-l I I
lzr)
Venn-Euler Diogroms
A simple and instructive way of illustrating the relationships between sets is in the use of the so-
called Venn-Euler diagrams or, simply, Venn diagram.s. Here we represent a set by a simple
plane area, usually bounded by a circle.
AB C
a,b,c,d
Figure 0.19 Figure 0.20
lllustrotion 1 Let A = {o, b, c, d }, then A canbe represented as Figure 0.19 I
lllustrotion 2 Let A={a,b,c}, B={b,c,", f }, C={f , g,h} Then we can illustrate

these sets as Figure 0.20 T
U U
Figure 0.21(a) Figure 0.21(b)
lllustrotion 3 Suppose Ac.B and, say A* B. Then A and B can be described by either
diagram 0.21(a) or 0.21(b). T
O.2.2 Set Operations
In arithmetic we learn to add, subtract and multiply. These assignments are called the operations
of addition, subtraction and multiplication of numbers. In this chapter we define the operations of
union, intersection and diference of sets, that these will assign new sets to pairs of sets and A
B.
(o) Union
DEFINITION Theunionofsets A and B,denotedby AwB, isthesetofallelementswhich

belong to A or to B or to both. Thus
AwB={x:xeA orxeB}
which is usually read'A union 8".
Figure 0.22 I wB is shaded
lllusirotion I Let S ={a,b.d, g} and 7 ={7,t,c,d,g}. ttren

SwZ= {o, b, c, d, f , g} I
lllustroiion 2 Let P be the set of positive real numbers and let p be the set of negative real
numbers. Then Pur Q, the union of P and p, consists of all the real numbers except zero. I
It follows directly from the definition of the union of two sets that
IHEOREM 0.2.5 Let A, B be sets, then

(i) At-tA=A, AwU=U (IdentiUlaw)
(ii) Aw A= A (Idempotent law)
(iii) A=(AwB) and Bc.(AwB).
The union of sets satisfies the following laws of algebra:
IHEOREM O.2.6 Let A, B, C be sets, then

(w) Av B = Bw A (commutative law)
(v) Aw(BwC)=(Aur.B)u C (associative law)
PROOF
(iv) Let x be any element of the set Aw B, then

x e(Aw B) >
= xeB or xeA
+ x e(BwA)
Therefore, the conclusion is (,4 w B) c (B w A) . (l)
y be any element
On the other hand, let of the set Bw A, then
ye(BwA) = yeB or yeA
+ yeAor yeB
It implies that (B w A) c. (Aw B). (2)

Hence (l) and (2) gle Aw B = Bw A.
(v) Let x beanyelementoftheset (AwB)wC. Then

x e(AwB)vC <) [x e(luB)] or [x eC]
<> lx eA or x eB] or [x eC]
<> lx eAl or lx eB or x eC]
<+ lx eA] or [x eBw C]
<+ x eAw(BttC).
Therefore (A w B)w C = A tt (B w C)
and we often express each side by writing simply Aw Bw C .
EXAA,IPLE 9
Express as a union of intervals

I I
x eR\{-l4} (x+l)(x-4)- 4
SOLUTION
Because
1 I ll
(x+1)(x-4) 4 - (x+1)(x-4) 4
x(x-3) ,
+ (x+l)(x-4) O
(x +l)x(x - 3Xx - 4) >0

(x+ (x-4
+ (x+1)(x-0)(x-3)(x-4) > 0
x e(-co,-l) or x e(0,3) or r e(4, o)
=
therefore,
eR\{-l4} ll
x
(x +l)(x - 4)' 4
={x eR: x e(-oo, -l)u(0,3)w(4, oo)} I
(b) lnfersection
DEF| NIIION The intersection of sets A and B, denoted by AnB, consisting of those
elements which are common to A and B, Thus
Ar-tB={x:xeA and xeB}
which is read " A intersection B ".
Figure 0.23 A aB is shaded, the area that is common to bc*h A and B.
If sets ,4 and B have no elements in common. then the intersection of A and B is the null set,
AaB =O.
In this case, A and B are said tobe disjoint.
lllustrotion Let V ={2,4,6, ... }, i.e. the multiples of 2; and let llt ={3, 6, l, ." }, i.e.
the multiples of 3. Then
V all/ = {6,12,18, ... } |
It follows directly from the definition of the intersection of two sets that
IHEOREM O.2.7 Let A, B be sets, then

(i) AnA =Q, AoU = A
(ii) AnA=A
(iii) (AaB)c.A and (AaB)c.B
The intersection of sets satisfies the following laws of algebra
THEOREM O.2.8 Let A, B, C be sets, then

(iv) AnB = BnA (commutative law)
(v) Aa(B aC) = (AnB)aC (associative law)
PROOF
(iv) Because
x eArtB €> x eA and x eB bydefinitionofintersection
<+ xeB andxeA
<+ x eBnA
Therefore AaB = BnA.
(v) Similarly,
x e(AnB)nC <> lx e(AnB)] and [x eC]
€> lx eAl and lx eB and x eCf
<+ lx eAl and [r eB and x eC]
<> lx eAl and [x eBoC]
<> x eAr-t(B.l'C)
. (AnB)nC=Ar-t(BnC)
The following absorption laws are useful.
IHEOREM 0.2.9 [obsorption low] If A, B are sets then

(vi) An(AvB)=l
(vii) Aw(AaB)= I
PROOF These follow immediately from the inclusion Ac(Aw B) and (Ar-:B)=A
Union and intersection are also linked by the following distributive lows.
IHEOREM 0.2.10 If A, B are sets then

(viii) ln(Bw C)=(AaB)w(Aoc) fdistributive law of intersection over unionl
(ix) Av(BaC)=(Aw B)r-t(AwC) ldistributive law of union over intersectionl
PROOF
(viii) Let x be any element of the set Aa(Bw C). then
x eAo(BttC) + lx eAl and [x eBwCf
= fx eA md r e.B] or lx eA nd, x eCl

x e[laa] or x ef,laCf
=
:+ x e(AaB)w(AaC)
:. Aa(BwC) c"(AnB)w (AaC). (l)
Further let y be any element of the (l a B)tL (A r-t C), then
y e(AnB)v (AaC) + y el.l,-rBf or y el,naCl
= lt eA ana y eBf or lt eA an y ecl
= ly.al and [y eB or y eCf
=) y eAa(BwC)
.'. (l n.B) w ( A a C) c A a (B w C) (2)
From (l) and (2) we conclude that
Aa(BwC) = (AnB)w (AaC).
(ix) Let x beanyelementof theset Aw(BnC). Then

xeAw(BnC) - [xeA] or [xe(BnQ]
= lx eAl or [x eB and x eC]
= lxeAorxeB] and lxeAorxeC]
e lxeAwBl and lx eAwCf
+ x ef1,lwa1a@utc)l
.'. Aw (B nC) e@w B)a(Aw C). (3)
Further, let y be any element of the set ('lw A)r:('l'w C), then
y e(Aw B)n(AwC) >
= lt e Aory eB] and ll eA or y ecl
+ ly.ll or ly eB and y eC]
= ly.tl or [y e(BnC)]
= y eAv(BnC)
f{,au D n{'a. O] s A tt (B a c) (4)
Hence from (3) and (4) we conclude that

Au.t(BaC)= (Aw B)n(Av C)
EXAMPTE IO
I r ll ( t ll
Let o, =L-T, t-V)=lx eR : -V=*=t--l
where z is a positive integer and R is the set of real numbers. Find
(a) ArnAz,
(b) ArnArr-t ... r\An,
(c) AruArw...wAn,
SOLUTION
__L
2 * -* 0 F+ I I
4
1-+
(a) From the real axis we find that
A1aA2 =
[-+,'-+]^l-i,r-il
[-+,+]^l-+,?l
t-+,+l
{xeR,-i.r.i}
27
(b) Generally,
ArnArr t AAn =[-+, t-+]^l-i,r-il^ ^[-i, ,-+l
=f-+,*]^[-*, ;.]^ ...
^[-i, t-+]
...
= [-+,i.]^[-*, *]^ ^l-i,r-i"l
=[-+'+]
={r.n,-i.rr*}
(c) Similarly,
A,wA,w ... wAn=[-+, r-+].,[-i, r-]]., .. -[-+, t-]]

= [-+,*].,[-*, t]. ... .,l-], t-i]
=[-+,t-i]
={,.n ,_tr.*=r_}}
EXAMPTE I I
Let A,8 and C be three sets. prove that
if Bng=6, then (AwB)a(AwC)=X.
Determine whether the converse of the above statement is true.
SOLUTION
If Bn C = @, then by the distributive law
' (Aw B)n(Aw C\ = lyt 18 nC)
=AwA
_A
Take A ={o, c}, a = {t,
b, C= {c}, then
"},
(Aw B)n(Ar-tC) ={a, b, c}n{a, b, c}
={a, b, c}
_A
But BnC={A, c}n{ c}={c}*a
This proves that the converse of the statement is not true.
The following theorem is very applicable
THEOREM 0.2.1 I If A, B, C are Jinite sets then

(i) n(Aw B) = n(A) +n(B) -n(An B)
(iD n (A w B w C) = n (A) +n (B) + n (C) - n (A n B) - n (B a C) - n (C n A) + n (A r: B r t C)
PROOF
(D The first result comes from the fact that
n(A) + n(B) = n(A \r B) + n(A a B)
(ii) It follows from (i),
n(Avt BvC) =nllw qvCl
--n(Att B) +n(Q -nf(Av.B) nC]
=1"(A) +n(B) -n(An B))+n(C) -"1{,nw A1r.'Cl
=1"(A) +n(B) -n(Ar: B)]+n(C) -nl1,lnc)w (s n C)]
=1"(A) +n(B) -n(Ar': B)l+n(C)
-ln@ ac) + n(B n c) - n{1t n c1 n(r n Q}]

= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - n(A a B) - n(B n C) - n(C n A) + n(A a B a C) 11
EXAMPTE 12
Mary bought 24 eggs of which only 14 are good. 8 of them are cracked and 7 are rotten. How
many of the eggs are both cracked and rotten
SOLUTION
Let A, B denote the sets of cracked eggs and rotten eggs respectively. By given
n(A) =9, n(B) =7, n(Aw B) =24-14=I0
The number of eggs which are both rotten and cracked is given by
n(A n B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(Aw B)
=8+7-10
-5
EXAMPIE I3
100 students took part in a certain examination. 60 passed in Chinese; 49 passed in Mathematics;
47 passed in English; 23 passed in Chinese and Mathematics; 22 passed in Mathematics and in
English; 21 passed in English and in Chinese; no one failed in all the three subjects. How many
passed in all the three subjects?
SOLUTION
Let C= { Students who passed in Chinese }
14 = { Students who passed in Mathematics }
U: = { Students who passed in English }
By grven, n(c) = 60, n(M) = 49, n(E) = 47, n(C n M) = 23, n(.M a E) = 22, n(E a C) = 21.
The number of students who passed in all the three subjects is given by
n(CaMoE)
= n(C tt M w E) - n(C) - n(M) - n(E) + n(C a M) + n(M n E) + n(E C)
^
= 100 - 60- 49 - 47 + 23 + 22 + 2l
=10
(c) Difference
DEFIN|TION The difference of setsandA B,

denoted by A\B (or A-B), is the set of
elements which belong to A but which do not belong to B:
tB={x:ieA,xeB}
which is read'A difference B" or, simple, ,A minus 8,,.
Figure 0.24(a) I \ B is shaded Figure 0.24(b) B \ I is shaded
lllustrotion 1Let X={a,b,c} y={b,c,d} and Z={o,c,d}, whatis

(X wY)\(Z oX)?
For (XwY) =t a, b, clw{t, c, a}

={ a, b, c, dj
and (z r) x) =t a, c, dlr-t{a, b, c}
={ a, cI
By definition,
(Xv I) \ (Z n X) = {o, b, c, d }\{a, c}
= {b, d}
lllustrotion 2 Let R be the set of real numbers and let Q be the set of rational numbers. Then
R\Q
consists of the irrational numbers. I
It is clear that
O (A\B)c.A, (B\A)c.B, A\A=A
(ii) The sets (A\B), AnB and (.8\l) are mutually disjoint.
and
IHEOREM 0.2.12 [De Morgon's Low] If A, B, C are sets, then

(iii) I (l \B)n(,4 \C)
\ (Bw C)=
(rv) l\(Bn C)= (A\B)v(l \C)
PROOF As exercise ll
(d) Complemeni
DEFINIIION The complement of a set A, denoted by A" (or A') is the set of elements which
do not belong to A :
A" ={x:xe(J, xeA}
Figure 0.25 lc is shaded
lllustrotion Let E = { 2, 4, 6, ---

}, that is, the even numbers. Then
E" ={ L 3,5, ... },

the odd numbers. Here we assume that the universal set is the natural numbers, l, 2, 3, " I
We state some facts about sets which follow directly from tlte definition of the complement of a
set.
(D The union of any set A and its complement A" is the universal set, i.e.,
AvA" =U
(iD Furthermore, set A and its complement A" are disioint, i.e.
AaA" =Q
(iii) The complement of the universal set U is the null set A , and vice versa, that is,
(J" =A and O" =(J
(iv) The cornplement of the complement of a set A is the set A itself, More briefly
(A")" =A
Our next remark shows how the difference of two sets can be det-rned in terms of the complement
of a set and the intersection of two sets. More specifically, we have the following basic
relationship:
THEOREM 0.2.13 ForA and B sets

A\B=AaB" =8"\A"
PROOF It follows directly from definitions:
{x:xeA and x eB}={t:r.,1and xea"}

A\B = AaBc
and {x:xeA andxeB}={r:xeAc and xeB"}
A\B = B" \A"
Introduction to Pure Mathematics 3I
EXAMPI.E I4
In a group of 140 students, 70 are taking Mathematics, 50 are taking physics and 30 are taking
bolh subjects.
(a) How many students are taking neither mathematics nor physics?
O) How many students are taking eitler mathematics or physics?
SOLUTION
Let X={ilstudents},
14 = { Students who are taking mathematics },
P= { Students who are taking physics }

Given that n(X)=140, n(M)=70, n(P)=50, n(M oP) = 30.
(a) The numbers of students who are taking neither mathematics and physics is given by
nffu uP)" = nlx t 1u tt r1l

]
= n(X) - n(M w P)
= n(X) -lr(M) +n(P) - n(M a P)l
= 140-(70+50-30) = 59
(b) The number of students who are taking either mathematics or physics is.given by
nlu r 1u n P)]+ nlP \ (M n P)] = ln (M) - n (M nP)] + [n ( p) - n(M n p)l
:[r-30)+(s0-30) I
THEOREM 0.2.14 [De Morgon's Lows] For sets A and B

(D (Aw B)c = A" r-t B"
(ii) (Ar-tB)c = A" v B"
PROOF
(i) In fact,
x e(Aw B)" <> x e(Aw B)
<+ x e.A arrd x eB
€) x eA" and x eB"
<+ x e(A" nB")
(Aw B)" = A" r: B"
(iD In the same way,
x e(AnB)" <+ x e(AaB)
<+ xeA or xeB
<+ x eA" ot x eB"
e xe(A"wB")
(Aa B)" = A" w B"
EXAMPIE
Let A and. B be sets. Simpli$ the expression:
le-Oa.rB)"]
SOLUTION
Art (A..ru)'1" = A" r.lQqr q"f" De Morgan's theorem
= A" r-t(Aw B)
= (Ac rtA)w (Ac n B) Distributive law
=Aw(A" nB)
=A" r-tB I
EXAMPI.E I6
For any two sets X and Y, XY denotes the set of elements of X which are not in L Define
the symmetric difference of X and I by
XLY = (X\f t,(f \X)
Prove that
(a) lf ALB=Q, then A=8.

(b) AM:(AwB)\(AIB)
SOLUTION
(a) By the law of algebra of sets,
ALB=a
I l$t:Y!;1='
(b) Also
AM = (l \B)v(B\l)
= 1Ar-: Bc)w (Br..A" )
=ft a n a" ) ua]^ [t,a

n n' ) u .t'f Disnibutive law
=f{.au Dn(r" url]nf(At-t Ac)n(a" u A"l Distributive law
=l{,nwn)nQnlu rt(8" ttA")l u otheunivenalset
=(AwB)a(A" wB")
= (Aw B) n(Ar-t B)" De Morgan's law
= (Aw B)\(An B)
Introdaction to Pure Mathematics 33
EXERCISE OB
1. Express as a union of intervals the set of real numbers fr for which
(t:,')'=.
{r.*' t' * l)(x+ 3)=tI=a.
I )
2. Let U ={ry : n=0,1,2,... },

16 )'
4={sin? : 0 eU},
6={cosd :0eU},
g={sin20:0eU},
(a) Find n(l) and n(C).
(b) Find lnB and AtC.
(c) If sinB eA, is it always true that B eU? Explain briefly
3 (a) Let P={a,b,c,d,e},

Q={d'e' f' g},
R={a, b,f,g,h,i}.
Find Pu (QnR) and (Pwp)nR
(b) Prove that, for any three sets A, B and, C.

A c. C ifand only tf Att(BoC)= (Att B)oC
4. In a class of 42 students, 28 have been to.Ocean Park and 34 have been to the Space
Museum.
(a) Find the least number of students who have been to both Ocean Park and the Space
Museum.
O) If 7 of the 42 students never been to Ocean Park or the Space Museum, find the
number of students who have been to both places.
5. Let ,a = { l, 2,3, ..., 9oo }

A = {x e E : x is asquare number }
B= {x e E'. x is amultiple of7 }

C = {, e E '. x is an even number }
(a) Find z(l), n(B) and n(C).
(b) Find n(Bu.,C).

(c) List all elements of A a BaC.
6. The following information was handed in by an interviewer, who had been sent out to ask
100 people six questions:
Yes replies
Qn 1. Do you like variety shows on television? 86
Qn 2. Do you like sport shows on television? 79
Qn 3. Do you like drama shows on television? 67
Qn 4. Do you like both variety and drama shows on television? 70
Qn 5. Do you like both variety and sports shows on television? 75
Qn 6. Do you like both sports and drama shows on television? 67
The interviewer was not believed and lost his job.

By letting
people who like variety shows: 4
people who like sports shows: S,
people who like drama shows : D
and
n(V nS aD)= x
explain why the interviewer was not believed.
7 The Department of Mathematics of a university has 300 students, which are divided into
two groups: Groupl and Group B. In Groupl, students take Mathematics only; in Group
B, students take at least one of the following science subjects, in addition to Mathematics:
Physics, Chemistry and Biology. Of the Group.B students, there are I44 taking Physics, 108
taking Chemistry and 102 taking Biolory; 36 taking Chemistry and Biolory, 42 taking
Biology and Physics, 30 taking Physics and Chemistry, and 12 taking all the three.
How many students are there in Group,4?
8. Let X,I and Z be three sets.

If n(X)=53, n(Y)=39, n(Z)=37,
n(X aY) =/5, n(Y r:Z) = /f, n(X r:Z) = 24
and n(X aY nZ)=19,
find n(X\ Y), n(XwYwZ).
9 Giyen: A={1,2,3,4,5} and B={3,4,5,6}

Let X={x:x=100a+lOD+c where a,b,ceA}.
In other words, X consists of all three-digit numbers where each digit is chosen from the set
A.
Let y ={y : !=100a+l0b+c where a, b, c eB}.
Find the number of elements in each of the following sets:
(a) X, O) I, (c) XnY, (d) XttY,

(e) X \ I (i.e. the set of elements in X but not in f .
Intrduction to Pure Mathematics 35
10. I€t .s=to, r,2\,

a
a,b,ceS
'={[ c )
a u,) 0
,={[ a,b, eS ,={[: '.a,ces
0 a
(a) Find lnB and,A-8.

O) Find n(l), n(AwB), na nl{r -O-nl
11. In the following sets, the universe is { O, l, 2, 3, .. . }:

7={multiplesof2},
3={muttiplesof3},
g = { odd number
},
p = { even number
}.
Write down the first 7 elements of each of
(a) Ev F.
O) (AnB)c
12. Which of the following statements is/are correct?

(a) (Ac r-tB\nBc =a
(b) (Ac nB)w A= AwB
(c) (AnB")vt(AnB)= 1.
13. Let A, B besubsetsofaset E Showthat
(a) An(Ac ,\8")" = Ar:(A" n@)" - A
O) (Ar-tB")w(Br-tA") = (Aw B) \(,4n8)
Reference z
K.T. Leung & D. Chen : Elementary Set Theory, (Hong Kong University Press.)
llatlrematlcal Proof
Fundamentally mathematics, and in particular pure mathematics, is concerned with proof.

Essentially, from a hlpothesis 'p is true" we have to establish by logical argument a conclusion 'q
is true'.
0.3.1 Mathematical System
A mothemdical syfiem consists of axioms, defnitions, and undefined terms.

- The qxioms are assumed true.
- Deftnitions are used to create new concepts in terms of existing ones.

- Some terms are not explicitly defined but rather are implicitly defined by the axiorns.
Within a mathematical system we can derive theorems.
- A theorem is a proposition that has been proved to be true. Special kinds oftheorems
are refened to as lemmas and corollaries.
- A lemmas is a theorem that is usually not too interesting in its own right but is useful
in proving another theorem.
- A coroUary is a theorem thatfollows quicklyfrom another theoretn.
lllustrotion Euclidean plane geometry furnishes an example da mathematical system.
Among the axioms are
- There is exactly one line that contains two distinct points.
- Given a line and a point not on the line, there is exactly one line parallel to the line
through the point. [Ployfoi/s oxiom]
The term point and line are undefined terms that are implicifly defined by the axioms that
described their properties.
Among the definitions are
- Two triangles are congruenl if their vertices can be paired so that the corresponding
sides and corresponding angles are equal.
- Two angles are supplementary rf the sum of their measures is 180".
Among the theorems are
- If two sides of a triangle are equal, then the angles opposite them are equal.
- If the diagonal of a quadrilateral bisect each other, tJren the quadrilateral is a
parallelogram.
An example of a corollary is
- ffa triangle is equilateral, then it is equiangular
QUANTIFIERS Mathematical propositions come in two forms: universal propositions which

state that something is truefor a// values of x in some specified set, and existunlial propositions
which state that something is true for some values of x in some specified set. The former
propositions (statements) involve words that indicate quantity such as "for all"; the latter type are
expressible with "for some", "none", or "one". since such words ind"icate quantity they are tafled
quantifiers.
NOTATION The symbol Y , real as 'for all" or "for every,', is called an universal quantiJier.
They symbol J , read as "for some" or "there exists" is cailed an exifiential quort'ttr"r.
lllusirotion Consider the statement
Vx eR, *2 ,0
It represents each of the following phrases, since they all have essentially the same meaning.
For all real number x, x2 > 0
For every real number *, xz >0
For eachreal number x, x2 > 0
The statement is a universally quantified statement which is true because, for every real number
x, it is true that the square of x is positive or zero. I
lllustroiion Consider the statement
fx eR.
' ! =25
x'+l
It represents each of the following phrases, since they have essentially the same meaning.
For some real number r, -+=1

xt+l 5
There erists a real number x such that

x2
xt +7 )
There is a real number x such
-==
that - J-=2
x2+l 5
There is at least a real number x such that ' =?

x2+l 5
The statement is an eistentially quantified statement which is true because it is possible to find
at least one real number r for which the proposition
xz
_=_
x2+l 5
is true. In fact, rf x= 2, we obtain the true proposition

11
22+l 5
It is not the case that every value of x results in a true proposition. For example, the proposition
L2
_=_
12 +l 5
is false. I
0.3.2 Logical Reasoning
Most theorems in mathematics consist of statement of the form

p= q.
Here we call p to be the hypothesis (or premises) of the theorem and q to be the conclusion of
the theorem. An argument that establishes the truth of a theorem is called a proof. Logic is a tool
for the analysis ofproof.
A theorem whose hypothesis is p and whose conclusion is q, can be proved by proving any
statement equivalent to the implication p=q. Some such implications are given in the
following theorem.
IHEOREM 0.3.1 If p, q and rbe any given statements, then each of thefollowing statement
is equivalent to each of the remaining ones:
(a) p=q;
(b) * q=- p;
(c) p q)= (rn- r)
^(-
PROOF The equivalence of the statement can be shown by constructing truth tables.
(b) Thefollowingtable gives thetruthvalues ofthe implications p * q and - q=- p
P q p+q -q -p -q+- p
T T T F F T
T F F T F F
F T T F T T
F F T T T T
Table 0.26
From the above table we find that p =q and - q >- p have the same truth values and
consequently they are equivalent.
(c) Similarly, by constructing truth table for the statement p

^(- S) = Q n - r)
p q r p=q p^? q) p n(- q)>(rn- r)

T T T T F F T
T T F T F F T
T F T F T F F
T F F F T F ,F
F T T T F F T
F T F T F F T
F F T T F F T
F F F T F F T
Table 0.27
We find that p-q and p^(-q) =(rn*r) have same true values in any case.
therefore they are equivalent. I
A proof of the theorem 'p q

is true' by showing that one of the statements (b) or (c) in the
=>
prool Of these, the proof depending on (b) is called a
above theorem is true, is called an indirect
proof by contrapositive. The proof depending upon (c) is called a proof by the method of
contradiction These are perhaps, the most commonly used methods of providing an indirect
proof.
DEFINITION The converseof the conditional p-+q isthe conditional q-+ p. If q-+ p is
an implication we shall write q > p.
Remork tlnt a statement and its converse are not necessarily both true, nor both false. For
example,let
p: n is a multiple of 15,
q'. n is a multiple of 5.
Weseethat p=4 but q#p. Incasethestatement p+q anditsconverse q=p are

both true it is usual to run the two statements together and write p o q. For example, with the
usual notation of a triangle,
I,a = rlz) o LI
fo' = b2 +"'f
0.3.3 Methods of Proof
In this section, we describe some general methods of proof, and we use logic to analyze valid and
invalid arguments.
I Direct Proof by Deduction

Many results can be established directly by assuming the data and using propositions and
techniques already known. This is particularly the case in calculus and coordinate geometry
One of the common ways of proving the theorem whose statement is p = q is to construct a
chain of statements
Pg, P1, "' Ptc, Q
in which the statement po is either an miom or the hypothesis of the theorem (that is, p) and
each of the implications
Po= Pl, Pt= Pz, Pt =Q
is either an mioms or is implied by the axioms, the hypothesis and the implications preceding it.
Such a proofis usually called a direct proof,
EXAMPTE I7
Let p'. x2+3x-4=0
q:x- -4 or I
Provethat p-q.
SOLUTION
To prove that 'If x2 +3x - 4= 0 then x = -4 or I' is true, we proceed as follows.
x2 +3x-4=O =' (x+4)(t-1)=0

- x+4=0 or x-1=0
= x=-4 or r=l
Hence p>q thatis x2 +3x-4=0 doesimply r=-4 or l. I
EXAMPTE I8
/(x) is differentiable function ofthe real variable x and /(0) *0.
P: f (x) = ee where a is constant,

q'. f(x).f(y)=f(x+y).
Provethat peq.
SOLUTION
Sfficiency The case p = q follows from
av
eax.e'=e a(x+Y)
i.e. f(x)f(y)=f(x+y)
Necessity To Prove q) p we differentiate q parttally with respect to x and y in turn to
obtain
f'(x)f (y)= f'(x+ y),
f (x)f' (y) = f' (x + y).
By division
f'(x) = f'(y)
f(x) f(v)'
Putting -f = 0 in this relation gives
f'(x) = constant (= a' say)'
ffi
On integration,
rf'G). lae
J J'*
xo*=
+ ln"f(") --axlC
m+C
= J\x)=e
= Ae*
f (x)= Ae*,
Hence where A = e" is a second constant.
For f(0)=4.
Substituting in q gives A2 =A. so l=0 or1. But /(0)+0, so A*0 and it follows that
A=I and
f (x)= e*. I
2 Prool by Exhoustion
lI/hen only a finite number of possibilities can arise, as in some branches of algebra, it is
possible to write down and test all these possibilities. This is the method of exhaustion.
EXAMPIE I9
Show that there is no solution, in integers, ofthe equation
J)
x- +y'=I50.
SOLUTION
Noticing that the variables are interchangeable in this equation you have no need to try every
single value for x. Consider (x = y)
= (x2 = 75). Thus it is sufficient to try all the values of x
which have a square of less than 75 and see whether y is an integer. We get
11 e, Jt+q, 1r, Jr+r;, 1+, Jtu1, 6, Jtzs), 6, JnD, e, J-tlt), (s, J86).
Jr+ey,
There is no integer value of y nd so the proposition is proved. I
3 Counter-exomple
Suppose that the proposition p is suspected of being false. Then a single counter-example is
suficient to prove that p is, indeed, false.
EXAMPI.E 20
Prove or disprove the proposition (sinr > siny) (x> y).

=
SOLUTION
This seems plausible but the counter-example
*=tro, y=+ft
disproves it.
EXAMPTE 21
Prove or disprove that 'if n is an integer, then f (n)= n2 +n+41 is a prime number."
SOLUTION
We may verifu that the statement is true for n= l, 2,3, 4, ..., 39, but
'f (4o) = 402 +40+41

= 40(40 + l) + 4l
= 4l(40 + l)
= 4lx 41.
This shows that f (40) is not a prime number and hence the given statement is not true in
general. t
4 Proof by Controdiction
To argue by contradiction means to assume the conclusion is not true and then to draw deduction
until we arrive at something that is contradictory either to what is given or to what is known to be
true.
This is called, proof by contradiction, or reductio ad absurdum (Latin name) which means
"reduction to something which is absurd'. Several form are given below.
(1) To verify a statement p by contradiction we start with - p and deduce a statement of the
for* 'q and - q'. As this is false we cdn argue that - p is false, hence that p is true.
This illustrated in the following example.
EXAMPTE 22
Provethat Ji i"irrational.
SOLUTION
Let p denotethestatement "Ji isirrational". Thenegationof p is "Ji isrational".Now
16 isrational = Ji=Ls where r and s areintegerswithnocommonfactor

2
+ n-f
L--;
s-
+ 2sz r2
ls even
=12
+ r ls even
= r=2k where k isaninteger
(2k)z = 4kz
= 2s2 =
+ s2 =2k2
= s2 is even
+ s is even
= s=2m where m isaninteger

Hence we have
(f isrational)=+ lJi = ,1t where r and s are integen with no common facton
]
and [r =2k, s=2m]
i.e. - p+ (rn - r), which contains a contradiction. As the conclusion of this implication is false,
the hypothesis that J2 is rational is also false. i.e. Ji is irrational. I
This example of proof by contradiction given above was proof of an unconditional statement.We
will now look at how the same basic logic can be applied to the proof of a conditional statement.
This argument can be written symbolically as follows.
(2) p>q bycontradiction,startwiththenegation -(p>q) andreplacebythe

Toprove
p and - q. Deduce independently that
equivalent
p+r and -q+-r.
Thus (p and - q) - (r and - r).
As r and -r isacontradiction, p and -q isfalse,so -(p=q) isfalse.
Hence p+q istrue.
(Refer to theorem 0.3.1(c)
EXAtriPtE 23
Let f (x) = x2 +bx+c. (c > 0) prove by contradiction that
b2 -4c <o - f (x)>0 for all values of x
SOLUTION
Starting with the negation of this statement, i.e.
it is not true that bz -4c <0= f (x)>0 for allvalues of x, IU
we replace this by the equivalent
b2 -4x <0 and f(x) <0 for at least one value of x. I2l
We now take each component statement and make deductions from it.
Because
p:b2-4c<o
and - q: f(x) < 0 for at least one value of t

:) -r:f(x)=0 hasarealroot (as/(0)=c>0 andf(xt)<0 forsome xt)
therefore,
{*
t" -+"<0 and f (x)<0 foratleastonevalueof x})
= {f<t>=0 hasno real root and .f(x) =0 hasarealroot}

i.e. p n (- q)
= (r n - r) which is a contradiction. So [2] is false, therefore [1] is true.
EXAMPTE 24
Give a proof by contradiction of the following statement:

For all real numbers x and y,if x+y=2, theneither x>I or y>1.
SOLUTION
Suppose that the conclusion is false. Then,
<l and y <1.
x
@emainder that negative ors results in ands; see De Morgan's law for logic.) Thus
-(x>l or y>L) + x<l y2)
At this point, we have derived the contradiction (x+y>2) and (x+y<2) i.e. pn(- p),
where
p:x+y=2'
Thus we concluded that the statement is true. I
(3). Suppose tlnt we give a proof by contradiction of p

= q in which, as in above example, we
deduce -p. In effect, we have proof
-q+-p
This special case ofproofby contradiction is calledproofby contrapositive.
5 Proof by Coniroposilive
Sometimes, when it is difficult to prove a statement in the form p q, a direct proof of the
-
contrapositive statement - q+- p
crrbe used. This provides a sound proof of p q because -
we know that (Theorem 0.3.1 O)
(p=q true) e (-q+- p true)
Statements whose truth is very nearly obvious can often be prorcd by this form of indirect proof
in the following examples.
as illustrated
EXAMPTE 25
Given two non-constant functions rfix) nd 2(r) satisffing the relation

cp(x + t) + rrtx - - zrp(x) = ).(t)
t)
for all real numbers x and f. Prove that the function q(x) cannot have both an absolute
maximum and an absolute minimum.
SOLUTION
Suppose, on the contrary that d,x) has both an absolute maximum (at x,) and an absolute
minimum (at x). Then Vf eR.
),(t) = q(x, + t) + p(x, - t) - 2q(x)
< e@)+rt@)-2P(x)
-0
and 2(t) = q@, + t) + e(x2 - t) - 2rp(x2)
> a@2) +rP(x) -2rP(x2)
-0
That is 0<)"(t)<0, 1(t)=0 V/ eR
This contradicts the fact that ),(t) is a non-constant function. This contradiction shows that the
function p(x) cannot have both an absolute maximum and an absolute minimum. I
6 Mothemoticol lnduction
The method of mathematical induction is of use in proving the truth of a universal proposition
involving an integer z which takes positive integral values.
THE PRINCIPLE OF INDUCTION If a statement P(n) is

(i) truefor n=1,
(ii) true for k +I whenever it is true for k,
then it is true for every positive integer n.
PROOF
9
8
7
6
5
4
J
7
I
Figure 0.28
lmagine that an infinite row of dominoes was set up on edge close enough to one another
To be sure that all the dominoes will be knocked over, it is enough to know that
(i) the first domino is knocked over, and
(iD if one domino fails, it will certainly knocked over the next.
Combining (i) and (ii) we argue as follows: From (i) result is true for n = 1; hence from (ii) it is
tuefor n =2.
Again since the result is true for n= 2 it follows from (ii) that it is true for r = 3, and so on.
Since the reasoning holds for any value k of n it is quite general so that we may say that the
result is true for all finite integral values of n.
The principle of mathematical induction is quite general in its application, and the following
examples will be considered :
(i) Summation of series,

(ii) Theorems of divisibility,
(iii) Inequality,
(iv) Evaluation of terms defned by a recutrence relation.
EXAMPTE 26
Prove by induction that, if r is a positive integer, the sum
n. I + (n - I) . 2 + (n - 2) . 3 + ... + 2(n - l) + I. n = |n{n + l)(n + 2).
SOLUTION
(i) Take r = l. In this case there is only one term
r.l=1.1=1.
Also
ll +l)(n +2) =
U.l-2'3 =
1..
Un(n
Thus the result is true for n = 1.
(ii) Assume the result is true for n = k. Thus
- I). 2 + (k - 2).3 + . -. + 2. (k- l) + l. t = *oro

k . I + (k + t)(k + 2).
Thenfor n=k+1,
(k +l).1+ k.2 + (k - l).3 +' -. +2. k + 1.(k + l)
= {k.t + (k - I).2 + (k - 2).3 + ... + t. k} + { I + 2 + 3 + ... + k}+ t. (ft + t)

ll
= 6k(k +I)(k +2) +
1k(k
+ r) + (k + 1)
I
= o{tc +t){tc(k +2)+3k +6}
I
= 6(k +t)(k +2)(k +3).
Henceiftheresultistruefor n=k itistruefor n=k+I.Sincetheresultistruefor n=l
we infer that it is true universally. I
Proof thot two series ore equol
EXAMPTE 27
By the method of "mathematical induction" prove that

lll lll I
I-1+1-4+ t-f
2n n+I ' n+2'
... f
'
-2n
SOLUTION
tll I lll
Write Un=l-1+1- O+ -fr, vn
n+I' n+2'
=_I_a
_-- f_
' 2n
Then
Un+t=l-1+1- O+
llr lll
_
-_f
2n' 2n+l 2n+2'
ll lll
Vr+l= !-r_!_
' 2n' 2n+l' 2n+2'
,12+ r*3+
When n = l,
ul- ll ,l-1.
ft -1 L-t, I/ -_
Thus the result is true for /, = 1.
Now assume that the result is true for n=k . Then
vk+t=vo+
ll1rl
rr*r+ zn+2- n+r=vk+ zn+L- zn+2'
Again
Uk+t=(;k+
11
2n+l- zn+2'
Hence Uk*r=Vk+t and the required properly is true for n = k +1, and hence is also true in
general. I
On divisibility
EXAMPTE 28
Prove by induction that
,n+l *r2n-l
is divisible by 7, where z is a positive integer
SOLUTION
Let f (n) =rn+r *t2n-r

When z = l,
f (l)=2r*r +32-r =7
Thus /(l) is divisible by 7. Aszume that f (k) is divisible by 7, there is an integer 4 such that
f (k)=7q
Consider
f (k +r) - z(k+t)+r +32(k+t)-r
=2.2k*r +32 32k-r

= z{zo*' * 3zk-t} a 7' 32k-r
=z{lq}+z'l2k-r
=7Qt
where 4, = 2q +32k-r which is an integer. Thus /(k + l) is also divisible by 7. By principle of

induction, the proposition is true for all positive integers n. I
On inequolity
EXAtvlPt E 29
Prove, by induction that, if n is a positive integer, the inequality

3
t2 +22 + ... +(n-tl' .?<l +22 + ... +n2.

which appears in the computation of the area of a parabolic segment.
SOLUTION
(a) Consider the leftmost inequality first, and refer to this as P(n) (an assertion involving n)
When n takes the values 1,2, and 3, the assertion becomes
13"23'3
<5, P(2): L2 <|,
P(l) :0 P(3) : lr *r' .+,
provided we agre€ to interpret the sum on the left as 0 when r = 1.
Assume tlte assertion is true for n = k.
P(k): lr +22 +... +(k -tl' .4

Consider the case when n = k +1,
rr +22 + ... +k2 .l*t'=Irot +tk21

.
1.. +3k' +3k+l)
j(k'
(k + l)3
3
Therefore we have shown that P(k +1) follows from P(k). By principle of mathematical
)
induction P (n is true for all positive integers n.
(b) The rightmost inequality can be proved in the same way. Let the formula be referred as
Q(n). When n=1,
,3
QQ): 12 >i
Suppose that Q(k) is true for a particular value of r,
QG) : 12 +22 * ... *t' rl

Consider the case for n=k +I,
Q@+t): t2 +22 + ... +k2 +(k+r)2 ,l*ft +r;2 =

l|rt *st'+6k+3)
I
,a(kt +3k2 +3k+l)
(k+l)3
3
Therefore Q@+l) followsfrom Q(k). Byprincipleofmathemaricalinduction, Q@) is
true for all positive integers n. I
49
Recunence relotion ond inductive definiiion lfwe have a set of numbers an,s one
, for
of n, then any identity in n connecting an's corresponding to different values of n,
each value
is called a ' recurrence relation, between the numbers ofthe set.
lllustrotion Consider the sum

,sn - I+x+x2 + ... +xn
It is clear that
(1) sn+l -sz = tn*l
for all positive integers z. Similarly the numbers
tn=1 +a+E+
lt ...+ I2
satisry
(2) (n+I)2t,*r=I+(n+I)2tn.
We can also easily verify that the numbers
un =2n +3n
satisfy
(3) un*r-5un*r+6un-0 (n=1,2,3,....)
Thus, (t), (2), (3) are recrurence relations.
EXAMPT E 30
The terms of a sequence !1, !2, ls, ... satisff the relation
yk = ct yk) + b (k >2),
where a, D areconstantsindependentof k and, a+1.
Guess an expression for yr @>2) in terms of yt, a, b and, k and prove it.
SOLUTION
When ft takesthevalues 2,3,4,
y2 = ayr+b
y3 = ay2 +b
=a(ayt+b)+b
=a2Yr+ab+b
y4 = ay3 +b
=a(a2yt+ab+b)+b
= a3yr+a2b+ab+b
We assert that
Yk =ak-lyt+(ok-2 *oo-t + ... +a+I)b.
= ak-rlt___I_i_
b1l-ak-t1
Consider the case k + l.

!k+l = ayp +b
= oloo-' Y, + (ok-2 * ok-r * +a +I)b +b
- on yr+(ok-r *ok-2 * ' +a2 + a+l)b
1, b(I-
- a lt*--l_o
ak )
By principle of mathematical induction, our assertion is true for any integral values of ft. I
EXAMPTE 31
Given that {o,i is an increasing sequence of positive numbers. Suppose sequences {t,}, {",}
are defined such that
.l
\=Q= ra1
I
and bn=|(an-1*cra),
2
cn= J;"f; ror n>2.
Show by induction that
(a) bnlbn*t and co<cn*r.
O) bnldn and cn<an for n>L
SOLUTION
(a) Because {a,} is an increasing sequence of positive numbers, i.e. dn 1dr+r From the
definition of the sequences,
I I I l.
b2 = * c1) = * = b1 + b1
1@r to, r", 1b1>
"2 ,[iyt1 = ,1Q"rX") = Ji"1, ",

=
The results are true for n =I.
Suppose that bn > bn-t and cn > cr-y thetl
11 + cr) > + cr-1) = bn
bn+r =
1@n 1@rt
cn+t = ,[ioo, ar-1bn-1 = c,
'
By principle of mathematical induction, the results are true for all positive integers n.
O) For n=1.,
.t
4 = r, = io, .'. ar> bt and at> c,
Suppose that an>bn and an> cn, then
11 + cn) . + an) = an I dn+t
bn+t = j@n r(o,
cn+t=J;E .J;r% =dn ldn+r.
By principle of mathematical induction, the results are true for all positive integers r. I
5r
Miscelloneous
EXAMPI.E
(a) Prove that for any positive integer n, there exist unique positive integers a, and Dn such
that
(Jz +t7" = anJi +b,.
Show also that
(i) D, isoddforall a
(i0 a, is odd if n is odd.
(b) For an and b, as determined in (a), show that
(i) (JT -t1' = 1-r7"+t (anJi - b;,
(ii) b, ) on > 2n-r .
SOLUTION
(a) For n = l, we have
(Jz +t;' = G)Jt+(l)
with c, = 4 = l. The result is true for n=L
Suppose that for some k > l.
(Ji
+t1k = a1,Ji' +b,,
where ao and bo are positive integers. Consider
(J' + * | _=r Dk
r:rr:r::l;:r,), ., u
= ao*1Ji +bo*r.
where ap*t =ay*bp, bk+t=2ap+bo arepositiveintegers. Byprincipleof mathematical
induction, the result is true for all positive integers n.
To prove the uniqueness, suppose there are positive integers cn and
d such that
(Jz +t1" = cnJ2 +dn.

Then
anJ2 + bn = + dn, 1an - c)Ji = (d n -bn)
"nJ-z
Since a' b* cn, d, are integers, the equality holds only if
tr-cn =0 and dr-bn=0 i.e. an=c, and dn=b,
this proves the uniqueness of a, and bn.
(D 4 = I is odd. Suppose Du is odd for some ft ) 1. Then

bk+t = 2ao +bp
is also odd. By principle of mathematical induction, bn is odd for all positive integers
n.
(ii) ar = I is odd.
Suppose azk+t isoddforsome k>1. Then
(Ji * t)2k*3 = 1,li + l72k *r ({z + t)2

= (a 11,*rJ-2
+ b2 k +)Q + zJr)
= (3a zk +t + 2b, 1r*)Ji + (4 ar1, *, + 3b2 1ra1)
= arlr*rJi, +br1r*,
where d2k+3=3ozt*t*bzt *l is odd as azk+t is odd and 2bzt *t is even. By
principle of mathematical induction, the result is true.
(b) (i) For n=L
di -r1t = t-rl'[trlJz -trl]

The result is true for n= 1.
dz -t1k = (-r)k+r @kE -uu, for k > l.

then
(Ji -t)o*' = (-r)k+t @kJz -noyJi -t1

= 1-t1k+2l1ar, -br)Ji -ea1, +b1)f
-2
= 1-t1k fa 1, *rJi - b *rf. o
where ao*, = ap *bp and bo*t = 2ap +bp as in (a)

By principle of mathematical induction, the result is true for n= l, 2, "'
(ii) FOr n=I,4=at=20=1.
The result is true for r = 1.
SuPpose bk=ak>2k-r for k2l.

Then
bk+t = 2ap +bp by (a)
2 ap +bp
= ok+r'
Also
dk+I = ap +bp
) ak *ak
>z(zk-t)
_1k
b**t2 ok*tr 2k
The result is also true for n = k +I.
By principle of mathematical induction, the result is true for all positive integers z. I
53
rhe exlended principle suppose that, for an n, p, implies p,*r. Then if .! is true, we
can deduce that Pn is true for all n. If instead we know that Pk is true (where /s is some
particular integer) we can deduce similarly that Pn is true for all n exceeding
k. In fact we
have the
EXTENDED PRINCIPLE Let k be some particular integer.

Let Po be a proposition depending on the integer n (and deJined at least for all values of
greater than or equal to k). Suppose that
(i) Pp is true ;
(ii) P, implies Pn*1, for all n greater than or equal to k.
Then Pn is truefor all n greater than or equal to k.
PROOF If we write Q, = Pr+k-r then the hypotheses of the above theorem are equivalent to
(i) Q is true
(ii) Q, implies Qnal forall n greater thanorequalto l,
and the conclusion is equivalent to 'Q, is true for aI n greater than or equal to l'.
Thus the theorem follows from our first principle of induction, and conversely that is, they are
;
equivalent.
(Notice that we do not say that k is to be a positive integer. It may in fact be zero or negative,
though the second case does not often occur naturally.)
EXAtuPtE 33
Prove, by mathematical induction, that, for n>5
I^n2
>n
SOLUTION
When n=5
'2s
=32>25=52.
The result holds for z = 5.
Suppose that the result is true for n = k,
2k >k2.
then
zo*t -(k+l)2 = z.zk -1r+yz

>2.k2 -@+t)2
= (k2 -2k -1)
= 1r'-t*J-De -r- J-2)
>0 provided &>5
By principle ofinduction the results are true for all positive integers r > 5. I
The Second principle In order now to deduce that Pn holds for all n we may use the
principle of induction in a new form:
SECOND PRINCIPLE Suppose that P, is a proposition depending on the positive integer n.
Suppose also that

(i) P1 and P, are true;
(ii) Pn-, and P, together imply P*r, for all values of n exceeding I.
Then Pn is truefor allvalues of n.
This may be deduced by applyrng the first principle to the propositrons Qr, Qt, where'Q,'
means ' Pn-, and Pn'.
EXAMPLE 34
Suppose that the recrurence relation is

dl=0, a2=l
and dn+t = j@n + an-) (n = 2,3, "' ).
Guess a formula for the general term of the sequence and prove it by induction.
SOLUTION
By the definition of the recurrence relation we have successively,
-1 I 3 ll 5 111
os=i=l-;, a4=
4=l-t+ 4, os = g =I-t+ +-E,
and so on. This clearly suggests that
_l7
an=I-1+ O-
1l +
I I
=?{'-(i)-'}
2 l-
If we set out to prove this formally by induction, and denote by P, the statement that
n-l
I
or=12 l- 2
Then it is obvious that P, md P, are true. Also if Pn and Pn-r are true the recurrence
relation gives
en+t = |@n +an-)
=+ ?{['-(-+)*'].[' I l^']]
=+ 1.,-(-+)*' (t-2)
)
l-
3 2 )'i
which is Pn+t. By the second principle of induction, P, is true for all positive integers n. I
55
Bockwords induclion The reader may be amused by a final variation of the induction
principle, namely:
PRINCIPLE OF BACKWARDS INDUCTION Let Pn be a proposition depending on the

positive integer n. Suppose that
(i) Pn is true for infinity many values of n;
(ii) Pn implies Pn_1 (n=2,3,...\.
Then Pn is true for all values of n.
Again the result is evidently true. The argument is similar to the three given above.
The principle is rarely usefrrl; when it is, it will be in part because certain special values of z,
say the primes, or the powers of 2, enable pn tobeproved with particular ease.
The next example is important theoretically and is very useful.
EXAMPI.E 35
A continuous real-valued function / is said to be convex in an interval (a, b) if for any x,, x,
in (a, b),
\*k\. f (x)+ f(xz)

"\r( 2 ) 2
Denote by P" the statement: if / is convex over (4 6), then for any x1, x2, ... xn in (a, b),
,
xl+x2+... +xn
n
.f(x)+f(x)+..'+f(x,)
n
(a) Prove that
(i) P, istrue for n=2,4,8, ...,2k

(ii) P, istrue (n>2) sois Pr_,.
O) Show that P,, is true for all positive integers > 2.
SOLUTION
(a) (i) When r =2, we have, by definition,
r(
z )= 2
'[ "**r\.f(x)+f(xz)
Suppose thattheproposition is truefor n =2k (k> l), i.e.
tr*x2*... *rr* )
'l-----v-
"(
)
then, when , =|k*l
, tl "f {")* f (x)+ "' + f (xr*) )+.f Grr*r)+ -.- + f (x ')

-21
/ l-
2k zk
.'-
)+f( x * )+ +f(x
f(x)+f(x2)+".+.f + .f (*rr
*r)
2k+t
By principle of mathematical induction, the proposition is true for all n = 2k .
(iD Using the backward induction, suppose the proposition is true for some n > 4 . Fot
2I[ x1r X2, "' ; Xr-t, take
_ xl +x2 +
... +xz_l
*
^n -
n-l
Then
xt+x2+ .'. *xn_l
\+x2+...+xn_'t+
f( xt+x2+...+xn
n n
Xr+X2+ "'*Xn-l
4 n-l
On the other hand, if P, is true, then
f( rt+x2 +...+xn . f (\)+ f (x)+ "'+ f (x")

n n
.f (x) + .f @) + ..' + f (x,-') + f( xt+x2+...+xn_l

n-l
n
Equating these two results,
xt + )c2 +... +r^r
x, + x, + ... +rr-1
f (xr)+ f (xr)+...+ f (x*t)+ f( n-l
tl"( ,-t
)
1 n
Simplifying,
.( xr+xr+...+x,-r \, .f(rr)* f(xz)+... + f(x^t)
'[ ,-r )= ,1
Therefore, P,_, is also true.
(b) For any given integer n > 2, there exists an integer k such that n < 2k .
Combining (a)(i) and (a)(ii) we argue as follows: From (i) result is true for 2e ; hence from
(iD it is true for 2k -t itfollows from (ii) that it is true for 2k -2, and so on. So that we
may say that the result is true for all finite integral values of r. I
REMARKS In a proof by induction, both conditions of the principle must be verified. The
verification of condition (i) is called the basis of induction while that of condition (ii) is called the
induction step. A proof by induction cannot be reduced to be complete if either one of the two
parts is missing. This can be compared with the notation of a row of dominoes.
If either there is no basis for induction (the first domino is not pushed down) or the induction step
fails (if some gaps between the dominoes are too large), then the complete row of dominoes will
not fall down.
To illustrate this point, we consider the two examples below
lllustrotion The Obviously absurd statement

n =O for Yn eN
is true for n= 0. Here we have a basis for induction but the induction step would fail. I
EXAMPTE 36
The following answer was offered by Mr. Woo Lung
Claim
I
_+_!
I ... I_
I 3l
1.2 2.3 (n-l)n 2 n
Prove Use mathematical induction on n. For n =L,
R.ri.s.= :-l
2t = ! = J- = L.n.s.
21.2
Suppose it is true for n, then
t I ... +_+I 1 3l _+_ I
r.2 2.3 (n-l)nn(n+l)2nn(n+l)
3l
2 n+7
Hence it is true for n+ 1. Q.E.D.
(a) Is this correct? Explain and comment.
o) Give a correct working.
SOLUTION
(a) The working grven by Mr Woo Lung is incorrect. It is because the basis of induction fails.
For r=1,
I
LHS=
(l-1).1
is undefined.
Remork This is an example in which the induction step would be carried through while
there is no basis for induction.
(b) In fact, the sum of the series is given by
s(n) = -!-*-]-*
1.2 2'3 (n -t)n
=(+ +).(+-+). .(*-f
= t- nI
When n = 2,
LHS= I
r.2=l-1=R.IIS
2
Suppose it is true for n, then
11 ... lll
+-+-=l-- I
-+-+2.3
1.2 (n-I)n n(n+l) n n(n +l)
_r t
n+l
Hence it is true for z+ l. By principle of mathematical induction the result is true for all
positive integers n>2 I
FVFh I'F AA
E.I.EKI-IJE UI,
On summation of series
1 The rth term ar in a series is given by
a, =r(r +1)(2r+l).
Prove by induction that the sum of tlre first n terms of the series is
lc
(n+2'1.
1n(n+l)-
2. Prove, by mathematical induction, or otherwise, that for any positive integer n,
sina+sin2a + ... +sinna="i4+".)'i"t" ,

srn;a
where a +2mr forany integer m.
3. If lz is an odd positive integer, prove by induction, or otherwise, that

!@+t) ,
, . '\- ' (m-t)(m-t)
lll--w
"'l*-Qr-!l
?- (m- 2)(m - 1) "' lm - (2r -2)l
4. By induction, or otherwise, prove that
+ 2.4.6 ... (2r) n ,2.4. ... .(2n+2)

L3.5:7 -. er+D--zt U. -. .12nt,t)
r=l
5. Prove by induction that
12+22+3- ^2+ ... +n-z= I

Un(n+l)(2n+I).
Hence or otherwise show that l+7 +19+ ... + (3n2 -3n +l) = n3 .
On divisibility
6. Let n be a positive integer. Show, by induction, that (3 + Ji)' + (3 - 16)' is divisible by

2'.
7 Let a, p betherootsof x2 -l4x+36=0 Show that a' + fn is divisible by 2' for

n=1,2,3,... IHKALE 19981
8. (a) Show by induction, or otherwise, tlat, if n is an integer and n>I. 7' -6n-l is
divisibleby 36, and 5' -4n-l is divisibleby 16.
(b) (i) Hence, or othenrise, show that 7n - 5' -2n is divisible by 4.
(ii) Find the highest positive integer which will always divide 2.7" -3.5n +l
exactly.
9 (a) Given that n is a positive integer, show, by induction or otherwise, that 9" +7 is
divisible by 8.
(b) Find a common factor of 3'+5 for all positive integers n. Deduce, or show
otherwise, that
33n +s.32n +7.3n +3s

is divisible by 16.
On inequality
10. Prove, for any positive x and any positive integer n, that
x..+x.. +x.. .* ,,. *_+
nn-2n-4lll
_
n-4 : +_2n+1.
n-2
xx n
11. Let ay a, be positive real numbers. Prove, by induction, that for any positive integer m,
(ar+ar\^ _ ar^ +a"^

[2 ) 2
12. (a) Let dy d2, d3, ... oi, ... be positive real numbers. Prove, by mathematical
induction, or otherwise, that for any positive integer n greater than 1,
(I+ar)(l+a2)(1+ar) ... (I+an) > (1+at +a2+a3+ ... + an).
(b) Using the result in (a), show that
n logro (l + x) > logro n +logto x,
where n is a positive integer greater than I and x is a positive real number.

On recurrence relation
t3 If ut=3, u2=7, and ur=5un-t-6rn-2 fot n23, prove, by induction or otherwise,

that
il, =2n +3n-l '
14. If ag, e1, a2, d3,... ctn,...representasequenceofnumberswhichsatis$therelation

2(n + 2)ar*, - 3na n*t + (n - I)a n = 0,
and ao = 1, prove by induction thatfor n>2,

I
an =-
2'
15. If ao, ar, a2, ... representa sequence ofnumberswhich satisf the relation
4n+2*an+l-I2an =0 for n=0, 1, "' and ao =0, al=-1
prove by mathematical induction that for n > 0,
a, = -3n +(-4)n '
16. Let {a,} be a sequence of non-negative integers such that

n
, =Zq2<r+l+(-l)' for n =1, 2, 3,'.. .
k=r
Prove that a, =I for n)1. IHKALE r9951
17. Let {ar) be a sequence ofreal numbers, where

ao=1, ql=6, a2=45
and dn-dn+t**or*r-*or*r=o for n=0,1,2,
Using mathematical induction, or otherwise, show that
ct, =3' (n2 +1) for n =0,1, 2,..-. IHKALE 19921
18. Let d and P be the distinct real roots ofthe equation
t2 -Pt+q=g,
where p+l and p2 >4q.Asequence x1,x2,x3,.-. , xn,... isdefinedby
q=p-#
and xn = p-:- (n =2,3,4,...).
x n-l
(ant' - p"*')-(o'*t - p"*')
Provethatrr=ffi
-
Introduction to Pure Mathematics 6l
Miscellaneous
19 For any positive integer n, let
u, =ftl<t*Ji), -(r- .6)"].

e+ Jt)n + 1t- Jl)'
vn = .
Prove by mathematical induction that U * V, are integers and Vn is even. Hence, or

otherwise, prove that Ur, is even.
20. (a) Let f(x) beaconvexfunctiondefinedon [a,D], i.e.
f(xr)+f (x2r=rf(A?)
for all xr, x, ela, D]. For each positive integer r, consider the statement
I (n) : If x, ela, bf, i = L,2, ... ,n , then
f (xr)+f (x2)+ ... +f (xn1=r1(l!:z!::.:n\

n)
(i) Prove by induction ttnt t 1Zk 1 is true for every positive integer k.
(iD Prove that rt I (n) (n > 2) is true, then 1(n - 1) is true.

(iii) Prove that I (n) is true for every positive integer n.
(b) Provethat f (x)= sinr isconvexon [0, rf, andhencethat
I o'^:-a r
- (sn 0 1 + sin9, + . +'^j-n\''0'+0'+"'+0n
sin g, ) ( sin-t---:-a--------
..
for 0<0i<r.
Sum and Prcduct
This section gives an account of mathematical manipulation of sum and product as used in
handling the computational techniques in advanced mathematics.
0.4.1 The X and fI Notation
Ihe sigmo nolcttion Given a sequence a1, a2,... , dn, we use the abbreviation
n
Loo
k=1
for the sum al+a2+ ... +an.
The symbol X indicates that a summation is to be carried out, and the terms to be added are ak
where k
is a counter to take consecutive integral values between the limits I and n. The lower
limit of k is wriuen below the 2.
lllustrotion We have
45
ZoO =at+a2*o31a4, It, = xt+x2+x3+x4+x5.
k=l t=l
Sometimes it is convenient to begin summations from 0 or frem some value of the index beyond
l.We have
4 5
It, = t0 +rl +x2+x3+*0, lr3 =23 +33 +43 +53

t=0 n=2
To emphasize once more that the choice of dummy index is unimportant we note that the sum
may also be written in each of the following forms:
n
Lo, =Zoo Zo, etc

r=l k=l t=l
Bosic Properlies The summation notation has the following properties

nnn
(a) l{q +bp) =L"o *lto gaaitive property).
k=\ k=t k=r
O) l{cat) = "Zon (homogen e ous property)

k=l k=r
n
lc=nc where c isaconstant.

k=l
n
(c) l@* -at -t) = dn-oo
(telescoping property)
k=1
n n-l n+lnn
(d) L"o =Zok*t= Loo-, etc., Zon =L Qn+l-k
k=l k=0 k=2 k=r k=l
PROOF In fact,
(c)
l{o* - a t -) = (ar - ao) + (q2 - a) + (a3 - a2) + ... + (a n - an-t)
k=l
=dn-Qo
n
(d) Zoo =ar+a2+a3+ ... +an-r+an
k=l
= an 4 Qn_1+ .-. +A3+A2 +Al
n
Zar+r-r,
k=l
Double Summotion Sign Usaal expressions are

nnnn
(e) ZZo,o, =22"pi
,=l l=l j=li=l
(, )' n n n i n n-l n
(0
I I"' [
=LLo,oi =zllapi -I o? =L"? +zl la,a,
\r=l ) i=r j=r i=r j=r r=l t=1 j=i+l
i=l
PROOF (f) This may be verified by using a diagram (a rectangular array (a,, ai)).
(, \/" \ /, \r, ) , n
"' j[I"
= = =2P,",',
[i",]' [I'' I]'' [I ,J ,J
and = (at| a2 + . +an)(a1+a2+ ... +an)

[I",]'
=alal+ ala2 + ala3 ... + alan
+a2al + a2a2 + a2a3 ... + a2an
+a3al + a3d2 + a3a3 ... + a3an
+
+anal + ana2 + an43 .-' + anan
n n n n n
_\r
_L a,2 +2\ara1+2lara2+2lara3+ ... +zla jan-r
t=l j=2 j=3 j=a J=n
n n-l n
=I a,2 +21Lop,
t=l i=l j=i+\
EXAMPTE 37
n-l t-l \ r-r(, )

If I j=o
n n
Showthat (a) {x, +xr) =(n-\lx, (b)
Z+l=El Lnrl
t=l
"l=t+l
i=l t=l J ) y=o[i=y*r
SOLUTION
(a) We have
n-l n n n n
2 f (rr+xr.)= l("1+"r) *l{r2+rr)+ ... +l@,-1+xi)

i=l j:i+l j=2 j=3
=(n-l)x1 * x2+ .r3+ + xn_l * xn
+(n-2)xr+ .r3 + * xn_l * x,
+(n -3)r3 + + xn_l + xn
* x*l* x,
= (n - l)x1 + (n - 1)x2 + (n - 1)r, + + (n -l)xn-t + (n -l)xn
n
= (n- l)f r,.

t=l
(b) Similarly
,(,-r ) o t 2 n-l
ZlZ.nu l=Zo,t *ZAri +l'nr, + *ZA,i
i=r \r:o ) j=o j-o j=o j:0
= At,o +
+A2,s + A2,,
+Ar,o+ A.,r+ Ar,,
+ ...
+An,o + An,t+ An,z + ... + An,n_,
nnnn
=Z+' *2A,, *|,4,, + -.. +1A,.,_,
i=l i=2 t=3 i=n
n-r( n )
=>l>o,l
7=o[i=7*r )
Ihe producl nololion The product of n real numbers a1, ct2, ... , on is denoted by the symbol
n
floo
k=l
lllustrotion Thus
n
nl
llt
r=l
= 1.2.3. ... .n = n! , n#=++
r=l
n+l n+l'
and so on. Again, r is a dummy symbol and may be replaced by any other (except n) without
change of meaning.
Bosic Properties
v
(a) fi.roouor=[I ak Multiplicative property
n
l[t-J
n
fl{cq) = ""flon
k=r k=l
ok
o) lI ak-r =on ao
if each ap +0 Telescoping property
k=t
Some usuol expressions.

n k+n
(d) f\t<,t = flf {, -rc)
r=l r=k+l
(ft a fixed integer; f(r) any function defined for all positive integers)
n
, Lfe)
(e) ylaf?) =ai
r=l
nn
(0 flf <D =flf {n+r-k)
k=l k=t
PROOF In fact,
n
(e)
f1otr,, - af0) .af Q) . ... .of@)
r=l
(z>+ "' +f (n)
= o[)+f
n
lr<,>
= A/=l
EXAMPTE 38
Showthat
ilr!#!=gr#f
SOLUTION
fr<ztt-r)(zk+I)=1.3.5 ... (2n-r) 3.s.7 ... (2n+L)

rl 21t:2p 245... 1zn) ^ 24.6..\zn)
k=l
(2n)l (2n +r)l
lz-+.e ... (zDla

1zn+r1l1zn1tl2
za" 1nr1a
I
O.4.2 Finite Series
Let ay e2, ..., an beagivensequenceof r numbers. Theirsum
at+a2+.-. +an
is called a finite series and each of the numbers is called a term of the series. The sum may be
denoted by a symbol X' or S,. i.e.
Zo, = ar+az+ !an or Sn=al+aZ+ "'+an

r=l
THE ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION A sequence of theform

a, a+d, a+2d,.'. , a+(n-I)d
is called an arithmetic progression where d is called the common dffirence. The sum of the
Jirst n terms is given by
n-
sn = ,l2a+(n-\dl
EXAMPTE 39
n
Giventhat Lor=pr2+qn foreachinteger, n, where p errLd q areconstants,showthatthe
r=l
terms of the sequence d1, cr2, -.. form an arithmetic progression.
SOLUTION
Because
( n-r I [r-r n-2 ]
"
en - en-t = ]Lo, -Lo,l-.{ I", -L",1
L'--r ,t J l.'=r r=t )
n n-l n-2
la, -21a, *Lo,
r=l r=l r=l
= ( pn2 + qD - zln@ - t)2 + q (n - r>f*ln v - z)2 + q 1n - z)]

nlr2 - z1n - r)2 + (n - 2)21* al, - 2(n - t) + (n - 2)l
= oln' - 2n2 + 4n - z + n2 - 4n + +f+ qlr - 2n + 2 + n - 2f

=2p
the series has a common difference, therefore, {o,} form an arithmetic progression. I
THE GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION I sequenceof theform

2 n-l
a, ar, ar , ... , df
is called a geometric pr where r (* 1) is called the common ratio. The sum of the first
n terms is given by
_ a(l- r')
"n
" l-r
tf lrl.l, the sum converges to s= -i---
EXAMPTE 40
Giventhat 0<acl,0<r<1, a>!b and,
(-
L," bn
n=0 t.I- I'
show that a =2b - b2 anddeduce that
$r , _2(2-b)
Ll2a )'I 3-2b
n=0\ '/
SOLUTION
If 0<a<l and 0<r<1, then
L*=*, [.I*,.]'=(*)'
tr Zo" =()a')t, tt"n
+=(+)"
a =2b -b2
Thusif or+b. tt"" sothat
{<1,
I (*)'
n=0 r-
I2a
b
2a
2a-b
2eb
2Qb
-b2)
-b2)-b
ze-b)
3-2b
ARITHMETIC-GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION The general arithmetic-geomefiic progressi.on

is a series ofthe form
a + (a + d)x + (a + 2d)x2 + (a + 3d)x3 +,.. + [a + ( n - I)d)xn-r

where the coeficients of the powers of x are in arithmetic progression and the x portions of
the terms are in geometric progression.
IHEOREM 0.4.1 The sum of the first n terms of a general arithmetic-geometric progression is
given by
^ a-la+@-t)dlx"
c_ L \ / J rr-
(l-x'-l)
-- z J--
L- x 0_ x)t
PROOF Let
S = a + (a + d)x + (a + 2d)x2 + ... +fa + (n - 2)dlx'-' *lo +@ - L)dlx"-l
Multiplying a
xs = ax * (a + d)xz + (a + 2d)x3 + ... +la + (n - 2)d)x"-t +fa + @ - \d)x"
Subtracting,
(l-x)S =a+dx+dxz + ...+dx"-t -la+(n-l)d)x'
+dx3
= a-la+(n-\dlx" +(I+x+x2 + "' +x*z)dx

Thus, the sum of the progression is given by
, _ a -[a +(l_r)
@ -.t)dlxn
*(t- r'-]) *
0_i2
EXAAAPTE 4I
n
Show that Lr.2' = 2 + (n -I)zn*r
r=l
SOLUTION
n
Methodl [Workingfrom the firstprinciple] Let sn =1r.2' . Then
r=l
I
(l-2)sn =1r.2' -2lr'2' =2+Lr'2'-Ifr- l).2' -n.2"+r

r=l r=l r=2 r=2
n
z2 1t -zn-t1 NJ^n+l
=2+22'-n.2n+r =2 t-
r=2
Therefore,
sn = -2 +22 -2n*l +n'2'*l

= 2+ (n -l)2'*r
Methodll fUsing differentiation] If x +1, we have
3 r+r=*'11-tn1
Lx r-x
r=l
Differentiation gives
n Q - ilzx - (n + z)x'*tl+ @2 - xn*2 )
l(r+qx'= (r- r)2
r=l
Put x =2,
n n
Zr.2' *|2' = -4 + (n +2).2n+r + 4 - 2n+2

r=l r=l
f, .r' = -+ + n.2n*1 = z + (n - r).2n*r

r=l
69
ON NATURAL NUMBERS The following formulae are standard results of finite series on
natual numbers.
IHEOREM O.4.2 For positive integer n,
(i) sl = i
r=l
rr =I+2+ ... +n=|n@+ty
(ii) ^92 tn
r=l
,2 =r2 +22 + ... +n2 =
I
6r(, +l)(2n +l)
I
n
(iii) s3 = 13 =13 +23 +...+n3 =|n26+t12 =sr2
r=l
PROOF
(i) ror , = +t) - (r- l)r], we have

|lr(r
2'=|i'r(r+t)-(r-\rl
= j[<t.,-o. r)+(2.3-r.2) + ... + [n(n+t)-(n-t)nl]
I
==n(n+l).
(ii) For r=\2,...
12 =r(r+l\-r.
we have
nnn
Lr'=fr(r+t)-fr
r=l r=l r=l
where
irlr +r) =iltr,

r=l
+t)(r +2)- (r - t)r(r + 1)]
r=l
= ., - 0. t. 2) + (2. 3. 4 - 2. 3) + ... +fn(n + r)(n + 2) - (n - r)n(n + \l}

]{,r., L.
I
=,n(n+t)(n+2).
Thus
3z I I
Lr' = jn(n +t)(n + 2) - 1n(n + l)
r=l
I
= +l)(2n + l)
6r(n
(iii) For r =I, 2, ..-,
13 = r(r + l)(r + 2) -3r(r + l) + r.
we have
n n n
Lrt =f r(r +1)(r + \ 4lrQ+ +lr 1)
r=l r=l r=l r=1
where
irrr+ lXr + 2) =iitr, +r)(r +2)(r +3) - (r -r)r(r+ l)(r + 2)]

r=l r=l
1
= +l)(n +2)(n +3).

On(n
Hence
irt =
|n@
+ t)(n + 2)(n + 3) - n(n + r)(n + 2) + !rn@ + I)
r=l
=
in'(n +t12 = 5r2
Remork In particular, it is possible to continue in tle above manner and evaluate the sum
lk +2k * ... *no

where k is any positive integer. It is clear however that the complication increase with ft. If
k = 4, we use the identity
14 = r (r + I)(r + 2)(r + 3) - 6r (r + I)(r + 2) + 1 r (r + I) - r.
These examples just considered illustrate the method of dffirences. The principle of this method
is given in next sub-section.
EXAIAPTE 42
2
" (n +l\2
(a) using lt3 =LyiL or otherwise, prove that
r=l
n^l
l{r' - r) = r{, - l)n(n + r)(n +2)
r=l
O) Find the smallest integer z satisfying the inequality
n
3
l{r3 -r) > lo(n +2n2 -n-2).
r=l
SOLUTION
n 2,
(a) sy I" =L+-
r=l
+D2
It3-r)=I"'-I ,=
n2 (n_+ r)2
- NP = | {, - r)n{, + r)(n + 2)
r=l r=l r=l
71
O) Using (a)
f<r' - rl> to(23 +2n2 - n -2)

r=l
f, {n - t)r{" + r)(n + 2)> t0(23 + 2n2 - n - 2)

(n - I)n(n + I)(n + 2) - 40(n - I)(n + I)(n + 2) > 0
(n + I)(n + 2)(n - l)(n - 40) > 0.
n<--2 or -l<n<l or r>40.
But r should be a positive integer, therefore n = 4I is the smallest integer satisfying the
given inequality. t
0.4.3 The Method of Differences
The method of differences is particularly usefirl and simple for summing a series. The general
principle is given by the following theorem.
IHEOREM O.4-3 Let u, denote the rth term of afinite series. Suppose that afunction f (r)
can be found such that
u,=f(r+I)-f(r)
then sum of the rtr$ n terms of the finite series is given by
n
Zu,=f(n+L)-f(r)
r=l
PROOF fr ,, = f (r +l)-.f (r), we have

ur=f(2\-f(r),
uz = f(3)- f(z),
u, = f(4)- f(3),
un_r=f(n)- f(n-I),
ur=f(n+t)-f(n),
By addition, the sum to r? terms s, is given by
sn=f(n+1)-"f(1),
for all the other teams on the right-hand side cancel in pairs.
The difference method can be used to sum the finite series whose rth terms are of either of the
following forms:
(a) u, = {a +rd}{a+Q +t)d} ... {a+(r +k -r)d}
O) u,=
+I)d\ ... {a +(r + k -I)d} , k>1.
{a +rd}{a + (r
Here each term contains k factors which are successive term of an arithmetical progression, the
first factors of the several terms being in the same arithmetical progression.
EXAMPI.E 43
By expressing the terms into partial fractions, evaluate

lllI +
1.3 ' 3.5 ' 5-7
(a) '
(2n -L)(2n +r)
-!-+-+
ltlI
o) 1.4' 4.7 ' 7.10'
f
' (3n-2)(3n+l)
-l-l-l
SOLUTION
(a) By expressing each term into
-
partial fractions,
111 J-
1 I
1.3 ' 3.5 ' 5.7 '
(2n -3)(2n-r)
' f-
(2n -l)(2n +I)
-l-f-+,..
( | r\ ( t l\
+{ (+ +) .(+-+).(+-+).
+ l---l + l-_-l
lzn-t zn-t) Izn-t 2n+t)
I 1l
a I 2n+l
n
=-2n+l
O) Similarly,
lll 1l
r.4' 4.7 ' 7.10 "
| !-L-
(3n-5)(3n-2) (3n-2)(3n+t)
I l\ ( r l\
=+{ ___t + (+ +) + .( 3n-5 + t___t
[+-+). 4 7) 3n-2 ltn-z 3n+t)
Ll 1l
3t 1- 3n+l
n
3n+l
EXAMPTE 44
1
Given that f (r) = , , consider the difference f (r)- f (r +l) and hence show that
r
3 2r+l
\ I
I
= --
/or2 1r +t12 (n+r)2
SOLUTION -
1
If f(r) =-r-, tlen
r
. I I (r+I12-r2 2r+I
\' ' r \
rJ\t)-J\/Tr.r= =-=-
12 (r +l)2 12 1r +Iyz 12 ir +112
Hence
I r\, +l I (r[" I')

n
2r
= t___t
r=l +I)2 r=l g+t12 )
=[i-;].(; +).t+ ;) + [r'(r g+y2

r ) + t___t
)
1
I
(n +l)'
The method of differences may be applied to certain trigonometric series by employing formulae
such as
2cos4sin{= sin(d+ fi-sin(g- fi.
EXATI,TPI.E 45
Let Cn = cosa +cos(a+B)+ cos(a +28)+ ... +cosfa +@ -I)p]

where n md B is not an integral multiple of 24
be a positive integer Show that
.o.[o + ]@ -r)p]sin]np
""_@
,_ _
SOLUTION
Using Zcos?sin4 = sin(d+/) -sin(0- fi, we have
n
"in| f = |
zc, z cosfa + 1tt - t) B]sin] F
k=r
n_
= I
k=l
{'io[" + (k -\ B+ ]/] - si"[" +@ - r) p - + p]]
0 - sin{a- }/l} + i.io 1a + } h-

= {sin(a + } sin(a * + A}
+ ... +{sin1a+!h-sin(a -Th}

= sin(a *T h_sin@ _|F)
-- 2cos(a ++ hsin+np
Hence, if B is not an integral multiple of 24 the result follows,
co'[o+]t, -t)p]sin]nB
cn--
srn )I B
EXERCISE OD
On sum and product
l. Showthat
(a)
I('-i)=;
(b) =+
[('iJ
2. If x *I, show that
n
fltt*"ok-r)=;.
l- 12"
k=l
What is the value of the product when x = 1?
3. If ap <bp foreach k=1,2, ..' ,fl,

(a) Prove by induction tlat
n n
Zoo.Zuo
k--l k=r
(b) Discuss the corresponding inequality for products:
nn
floo .ilr..
k=r k=l
4 Suppose that at (i =1,2,..-,n) are any n numbers not equal to 1, prove by

mathematical induction that
ni-ln
o, +lo,fl tt- ar) = I - fI (r-ai).
i=2 j=r t=l
n
5 Let xr, x2, -.- , xn bea set of observation, and let mn =! I,,
t=l
Show that the corrected sum ofsquares, defined as
n
^S, = l(x, -*,)2

i=l
may be expressed as
^Sr I ,r-:(2i'
t=l
OnA.P., G.P.,A.G.P.
n+l
6. The series )a, is a geometric series with common ratio k, where k2 *r. Show that
r=l
tlte series
n
l{u'u'*)
r=l
is a geometric series and that its sum is equal to
,r2k1r-k2"y
Q-k2)
7 If the rth term of a series is given by T(r) = (2r +L)3r , show that the sum of the first r
terms is
S= n.3'+l
8 (a) Let S=x+2x2 +3x3+ ,..+nxn, where x+l and n a positive integer. By
simplifying xS -^S, show that
o _rr'*'-(n+ryxn+r +x
(t-D2
O) Mr So deposits money in a bank at the beginning of each month in the following
pattern:
first month $ 100.

second month $200,
third month $300, and so on.
Suppose the interest rate is fixed at f/o per month and interest is compounded
monthly.
(i) Show that the amount he will have at the end of the second vear is
24
lool (25- ft )(r+ r%gk douars.
k=t
(iD Given r = l, use t}te result in (a) to find the amount to the nearest dollar, he
will have at the end ofthe second year.
(c) Miss Au deposits $P in the same bank at the beginning of each month. Suppose the
interest rate is also fixed at Io/o per month and interest is compounded monthly.
(i) Find the amount she will have at the end of the second year, expressing the
answer in terms of P.
(ii) If the amounts received by Mr So and Miss Au are the same at the end of the
second year, find P, correct to the nearest integer.
On ndural numbers.
9 Let An=I2 -22 +32 -42 + ... +(-l)"-rn2 and Bn=7+2+3+ "' +n
where n is a positive integer.
Show, by mathematical induction, that
An = (l)n-t Bn
for all positive integers n.

2m 2m+l
Hence, orotherwise, nna lrl, ana I'l',
n=l n=l
10. (a) Prove by induction, or otherwise, that
(i) 3n
) r(r+l) =-(n+l)(n+2),
J
r=l
n
(ii) lr Q +I)(r +z't =
f,@
+r)(n + 2)(n + 3).
r=l
O) Show that 13 = r(r +l)(r +2)-3r(r +I)+r and hence prove that
i,'=(r,*u'
r=l
20
(0 Evaluate lrQ +3\(r +6)
r=l
(ii) Prove that, when z is an odd integer
i{-t)'*t rt = }{r. - um + r)2 .
r=l
11. Let n & apositive integer
g + t1 = !rn@
(a) Show that fr + I)(n + 2)
r=l
(b) Let
St =1,
Sz =I+2,
& =l+2+ "'+r,

Sn =l+2+ "'+r+ "'+n.
By considering S, +.S, + ..' +S,, or otherwise, find the sum of tlte series
n-l+(n -l).2+ ... +(n - r +l).r + ... +2.(n-I)+ I.n.
On method of differences
t2 By consideri ne f e) - f (r +l), where /(r) = :j+ , or otherwise, show that

r(r +l)
I r+4 3
n
n+3
r=l
r(r +l)(r +2) 2 (n+l)(n+2)
n.
13. Given that S, = Ir(";
r=l
prove, by method of difference, or otherwise, that
1
c_5n+)n
"n -@ll.i)(nT?]
2.s.8 ... (3r -1)

14. If r, = 3.6. ...3r
show that, for r ) 2,
v, -vr_, = 2ur.
Hence, or otherwise, find the sum of the series
2 2.5 2.5.8 2.s.8...(3n -r)
f _:_
3 3.6 3.6.9
-I-r-1
3.6.9 ...3n
15. Show that 8sin3 dcosg = 2sin20 - sin4d. Hence, or otherwise, show that
firy =
|"r^re - fi sinlzn+t e1
16. By expressing 2sin0cos2r0 as the difference between two sines, show that
n
sind)cos2r 0 = sinnl cos(n +I)0.
r=l
100 (rr
Evaluate ).or2 Iroo l
r=l
17. Let r beapositiveintegerand x .[0.-i-).

'n+l/ Show that [
sinx
cot kr - cot(k + l)x =
sinhsin(k+l)x
for all k =1, 2,3, '.., n.
Deduce that
1l I
sinxsin2x sin2xsin3x
+ +-=
'sinnxsin(z+l)x ---;-smnx
sin" xsin(n + l)x
IHKALE r9901
-I
ckapter I
Blnomlal lheorcm
In this chapter we consider the binomial theorem for the case in which the index is a positive
integer. The formula enables us to write down as an expansion in series, the power of any
binomial expression, without the necessity of doing the actual multiplication.
I.I BINOMIAT COEFFICIENTS
DEFINII|ON Let n be a positive integer and r non-negative integer with r < n. The symbol
C! is defined as
I r=0
,: ={ n(n-l)(n-2) ... (n -r+1) r>0
rl
These numbers are called the binomial coeffrcients in view of the binomial theorem below.
9.8.7.6 t. l2.tl.t0'9'8
lllustrotions (a) C;" = (b) C;' =
1;23nL=126, IZS4.5 =792.
Observe tl:mtt Ci has exacfly r factors in both numerator and denominator
(n\
REMARK Sometimes we use the qymbol the binomial coefficient Ci andwe have the
[;J "t
factori a I re pr e sent ati on
^n nl
-r rl (n-r)l'
EXAMPI.E I
Let c, denote the binomial coefficient, show that
ct flC, n(n +l\
ct *3cl
co*2cz c2
* +
cn-l 2
SOLUTION
Using the factorial representation of the binomial coefftcient, we have
ct .2c2 .3ct . flc, $ -" _$__ "! _ (r-l)!(n -r+l)!

c0 ct c2 cn-l L r,-, - L' ^ rl Qt-r)l^ nl
r=l r=l
n
=l{n-r+t) =l{"+t).
r:l
Binomial Theorem 79
using the factorid representation, we obtain the following important relations.
IHEOREM 1.1 Let C! denote the binomial coeficients.
(i) Symmetry condition'. Ci = CX_,
(ii) Additionformula: C!-r+C! =g!+1
(iii) Recursionformula: C:il =#":
PROOF Using the factorial representation of the binomial coeffrcient, we have
(i) Cx-, =
nl nl ^n
(n-r)lfn-@-r) - rl (n-r)l- "r
(ii) nl nt' nl ( t I \
ci_r+ci =dtIF:F +l1n-,y= (nrt
I (rL)! l,.r-,.; )
n! n+I
(r-r)! @-r)l r(n+I-r)
(n+1)!
=L,^n+l
rl (n+I)-r
(iii) ^n+r (n+l)! n+l nl n+I

-r+t (r+1)! (n-r)l r+l rt (n-r)l r+l C:
THEOREM 1.2 [Summotion formulol Let Ci denote the binomial cofficients.
(iv) c[ +ci+r + ... + c|*o =cn+k+t
(iv') Ci*C:*' + ... + CI*o =ci;f*r
PROOF
(iv) Using the addition formula: C::l = C: - C:t , we have
ct *Q*'+ ... +cn*k =c; +fcl. =ct *flr:.'.t -clir')

r=l r=1
= ct +fcl*r*' - cJ"]
- 6n+k+l
(iv') The result is immediately obtained by equating to (iv) as the symmetry relation of the
binomial coeffrcients. Otherwise, it may obtained by the addition formula in the same way
as (iv)
ci + ci*t + ... +C!*k = c; +fc;*' - cX *fl":if.' - c:i{l

r=l r=l
= ct +lc::ft' -qii]
= ur+l
^n+k+l
ll
80 Binomial Theorem
PASCAL'S TRIANGLE The symmetry condition and the addition formula enable us to construct
the so-called Pascal triangle in which the binomial coeffrcients can be arranged in a triangular
array of numbers as follows:
)
J 3
I 4 6 4 I
5 10 l0 5l
1615201561
7 2l 35 35 2l 7t
8 285670562881
4
CJ c,
q q e
q e, q q
q q q q q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
q
ci
q
I q
4 q q 4 4 q 4 4
c3 q q q q c, e. q 4
Pascal's triangle has the following interesting properties.

(D The first number and the last number in each row is l.
(iD Every other number in the array can be obtained by adding the two numbers appearing
directly above it.
EXAMPTE 2
If Ci 1r = 0, 1,2,... , r) denotes the binomial coeffrcients, prove that
1c( +ciyci *cb ... (ci-r+ci1=*1r+t1" cici ...ci
SOLUTION
Using the addition formula,
ill.;-, * c:)=U,r:.'
r=l r=l
= f|##h
r=1
fl##f, =
r=7
" T#-ir
=*.rr+r1" cici ... ci
Binomial Theorem 8l
I.2 BINOMIAT THEOREM
The binomial theorem, which is proved by mathematical induction, gives the general expression
for the expansion of (a +b)n , where n is a positive integer.
THEOREM 1.3 [Binomiol theorem] For any positive integer n,

n
(a+b)n =lcla"-'b'
r=0
=ctan +clan-rb+cla"-2b2 + +c!-rab'-r +cXb"
PROOF Prove by mathematical induction. When r = l,

(a+b)t =Clatbo +Q,aobl
The result is true. Suppose that the result is true for n = ft,
k
(a+b)k =2c!ok-'t'
='--Jg"o +cf ok-rt+cfok-2bz + +cf;-ratk-t +cftk

then,for n=k+I,
(a+b)k*t =1a+qlc[ak +Cf ak-16+Cfak-zbz + +Cf_rabk-t +c!*)
= Ctok*t +Qakb+cfak-tbz + +cf_razbk-t +cfabk
+C(akt+cf ak-tbz +C!ak-zb3 + +c!-rabk +Ctbk*l
=c[ak*' +fci +c[]akt+lc! +cflak-toz + +lc[ +cf-,]abk +cfbk*l
As cf =t=ct*r, cf =t=cfll, andbyadditiveformub c!,+c! =cf+r,therefore,
@+b)k+! =ct*rok*r +cf*rokb+c:+.ak-rbz + +cf;*rabk *ffiuo*'
k+l
2ck+ta(k+r)-'u'
r=0
The result is also true for n = k +1. By principle of mathematical induction, the result is true for
all positive integers r. ll
NOTES
(i) By the symmetry relation C! = CX-r, the expansion may be expressed in either way:
nn
(a + b)n =
lC! a' bn-' =lC! an-' b'
and r(r) = r;)::' u' = u::: may be catted the
generat termof the expansion.
": "
82 Binomial Theorem
(ii) The results may be expressed as
(a + b)n = = = o' (r*')'

{"(t.*)}' "(t*L)
where x = 4. W" may take (l + x)" as the standard form of thebinomial expansion and
(l+x)' =ct+cl*+clx2 +c!x3 + "'+Clxn

n
=lcix,
r=0
Usually we denote C, be the coefficient of r' in this expansion so that
(l+x)n =Co*Cf +Crx2 +"'+Crx'+ "'+Cnxn.
EXAMPI.E 3
Let m and z bebothpositiveintegers, and m>n.

(a) Find the first three terms in the expansion of (L+ x)^+" (I- *)^-n ,
(b) If the coefficients of x and of in expansion of (1+x)'n(I-x1m(n-r) are equal to
"2 the
each other, find an expression for m in terms of n.
SOLUTION
(a) Using binomial theorem,
1l+ x1^+n 7l- x)^-' = (r+ x12' (L+ x)^-" (l- *)^-"
= (l+x)2u (l -*21n-n
= (I- t2rn-n
1I+ x12"
( zn(2n-l\ ' ... lr . 'r
=\r+2nx+ x'+ O ..J

Jlt-(r-n>r'+
= l+2nx + {n(zn - r) - (m - n)}x2 + -' -
=I+2nx+(2r2 -m1x2.
(b) Again,
(t+ x)m" (I- x)mn-m = 1r- x2 )^n-' 1r+ x1^
={ I-(mn-m)xz + j{'**,*ff!,'*
*,, t)}r, *
=r * (mn - m) **(\, ..
{-
Ifthe coeffrcients of x and, x2 in this expansion are equal, then
Binomial Theorem 83
m(m-l)
a= -(mn-m)
2l
m(m-2n-I) = O, m= 2n+l lm = 0 is excludedas z is apositive integer ]
EXAMPTE 4
Show that for one value of r tlte coefficient of rt in the expansion of

(3 +2x - x2)(l + x)3a
is zero.
SOLUTION
Using the binomial theorem,
34
(3 + 2x - x2 )(l+ r)3a = (3 +2x - x2 )lQo r'
r=0
34 34 34
=ltQa t' +lzfj *'*' -Z1o *'*'

r=0 r=0 r=0
34 35 36
=ltQa +lzf,!rx' -Z*lrt'

r=0 " r=l r=2
34
=340 +rc,3ax+l t4o*'

34
+ zQa' +lzc3,!p' + zQ!'3s
r=2
34
-211r,' -4!"t -*t,'u

r=2
34
= 3+(3.34+ zyr*llzQa +zC,1r-C,irF' +12-34)x3s -x36
r=2
To find the zero coeffrcient, set
z.Qa +zf,!r-C,lr=0.
34! 34.
J +2 __-0 341
VlaT:fi. (r-1)!(34-r+1)! (r -2)l (34-r +2)l
341 t-
32 tl -0
(r -2)t (3a -r)![ (36 - r)(3s - r) I
3(35-rX36- r) +2r(36 - r) - r(r - l) = 6.
40r-3780=0
3780
glung 'e-_-11
- t40 -''
84 Binomial Theorem
EXAMPTE 5
[An opplicotion in lhe theory of probobility] Let n be a positive integer, p, q be any

realnumbersin [0, t] with p+q =1. Showthat
n
lrc! P'q"-' -- nP
r=0
. ^n n(n-I)(n-Z) -.. (n-r+l)
wnereLr=T.
SOLUTION
Using binomial theorem,
n n
ZrCi p'q'-' =lrc! p'Qn-'

r=O r=l
r=l
n
(n-l)(n-2) ... (n-r +I) r-r n-r
=npL p q
r=l
(r - l)!
n-l (n t)(n 2) -.. l] r n-(r+l\
npL - - ln -(r + r) +
pq
=
rl
r=0
n-l (n
-I)(n -2) .. - l@ -t) -r + I pq'
r (n-t\-r
=np> r!
r=0
n-l
sr ^n-l r (n-l\-r
=npLLr p q'
r=0
. -n-l
= np\p + (I)
=np
Remork In the theory of probability, the result is called the expectation of the binomial
distribution X - B(n, p). I
The next example is an important inequality that can be proved in a number of ways. Here we
will give a proof
based on comparing corresponding terms in the binomial expansions of each
side.
EXAMPTE 6
(a) Prove that for any positive integer n,
l+-nI
)'='.1{*[( 'l]
Binomial Theorem 85
O) Hence, or otherwise, show that for n > 2,
(i) (' .*)' '('**)'.'

(ii) (' .*)' <3.
SOLUTION
(a) By the binomial theoren; for any positive integer n> 2,
r
l+-nI = @-rl ... (n-r+t)(t
)" '*i ':(+)'='.i rl (r n
n-r+l
='.2i(:)(#) n
='.ii('-*)( '-:)(,-1 ) ('+)

='.i{*il('t}
O) (D From above identity,
, r-l
l+-nI =,*
)' r=l
I ;fl t't] k=0
, r-l
. t*I ;fI ('-*)l..''g('#)
n
r=l k=0
n+l
I
la-
n+1
(ii) Next,
l+-nI
)"='.i{i-q('il
3r l+
l +7+t*
I I ... *,r
<t+ /- =
,
r=l
a la la-a-a
lrt ... +-
l-2 2.3 (n-I)n
r+r+l.1_1).fl_1')* ... *l_]__f
[2 3)
=
2)\r [,-r n
= l+1+l--nI
<3
86 Binomial Theorem
EXERCISE 1A
1. tf Ci is the coeffrcien t of x' in the binomial expansion of (1 + x)n, prove that

(a) Ci = Ci*t -Ci-r,
O) Ci +zCi*r+C!*z=C:3
(c) <t, +tlQ'f' = 6 * r1l<Qn+tr2 dJr)'1.

where n is an integer greater than 2.
2. Let (;) =7#d. rot n>r
2n-l 2n -l (2n)l
(n+U , where n is an integer
(a) Prove that = ) 2. Hence, or
n-I n-2 nt
otherwise, show that is an integer

*(l
3r+l\t_tt/:n+t\
(b) Derive a similar result by simplifying ,(
" ) \n+r)'
3. Let m, n be positive integers.
(a) Prove the addition formula:
Ci +Ci-r=Cl*t.
Hence show that
c{ +ci+r *ctr*' + ... +c{+n -

"m+n+r
O) Find the sum
(m+I)l (m+2)l (m+n)l
S, =z!+1i- 2l
+
nl
4. For any positive integer n, let Cf, be the coeffrcient of

"k
in th. expansion of (l+x)z.
(a) Showthat Ci +Ci*r=CXII.
(b) By induction on m or otherwise, show that
ci+ci*r *Cl,*'* ... Cl,*- =c:lf*t
forany m>0. IHKALE 1999]
Binomial Theorem 87
5 A sequence of integers
(*) F1, F2, ... , Fn,...

is defined as follows:
Fi = 1, F2 =2, Fn = Fn_z* Fn_1, for n > 3.

Observe the following :
) 3
3 J
34
4 6 4
l0 l0 5
6 l5 20 15 6l
7 2l 35 35 21 71
82856 70 562881
Can you deduce a relationship between the sequence (*) and the Pascal Triangle?
Substantiate your statement.
Binomial Theorem
6. (a) Let k and n be positive integers.
If k> 1, show that when (l+k)n is divided by k, the remainder is l.
O) If today is Tuesday, what day of the week is 8e6 days after? [HKALE 19g6]
7. Given that
.f (x) =:["]",t. * +,2 1'-',
show that f (2) =32n , and.find the value of /(-1)
8. Let a,6 be real numbers and let m, n be positive integers. If for all real numbers x, a,
m+n
f(l + u) x - (au + b)f^+n = | lo 1x1uk

k=0
show that
A1, @) = c o^+n (x - a)k (t - b)'*n-k

88 Binomial Theorem
for k=0,I,...,m+n, where Co^*n is the coefficient of /* in the expansion of

(1+ t)^+" .
9 If the coefficients of "'-t, ,', *'*r in the binomial expansion of (l+x)" are in
arithmetical progression, prove that
n2 -n(4r+l)+4r2 -2=0.
Find three consecutive coefftcients of the expansion of (l+x)la which form an
arithmetical progression.
10. (a) If (l+x)r =I+atx*a2t2 + "' +arxn
and (1+x)"+1 = l+6rx+ brx2 + "' +bn*rx'+t '
Prove that b, = a, *ar-t.
(b) Assuming tlnt a, = for a particular value of r and for all integer values
T#-Vf.
of r up to and including n, find the value of br', and hence prove the binomial
theorem for a positive integral exponent.
(c) (i) Find without tlre use of tables the value ot Q+J-r7 +12-Jl)7, and deduce
that the integral part of Q+Ji)1 is l0 083.
t.
(iD Find the coefficient of r7 in the expansion ot ( zr'- f4rJ)t
r.
11. Give two positive integers n and r, let
P(x) = x' + (x +r)' + "' +(x+n)'
r
(a) When P(x) is written in the form P(x) =Lo,r', show that
t=0
a, = n*1,
at=Cl(r'-t +2'-t + "' +n'-t) for /= 0' 1,2, "', r-r-
n
O) Let S(0,r) =ni| and S(r,n) =L*', where t=1,2,...

m=l
r-l
Showthat (n+l)' =LCi S(/,r).
t=0
(c) Use (b) to find S(1, n), S(2, n) and ,S(3, n) IHKALE r9871
Binomial Theorem 89
t2- (a) For n =r, 2, ..., prove that there exist unique positive integers pn and qn such
that
{Ji +Ji12' = p, +q,J6 (*)

and d-l -J-z\z" = pn-qnJ6.
Hence deduce that
2p,-r<dt+Jr)zn <2pn.
lnint,Use the fact that o <16-16 <r

]
(b) For r =1, 2, ..., show that the following integers are positive multiples of l0:
(i) 2sn -2n ,
(ii) 34' -t,

(iii) 2prn-(23n*r)(3n) where prn is givenby (*).
(c) By using (a) and (b) or otherwise, find the unit digit when di +JLrffi is expressed
in the decimal form. .l
IHKALE ggl l
n
13. For non-negative integers k3n, let denote the coeffrcient of x* in the expansion of
k
(l + x)'. Prove tlrat
(a)
n ll
_<_
k ,k-kl
o) 2< t+1 <3

n
for n>2
(c) (n+l)n <nn*r for n>3.

90 Binomial Theorem
I.3 PROPERTIES OF THE BINOMIAT COEFFICIENTS
In this section we turn our attention to some of the most basic summation formulas concerning
the binomial coefficients. The list is quite short but we shall see that a few standard techniques
(e.g. differentiation, integration) make them extremely versatile and powerfrrl
THEOREM 1.4 If C, denotesthecoeficientof x' intheexpansionof (l+x)", where n is

a positive integer, then
n
(I) I C, 2
n
It-tl'c, =o'
r=O r=0
n n
n-l
(ID Ir=l f C, =n'2 f
r=l
{-t)'-tr C, =o;
n
r ^
=- n+I-l $(-t)'*r. I
(rrr) t -(r+1-r
r=0
2n*r
=_n+l'
L r+l -' --
r=0
PROOF
(D If C, denotes the coeffrcient of r' in the expansion of (l+x)z, where n is a positive
integer, then
n
(l+.r)" =lcrx'. (l)
If x is git"r ,h.;Lues l, - I in the identity (l), we obtain two immediate results:

nn
(l+r)n = Iq(l)' i.e. LC, =2n
r=0 r=0
nn
and (r-l)n = Ic,(-t)' i.e. I(*t)'q =o
r=0 r=O
Adding and subtracting, we have the sum of the even coeficients is equal to the odd
cofficients, each being equal to 2n-r.
Co+Cr+C4+ ... =Ct+Cr+Cr+ .., =2n-r. ll

(ID Differentiation of (1) with respect to x gives
n(I+x)n-r =frcrt'-' (z)

r=l
which, with x = 1, - 1, gives
n
L'C, =n'2'-r
r=l
n
and l(-t)'-rrq =s.
r=l
Other results can similarly be derived by further differentiation.
Binomihl Theorem 9I
(III) Integration gives

n
le+ *\" a = Jlc," a'

r=0
fr,t*','$ =fc,["a'
:;",4*"
r=0
.
By setting x = 0, the value of constant of integration is
I
n+l
Inserting this constant, we have
frtr*'y'*t =ir,#-*
r=0
>,",*=fr[tr*';'*'- 'l
r=0
Which, with .r=1, -1, glves
i-k-
L 71-1-r=_!12,*r_r;
n+l
r=0
and +c{-"
L r+l "' n+l
t
r=0
EXAMPTE 7
If c, denotes coefficient of r' in the expansion of (l + x)2, n being a positive integer

(a) Provethat
(i) Co-Q+Cz-... +(-l)nq=0
(ii) Co+Cr+Cr+ ... *Cn=2n
(b) Deduce that
(i) 2Co+Cr+2Cr+Cr+ZCo+Cr+ ... +2Cn=3.2n-r

if n is even;
(ii)
lll L 22" -l
(t)l(2n)t' (2)l(2n-D! ' (3)! (2n-2)t'
_,
' (n)!(n +1)! (2n+t\l
!-
SOLUTION -!_f
92 Binomial Theorem
(a) (i) We have

(1)
Co+Crx+Crt2 + ... +Cnxn = (1+x)u
Fufting x = -1,
Co-Cr+C2+ -.'+(-l)ncn=(1-l)'=0, Q)
the coefficients of the various C's being +l according as their sumces :ue even or odd-
(ii) Putting x=l in(l)

Cs+Ct+Cr+ ... *Cn =(1+l)'
(3)
=2'
O) (i) Multiplying (rby +,(2) by * *aadding
2Co +C, +2C, + "' +2Cn = +'2"
= 3.2n-l
(ii) Replace n by 2n+1 in (3),then,by Ci =CX-,
4"*t *iln*t * ... *Clil -r2n+t

r*i?"*'* *1"*'*C;it * ... *Cr;*t +r=22'*r
...
(il"*t * ... *1"*t)*(1"*'* ... *i?'*')=z'n*t -2

n
2>1"*'=22n*r -2
r=l
$ (2n+t)! _)2, _I
L rl (2n +l-r)!
r=l
tn
r=1
rl
I
(2n+I-r)l
22n -l
(2n+l)l
EXA ,IP[E 8
If C, is the coefficient of x' in the expansion of (l + x) , n being a positive integer.

n
(a) Prove that

(D Co+Cr+Cr+ ... *Cn-2n,
(ii) Cr+2Cr+3Cr+ ... +nCn =n.2n-r.
O) Prove further that
(D Co+2Cr+3Cr+ ... +(n+l)Cn =@+2)2n-r.
(ii) 1.2.C2+2.3.Cr+3.4.C0+ ... +(n-I)nC, =n(n-I)2"-2 .
Binomial Theorem 93
SOLUTION
(a) The results are given in (i) and (ii) of Theorem 1.4,
n n
ZC, =2" ZrC, =n.2n-r

r=0 r=1
O) (i) Adding the above two results,

n
Q +)6+r)C, =2' +n.2n-r
r=l
n
l{t+r)C, = (n+2).2"-r
r=0
n
(ii) Difrerentiation the identity (l+x)z = lqx' rwice,
r=0
n
n(I+x)"-r =lrCrx'-r
r=l
n(z - l)(1 + x)n-2 = (r - I)C,x'-2

\r
r=2
Put r = 1, the result follows:
n
n(n - l)2"-2 = lr@ - l)C,2'-2
r=2
EXAMPTE 9
If C. is the coefficient of xr in the expansion of (l+x)z where n is a positive integer, find

the sum of tlte series
fln
SLr
40t:l,0;a
SOLUTION
n
Integration ZCrt' = (l+x)u,
r=0
Irir,r
r=0
o, =
!* o+Dn
at
;.'[#],=[q#],
I S+*,*, =fi[,t*r),*t -t]
n
r=0
Integration again
94 Binomial Theorem
i
r=0
cr
r+l Ir'
*'
*= #lr],t. *)"*' - le
q ["*t1t r [1r+')'*t-'lo
I rlrLrrzl,
n
-n+Il n+2 -l'

r=O
I
n
r=0
c/
(r +l)(r +2) =,.-,[# 'J *]
2n+2 _r_3 I
- (n+t)(n+2)
Another useful identity is
THEOREM 1.5 [Vondemonde's Theorem] For positive integers p, q

GV) c!*n =c!c[ +c!-rc{ +c!-rcl + +c{c!
where C! is the coefficient of x' in the expansion of (I+ x)n .
PROOF For
p+q
(I+ x\P+q = lc!+e *r
r=0
and, on the other hand,
(l+ x)P+q = (I+ x)P (l+ x)q
=lc{ +c{*+c{x2 + .'. + +c{x+clx2 + --' +c|,s]

"i.ol"lc[
therefore, by comparing the coefficients of x' of the two expansions, we have the required
result:
C!*n =clcfl +c!-rcf +c!-rcl + '.' +c{c!
EXAMPI.E 1U
Given that Co, Cb C2 .-., C, denote the coefficients in the binomial expansion of (1 +r)',
(a) By consideringthe coefficient of x' in the expansion of (I+ x)2",show that
co2 +Cr2 + ... +cn2 =Qn))
(nl)'
O) By consideringthe coefficient of x' in the expansion of (l- x2)n,show that
0 if n is odd
L n
co'-Cr'+cz2 - ... !Cr2 = (-l) 2
if z is even
n
, ;)'
Binomial Theorem 95
SOLUTION
2n
(a) For 1t+x12" =2('*'
r=0
and, on the otler hand, using C, = Cn_r,
7l+x12" = (l+x)u (l+x)'

= (Co +Crx+ Crxz + ... +Cnxnlx (Co +Crx+ Crx2 + ... +Cnxn1
=(Co+C1x+ C2x2 + ... +Crxnyx(Cr+Cn-p+Cn-2x2 + ... +Co)
In this product the coefficient of rn is
Co2 +Cr2 + ... +Cn2
Therefore, by comparing the coefficients of r' in these two expansion, we have
Cg2 +Cr2 + ... +Cn2 =C2'
(2n)l
(rt)2
(b) Expanding (I- *2)" by binomial theorem,
(r-*2)n =!",{-*t), =f{-r), r,*r,

This expansion contains only even powers of x.
On the other hand
(I-t2)" = 11-x)n(l+x)n
= (Co- CF + C2x2 + ... + 1-Iyn-r C r-rrn-t + (-I)" C nx" )

x(Co+Crr+ C2x2 + ... +Crxn1
= (Co - Cp + C2x2 + . .. + (-l)u-'Cn-rtn-t + (-l)n Cnxn )
x(Cn+Cr-p+Cr-2x2 + .., +C1x'-r +Cox"1

The coefficient of rn is
Co'-Cr'+Cz2 - ... +1-r1"Crz

Hence, by comparing the coefficients of x' in above two expansions, we have
1o, if n is odd, (-l;' = -1,

co2 -Cr'*Cz2 - ... -cn2 =o
2o, if z is even, (-l)u = 1,
Co'-Cr'+Cz2 - ... *Cn2 =(-r)t Cnp

L nl
= (-l) 2
(;[,]
96 Binomial Theorem
EXAMPTE I I
If (l+x)" =Co+C{+Crx2 +Crx3 + "'+Cnxn, r beingapositiveinteger
(a) Prove that
n1I+x12"-r =(Cr+2Crx+3Crx2 + ... +nCrxn-r)r(Cn+Cr-rx+ -.. +Coxn1.
(b) Hence by comparing coefficients of a certain power of x, prove that
CtQ + 2QC, +3QC4 + "' + (n - r)Cn-rcn =

-9:)!-.
SOLUTION
n
(a) Differentiating (I+x)n =\C,x' withrespectto x,
r=0
n
n(l+x)n-r =lrcrx'-r
r=l
Multiplying (l+x)" at both sides and expanding,
n1I + x12"-r = n(l + x)n-t (1 + x)u
=l1,,,u-'l{:""}
=l1,,,o-'l{;'
"'}
=(Cr+2Crx+3Crx3 + .-- +ncnx'-L1
x(Cn+Crrx+ ... +Crx'-2 +Cpu-r +Coxn'1
(b) In the product of the two expansions in (a) the coefficient of r'-2 is
CrC, + 2CrC, + 3CrCo + ..' + (n - I)Cn_rCn
On the other hand,

2n-l
n1r+x12n-r =rL4'-tr'
r=0
The coefficie nt of x'-2 in this expansion is
^2n- 1=
n.(2n-l)l
flLn-2
(ni)t (n+I\
Hence, by equating above results, the result follows:
CrQ +zQC, +3CrC4 + ... + (n - I)Cn-rCn =

ffiry.
Binomial Theorem ?7
1 .4 MUI.TINOMIAT EXPANSION
An expression consisting of three or more terms rnay be raised to any positive integral power by
repeated application of the binomial theorem. The method may be seen from a study of the
following examples.
EXATVIPI.E 1
(a) Find the first 5 terms in the expansion of

(I+2x + ax2)"
in ascending powers of x'
O) If the third term is zero, find a, andthe coefficients of x3 and x4 in terms of z
SOLUTION
(a) Using binomial theorem,
(I+ 2x + axz )n = {I + x(2 * *)}'

n(n-l\ 1 . n(n-I)(n -2)
= l+ nx(2 + ax) + x' (2 + ax)" +
if x3 72+axy3
J
+
n(n -l)(n -Z)(n -3)x4 (2+ax1a + ...
4
r+2nx + x2[ on*+r!-

l)1, | +n1n -t1a 8n(n-l)(n -2)
-!TL.,*T*
=
A *
-r
lur,- J+t t , t
(t
, ..tl o2 n1n -L) . l2an(n -l)(n -2) l6n(n -l)(n -2)(n - I)

-"1 - -
r.")2l 3! 4! f
+ ...
O) Since the third term is zero,
-2n(n -l).
an =
As n is not zero this gives a = -2(n -l).
The coefficient of 13 is
- 2(n - t) .2n(n - t) + !J n(n - t)(n - z)
4
=in(, -l)(t_2n).
The coeffrcient of 14 is
i.or, -I)2 n(n -t) -2(n -I).2n(n -I)(n -z) +Zrng - I)(n - z)(n -3)
= 2n(n -U{t - 92 - z1n- r)(n - 2) *!A - rX, - tli'
= -1rr, -r)(2n2 -7n +3)
= -?nr, -r)(n-3)(2n -r).

98 Binomial Theorem
EXAIAPTE 13
If a, is the coefficient of r' in the expansion of (l+2x +2x213, prove that
ag*a2+a4+a6=63:'
and at+a3+aS=62.
SOLUTION
Put x=l intheidentity
(I+2x+2x2)3 =oo+or,+ort2 +orrt +aox4 *orrt *our'
we get
53 = ao + ar + a2 + a3 + a4 + a5 + a6
= (as + a, + aa + a5) + (aL + aj + as)

Put x = -l in the identity, then
13 = ao - ar + a2 - a3 + a4 - a5 + a6
= (as * a2 + a 4 + a5) - (ar + a3 + as)

Adding and subtracting, we obtain
do + az +a4 + a6 = irtt + 13; = 63' I

ar + a3 * o, =
){st - lt) = 62.
ExAllllPrE i4
(a) Using the binomial theorem
N
(xr+x2)N =lC! xrN-'xr'
r=0
for all positive integers ly', prove that
(yt+yz* "' +yr)N =

I lrr 'ln in
I
ifj2+ "' +in=N lln;':tYt"Y2"
for all positive integers n arrd N. [This is known os mu]tinomiol theorem]
O) Findthecoefficientof x5 intleexpansion of (a+bx+cxz)e.
SOLUTION
(a) When n =2, we have the binomial theorem,
t/ ff!
(yt*y)'=Z iryr(N-t) =L .fr'r,rrrrt,rr,
jr=0 -rr!(N--rr) Jt*Jt=N
where 7r =N- jy Thustheresultislruefor n=2.
Binomial Theorem 99
Suppose that the result is true for r

(yr+yz+ ..- +yn)N = N! jr jz
I i1r.1'rt "' iltt 9t !n
i+i2+ --- +i"=N
then
(y+yr4... *ln+!r*r)N
//
I
r=0
ffl
r (N-r)!
xt_-
+lz+ ... +y")'- y)l*i
il
=I rl (NN!- r)l
r=0 iii2+
I
.-- +jn=r
rl
jrlj2l ... jnl Uziryzi, .'. ynin)y|;'
.l/
5- _N! rl
=iL
= L vlr,.=q. jnr:.*i2itvriz "' v,i"vli'
r=0 jJ'j2+ ... tjn=,
il
II
r=o jL+j2+ ... + j^=r
j$;j;(N:fr
N!
i2t t
vriz "' vî" vIi'
h+iz+
I
--- tin+r=N
,, .
itli2l "'"t.,,
, inity2iz...yni,ylrrTt,
intin*rt'z
where jlr+r = N - r. fof r = 0, 1, .' . N.
By principle of mathematical induction, the result is true for all positive integers r.
O) By (a), the general term of the expansion is
(o')i' 6iz,tz,tz+2i3
#Wr1i' 1bx7t' =
#h."ir
where 7j +i2+fu=9
To obtain the coefficient of 15, it requires that
Jiz+2i3 =5
lit*ir+is=9
By trial, we have the following integral solutions:
./:=0 iz=5 h=4
is=1, iz=3 ./r=5
i3=2, iz=I it=6.
Therefore, the coeffrcient of x5 is
ffi,aa t5co +
ffi ot b3
"t
* ffiou i "'
= rz6a4 bs + 5o4as b3 c + 252a6 bc2 .
Nl
REMARK The number
t are called the multinomial coeficienls in view of the
l.rr1.r,,".rr. 1;
Multinomial Theorem which generalized the Binomial Theorem.
r00 Binomial Theorem
EXERCISE 18
1. Prove the following identity for any positive integer n
2'-r cl +2"-2 ct +2n-3 cl + "' +cX - rn-r *tn-2 '2+3n-3 '22 + "' 12n-r ,
where c! =#fr
2. (a) Showthat
ci+ci+... = c[+ci+ "' =2n-t,
where n is a positive integer nd Ci are binomial coefficients.
O) For n>5, prove that 4" .r2n-2.

Hence show that for r ) 5,
4" .Gi +C! + ... )2
3. By consideri ng 1I+ i12' , or otherwise, evaluate

n
2t-t'4!
r=0
n-l
and lt-rl'*iu,
r=0
where n is a positive integer IHKALE r9921
4. If C0, Cb C2, --. , C, are the coefftcients in the expansion of (1 +r)", prove the results
of the following:
(a) C' - 2C2+ 3C, - . .. + n(-I)n-t Cn = O
n-l
(b)
ZrC,*t = l+(n -2)2"-r
r=l
5. Let n beanintegerand n>1. Byconsideringthebinomialexpansionof (l+x)", or

otherwise,
(a) show that Ci +zci +3Ci + ... +nCi =2'-t n,
I a J (-r)'-r,
(b) (r-tf r-I IHKALE r9951
-2)l ' lr. (n-3)t'
evaluate
2 nl
Binomial Theorem 101
6. Let ft and n be non-negative integers. Provethat
/^\ k *l nn+r
(a) nn
Ci _=
,*tci*i, where 0<k<n;
n+l
o) Ir-oo ct*t =o;
k=O
n
(-l)k I
(c) I k+l cx
n+l IHKALE 19901
k=O
7. (a) Prove the identity
f r;l.'-'''o-t xk-t -tr'- 'l'

k=l t=0
(b) Using integration, or otherwise, show that

n-l I
ci -Ici+ ... +(-1) n-t nI c: => +I
t=0
8 For non-negative integer s k < n, - denote the coefficien t of xk in the expansion

[l
of (l+x)". Byconsideringthebinomialexpansion of 1l+xy2", orotherwise,provethat
t
n (2n)l
(a) =-nlnl
,i=l k
n-l/ n n 2 ( 2n 1)
(b)
:t r Itr + ,) (n + 1) (n l) tl'
(c)
t
n-r /' n
r=o\ k
n
r+k (n
(2n)
r) (n + r )!
9 If c, is the coefficient of r' in the expansion of (1+x)' where n is a positive integer

and
.f (r) = CoC, +CrCr+l r '.' +Cn_rCn
(a) By considering the coefficient of *n*' in the expansion of
1I+x12": (l+x)u (l+x)2, prove that
f(r)=6ffi_g.
O) By considering the coefficient of t2n in the expansion of
1l+x;3" = (l+x)'?(t+x;2u, show that
102 Binomial Theorem
cof Q)+ctf (r)+ .-. +cnf (D=ffi
10. Let m and r betwopositiveintegerswith m>n

n1l
(a) Showthat z4i:'=rr"
r=7
(b) By considering the coefficient of xk in 1l+x1^ I+ , showthat

N
m-k
Lch,ci =cfl{, m-nSk<m
r=0
11. Let m be an integer greater than t.

(a) By considering the coefficients of x' in the expansion of 1l+ x)^-p (l+ x)n and
(I+ x)2t-P , or otherwise, show tlnt
lci:fci =q-o (p=0,1,2,"',m)

r=p
O) Making use of the equality r'C! = *'Cf;t , or otherwise, show that
L, Gh'=*.c#-'
r=0
m
and l, 'G!)' =*' 'C,,{r'
r--0
12. (a) Provebyinductionthat, forallintegers n >2,

J n
+...+
[;j.
(tc)r
2 2 rr)
^ d"not"rthecoeffrcientof r" intheexpansionof (l+x)r.
wrrere | |
["J
(b) Let S, =1+(1+x)+(l+x)2 + "' +(l+x)",
where x * 0. By considering (1+ x)^S, - S' or otherwise, show that
l+"S, = 1l+x)'+1.
By equating coefficients of a suitable power of x in this identif, give another proof
of the result given in (a).
Binomial Theorem r03
13. (a) Let m and z be positive integers. Using the identity
(l+x)'+(1+x)'+l + ... +(1+x )'*^ =(l+x)'*'+lx -(l+x)'

where .r *0, show that
Ci+Ci*t + ... +C!+^ =cXlf*'
O) Using (a), or otherwise, show that
m+4
I rQ - r)(r - 2)(r - 3) = z+(c{+s - t).

r=5
k
Hencewaluate
) r(r-1)(r -2)(r-3) for k24. IHKALE r9941
r=0
14. Let c[,, ci, "., c: b"thebinomiatcoefficientsintheexpansionof (l+x)', where n

is a positive integer.
(a) (i) Using the identity CI = CF] - Ciu, show that
ci +ci-r + ... +C',*r +ci = Cfi

where 03r1n.
(ii) By using integratiorg show that
^n1
co +rci .I"i* ... *# ,X =rT],r,
o) Let f (D =+cf .Irt* ... *#cf;, wherc t<k<n.

Using (a), or otlerwise, show that
n nn+2
iL/"'rrr., _2"'- -I _n+3
k=t
n+2 2
(c) Provethat
I I nxz'+l +I
*,r ci +
*T J-
'n+2 C: (n+ I)(n +2) IHKHLE 1982I
Muhinomial ultansion
15. Intheexpansionof (l+ax+2x2)6 iopo*.r.of x, thecoefficients of x2 and ,tl -e

27 and -192 respectively.
Find a andthecoefficientof 13 and rl0.

104 Binomial Theorem
2n
16. Let 1L+x+x21" =\arx'
r=0
n n
(a) Find. !a2, arfr lar,-,
r=O r=l
O) Byconsideri* (t.*.i)", .to* that a,=o2n-,
(c) Usingthe identity (l+ x2 +x4)n = (I+ x + x2)" 1I- * + r21", show that
oo2 -or2 *o22 - ... +(-r)r ar2 + "' +orrz =on.
17. Given positive integers m, n,let
Zort' =(l+x+x2 + .-- +xt1'

r=O
(a) Find expressions for the following in terms of m and n only:
(i) y,,
r=O
mn
(ii) ZeD'o,
r=0
mn
(iii) 22'o,
r=0
(b) By differentiating the identity (*), or otherwise, show tlat

mn mn
*n\o, =2lra,
r=0 r=l
(c) Showthat
m
if lz is even
2
I(-t)'" (n+I)
if lz is odd.
r=l 2
Hence or otherwise, show that
mn (mn if z is even
zl{-t)'ra, ={
r=l
o if rr is odd.
CkapterlD,
Polynomials
Polynomials first appear in connection with equations where the main concern is the evaluation
of roots. Later they are treated as functions. In this chapter we shall continue to study
polynomials in two main aspect: the arithmetic and the zeros.
2.1 POTYNOM|AL
2.1.1 DEFINITION lz expression of theform
-f (x):anx'+ar-rx'-l + ..- +af +ao=\arx'

r=0
where n is a positive integer and cofficient ag, d1, ... tan, (an+O) are independent of x
is defined to be a polynomial in the indeterminate x of degree n.
lllustrotion Thus
2x-3, 5x2 -7x+4, l0r3 +9x+4
are polynomials ofdegree l, 2 and 3 respectively. It is usual to call them linear, quadratic and
czDic expressions.
The same polynomial is also written as
f (x)= ao+afi+ ..- +an-rxn-l +arxn

in ascending powers of x. Either way,
(i) each summand which is a monomial
orx'
is called a term of the polynomial. the term a0, being a monomial of exponent 0, is called
the constant term of the polynomial; the term anx' (an +0) is called the leading term,
its coeffrcient the leading coefi ci ent.
(ii) A polynomial is called a monic polynomial rf an = l.
(iii) The zero polynomlal which, being the zero monomial, has no degree by convention.
lllustrqtion The polynomial

f (x) = Ji +z* -.1-sr2 + 13
or f(x)=13 -Ji*2 +Zx+Ji

is a monic polynomial.
r06 Polynomials
2.1.2 ALGEBRAIC OPERATIONS OF POLYNOMIALS
The equolity of polynomiols Two polynomials in x
f (x) = anx' + an-rxn-l + "' + arx + ao @, + 0)
and g(x) = b-xm +b^-rx^-r + "' +brx+bo Q^ +0)

are equalwritten f(x)=g(t), if andonlyif n=m and a, =bi for i =0,10 ...,n
Addition ond multiplicolion Let
-f(x)=ao*ctrx*a2x2 + "' +anx'

and g(x)=bo+brx+brx2 + "' +b^xn
be two polynomials. We defined the f (x)+g(x) of f (x) and g(x), to be the polynomial
sum
(ao+b)+(ar+br)x+.-. +(an+bn\xn + ... +b^xm if n<m

f (x)+ g(x) = (ao+b)+(a, +Dr)x+ ... +(ar+bn)x' if n=m
(as+bs)+(a1 +61)x+ "' +(a^+b^)x^ + "' +anxn if n>m
The product f (x)S@) is defined to be the polynomial
f (x) s @) = a
ob o + (a ob, + a
rb o)
x + (a ob, + a rb, + arb s) x2 + "' + a
nb.x^+'
Immediately, we have
THEOREM 2.1 Let f (x) and g(x) be two polynomials, then
(i) deg{f1x1xg1x)}< max{desf(x),degs(x)} provided {71'1tg1t;} i" not a zero

polynomial
(ii) deg{ 71x1g1x)} = degf (x)+desg(x) provided f (x) and s@) are not zero
polynomials.
lllustrotion Let f(x) and g(x) betwopolynomialofdeglee m andn respectively, a and

D two non-zero constants. Discuss the degree of
P(x) = af (x)+bg(x)
Three cases arise
1o. When rn >n, degp(x) = m;

2". When rn <n, degp(x)=n;
3o. When l'Il=/1, p(x) may be a zero polynomial or degree < m
Polynomials 107
EXAMPTE I
Let x, and, x2 be the roots of the quadratic equation x2 -2tx+l =0, where -l <r< l.
I
Define Fn?)=|{xtn +xzn) for n=0, l, Z, 3, ... .
(a) Showthatfor z>1,

Fn+rG) = 2t FnG) - Fr_r(t).
O) Hence, or otherwise, deduce that F,(t) is a polynomiat in r, of degree r and with
leading coefficient 2'-r.
SOLUTION
(a) From the definition of F
Fn+Jt) = + *rn*r ) = * x2x2n )
)@rn*, |@rrrn
=iftrrr'+xrxrn +xrxrn +xrxrn -xzxrn -*rrrnf
=
i[," +x2)(x( +x2n)-rrr2(x{-t *trn-\)
Since x1, xz aretheroots of x2-2*+l=0, sothat
x, * x, = 2t, xrx, =l
Therefore,
Fr+r(t) = 2t FnG) - FrtQ).
(b) To prove that 4 (r) is a polynomial in / of degree n andwith leading coefficient 2'-r
by induction.
For n=1,2,
I
FrG)=1(x1+x2)=t.
F2G)=2t4G)-ro(/)
r,l | 6r+,2 )l - +(,,0 + xro )
=
L:- - r
=2t(t)-l=2t2 -L
The results are true for r = l, 2. Suppose that
FnlG) - ,n-2 ,n-r + art'-2 + ".

Fn()=rn-t,n +brtn-r + .'.
tlten
Fn+rG) = 2t FnG) - Fr-r(t)
=zt{2"-rt" +brtn-r. .'. } -{2"-zrn-r. ... }
= 2n t'*l .
By the principle of induction, the result is true for all positive integers r. I
r08 Polynomials
EXAtrlPl.E 2
(a) Find a, b, c, d, e such that

+b(x+I)a +c(x+l)3 +d(x+l)2 +e(x+t)]-( af +bxa +cx3 +dx2 +ex)
[a(x+l)5
4
O) By using (a) or otherwise, express

n
Lr.-o
k=l
as a product of linear and quadratic factors in r.
SOLUTION
(a) Expanding and grouping terms, we have
Saf + Q}a + 4b)x3 + (I}a + 6b + 3c)x2 + (5a + 4b + 3c + 2d)x + (a + b + c + d + e) = va
Comparing the coefficients,

5a=l grving a = *
l0a+4b=0 t=-L,
l0a+6b+3c=0 c=t
5a+4b+3c+2d =0 d =0
a+b+c+d+e=O ,=-*.
Hence,
= []{' +t)5 -}{x+t;4 +}(x +1)3 - j!(x+r)]-l+" -4'o +}x3 -$x]

'o
O) Put x = k in the identity in (a),
t =l! Qc +r)5 - +
(k+ r;4 + j1k + rl' - ;tr + rl] -l+ n' - tr t " + ! *3 - $ tl
Then
ioo =i [+ro*tl' -t{r,*r)a*j{r*r)3-$rr*rl]-i ;+o' -!r,a

+}r,3-+o]
k=t k=t k=l
= i ;i"' -)r,a +!t3-+o]-i ;+o' -jr4

+!r,3 -gt]
k=2 k=l
= i ;io' -jt a +!t 3-+/'].[+(".t;5 -]1n+t;4 *{{r+r)3 -$t,*rl]

k--2
-[*<tr' -irr>n*irr)3 -+,t,]-: l+o' -;oo+]r3 -gr]

+}{n+t)3 -$rr*rl]-o
=
[*t,,*r)t -]{r+r)a
=$f"*r{o1n +l;a -151n+l)3 +10(n +l)2 -t]
= + t)(zn + t)(3n2 + 3n - 1)
$n@
Polynomials 109
2.1.3 POLYNOMIAL FUNCIION Polynomials constitute a very krge and important class of
firnctions, being easy to handle, continuous and be differentiable on R, Because of their
simplicity, we like to use them to study more complex functions.
Given a polynomial
.f (x)=enxn +an-rx'-l + ... +arx+ao

Iftheindeterminate x isregardedasavariable,then f isthemapping c-+f(c) of R into
R. Zftis mapping is called the polynomialfunction. For each x eR ue cail f (c) the value
of f at x=C.
lllustrotion Let f(x)=5x4 +2x2 +3, thenthevalue of f(x) at x=-100 is
/(-100) = S(-loo)a +2(-1oo)2 +3

= 500000000 + 20000 + 3
= 500020003
EXERCISE 2A
1 Find the numerical values of a, b, c and, d in each of the following identity :
(a) x3 = a(x - l)(x - 2)(x - 3) +D(x - l)(r - 2) + c(x -I) + d

O) t3 =o+b(x-t)+c(x- t)2 +d(x-l)3
(c) x3 =a(x-2)(x-3)(x-4)+D(x-l)(x-3)(x-a)
+ c(x - r)(x - 2)@ - a) + d(x -I)(x - z)(x -3)
[The first one is called Newton's interpolation formula: the second one the Taylor,s
polynomiat; and the third one the Lagrange interpolation formula of f (x) = x3 1
2. A sequence of polynomials /e(x), fi(x), fz@), ... , is defined by

.fo(x) =1, fr@) = x+I
and,when r>1,
fn+r@) =l(2n +r)x +r)f,@) - 12 r', 7n_r1r1.

Show, by induction or otherwise, that f,(x) is a po$nomial of degree r in which the
coeffrcientof r' is nl and,theconstanttermis 1.
3 Legendre polynomials P' of degree n, are defined by the relation
(n + l) Pn*t - (2n +I) x Pn + n Pn1 = 0
and Po = l, x. Prove by induction that the two terms of

Pl = Pn of highest degree are
1.3.5. ... .(2n-I) | , n@-l) n-z)
r.2.3'
-n \. - zfzr-t>
110 Polynomials
4. Determinethecoefficients a, b, c inthepolynomial /(x), where
f (t) = *4 +bt3 +o2 ,
rf fln(n +t)l- fln(n - r)f = ,7 .
Hence, or otherwise, find the sum of the seventl powers of the first n integers.
5. (a) Let f (x) = AxS + Bx3 +Cx be a polynomial. Determine the coefftcients A, B, C, so
that
.f (x)
- .f (x - I) = (2x - I)a
for all values of x.
(b) Find the sum of the fourth powers of the first z odd integers (positive)
6. Prove that for the two polynomials
f (x) = t2 *ort*oo
and g(x) =x2 +bf *bo
the following properties are all equivalent:
str f @), S@) have a cornmon linear factor.
szt There exist two non-zero polynomials p(x), q(x) each of degree less than 2 such
that p(x)f (x1= q@)g(x).
s3r 1bo - as)2 + (b1- a)(b1as - a{s) = 0.
7. (a) For any constant ft and any polynomial
f(x)=ooxn +orxn-r + "' +on-tx+en,

prove that there exists a polynomial
g(x) = oorn-l +brxn-2 + "' +bn-rx+bn-,

such tlrat
f(x)-f(k)=(x-k)g(x).
Moreover, tf k, a0,a1,..., an areallintegers, soalso are bt,b2,...,bn-1.
(b) A positive integer / whose digits from left to right are a0 (+0), at, ... , ctn-1; ctn
can be written as
t = I}n ao +l}n-l a, + -.. +l}an-t + an.

Using the result in (a), prove that an integer is divisible by 9 if and only if the sum of
its digits is divisible by 9.
Polynomials llt
8. (a) Prove that, if
F(x) = (I-qx)(I-q2x) ... (I-qp-rx)=I+Arx+Arx2 + ... *Ao_(p-r,
then
(i) (L- qP x)F(x) = (t- qx)F(qx)
(ii) n, = (qo - q)(qo - q-') "' (qo - q' ) (r > 0).

' (I-q)(I-qz)...(I-q')
O) Define
2n
p, (x) =
f4 <, - .', * - -)(r - - ... . - qx) ... (r - qn-tr)
f7 O qx)
# e - x)(r
where z is a positive integer, q + 0, l. Prove by mathematical induction that
l+qn@)-pn@x) = (1-qx)(1- q2*) ... (I-q"x)
9 The polynomials Po(x), Pr(x), Pr(x), ... are definedby
Ps(x) = l, P1(x) = x,
P,(x)={I+-.l) when r =2,3, ..
(a) Showthat P,(k) isanintegerfor r>0 andforanyinteger k.

fHint:For r>2, considerthecases r<k,03k<r and k<0 andusethe
fact that the binomial coefficients C{ are integers.l
O) Let P(x) =larPr(x), where es,o1,a2, ... , an areconstants.

r=0
If as, a1,..-, dm_r areintegersbut a^ (0<m<n) isnot, showthat P(rn) isnot
an integer.
Deducethatif P(0), P(l), ..., P(n) areintegers,then

(D Qs, a1, "', dn are integers,
(ii) P(ft) is an integer for any integer fr.
(c) Find a polynomial Q@\ = ax2 +bx+c such that Q(k) is an integer for any integer
k, butnotall of a, b and c areintegers. HKALE 19851
112 Polynomials
2.2 DIVISION ATGORITHM
We now establish divisibility properties of polynomials which are analogous to the divisibility
properties of the integers.
IHEOREM 2.2 [Division olgorithm] If S@)*0 and f(x) are any two polynomials, there
exist unique polynomials q(x) (called the quotient) and r(x) (called the remainder) such
that
.f (x) = g(x). q(x) + r(x),
where r(x) is either zero or of degree less than the degree of S@).
PROOF fExistencel We make the proof by induction. Let
f(x)=ao+af+ "'+anxn
and g(x)=bo+brx+... +b^xm, br+0.
Basic step. If "f (x) is zero or if deg[/(x)] < deg[g(r)], we have the representation.
"f
(x)=o's(x)+ f(x).
Induction sfep. Assume the algorithm true for all polynomials of degree less than n. For n> m.
we form the difference
f @)-?r"-'s(*)=
Dm
ft(x). (l)
Now fi(x) is a polynomial of degree less than r, by inductive hlpothesis, we may write
fi(x) = q{x).s@)+r(x), (2)
where r(x) is either zero or degree less than the degree of c(x). By (l)
f @) -?,'-^
Dm
g(,) = Q{x)'g(x) +r(x),
and hence
f (x) =l* U-^+ a, 1x1]. g1x) + r(x)

= q(x). g(x) + r(x),
and we have, by the principle of mathematical induction, the desired representation of f (x).
lUniqueness) Suppose that there is a second pair of polynomials q'(x) and r'(x) such that
f (x1= q'(x\.g(x) +r'(x)

where r'(x) is either zero or of degree less than the deglee of g(x). Hence
q' (x) . SQ) + r' (x) = q(x). g(x) + r(x)

or s@)lq'@) - q@)l= r(x) -r'(x).
Now the right-hand side of this equation is either zero or of degree less than the deglee of g(x).
Thus, unless q'(x)-q(x) =0, we have a contradiction. Consequently,
q'(x)=q(x) and r(x) =r'(x). l

Polynomials il3
EXAMPTE 3
(a) Find the remainder when a polynomial /(x) is divided by (x - a) (x - p), where
(D a*p (ii) a=F.
O) Hencefindtheremainderwhen 15 +x4 +x3 +x2 +x+l isdividedby

(i) (r-1) (x+2) (ii) (x+2)2.
SOLUTION
(a) (i) By division algorithm, let
f(x) = (x - a)(x - p)q(x)+ ax+ b
Then
f (a)= aa+b
f (A= af +b
Solving
"-_ f(a)- f(f),_

^
'
afrfi-0f@)
'----;:V- (where a+ p1
"-p
Hence, the remainder is
f(a\- f(6) x+ af (h-Ff@)
a-P u-B
(ii) Again, by division algorithm, let
f(x)=(x-a)2 p(x)+q+d
f ' (x) = 2(x - a) p(x) + (x - a)2 p' (x) + c

Then
f(a)=ca+d a\d f'(a)=s
gving d=f(a)-af'(a)
Hence, tlte remainder is given by
f'(a)x+f(a)-af'(a)
O) For -f(x)=tt+t4 +*3 +12 +x+1, wehave
f'(x)=5x4 +4x3 +3x2 +2x+r

f(L) =6, f(-z)= -zt, f,(-z)=st
(i) By (a) (i), the remainder is given by
r(x) = f
(r)- . f(-z)+2f(I)
-2) T.........'.........'.'...................- 6+21 -2r+r2
r-(-2) r-(-2) --^
3 3
=9x-3
(ii) By (a) (ii), the remainder is given by
r (x) = f (-2) x + f (-2) + 2 f ' (-2) = 57 x + (-21 + 2 x 57 )
'
= 57x+93 t
114 Polynomials
EXAMPTE 4
(a) It p(x) is a polynomial ofdegree n, and at,a2, ...,an are n distinct real numbers.
Show that there is a unique representation
p(x) = co + q(x - at) + cr(x - a)(x - az) + "' + c n(x - ar)(x - a) "' (x - a,)
where ca, cl,... tcnbeingreal numbers. [This is known asNewton's interpolationformulal
O) Find a polynomial /(x) of degree 3 such that /(0) =-1, f (I)= 1, f (-I)=0, f (2)=3.
SOLUTION
(a) lExistencel By Division algorithm, we have
p(x) = (x - ar)qr(x)+ co
qr(x) = (x - ar)q.r(x) + c,
e,t(x) = (x - a,)q,(x) + c n-t

where q,(x) being a polynomial of degtee zero, thus qn(x)=cn (a constant).
Substitution gives
p(x) = cs + ct(x - ar) + c2(x - at)(x - a2) +''' + c o(x - a)(x - a) "' (x - a n)
REMARK In particular, = ... = dr = d we have

tf at = dz the Taylor polynomial'.
p(x) = co + q(x - a) + cr(x - a)2 + "' + cn(x - a)n
lUniquenessl Suppose we have another representation:

p(x) = do + dr(x - ar)+ dr(x - ar)(x - ar)+ "' + dn(x - ar)(x - at) "'(t - a,)
Put x= e1, e2, ...,en,
p(at)=co=do
p(az) = co + cr(a, - at) = do + dt(a, - ar)
p(a) = co + cr(an - ar) + ct(a, - a) + "' + c,(a, - ant)

= do + dr(an - a) + dz(a, - az) + "' + dn(an - a,-l)
Solving, we obtain co=ds, c1 =d1,.'. , cn-r=dr-. . Finally, by comparing the leading

coefficients, c, = d,. This proves the uniqueness of the representation.
(b) Let f(x)= bo + \x + brx(x-l)+Drx(x-1)(x+1),

By given condition,
bo = -l'
\ +bo =
-2'
2br-4*D6 =Q,
6bt +2b, +2b1 + bo = J.
Solving , bo = -1, 4 = -1, bz = 0, Dr = l, hence
f (x) = -l- x + x(x -l)(x +l)

= t3 -2"-r.
Polynomials lr5
2.3 DrVtStBtL|TY
DEtlNlrloN Let f (x), g(x) be polynomials, if there is a polynomial h(x) such that
f(x) = g(x)h(x)
then g(x) is said to divide f(x) and write g(x)l ft >. In this case, g(x) is afactor (or a
divisor)of f(x) or f(x) isamultipleof S@).
lllustrotion From
,4 _r= 1x2 +t11x2 _11,
wesaythat (x2+1) divides

"a-l i.". (x2+l)it"o-tl. Inthiscase 1x2+l) isafactorof
,o -1. On the other hand, 14 - I i, a multiple of 12 + l.
IHEOREM 2.3 Let f (x), S@), h(x) be polynomials. Then thefollowing statements hold:
(D Any polynomial g(x) always divides the zero polynomial O(x), i. e. g(x) O(x).
|
(ii)
"l f{t) for any non-zero constant c.
(iii) If c@)lf@) and f @)lh(x), then g?)lh7)

(iv) If s@)lfr@) and g@)lf27), then s@)llpr@)fr(x)tpr(x)fr@)) for arbitrary
polynomials p{x), pz(x). lt
IHEOREM 2.4 Polynomials f (x) and g(x) are divisible to each other if and only if
f(x) = c g(x)
for some non-zero constant c.
PROOF (Necessity) If f (x) =0, then f @)l s@) implies g(x) = 0 and hence
-f(x)=c g(x) istrue.
Suppose f(x)+0. If /(x) | g(x) anA c@)lf @), wehave
s(x) = 7@)\(x) and f (x) = g(x)h2@).

for some polynomials hr(x), hr(x). It follows that
f (x) = g(x)h2@) = f (x)h1@)hr(x)
As /(x) + 0, we have
h1@)h2@) =l
which is ofzero degree and hence ft1(x) and h2@) are ofzero degree so that 4(x)= c, and
hr(x)=c, for someconstants cr, cr. Thus,
f(x) = c g(x)
for some constant c.
(Sfficiency)If f (x)=cg(x), then g(x) divides /(x). Also c+0, g(x) = O implies
)f
"f(x) divides c(x). Il
116 Polynomials
EXAMPTE 5
Let p(x) = 1x +112n +2x(x +I)2"-l + ... +2n xn (x +l)n. Prove that
f (x) = (x - I) p(x) + 1x + I12n+r

n+l
ls (uvlsrole Dy x
SOLUTION
For f(x) = (x-l)p(x)+1x+I12'+r

= (x-l)(r+1)'[{r+t)' +2x(x+l)n-r + ... +2n x']+1x+t;2'*l
= -1x+l)'[(x+r1-zx][( x+r)n +2x(x+r)"-r + ... +2n x"f+6+t12n*r
= -1x + t;"[(x + l)'+r - (2r)'*1] + 1 x + r12n*r
= 2'*r x'*r (t+ l)' - (x + r)2"+r + 1x + l12n+1

= 2'*l xn*r (x +r)n .
therefore /(x) is divisible by *n*' .
EXAMPTE 6
Foranypositiveintegers m, p suchthat m> p-L, let
(a) Showthat G(m, P)=G(m,m- P) for m> P.
(b) Suppose p < m-L,
(D Showthat
G(m, p +I) - G(*-1, p +I) = x^-P-rG(m-I, p)
(ii) Byputting p+1, p+2, p+3,'.- for m in(i), orotherwise, showthat
G(m, p+r)=G(p, p)+xG(p+1, p7+x2G1p+2, p)+ "' +x^-P*tG(*-r, p)

(c) Use induction on p to show that G(m, p) is a polynomial in x for any positive integer m
suchthat m> p-I.
SOLUTION
(a) By definition,
(l-x')(l-x^r -w p+I (I-x*n1.'. (1-xr+l;

(l-x)(l-x )... {t-ro; (1-xz+t; ... (I-x^-n1
Polynomials 117
(t- x';1t- x'-t ) ... (r- xm-(m- D+r,

(l-x)(l- *2 ) ... (I- x'-r',
=G(m, m- p). form> p.
(b) (D Again,
G(m, p+l)*G(m-l, p+I)
(1- x')(l-x*') ... (t- x*r1 1t - x'-t ;1t - x^-2 ) - (l - x('-tF(rttFt,
--
(1-x)(t-x2) ... (t*xr*r; (l-x)(l-x2) .. (l-xrt;

1l- x'-t ;11- x*2) ... (l- x,-p (l- x')- (l- x^-t-r1
(l-x)(l- ) "' {l - to*t;
| - x*t )(l- x*2 ) .'. (L- x^- P rP-'l - xP*l)
(l-xXl- ) "' {1- t'*t;
_ -wp-l 1I- x^-t171- x*2 - x^-P
(t-xXl- ) "'{t-to;
= x^-p-tG(m-1, p).
(ii) Replacing p+I, p+2, p+3,... for m in(i),wehave

G(p+1, p+l)-G(p, p+t)=xoG(p, p)
G(p+2, p+l)-G(p+1, p+I) = xG(p+1, p)
G(m, p+I)-G(m-1, p+1) =r--P-LG(*-1, p)

Adding,
G(m, p+l)-G(p, p+l) = xoG(p, p)+xG(p+L, p)+ .'. +x^-P-tG(--1, p)
But, by definition,
G(P, p+l)=
-0.
therefore,
G(m, p+l) = G(p,p)+xG(p+1, p1+x2c1p+2, p)+ ... +r^-P-|G(m-r, p).
(c) When p-1,
G(m' -,1-x^-2m-,l
L) =-l_, =l+x+x'+ "' +x"' '
which is a polynomial. Suppose that when p=k, G(m,k) is a polynomial for all
m> k - l, that is for all m> k -1,
G(k, k), G(k+1, k), G(k+2, k), ... ,G(m-l k)
are all polynomials in x. Therefore, by (b) (ii)
G(m, k+l) = G(k, k)+ xG(k +1, p)+x2G1p+2, k)+ ... +r'-P-rG(.-1, k)
is also a polynomial in x. That is, when p = k +1, the statement is also true. By the
principle of mathematical induction, the result is true for all positive integers n. I
il8 Polynomials
2.4 GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR
DEFIN|IION Let f (x) and g(x)be two non-zero polynomials. A polynomial d(x) is said
to be a greatest common divisor (GCD) or highest commonfactor (HCn of f (x) and g(x)
if
(D d(x) divides f(x) and g(x)
(ii) every common divisor a(x) of f (x) and g(x) also divides d(x).
IHEOREM 2.5 If both dr(x) and d2(x) are GCD of two non-zero polynomials f (x) and
g(x), then dt(x) and d2(x) atmost differ by a non'zero constantfactor.
PROOF By definition, dr(x) and d2@) divide each other. therefore, by Theorem 2.4
dt(x) = cdr(x\
for some constant c. ]
Remork From this theorem we note that, if a greatest common divisor d(x) exists, then any
associate of d(x) (i.e. cd(x),) is also a greatest common divisor of f(x) and g(x). We
often speak of that associate of d(x) which is monic as the greatest cornmon divisor of f (x)
and g(x) . If d(x) isagreatestcommondivisor of f (x) and g(x), wewrite
d(x) = GCDII 1x1, g1x1l
THEOREM 2.6 Let f(x), g(x), r(x) be polynomials. If

"f
(x)= g(x)q(x)+r(x)
thentheGCDof f(x) and g(x) lsequaltotheGCD of SG) and r(x), i.e.
GCDI1 @), e(x)]= GCDIg@), r@)l
PROOF Let d{x)=GCDlf @), g(x)], d2(x)=GCDlsG), r(x)]. Then
f (x) = dr(x\h1@), g(x) = dr(x)h2@),

and g(x) = dr(x)k1@), r(x) = dz@)kz@)
for some polynomials h1@), h2@) and k1(x), k2@) . For
r(x)= f(x)-g(x)q(x)
= d {x)hr@) - d r(x) h2@) a@)
= dr@)lh1x)-hr(x)q@))
d1(x) isacommondivisorof g(x) and r(x) sothat d1(x) divides d2@). Similarly,
f(x) = g(x)q(x)+r(x)
= d z @)4@)q (x) + d, (x)k 2 @)
= d', @)lk r@) q (x) + k 2 @)l
d2@) is a cornmon divisor of f (x) and g(x) so that d2 (x) divides dt(x). By Theorem 2.4,
dt(x) = kdr(x)
for some constant k. Taking d{x) and d2@) to be monic, we have dr(x) = dt(x). l
Polynomials rt9
THEOREM 2.7 [Euclideon olgorithml Two non-zero polynomials

f (x) and g(x) have q
greatest common divisor d(x).
PROOF The proof is the same as the proof for the construction of the greatest common divisor
of two non zero integers.
We apply the division algorithm to f (x\, obtaining

f (x)= g(x).q(x)+r(x),
where r(x) is either zero or of degree less than the degree of g(x).
If r(r) is zero, then a greatest common divisor ot f (x) and g(x) is g(x) itself.
If r(x) + 0, we apply the division algorithm to g(x) and r(x) obtaining
g(r) = r (x)qr(x) + rr(x),
where 4(x) iseitherzeroorofdegreelessthanthedegreeof 1(x). If r1(x)=0, then r(x)
is a greatest common divisor of g(x) and r(x) and hence, by Theorem 2.6, the greatest
commondivisor of f (x) and g(x).
If r, (x) * 0, we can continue in this manner, obtaining the sequence of equations
f (x) = S@).q(x) +r(x),

g(x) = r(x).qr(x) +1(x),
r (x) = rr(x). I 2@) + r, (x),
r, (x) = r2@). 4(x) + ry(x),
rn_2(x) = rn_1(x) . q nQ) + rn(x),

rra(x) = rn (x) . e na1(x).
This process shows that we must finally obtain a zero remainder, The last non-zero remainder,
rr(x), isaGCDof /(x) and g(x) for,denotingaGCDot f(x) and g(x) bv U, g), we
have, by Theorem 2.6,
U, g=(g,r)=(r,rr) = ... = (rn_z,rr_t)=(tn_r, rn)=rr. ll
THEOREM 2.8 Let d(x) be a greatest common divisor of the two polynomiats f (x) and
g(x). Then there exist polynomials m(x) and n(x) such that
d(x)= m(x)f (x)+ n(x)s(x).
PROOF From the sequence of equations in theorem 2.7,wehave

rn(x) = rr_2(x\ - qnQ) .rna(x)
rr_1(x) = rn_3(x) - Q nq(x) - rn_2@)
ry(x)=rr(x)-q@).rr(x)
rr(x)=r(x)-q2@).r1@)
rt(x) = g(x)-q{x).r(x)
r(x) = f(x)-q(x).g(x)
120 Polynomials
and r,(x) is a greatest cornmon divisor of f (x) and g(x). Substitution gives
rn(x) = rn-2(x) - q
n
(x)rn-r(x)
= rn-2 - en(x)[rr-3 (x) - q,a@)rn-2@)]
= mt (x)r n-2 (x) + n r(x) rr4 @)
= mr(x)f (x) +nr(x)s@).

If d(x) isalsoagreatestcornmondivisor of f(x) and g(x), then d(x) =krr(x). Hence
d(x) = Ionr(x)f (x)+lmr(x)g(x)

d (x) = m(x) f (x) + n(x)g(x).
for some polynomials m(x) and n(x). ll
EXAMPI.E 7
(a) Find a greatest cornmon divisor d(x) of f (x) and g(x) where
f (x) = 4x4 -2x3 -r6x2 +5x+ 9,
g(x)=2x3 -x2 -5x+4'

O) Find, m(x) and n(x) such that
d (x) = m(x) f (x) + n(x)g(x).
SOLUTION
(a) Using the Euclidean dgorithm, [The work can be done by "dividing left into right and
right into left alternatively" as followsl
"f
(x) s@)
qt(x)= 2x 4x4 -2x3 -16x2 +5x+9 -x2 -5x+42x3 -lx+l= qr(x)
4x4 -2x3 -lox2+8r ^3 +X2-5X
2X ^
?z(x)= 6x +9 r1(x)=-$v2-3r+9 -2xz -2x+4

-6x2 +6x -2x2 - x+3
-9x+9 r2(x)=- va1
-9x+9
From which we write down the algorithm

.f (x) = g(x)q(x) +rr(x)
g(x)(2x)+(4x2 -3x+9)
=
g(x) = ry@)02@) +rr(x)
- (-612 - 3x + 9)(-lr +l) + (-x + l)

r1(x) = r2@)q@)
= (-x + l)(6x + 9)
Polynomials 121
The last non-zero remainder r2(x)=-y41 is a greatest common divisor of

/(x) and g(x).
(b) Back substitution gives,

d(x)=r2(x) = (-x+l)
= s(x) - (4*2 - rx+ 9)(-{x+})
= s(x) -[f t l-s(x)(2x)](_1x+l)
= -1-{x + };/1x) + [r + (zxy1-]x + ])]s(x)
= 11x-]l,r( x)+(!x2 +Jx+l)g(x).
= m(x)f (x) +n(x)g(x).
where z(x) =*r-*, n(x)=-!x2 +!x+t.
EXANAPTE 8
(a) Prove or disprove the following statement:
Let f (x) and g(x) be given polynomials, if there exist polynomials m(x) and n(x)
such that
dr(x) = m(x)f (x)+ n(x)g(x)
then dr(x) is a greatest common divisor of f (x) and g(x)
O) Let f(x), g(x) and h(x) be polynomials.If therearepognomials m(x) and n(x) such
that
h(x) = m(x)f (x)+ n(x)g(x)
and i(x) divides /(x) and g(x). Prove tlat h(x) is a greatest cornmon divisor of
f(x) and, g(x).
SOLUTION
(a) Disprove:Let
f(x)=x, g(x)=x*1, m(x)=x, n(x)=l
Then
m(x)f (x)+z(x)g(r) = x2 +x +l
= d1(x)
It is clear that d,(x) is not a divisor ot f (*) and g(x).
(b) Firstly, h(x) is a common divisor of /(x) and g(x). Next, suppose that 4@) is a
cornmondivisor of f (x) and g(x). Thentherearepolynomials qr(x) and, 4z(x) such
that
f (x) = dr(x)a{x), g(x) = d{x)02@)
From the given condition, we have

122 Polynomials
h(x) = m(x)f (x) +n(x)g(x)

= m(x) d {x) q
t
(x) + n (x) d 1@) q 2 @)
=lm@)q{x) + n(x)qr(x)]dr (r)

Therefore, dr(r) divides h(x). By definition, h(x) is a gleatest common divisor of
f(x) and, g(x). I
DEFINIT|ON If the GCD of two potynomials f (x) and g(x) is a polynomial of zero degree.
i.e. GCDII (x),g(x)] =r, then f(x) and g(x) aresaidtoberelativelyprime'
EXAMPTE 9
+2-n
Prove that the fraction -n3 is ineducible for any natural number n.
n +5n +l
SOLUTION
Let f(n) = n3 +2n, g(n) = n4 +3n2 +1. Using the process ofEuclidean algorithm,
s@) =nx f (n)+(n2 +l)
-f(n)=n'(n2+l)+n
n2 +l=nxn+l
n =nxl
The last non-zero remainder is I (constant), this shows that f (n) and g(x) are relatively
prime and hence the given fraction is irreducible for every natural number r. t
By Theorem 2.8, we have
COROLLARY 2.9 Two polynomials f (x) and g(x) are relatively prime if and only if there
exist polynomials m(x) and n(x) such that
m(x) f (x) + n(x) g(x) = l.
EXAMPTE 1O
Let P(x)=2x5 +x3 +3x2 +l and Q@)=x3 +x+I

(a) Showthat P(x) and Q@) are relativelyprime.
O) Findtwopolynomials S(x) and Z(x) suchthat P(r)S(x)+Q@)T(x)=l
SOLUTION
(a) ByEuclidean algorithm, we have
Polynomials 123
P(r) = 2x5 +x3 +3x2 +l

=e@)(2x2-l)+(r2 +x+2)
QG)=@2 +x+2)(x-l)+3
The last non-zero remainder is a constant, therefore, P(x) and, Q@) are relatively prime.
O) It follows from (a) that
3= e@)-(x2 +x+2)(x-l)
=Q@-l P (x) - Q@)(z 12 - r1]1, - 11
=
[r
+ {z'2 - l)(x - rl]ot'l - (x - r) p(x)
, = -2x2 -x+2)e@)-(x-t)p(x)
12x3
Take s(r) = -{{r-r), T(x)=!{zt3 -zr2 -r+2), then

P(x)S(x) +Q@)T(x)=r
EXERCISE 2B
Division Algorithm
1. Find the remainder when the polynomial

8149259
x+x+x+x+x
is divided by *3 -, .
2. If the remainders when a polynomial .f(x) is divided by (x-a)(x-b) and by

(x-a)(x-c) are equal, prove tlat
(a - b)f(c) +(b - c)f(a)+ (c - a)f(b) = a.
3. Let f (x) be a polynomial such that
f (x) = 1r2 - o2 7 q 1r) +rx + s

where a, r, and s are real numbers with a+ 0, and q(x) is a polynomial
(a) Showthat
, =.J4f{o) -
2a
f(-o)l and, = }lfol + fGo)].
(b) Hence find the remainder when x' - o' isdivided by ,2 - o2 when (i) n is even,
and (ii) n is odd.
124 Polynomials
4. (a) When the polynomial f(x) is divided by (x-lXx-2)(x-3) the remainder is

given by
r(x) = q1v - 3) + D(x - 3)(x - 1)+ c(x - rXx - 2).
- 2)(x
Express the constants a, b, c in terms of f (I), f (2) and f (3).
(b) Without performing tlre division, find the value of the constant k for which the
remainder when (xs +b2) is divided by (x-lXr-2)(x-3) contains no term in
a
x
5. Let P(x) be a polynomial. When P(x) is divided by *'-4x-21, the remainder is

llx-10. When P(x) isdividedby x2 -6x-7, theremainderis 9x+c, where c isa
constant.
(a) Findacornmonfactorof *2 -4*-21 and, *2 -6r-7

Hence find c.
(b) Find the remainder when P(x) is divided by x2 +4x+3 IHKALE r9991
6. Let R[x] be the set of all polynomials with real coeffrcients in an indeterminate x.
(a) Prove that for any polynomial f (x) and, any non-zero polynomial g(x) in R[x],
there exist unique polynomials q(x) wd r(x) in R[x] satisfying the following
conditions:
(i) f(x)= q(x)g(x)+r(x),
(ii) r(x) is the zero polynomial or degree of r(x) < degree ofg(x).
(b) Let ,S be a subset of R[x] that satisfies the following conditions:
(/r) rf f (*) eS and g(r) eS, then /(x)-g(x) eS,

(I) rf f (x) eS and h($ eRlxl, then h(x)f (r) eS.
It p(x) is a non-zero polynomial in S such that the degree of every non-zero
polynomial in S is equal to or greater than that of p(x). Prove that p(x) is a
divisor of every polynomial in S.
Divisibiliry
7 a, b, and k are realnumbers. Show that rf t3 +o*2 +6x+l is divisible by 1r2 +k21,
then k +0 and ab =l
8 Given /(x) = x4 + px2 +q g(x) = x2 + mx +1. Find conditio n that f (x) is divisible by
s@).
Polynomials 125
9 Let Z* be the set of all positive integers and, m, n eZ*.

Let A(m,n\ = (1-xu Xl- ,'*r) ... (I-t^*n-r),
B(n)= (l-x)(l-x2) ... (l-x").
(a) Show that A(m+|, n +I)- A(m, r +l) is divisible by (l- x'+l; A(m+t,n).
(b) Suppose P(m, n) denote the statement
"A(m, n) is divisible by B(n)."

(i) Show that P(1, n) and P(m,l) are true.
(ii) Using (a), or otherwise, show tlat tf P(m, n + l) and P(m+|, n) are true, then
P(m+l,n +l) is also true.
(iii) Let k be a fixed positive integer such that P(m,k) is true for all meZ*.
Show by induction that P(m, ft +l) is true for all m eZ*.
(c) Using (b), or otherwise, show that P(m, n) is true for all m,n eZ* IHKALE 1994]
Gredest Common Divisor
10. Let f (x)=2x4 +x3 -6x2 -2x+3 and g(r) =Zx4 -3x3 +2x-3.
Find the greatest common divisor of f (x) and g(x).
11. Itisgiventhat /(x) =2x4 +x3 +I0x2 +2x+15 and g(x) =x3 +2x-3. Let d(x) be
the H.C.F. ot f(x) and g(r).
(a) Using Euclidean Algorithm, or otherwise, ftnd d(x) .
O) Findpolynomials z(x) and v(x) of degree <l suchthat

u(x)f (x) +v(x)g(x) = d(x)
forall x. [HKALE 19981
12. Find polynomials m(x) and n(x) such that
1x8 - t;z1x; +1x5 - t;z1x) = x- I
13. (a) Show that 12 + I and 13 + x2 +l are relatively prime and find polynomials z(x)
and z(x) suchthat
1x3 +x2 +I)m(x)+(x2 +l)n(x): I
(b) Findapolynomial P(x) such that P(x) is divisible by x2 +l and P(x)+l is

divisible by 13 +x2 + l.
126 Polynomials
14. Let /(x) and g(x) be two non-zero polynomials. A polynomial d(x)
is said to be a
GreatestCommonDivisor (G.C.D)of f (x) and g(x) tf d(x) divideseachof themand
every common divisor of them also divides d(x).
(a) Let d1(x) md, d2@) be two non-zero polynomials which divide each other. Show
that dt (x) = kdz@) for some non-zero constant ft.
(b) Let A & the set of non-zero polynomials p(x), where p(x) = m(x)f (x)+ n(x)g(x)
for some polynomiats m(x) md n(x).
(i) if a polynomial s(x)

Show that divides both /(x) and g(x), then it divides
every p@) in A'
(ii) Let p(x) bein l. Showthatwhen /(x) isdividedby p(x),theremainder

r(x) is either zero or a polynomialin A.
(iii) Let d,(x) be in I with degdr(x)<degp(x) for all p(x) in l. Show that
d1(x) is a G.C.D. of f(x) and g(x).
(c) Showthat tf d(x) isaG.C.D. of /(x) and g(x) thereexistpolynomials ze(x)

and r6(x) suchthat
d(x) = mo@)f (x) + nr(x)g(x). [H KALE I 986]
15. Let p be the set of all polynomiats with real coefftcients.
Let f,sep\{O} and

,q={*f +ng: m,nep}.
Suppose r e,4\{0 } has the property that
degr <degp forall p el\{0}

(a) Show that r l.
divides every polynomial in
Deduce that r is a G.C.D. of / and g (i.e. r divides both / ^d g, and tf h
divides both / and g then I divides r ).
(b) Let 6={hr:hege}.

Show that A= B.
(c) lf degr =0, i.e. r is a non-zero constant, show that there exist ms,ns €(J such
that
mof +nog=1,
and also A= g . IHKALE r993I
Pobmomials 127
2.5 THE REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREMS
THEOREM 2.10 [Remoinder theoreml Let f (x) be a polynomial. llthen f (x) is divided
by (x - a), the remainder is f (a).
PROOF When /(x) isdividedby (x-q), by divisionalgorithm,thereexistquotient q(x)

and remainder r (constant) such that
f(x) = (x - a)q(x)+ r
Hence, putting x = a, we have
r = f(a). ]
COROLIARY 2.ll [Foctor theorem] Let f(x) be a polynomial. (x-a) is afactor of

f (x) if and only if _f (a)=0. for f (x) is divisible by (x-a) if and only { f (a)=0.1
PROOF Immediately from /(x) = (x - a)q(x)+ f (a)
EXAMPTE I1
(a) ff x3n-"2n+"n -l isdivisibleby x3 -r2*r-1, whatisthevalueof n?

(b) Provethat P(x)= x4444 +x3333 +x2222+rllll isdivisible by ,a +r3 +x2 +x
SOLUTION
(a) Let
f(x)=*tn -r2n +xn -l

= (x2n + 1)(x, - l)
e@) = rt - 12 +x- I = (r- l)(x2 +l).
Using the roots of rlx), :x = l, * i
f (r) = o, f(ti; =
[1r;, -t]1,-u,
.t]
therefore, by factor theorem, if n is odd or n=4k, keN, then f(x) is divisible by
d.').
(b) We have
P(x) = xtrtr(x2222 +t;lxllll +l;
e@) = *4 * *' + *2 +, = x(x +l)(x2 + 1)
For P(0) = g
p(-l) = t-r)tttt[t-r)"" *t)lt-t>ttlt+r]= o.
p(rr) = 1ti;t111[1t i12222 +t)lfxr)3 + r]= o.
therefore, P(r) is divisible by /.x). I

128 Polynomials
2.6 ZEROS OF A POLYNOMIAT
DEFINIIION Let f(x)--q0+arx+ ... +arxn, be a polynomial. Any complex number a

that -f (a)=0, where
such
f (a\=ao+qra+ "' +anan,

is called a zero of the polynomial f (x) or a root of the equation f (x) =0.
EXAMPI-E I2
Prove that rf m^ +bxn + c and Ax^ + Bxn + C are polynomials having a cornmon zero and if
m> n, then
(aB - bA)n-n (bC - cB)" = 1cA - aC)^ .
SOLUTION
Let d be the common zero of the given polynomials, then
foa^ +ban rc=o

i
lAa^ +Ban +c=o
Multiplying A, a, and B, b to the equations,
.{I o,qo^ +bAan +cA =o and {I aBq^ +bBan +cB =0

l*o^ +aBa' +aC =0. tbAa' +bBa' +bC =0.
Subtracting,
(bA- aB)an +(cA - aC) = Q, and (aB -bA)am +(cB -bQ = g,

Eliminating a
fod-oav,l^ @c_cA).
-uDa^)' (bC - cB)n
f@a
$vlng
(aB - bA)--" (bC - cB)" = 1cA - aC)n I
In the connection of showing that a polynomial /(x) of degree n has exactly n roots, we have
the following fundamental theorem of algebra'.
THEOREM 2.l2ltundomentol theorem of olgebrol The polynomial f(z) of degree n>l

always has at least one zero.
A proof of this theorem (due to Gouss) would be beyond the scope of this book. A direct
consequence of the theorem is the following result:
Polynomials 129
THEOREM 2.13 The polynomial P(x) of degree n has exactly n zeros.
PROOF By the firndamental theorem of algebra, P(x) has at least one zero, at, say,
P(at)=0, therefore,byfactortleorem (x-a) isafactorof P(r) andthequotientwhenwe
divide P(x) by x-a, isapolynomiatofdegreez-lwhosefirstterm is pox'-r. Hencewe
write
P(x) = (x- a)Qna(x), (l)
where Qn-Jx)= po*n-r + ...
Again, the polynomial Q,_r(x) has at least one zero, Q,t@) = 0, we have from (1)
i.e. P(ar) = (az - at)Qns(az) = 0
Hence x-a, isafactor of Qn_r(x), andwewrite
Q,-t = Q - ar)Q,-r(x)
and, by (1),
P(x\ = (x - ar)(x - a)Q,_z(x),
where Qr-z@): poxn-z + ....
Proceeding in this way, we see that
P(x) = (x - ar)(x - az) ... (x - a,)Qo@),
where Qo@)= po.
Hence
P(x) : pr(x - ar)(x - q) ... (x - a).
The last expression implies that the polynomial P has exactly n zeros. Il
EXAMPI.E I3
If l, ay &2, d3, a4 arethezerosofthepolynomial P(x)="5-l provethat
(l-ar) Q-a) (l-a3) (t-a)=5
and 11+a1) (l+az\ (I+a) (l+a)=l
SOLUTION
The polynomial P(x) = vs - 1 is a polynomial of degtee 5, it has exactly 5 roots. If

l, ay d2, d3, d4 arethezerosof P(x), then
15 -l = (x- l)(x -a, )(x - a)(x - a )(x - a a)
or ,4 +"3 +x2 +x+l=1x-a1Xx- ar)(x-a)(x-aa)
Put x = 1, we have
(l- a)(t-a)(I-a)(r- a4) = 5
Put x = -1,
(-l - a1)(-1 - a2'1(l - a3)(-l- ao) = 1
(1 + ar)(l + a2 )(l +a3)(1+ a 4) = l. I
r30 Polynomials
THEOREM 2.14 Let P(x)=cox'+ctxn-r +"r*n-z + ... +cn-rx+cr. If P(x) vanishesfor

more than n differentvalues of x, then P(x)=0. i.e.
CO=Cl= =Cn=0.
PROOF Suppose that P(x)=0 when r equals each of the unequal values a1, d2, ..., dn.
Then (x-41), (x-a2), --., (x-an) areallfactorsof P(x) andwecanwrite
P(x) = co(x-a)(x-a) ... (x-an).
Let B be another value of x which makes P(x) vanish, then
co(p-a)(f -dz\ ... (F-a,)=o
andsincenoneofthefactors (F-a), (F-a), ... , (F-ar) vanish, c0 mustvanish. The
expression P(x) now reduces to
P(x)="rt'-l +"r*'-2 + "' + cn-rx+cn,

and since this vanishes for more than n values of x we can show similarly tlnt c, = g.
In a similar way we can show that each of the coefficients c2, c3, ... , c, must also vanish. ll
lllustrotion Let f (x)=(r-l)x(x+f)@+2)+I-(x2 +x-112. Show that f (x) is a zero

polynomial.
In fact, we see that

f (r) ="f(0) = f (-r) = f (-2) = f (2) = o
Since /(x) is a polynomial of degree < 4, but having more than 4 distinct zeros, therefore it is
a zero polynomial. I
EXA'I'IPTE I4
(A problem in coordinate geometry) Given a line in space
L: x=a+lt, y=b+mt, z=c+nt.

Showthattheplane r: Ax+By+Cz+D=0 contains L rfandonlyif
[,U +Am*Cn=o
lAa +Bb+Cc+D=0
SOLUTION
The plane tr contains the line L if and only if for all f eR, the point
(x,y,z)=(a+lt, b+mt, c+nt) on Z satisfiestheequation of n, i.e.
A(a+ lt)+ B(b +mt)+C(c+nt)+ D =0
(Aa + Bb +Cc+ D)+t(Al + Bm+Cn)=O.
The expression in the left hand side is a polynomial of degree one in I which vanishes more
than once, therefore, it is a zero polynomial,
J,ll +Am+Cn=0
lAa+Bb+Cc+D=0 t
Polynomials r31
We can now show that if two polynomials of degree n in x are equal for more than n values of
x,they are equal for all values of x.
COROLLARY 2.15 Let f (x) and g(x) be polynomiats of degree n. If there are n+L
distinctvalues do, dt,... , a, suchthat
-f (ar) = g(o,), r =0, l, 2, "' , ft,
then f(x)=g(x).
PROOF Let h(x)= f(x)-g(x), then ft isapolynomialof degree <n. Because,
h(a,)= f(a,)-g(ar)
-0 for i = 0, I, 2, ... ,n
therefore, by Theorem 2.I4, h(x) = 0, i.e. f (x)= g(x)
REMARK I As a corollary to above theorems, we have the important property called principle
of undetermined coefticients that if, for all values of x,
I ... I pn-rxr p, = q'xn +q('
pgxn + prxn-l + -.. +qn-f+qn, (1)
then po=eg, p1=e1,,.., pn=en. Q)
To see this we consider the polynomial
(p0- qix" +(p, -q)x"-t + ... +(pn-r- Qn-)x +(pn -qn)

which, by hypothesis, is zero for all values of x. It follows that all its coefficients are zero, and
so
Po=Qo' Pt=Qt'"" Pn=Qn

The process of deducing from the identity (l) the results (2) is called equating coeficients.
REMARK 2. The theorem here is to show that, if x takes n+L distinct given values
ds, dy..., dn there is a unique polynomial, of degree <n or null which takes
correspondinglythe n+l givenvalues yo, 11,-..,ln (notnecessarilydistinct);andtoshow
that this polynomial can be constructed.
EXATI,TPTE I5
Let a, b, c be distinct numbers. Prove that
,, a21x-b11x-c1 , b2 (x - a)(x - c1 , c2 1x- a)(x -b)
(a -b)(a - c) - (b-a4b-c) - (c-a6c-b)
Hence deduce tlat
abc f-r--A
(a - b)(a- c) (b - a)(b -c)' (c -a)(c -b)
132 Polynomials
SOLUTION
Let h(x) =
-,Da -9'l *b2-!x - a)!x -.c) *" a- "la,?I
r' -1"' t'-6@ -d - a)(b - c) (b - a)(c - b) (c
I-C J
Then, ft(x) is a polynomial of degree < 2. Put x = a, b, c in turn, we have

h(a)= h(b)= tu(s)=A
Since a, b, c are all distinct, therefore, by Theorem 2.14, h(x) = 0. Thus
-o2 (, b)(t
- ") -b2 - - - (x
- a)(x c) c2 (x a)(x b)
-z - (a-b)(a-c) (b-a)(b-c)- (c-a)(c-b)
Alternative We regard
'f (x) = x2
o2 1r-b11t-c)r_!_b2 @-a)(x-c) c2 (x-a)(x-b)
6\''
- b)(a - c)
@ (b - a)(b -c) (c- a)(c -b)
as quadratic polynomials in the indeterminate x. In order to apply Corollary 2.15, we need 3
distinctvalues of x. Because
.f (o) = a2
.,
a (a-b)(a-c) b2 (a- a)(a - c) c2 (a - a)(a -b)
and g(a)=
(a-b)(a-c) (b -a)(b -c) (c- a)(c -b)
.,
a
f(b)=b2
and - o2(b-b)(b-c)+*6-a16-c1+12(t-o)(t-t)
g\D)=-@=6@-c)
1n-o11n-"1 1"-"1i"-t1
a
=h
f(")=c2
and , a2 1c-b11c-c1 b2 (c-a)(c-c) c2 (c-a'r(c-b)

g\c)=-@-d@-c) - (b-apb-c) - (c-a)(c-b)
2
-L
i.e. .f (a = g(a), f (b) = g(b) and f (c) = g(c) for 3 distinct values of x, therefore, by
Corollary 2.15, wehave f (x) = g(x) for all x eR., i.e.
b2 (x - a)(x - c)
, (r-a)(x-b)
(b-a)(b-c) - "2(c-a)(c-b)
Put x = 0 in above identity,
o'10-t110-o b2 (0-a)(0-c)
-G-il@-c) -, (b-apb-c) -. "'10-o110-t1
(c-a1c-b) =v
abc r- t
so that
(a -b)(a - c)' (b - a)(b - c)' (c- a)(c-b) -n-'
Polynomials r33
REMARK The last example suggests an interpolation method of finding a polynomial f (x)
which should assume a prescribed value d, dt x = c,. Such an interpolation method may have
many application.
Logronge's lnterpolotion Formulo Given n+I distinct points xs, x1,..., xn on the real
line R and n+l arbitraryrealvalues h, lp ..., yn, thefollowingformula
"'(x-x,-r)(x-x,*r) "'(x-x,)
f (x\ =$ .vi(x-xoXx-rr)
-x1) ... (x, -x;_1)(x, ... (x,
l'^(x, -xs)(xi -x;a1) -xn)
defines a polynomial f(x) of degree <n such that f(x)=/i .for i=0, \..., n.
Moreover f (x) is the only polynomial of degree < n that has this property.
PROOF In fact, f (xi)=li for i=0, l, ..., n follows from direct substitution. The
uniqueness of f(x) is a consequence ofCorollary 2.I5.
lllustroiion Thecubicpolynomial P(x) whichassumesthevalues 2,3,2,11 respectivelyfor

x=1,2,3,4 (i.e. P(l)=2, P(2)=3, P(3)=2, P(3)=11) is
2(x -2)(x -3Xx - 4) 3(x-l)(x-3)(x-a)
P(x) =
(l-2)(1-3Xr-4) + (2-r)(2 -3)(2- 4)
2(x -r)(x -2)(x - 4) I l(x - 1)(x - 2)(x - 3)
+ +
(3- -2)(3 - 4) (4-rx4 -2)(4-3)
=2x3 -13x2 +26x-r3
Reference:
Dr. K. T. Leung, Polynomials and Equations (Hong Kong University Press)
EXERCISE 2C
Remainder theorem
1. A polynomial /(x) is divisible by (x-l). The remainders when /(x) is divided by

(x-Z) and (x-3) are -7 and -20 respectively.
When /(x) is dividedby (x-l)(x- 2)(x-3), the remainder is ar2 +bx+c, where a, b
and c are constants.
Find the values of a, b and c

r34 Polynomials
2. Let P(x) = t4 +1a+10)x3 +(I0-b)x2 +x+(16-c),

Q@) = xa + (b + 1o)x3 + ax2 +bx + c-
Find the values of a, b, c so that P(x), Q@) are divisible by x-1, x2 +x-2,
respectively.
3. Let f(x)=14 +pr2 +qr+o2.
If f(x) isdivisible by x2 -1, provethat, /(x) isalsodivisible by *2 -o2
4. (a) State and prove the Remainder Theorem.
(b) (D Show that, rf m, n are positive integers greater than 1, then
xt (b' - cn 1 + b^ 1cn - xn 1 + c^ 1xn - bn )

is divisible by x2 -1U +c)x+bc.
(ii) Let -f(x)=*3**2 +bx+c.

Suppose that if /(x) is divided by x-m, then the remainder is lz, where
m=1,2,3. Findthevalues of a, b, and c.
(iii) Let f(x)=(x2 +x+I)n -(x2 -x-L)n

Prove that "f(x) is divisible by x+1. Hence, or otherwise, show that
ttt" -8gn isdivisibleby ll.
5. (a) Let f(x) beapolynomialin x. Provethat /(x) isdivisibleby (x-a) ifand

only if f (a) = 0.
O) (i) It is known tll,at @ is not real. Show that, rf A and B are real numbers such
that A+Bot=0, then A=B=0.
(iD If at is azero of x2 + x +1, prove that ar is not real and at3 = I.
(c) Let f(x)=ao+arx*ort'+ "'+anx'
and g(x) =bo+bf +b2x2 + "' +brxn
be polynomials with real coefficients. Using (a) and (b), prove that if the polynomial
f (x3) + xg1x3)
isdivisibleby x2+r+1, thenboth f(x) and g1.x) aredivisibleby r-1.

Polyomials 135
Zeros of polynomial and interpolotion
6. Prove, by mathematical induction, that
$ r(x+l)(x+2) ." (x+r-I)

II
r=l
('.i)='. /-t
r=l
rl
Hence find the zeros of the polynomial
p(x) = 1*;i x(x+ 1)(x+2)."' (r+r - t)

r=1
7 Let a1, d2, ...> an be n distinct non-zero real numbers,where n>2.

(a) Define
D/-\ _
(x-a2)." (x-ar)
-'r
(ar-a2) ..' (ar-an)
(x - a) ... (x - ai_)(x - aia) -.. (x - an)
+ ... +ai
(a, - a) ... (a, - ai_1)(a, - aial) .'. (a, - an)
(x-a)... (x-an_)
+ ... +an
(an - a1) ... (a, - ar-t)
(D Evaluate P(a,) for i =1, 2, ..., n.

(iD Showthattheequation P(x)-x=0 has n distinctroots.
(iii) Deduce that P(r)-r = 0 for all r e R.
(b) Prove that

11
(ar-ar) '.. (ar-a)- "'-
, I
'
(ar-a) -.- (ar-an_t)
IHKALE r99r l
8. (a) Provethat (x-a) isafactorof apolynomial f (x) if andonly If f(a)=Q.

(b) Let x6, x1:..., x, be n+l distinct real numbers. Show thatfor an arbitrary real
number thereexistsapolynomial g(x)
/e, -_A suchthat g(x6) =!s and
g(xt) = g(xz) = 'ir = g(xr)=0.
Hence or otherwise, show that for arbitrary real numbers Io, ... lp ,!, not all
equal to zero, there exists apolynomial ft(x) ofdegree <n such that
h(x6) = lo, h(x) = yb and h(xn) = !n.
(c) Find a polynomial ao+arx+a2rz *orr3 of third degree whose graph passes
through the four points (-1, 2), (0, 5), (1, la) and (2,41).
r36 Polynomials
9 Let f (x) and g(x) be non-zero polynomials with integrd coefficients. Suppose for any
positive integer n. there exists an integer an such that g(n)=anf (n), i.e. S(n) is
divisible by f (n).
(a) Showthat a,=0 for onlyafinitenumberof r.
Hence deduce that it is impossible for deg/(x) > degg(x).
(b) Show that there exists a non-zero polynomial h(x) with rational coefficients such
that
s(x)= f(x)h(x).
(c) If degf(x)=degg(x), showthat n(x) is identically equal to an integer.
IHKALE r9841
10. Let a, F afi y bereal anddistinctand
(x - a)(x - f)(x - Y) = x3 + Px2 + qx + r.
(a) Showthat
t I I 3x2+2px+q
\^/ x-d x- B ' x-f
/r\
*3 * pr2 +qx+r'
(ii) 3rz2 +2pa+q = (a- B)@-y).
(b) Let f(x) be a real polynomial. Suppose Ax2 -Bx+C is the remainder when
-,
(3x2 +2px+q)f (x) is divided by x3 +px2 +qx+r.
(i) Prove that
f (a) (p) -f (y) Ax2 + Bx +C

"f
x-d+x-B*r-r= t. "- t
(ii) Express A,B and C intermsof a, B,f ,.f(a), f(b nd f(f).

IHKALE 19951
Ckapter I
fheo?y of Equation
We are already familiar with linear and quadratic equations. In the present chapter we propose to
study equations ofhigher degree. In the first halfofthis chapter, we pay special attention to the
formal relations between the roots and the coeffrcients, and develop some purely algebraic
methods.
3.I POTYNOMIAT EQUATIONS
DEfIN|IION Let f(x)=eox'+arx'-t + ... +an_tx+a, be a polynomial of degree n in x.

The equation
f(x)=o
is called a polynomial equation of degree n in x.
Anumber a issaidtobearootoftheequationif aisazeroof f(x),i.e.-f(o)=0. Theset

consisting of all roots of an equation is called its solution set. Accordingly, every polynomial
equation ofdegree n has exactly n roots.
lf ar,ar,...,a,n arethe n rootsofapolynomialequation f(x)=0, thenitcanbewrittenas

ao@-a)(x- a)-..(x- a) =0
which is called,thefactoredform of the equation.
The roots of an equation of higher degree can sometimes be found by using the factor theorem,
but only when the roots are integers or simple rational fractions. Ifthis approach fails, there is no
formula that can be used instead, and exact solutions of such an equation can be found only in
certain cases, some of which are demonstrate below.
LOCATION OF ROOTS It is a simple matter to deduce the existence and location of the real
roots of an equation with the aid of a graph.
Let f(x)=0 be a polynomial equation ofdegree n.
(i) If f(o), f(b) arenotzeroandhaveoppositesigns,thenanoddnumberofrealrootsof

the equation f (x)=0 lie between a and b andconversely.
(ii) If -f (a), f (b) are not zero and have the same signs, then an even number of roots (or no
root)of f(x)=Q liebetween a and b.
r38 Theory ofEquation
b
a x
Figure 3.1(a) One real root Figure 3.1(b) Three real roots Figure 3.1(c) Five real roots
o a b
o la
Figure 3.2(a) No real root Figure 3.2(b) Two real roots Figure 3.2(c) Four real roots
EXA'I'IPTE I
Prove what you can about the number of real roots of the equation
(x - ar)(x - ar\(x - a r) + k2 (x - a r)(x - aa )(x - au )= Q
where dr 1az I dg < a4 < as < ct6.
SOLUTION
This is a polynomial eqrntion in x of degree 3. It has three distinct real roots. In fact, let
.f (x) = (x - ar)(x - ar)(x - a r) + kz (x - ar)(x - a )(x - a u)

Because
f (a) = (a, - - a)(ar - a r) + k2 (a, -

ar)(a, az)(ar - a )(a, - a u)
= k2 (at - a)(ar - a)(a, - au)

<0
.f (a) = (a, - a)(a, - a)(az - a r) + kz (a, - a)(a z - a)(a, - a u)
= (a, - ar)(a, - ar)(a, - at)

>0
f (a) = (a, - ar)(a3 - a)(az - a r) + k2 (a, - a)(at - ao)(a, - a u)
= k2 (at - a)(q - aq)(a3 - aa)
>0
.f (a +) = (a o - ar)(a o -a)(a c - a r) + k2 (a o - a)(a e - a o)(ao - a 6)
= (aa- a1)(aa- a)(ao- ar)
<0
Theory ofEquation 'r39
f (a ) = (a, - ar)(a, - az)(a s- a r) + kz (a, - az)(a s - a )(a, - a u)
= k2 (as - az)(as - a)(a, - au)

<0
f (o) = (au- ar)(au- a)(aa - ar)+k2(au- a)(aa- a)(au - au)
= (au - ar)(au - ar)(au - ar)
>0
Therefore, the three consecutive roots lie in (ar, a2), (a3, a4), (a5, au) respectively
Tronsformotion of Equoiions
The discussion of an algebraic equation is often aided by transforming it into another whose roots
bear an assigned relation to those of the original equation. Some of the more important cases are
discussed below.
EXAMPI.E 2
(a) Form an equation whose roots are three times those of the equation
zx3 -5x2 +i =0.
(b) Form an equation whose roots are the squares ofthe roots ofthe equation
^3 ^2
3x--2x-*r-4=0.
SOLUTION
(a) Replace x by * y, the equation whose roots are three times those of the given equation is
z(trilt -s(trD2 +7 =o
i.e. 2y3 -tsy2 + 189 = o. I
(b) If y be a rootofthe required equation, then
1
!=x
By the transformatio n x = li , the equation 3x3 -2x2 +x-4= 0 becomes
3l
3y2 -2y+y2 -4=0
3l
3Y' +Y' =2Y+4
Squaring both sides
9Y3 +6Y2 + Y = 4Y2 +l6Y +16

i.e. 9y3 +2y2 - 15y - 16 = o
which is the equation whose roots are the squares of the roots of the given equation I
140 Theoty of Equation
EXAMPTE 3
(a) Showthat (a+b) is a root ofthe equation
,3 -3ob*-1a3 +b37 =g.

(b) (D Express the equation
,3 -6*-6=o (l)
in tlte above form. Hence find a real root of this equation.
(ii) By the transformation x = ! * f,, transform the equation
x-3+3x-
^2 -Jx-ll=0 (2)
in the form y3 + py+q= 0. Hence, find a root ofthe equation.
SOLUTION
(a) Let f (x)=tt -3abx-1a3 +b31. Because
f (a +b) = 1a +b)3 -3ab(a +b) - (a3 +b31
= 1a3 + 3a2 b +3ab2 + b3 1 - 1la2 b +3ab2 1 - 1a3 +b3 1
-0
therefore (a + b) is a root of /(x) = Q.
o) (i) Set
a3 +b3 =6, ab =2,

and solve
ot *(?\t =u, o6 -6o3+8=0, 1a3

*211a3 -4)=o
lo)
to obtain a solution: o=?li, b=3J4. Thus the equation *3 -6*-6=0 is
expressed as
,3 -tGli)GI+1,-(tVzlt *(lfi.)')= o
By (a), we obtain a real root {i *{+ .
(ii) By the transformation x = ! * (, thegiven equationbecomes
0 + 93 +3(1t + flz - 3(y + 0- 11 =0
y3 +3((+I)y2 +3(€2 +2{-r)y+(€3 +s€2 -36-ll) =0

Choosing € = -1, t11e equation is reduced to
y3 -6y-6=o
By (bXi), y =3Ji *3Ji is a roots of above equation. Hence, * =3J2 +3Jl -l is a
root ofthe equation (2). I
REMARK This is known as meihod of Tortogolio ond Cordon (see Section 3.7
Appendix). Let atbe a primitive cube root of I and u, v be any two numbers. Since
Theory ofEquation 141
(x - u - v)(x - u t - r 12 y1* - u at2 - va) = t3 - 3u* - u3 - 13,

the roots ofthe cubic
,3 -3u*-o3 -u3
are u+v, ua+vcrt2 ut2 +u,
Reciprocol Equotions If an equation remains unaltered when x is changed inn ! it is

called a reciprocal equdion.If the original equation is
aoxn +arxn-l +ortn-2 + +an-rxaen=0,
the equation obtained by writing f ,o, r and clearing of fractions is
arxn +an-rx'-l +or-r*n-2 + +alx+ao=0.

If these equations are the same,
oo or ... = Qn-r -Qn
dn = An-l =:2_=
dn-2 al AO'
EXAtrlPtE 4
Find two integral roots of the equation:

6x6 -2sx5 +3lxa -31x2 *25x-6=0.
Hence, solve the equation completely.
SOLUTION
By inspection, x = tl are roots of the given equation. This can be written, after division by
x2 -1,
(x - l)(x + l)( 6x4 - 25x3 + 37 x2 - 25x + 6) = g
We have a reciprocal equation
6x4 -zsx3 +37x2 -25x+6=o

Then,
6x2 -z5x+31-2*7=o
xx"
+3i =o
'[,'.;)-" [,.+)
6 ('.+)' zs
['*1)*zs
=o
.('.+) -'l{,('. +) 5 -0
(3x2 - 5x +3)(2x2 - 5x +z) : o
3x2 -5x+3=O or 2x2

-5x+2=0
The roots of the given equation are *1, +(5 t ,tT) and 2, I respectively
142 Theory ofEquation
EXERCISE 3A
1. Consider the equation
,t -or2 *az-l=o (*)

where a is real.
(a) Find a real roots of(*).
O) Find the range of values of a zuch that (*) has non-real roots.
(c) Show that all the non-real roots of(*) lie on the unit circle in the complex plane.
IHKALE 19961
2. (a) Showthatif (x+l) isacommonfactorof *t +pt2 +q and, ax3 +bx+c, thenitis

also a factor of apx2 -bx +aq - c.
O) Show that ,3 +J1t2 -l4JT and 2x3 -Bx-Ji have a cornmon factor and
hence find all the roots of the equatio n 2x3 - l3x - Ji = 0.
3. (a) By first comparing tlle coefficients of 13 in the identity

,4 -5r3 -I9x2 +29x+42=1x2 +ax+3)(x2 +bx+14)
and then comparing the coefficients of x, find the values of a and b.
Solvetheequation *4 -5r3 -19x2 +29x+42=0.
(b) What are the solutions of the equation
ya +5yt -r9y2 -29y+42=o?
4. Let a a d B be the roots of the quadratic equation
x2 +2Px-q3 =0,
where p and q arerealconstantsand q>0.
(a) Showthat a and B aredistinctrealnumbers.
O) Express a + F ard aB interms of p and q .
(c) Show that g* + Bi1 is a root of the cubic equation

x3 +3qx+2p =0.
(d) By putting y = x-1, find a real root of the equation
,3 -3*2 +9r-9=0.
5. (a) Givenarealpolynomial P(x), showthatif a isarootof p(x)-x=0,then a is

also a root of
P(P(x))-x = 0.
(b) Let P(r)= xz +ax+b, where a and D are real.

(i) Using (a), or otherwise, resolve P(P(x)) - x into two quadratic factors.
(ii) Find a relation between a and b which is a necessary and suffrcient condition
for all roots of P(P(x)) - x = 0 to be real.
(c) Using (b) (i). or otherwise, solve the equation
1x2 -3x+112 -3(*2 -3x+l) +l-x = 0. IHKALE lggg]
6. (a) lf a1, a2,e3, ct4, p, q, a, B arerealnumberszuchthat
t4 *orr3 +orr2 +a3x+a4=1x2 +px+q)2 -(*+p\2

for all x, show that
.,
o2 =)+zq-a2
aB =)grq-a31
f2 =q2 -o+
(b) Find the possible real values of p, q, a, B such that
x4 +4x3 -12x2 +24x-g=(r2 +px+q12 -(*+F)2

for all x
(c) Solve 14 +4x3 -12x2 +24x-9 =0. IHKALE r9951
7 (a) The curve C has equation !=x3 -3px+q,where p nd q are real and p>0.
Find the coordinates of the turning points of C. Deduce that the equation
*'-3pt*q=0 hasexactlyonereal roottf q2 -4pt r0.
O) Given that x =t:n*/t, show that
*3 -3*nt- 1*3 +n31= g.

(c) It is given that ,t -3pr*q=0, where q2 -4p3 r0 and x=m+n. By
comparing this equation with the equation in (b), find a quadratic equation in terms of
p arrLd q whose roots are *3 and, ,3. D.du". that a real root of *t -3p**q =0
is
L
-?l -L
q23
,,
-tn*t +1-*q-I 3
3
-+p q -4 p
t"
14 Theory of Equation
8 Let @ be a complex cube root of l.

(a) Prove the identities
(i) o2 +b2 +c2 -ab-bc-ca=(a+bo*"t211o+ba2 +cco),
(ii) o3 +b3 *"3 -3ob"=(a+b+c)(a+ba+"r2)(o+bat2 +cat).
O) Consider the equation
z3 -92 +12 = 0 (*)
(i) Find real numbers p and 4 such that
p3 +q3 =12 and P4=3.

(iD Using (a) or otherwise, find the roots of (*) in terms of ar.
(c) Considertheequation
y3 +3y2 -lzy+loJi- 14 = o (**)
Using the substitution y = z - h with a suitable constant ft, rewrite (**) as
z3 +sz+t =o
where s, t arc constants.
Hence solve (**). IHKALE 1999]
Theory of Equation 145
3.2 RETATIONS BETWEEN ROOTS AND COEFFICIENTS
In this section we pay special aftention to the formal relations between the roots and coeffrcients,
and develop some standard method.
THEOREM 3.1 [Vieto Theorem] Let a1, d2, --. , a.n be roots of the equation
oorn +arx'-l + ... *an-1x*an =o
lhen Lo, = sum of roots = -*

Loro., = sum of roots takenZ at a time =*
lap2al. = sum of roots taken3 at a time = -;
lop2...on = product of roots = (-l)'

X
where in each equation denotes the sum of alt the terms of the same type as the one given
I
PROOF If dr, a2, --., &, be roots of the equation. Then
aox' + arxn-t + . -. + o n-, t a, = ag(x - a )(x - a ) - - - (x - a n)
Since ao * 0, dividing both sides of the above identity by as, we have
," *!ao,n-r *?rn-'+ ... +aT r,++:(x-ar)(x -a) ... (x-an)

a0 a0 a0
Direct multiplication of the right hand side of the above identity gives
*al ...
*n
ao*n-l +!L"n-z
ao + +ar+ ao ,*!oao
: -(at+a,2+ ... +ar)xn-r +1ap2+ara3+ '.. +an-tan)rn-' + ... +(-1)" (ap2..an)
xn
Equating coefficients, the results follow. ll
EXAMPTE 5
(a) The roots of the equation t3 -26t2 +156x+ p=0 are ingeometricprogression. Find p.
(b) Solve the equation 81ra+54x3-189x2 -66x+40=0 given that the roots are in
arithmetic progression.
SOLUTION
(a) Lettherootsbe a, ak. Then

f,,
*3 -z6t' +r56x + p = 6 -f,){x - a)(x - ka)
Comparing coefficients
l\
a (l)
f,+a+ak =26, 7+*n ) =16
(X)ana)@a)+(rca\( 9) rsa a' 1+r+r) 156 (2)
k) = k)
(;)t"xo"t= -o a3 = -p (3)
156
(l)+(2),o=#=6andby(3), p=-63=-2I6. I
O) Let the roots be (a-3d), (o-d),(a+d), (a+3d). Then, similar to (a), by the relation
between roots and coefficients, the sum of roots is given by
(a-3d)+(a- d)+(a+ d)+ (a+3d) = -54

'8r
1
A=-- (4)
6
and, the sum of roots taken two at a time is given by

(a - 3d) (a - d\ + (a - 3d)(a + d) + (a - 3d)(a + 3d) + (a - d)(a + d)
+ (a - d')(a + 3d) + (a + d)(a + 3d)= '81-'ry
1a2 - 4d +3d') * (o' - zd - 3dz ) + 1a2 - sa21 + 1a' - d' )
+(d +2d -3dz) + (a2 + 4d +3d2)=
'81-ry
ad-rca2--189
81
!-rca'=-!
63 by (4)
d =x!.
2
5. ! !
"r" - 3' -Z3'3' 3'
Hence the roots
EXAtttPLE 6
Find a necessary condition for the sum of two roots of the equation
,o -prt +qr2 -o+r=0,

to be equal to the sum ofthe other two
SOLUTION
Let the roots of the given equationbe a, p, y and d Then,
,o - pt3 * q*2 - o *, = (x- a)(x - fl(x - y)(x - d)
= to * orr' * ort2 + o3x + 64
Theory ofEqntion 147
Comparing coemcients,
6r=a+B+f *5= p, (l)
o2:(a+p)(f+A+aB+y6=q, e)
ot=af (f +5)+y6(a*h=r, (3)
oq = affd - s. (4)
Also, since the sum of two roots is equal to the sum of the other two, therefore, let
a+B= y+6. (5)
(l) to (3) becomes
or=2(a+81= p,
or=(a+812 +aB+y6=q,
ot=(ap+ y6)(a+ B)= r,
Jor=(pl2)2 +aB+y5=q,
lor=(aP+rO@12)=r,
for=1plz72 +(2rf p)= q,
Hence the required condition is
p3 -4pq*8r =0 I
EXArr,lPLE 7
If I,a1,d2,...&2, areroots of x2n+l-l=0, findapolynomialwhoserootsare O,(l-ar'),

(l- a), -.. , (l- azn\
Hence,find (l-a1)Q-a) ... (l-a2n)
SOLUTION
lf l, a1, d2,...,d2n ztorootsof *2n+l -1 =0, then
2n+l
x'"'' -l= (x-1)(x-a1Xx- a) ... (x - a2n)
2n
= (x-l) II
r=l
(x- ar)
Tofindtheequation'whoserootsare 0, (l-a),(l-a2),...,(l-a2), wereplace x by

l-x
2n
(r-')2"*r -l = {(l-x) -r}f[{fr-x)- a,}
r=l
2n
(t-r)2n*r +t = xfl{x-1t-a,)}
r=l
The equation whose roots are 0, (l-a,), (L- a),..., (1- arn) is
(t-l)2"*r *l =o
or ,2n+l -r2n+lt2n * ... *4ir*lr=0,

So that the eqtration whose roots are (1-a1), (l- a), ..., (7- arr) is
*" -il"*tt2n-t * ... *4X*t =o
therefore, by the relation between roots and coefficients,
(l-a)(l-a) ... (I-azn)=product of roots
= (_t)t" c3!:t
=2n+l
Symmellic funclion of rools Symmetric fi:nctions of the roots are those functions in which
all the roots are involved in tlte same way and in which the functions are unaltered when any two
of the roots are interchanged. Formally,
DEFINIIION Any polynomial in n independent variables xD x2, -.. , xo which is unaltered by

all permutations of x1, x2,... , xn is called a symmetricpolynomial of x1, x2,... , xn.
lllustrotions xr-xz is notasymmetricpolynomial in xp x2, but (r, -tr)2 is one.
If x is another independent variable and we write

.f (x) = (x - x)(x - x21 ... (x - x,)
in the form
xn -otx n-l +o2xn-2 . -,n
+l-I) on,
then ot=xl+x2+... +xn,
62 =XlXz +XlX3 + -.. *Xr_1Xn,
6, = X1X2 "'Xn.
Since /(x) isunalteredbyallpermutations of xyx2,...,xn, itfollows tltat 01,62,...,on
are homogeneous symmetric polynomials in x1, x2,...,x*the! are all called the elementary
symmetri c po lynomi als.
EXAMPTE 8
(a) If f, y aretherootsof *3 +p*2 +qx+r=O, showthat

q,
ot +f +r3 =3pq- p3 -3r.

O) Show that the values of x , y, z which satisfy
x*)t*z=-2,
J)a
x- +y- +z' =6,
*t *y'+23 =-8,
also satis$ equation
t3 +2t2 -t-2=o.
Hence find all tle solutions x, y, z.
SOLUTION
(a) From
,3 + pt2 + qx + r : (x - a)(x - f)(x - f)

we have
a+B+Y=-P
Py+ya+aP= q
dQr= -r
Using a3 *f *rt -3a\f =@+B+fi(oz *f2 +r2 -pr-Ta-an,
ot *f +r3 =3aBy+@+p+r)@2 +F2 +y2 -fr-ya-af)
=3af/ +(a+ B+y )[ (a + p +y)2 -3(Fy +ya + ap]
= -fr' + p(pz -3q)l
Alternative We have from (*)

a+B+f=-P (1)
a2 +F +f =1a+p+y12 -z(ap+By+ya)
=(-p)2 -2q (2)
Since a, f, f arc roots of the equation,

o3 +po2 +qa,+r=o
f * pBt +qp+r =o
13 + prt +qr +r =o
Adding and using (1), (2)
@t *f +y31+p1a2 +F2 +y2)+q(a+p+y)+3r=0

@t *f +f3)+p(p2 -zq)+q(-p)+3r=0
(3)
ot * f +r3 =3pq - p3 -3r.

(b) Set
-2= x+ y+z = -p
6=*2 +y2 +r2 = p2 -2q
-8=x3 +yt *r3 =3pq-p3 -3r
SoMng, p=2, 8=-I, r=-2. By(a) x, y, z arerootsoftheequation,
t3+zt2 -t-z=o
(r- 1)(r+l)(r+2) = 0
Hence, one of the solutions is
X=1, f=-I, Z=-2.
Formolion of o Polynomiol Equolion Let ar, a2,..., &n be roots of a polynomial

equation. Denote
or=Za, o2=lopr, ..- , 6n=Eoror...an.
then the required equation will be
xn -6rxn-l +o"t'-2 - ... +(-l)n 6n =0.
EXAMPI.E 9
If a, f, f arctherootsoftheequation rt *p,+q=0, findtheequationwhoserootsare
(a) (i) 2 lll --;, --;

(ii) ---;,
o2, p2 Z^La
apy
(b) (D fr, Ta, af (tr) lll y",
W, "p
SOLUTION
We have, by the relation between the roots and coefficients,
a+B+f=0 I
PY + Ya + aB= r f..........'...t*l
aQr= -q)
(a) We shall find the equation whose roots are a2, F, I and use the result to deduce the
next equation.
(D By (*), we compute
o2 +F2 +r2 =(a+B+fl2 -2(fr+ya+aB)

= 1p,
B' r' *T' o' + d2 82 = (Br +ra + ap)2 -2aBy@ +B+ y)
a
=P"
p y2=q 2
a2^2
Hence the equation whose roots *" o2 , P' , f' i"
*3 +2px2 +p2x-q2 =g
(iD Writing r = I in (i), we obtain the equation

v
(+)' .,,(i)' .rG)-Q2 =o

23 p-y-
q'y'- 2?
-2py-l=0
which is satisfiedby thevalues tlq'z, tlt,tlf: and so the equation whose roots
are rfd,rlf,rlf i"
23 p-x-
q-x- 22
- -2px-L=0.
Theory ofEquation 15r
(b) (i) We shall first find the equation whose roots are By, fd, dB. Since by (*)
BY +Ya+aB = P,
o2 py + B2ya +y2 aB = qff@ + f +y)
-0,
p y2
a2^2 -q 2
.
the equation whose roots arc Bf , ya, ap is
x322^
-Px -(l =U
(ii) Similar to (a)(ii), the equation whose roots are the reciprocals of those of above one is
q2x3 + px-l=o. I
EXA'T'TPTE In
a, B, f aretherootsof (*) r'+3Hx+G=0, andnoneis 0.
(a) u" L ya ap
Find the equation whose roots
G, H.
,
V,T , expressing its coefficients in terms of
(b) Deduce that the product of two of the roots of the given cubic equation (*) is equal to the
third if and only if
G+G2 -6GH +9Hz =0
SOLUTION
(a) Here a+B+y=0, py+ya+ap=31, aFT=-G.
A natural method is to form the elementary symmetric functions of the new roots, thus
Fr ya aF=____Zn_
or=_;_V_ B'T'*y'o'+a282
f
(Fr + ya + oF)2 - 2(aFD@ + F + y)
gH2
G
Ta aB aF Fy + Fr ra
02=V.T+V. o'V=o ' *B' *y' "
= @. + B + y)' -Z(By + ya + ap)
=-6H,
o3
Fy ya aF
aFr
d Pr
- -G.
The required equation is therefore
t'*9H' ,' -.6Hx+G =o

G
Gx3 +9H2x2 -6GHx+G2 =0. (**)
(b) ffthe product of the two of a, p, 7 is equal to the third, then either
FT=q or ya=B or af=f
i.e. &=t or ra =r or 4=t
aBr
This implies that I is one of the roots of the cubic equation (**) in (a). Thus
G(t)3 +9H2 $)2 -6GH(I1+G2 = o
G+G2 -6GH+9H2 =0.

Conversely, rf G +G2 -6GH +9H2 =0 which can be uritten as
G(r)3 +9H3 G)2 -6GH(I)+G2 =o

Therefore, I is a roots ofthe cubic equation ('*) in (a). Thus, either
&=t =r or 4=t. Yd
aPr or
i.e. Fy = a or Ta= p or qF= y
This shows that the product of two oJ a, F, / is equal to the third.
Newlon's Formuloe for Sums of Powers The sum

sk = qlk +ork + "' *onk ,
where k is a positive integer, is a homogeneous symmetric polynomial of degree k in a, i = l,

2, .. .,n . We obtain here Newton's formulae, by means of which ,s& can be expressed in terms
of the elementary slmmetric functions.
THEOREM3.2[Newton'sformuloeforsumsof powers] If oya2,.-.,an arethe n roots

of the equation f (x) = 0 where
f (r) = eoxn + arxn-l + orrn-2 + "' + an-rx + an

and denote sk = dtk +ark + ... +onk , th"n
aO\+aI=0
aos2 +aft+2a2 - 0
ao\ +af2 +arsr+3a, =0
aosk +af k_t+a2sk_2 +...+ak_lsl +kak =0.
PROOF If ar, a2,..., an are rootsof f(x)= 0, then
f (x) = as(x - a)(x - e) ... (x - a ) = oofi.: - o,)

r=l
Using logarithmic differentiation, we have
n
lnf(x) -lnao +ltnl t-o,l
r=l
.f '(x)
f (x\ I
r=l
x dr
I
-=
By I+r+r2 * ... *rk r-rk*r | ,k*r
I-r = I-r l-r'
---
k+l
or
*= (t+r+r2 + . *ro)*|
we have
f'(x)= f @Z x-d,
n
r=l
1
f@i+ft
=/(')I xI ,.(+).(+)'
r=l
. .(+)r.6 (?)'.'l
n
=f@)z +{'.[+).
r=l
(+)'. .(?)r]|.2# (+)r.'
Multiplying to both sides,
"L*1
tk*rf'(r)= reli{rk *o,rk-r *of;ro-'* ... *o!l*i+
'J H x-a_
r=l r=l
= 11x){nxk *"rr&-t *rrtk-z + ... +so}+g(x)
where so =ioro and g1x;=f o rk*l .

(x) isapolynomial ofdegree <n-1. The
r=l r=l
G-"J
above identity is
,k*t
{no or"-' + (r - l) a
rx'-2 + (n - 2) a
rx"-' * ... +a r-r}
- (agxn +o1rn-l +orr'-2 + ... +an-rx+on 1{nxk +"1r&-l *rr*k-2 + +se]+g(r).
Then, by equating the coefficients of like powers of x
ao\+nar=(n-l)a1
ays2+ar\*na2=(n-2)a2
ao$ + af2 + az\ + na3 = (n - 3)a3
aTsk +afk_t+a2sk_2 + ... +4r_1.r1 +nak - (n-k)ap

On simplification these become
40.s1 +41 = 0
+2a, = g
aosz + a1st
a's. +af2 +arsr+3a, = 0
qosk +afk_L+a2sk_Z+ .'. +ak_ft+kaO =9.

lr
EXAMPTE I I
Let ap d2, d3, a 4 bethe roots of the equation f(x)= 0 where
.f (x) = *4 - 4r3 + x2 +r2x-15

Define sk = dtk +ork +o3k +ook for k: 1,2,3,4 and 5.
(a) Showthat
I I I I
f'(x)=f(x) x-Al x-A2 x-&3 x-d4
(b) Showthat
,6f '(r)=f @){4x5 *rrto +rrt3 *rr*2 *rot+sr}+g(x)
where g(x) is a polynomial of degrce less than 4.
Deducethat s1 =4, s2 =14, s3 =16, s4 =62, s5=I24.
SOLUTION
(a) a1, d2, d3, d4are roots of f (x) = *o -4r3 +x2 +I2x-15. then
_f (x) = (x - a )(x - a )(x - a)(x - a a)
Diferentiation gives
llll
f'(x)=f(x) x-dl x-A2 x-d3 x-d4
1l I -+-+-+-
O) For
x-a x d
l- x
=
+{'. (:).(;)' .[;)' .(;)' .[:)'] .* (:)'
x6 i +u 4+q,23 q6
x +q,32
x +q,4x*a 5*-
x-q x-a
we -=x
have
46 x
x6.f'(x)= f (iL x- di
j=l
4
= /(x)I(x5 * o,to * ol *t * ol r' * of,* ol ).i+!ylt
t=l i=l
= f (x) {+r5 *"rra *rrt3 +rr*2 +srr+sr}+g(x)
where so = 4 +$*o\+a[, tc=l, 2, 3,4, 5, and g(x)= is a polynomial

t#
ofdegree < 3
Theory of Equation r55
Now
,614t3 -r2x2 +2x+r2)
=1x4 -4x3 +x2 +r2x-lt t4x5

+srx4 +srx3 +"rr2 +"or+sr]+g(x)
Comparing coefficients,
-12 = sr -16
2=s2-4st+4
12= h -4s, +s, +48
0 = s4 -4s3 +s2 +l2st -60
0 = s5 -4s+ +s, +12s, - 15st
we obtain sl = 4, s2 = 14, s3 = 16, s4 = 62, ss = 124. I
EXERCISE 3B
1 Therootsoftheequation t3 +pr2 +qx+30=0 areintheratios 2:3:5. Findthevalues

of p and. q.
2 The equation
. *4 +2x3 -17x2 +lac.+72=0

has four roots a, F, T,6 such that a+B=y+6. Find the value of /c and the
corresponding values ofthe roots ofthe equation.
3 (a) The equation
pt3 *qt2 +r.r+,t=o
hasroots q, I and p.Provethat

-
p22
-s =pr-QS.
(b) Solve the equation
6x3 + I lxz -24x-g =0.
4. If r *0 and the reciprocals of the roots of the equations x3 +3px2 i3qx+r =0 are
arithmetical progression, prove tlnt
2q3 =r(3pq-r).
5_ Given that a is a root of the equation
*4 +6*3 -5x2 +6x+l = 0

r56 Theory of Equation
(a) Prove tlnt I lro is a root of this equation.

a
(b) Show that the sum ofthe squares ofthe reciprocals ofthe roots ofthe equation is 46.
(c) By substituti ng y =t *1, o, otherwise, solve the equation.
6. (a) Therootsof theequationin x, *3 +pt+q=0 ate d, B, f .Express p arrd q in

terms of F nd T orly.
(b) If one root is ft times another,

(i) prove that
p37k2 +k12 +q2(k2 +ft+93 =g

(ii) and show that, if q+ 0 one root is then expressible in the form
-q(k2 +k +I)
p(k2 +k)
and find the other two roots.
7 Let a, f, y, 6 be the roots of the equation

,4 +*3 +bx2 +cx+d =o
where a, b, c md d arereal numbers.
(a) Show that
a+B+ y+ 6=-a,
aB+ay+a6+By+86+y6= b,
aBy6= d.
(b) Suppose the roots also satisfy
q+5= f+T
Show that
a
a+6=_T
a6+PY = 3
a*[a2 -+a
zod =
ln
where B =b-Ta'.
Hence show that
x4 +ctx3,2
+Dx +cx+cl= x+
2 a
2
,*zB*G\d x+
2 a
2
x+
B- 82 -4d
2
8. (a) (i) Let ot3 = I and ar * l. Show that the expression
,3 -3u*-1r3 +r31
can be factorized as
(x - u - v)(x - on - af v)(x - ot2 u - an).
(ii) Find a solution to the following system of equations

(s 3 -
)u *v =6
lu, =2.
Hence, or otherwise, find the roots of the equation
t3 -6*-6 = o.
(b) Given an equation

x3 +px+q=g (*)
(D show that, if (*) has a multiple root, then
27q2 +4p3 =0,
(iD using the method indicated in (a) (ii), or otherwise, show that, if
27q2 +4p3 =g,
then (*) has a multiple root. [HKALE 1980]
Sy mmAric fun cti o n s of r o ots
9 If a, F, y,5 arerootsoftheequation *4 +ot3 +bx2 +cx+d=0, findthevalueof

(p+ y+ 6- a)(y + 6+ a- p)(6+ a+p - y)(a + B+ r - 6 ).
10. If a, f, / are roots of the equatio o t3 - *2 +bx - c = 0, find tlte values of

(a)
lll
a2' p2'Tz',
-I-f -
(b)
1l I
'
prr, T2o2' o2pz
-l-I-
11. Given that a, B, y are the roots of the equation ,3 + pr' * Qx +r = 0;
(a) express ot * f +y3 interms of p, q, r and.

(b) showthat
lllla,
=]{zna, -q3 -3r2).
apyr
-*;**
12. If a, f, y, 6 are the roots of the equation
t4 -613 +8x2 +4x-4=0,

prove that
la2 =20,
Zo'B =uo'
la3 =60,
laa =192,
where in each equation t denotes the sum of all terms of the same tlpe as the one given.
13. (a) The l-th elementary symmetric function si(a1, a^,... ,dn) in the indeterminate
&1, e2, "', & n is defined as the coefficient of r'-' of the polynomial
(x + ar)(x + a2) ... (x + a,).
Evaluate si(ay a2, a3, aa) for i = l, 2, 3, 4.
(b) Let a, F and 7 bethethreeroots of x3 +px+q.
(i) Provethat (f -D2 =4p-3a2.

What conclusion can you draw from this if p >0?
(ii) Express (f -D2 (r -a)2 (a - p)' interms of p arld q andhence show that
,3 * pt * q has a multiple root if and only if
4P3 +27q2 =g.
14. Let 11, 12, 13 batherootsofthecubicpolynomial

,3 *orr2 +a2x+c\.
Defined \=rt+r24t3, s2=rl2+r22+h2 and s, =rt3+r23+r33.
(a) Express a1, a2 intermsof sr, s,
O) Determine cr, p so that
o. =-|",' +asp2+84.
(c) Using (a), @) or by any other method, solve the system of the equations
x*!*z =2,
*' *yt +22 =6,
tt *yt +23 =8.
Theory ofEquation r59
Formation of a Polynomial Equotion
15 Three numbers p,q and r are such that p+q+r =6 and p'+q'+r2 =38. Show
that
Pq+qr*rP=-1.
If also pqr = -30, form a cubic equation whose roots are p, q and r. Hence, or
otherwise, find the three numbers.
16. (a) If a, F and y arethe roots of x3 +Ax2 +Bx+C =0,
express o2 +p2 +y2 and a2p2 +F2r2 +r2o2 interms of A,B and C.
(b) Find a cubic equation whose roots are the squares ofthe roots of
,1990]
x3-3x+l=0. [HKALE
17. (a) Given that a, p, and y are the roots of a cubic equation
t3 + pr2 *Qx*r =0.

with r + 0, show that Py - ot = pa + q
Hence, or otherwise, show that a cubic equation whose roots are Ff - o' ,
Ta - p2 arfi, ap -y2 is
,t *(p' -3q)r2 +(3q2 - p2q)x+(p3r-q3)=0. 119961
O) Show also that, if q3 = rp3 , then the roots of the original equation are in geometrical
progression.
18. (a) Show that rfF, y arethe

a,. roots of
*3 +3o12 +3bx+c=0.
then
a+P+T=-3a,
BY+Ya+aP=$,
afY = -c'
O) Prove that the roots of x3 +3ax2 +3bx+c=0 are in arithmetic progression if and
only if
2o3 -3ab*c = o.
(c) Let y1, !2, where k is a constant. Using
!3 be the roots of y3 +4y2 +2y+k =0
(a) and (b) or otherwise, show that there are exactly two values of k for which
yt2 , yz2 , !32 ate in arithmetic progression.
Neuton'sformulnfor sums of powers of roots
19. (a) Prove by induction on z that
n(,-r ) "-r(, )
Zllorl=Il
i=r[r=o
l,hl
J 7=o[i=;*r )
for n=\2,3,,..
n
O) Let f (x\=|",t' bearealpolynomial of degree n.
t=0
(i) Deduce from (a) that
f (x)- f (a)= Sf f'O-r'

,,ro,-r-,J
x-a Ll -
,r=0\,=/+l )
I
for any number a.

(ii) Lettheroots dl, d2,...,a, of "f(x) beallreal. Showthat
f'(x\=f rrtl
Q x-ar-
k=l E
(iii) Let e.p &2,..., dn beallnon-zeroandlet

n
to=ZotP (p=0,1,.,.,n).
k=l
Using (i) and (ii) or otherwise, show that
n-r (" '\
f'(r)=Ertl 2","--, I
j=o [i=7+r )
Hence deduce that
n
1i +l)ci+r= I",",-r.-,
i= j+l
for 7=0,\ "',n-L
20. Let f (x)=to +orr3 +orr2 +a3x+a4 bearealpolynomial and f'(x) be its derivative.
Suppose 11 , t2, rt atd, 14 arethefourrealroots of f(x) =0 For p=I,2 and 3. So
4
is defined by Sp =Zr,o .
t=l
4
(a) Show that f '(x) =t# forall x * t1 , t2, t3: 14.
t=l
Theory ofEquation r6r
(b) Show that, for i = I,2,3, or 4,

f(x) = ( x-3 + rixz
i--i--: + rr2 x + rr3 ) + o + r,x + r12 ) + a2(x + r,) + a3
x-fi 1x2
for all r;arr.

(c) Using (a) and (b), show that
.f'(x) =4x3 +(S, +4a1)x2 +(S, +Sra, +4ar)x+(\+Srar+Srar+4a3).

(d) Find 6, (i =1,2,..., 6) in terms of a, (i =1,2,3,4) such that
51 +Dt=0
S, +DrS, +D, = g
^S,
+6o5r +D5S1+D. = 0. [HKALE ]982]
21. Let p(x)=ro *or*t +or*2 +a3x+a4, where a1, ct2, o3, ao eR.
Suppose zr = coser +i sindl and z, - cos02 +i sirl42 are two roots of p(x) = 0, where
0< q < 0z<r.
(a) Showthat
(i) p(x) = 1x2 -zxcosl, + l)(x2 -2xcos02 +l),
(iD x-cosd1 x-cos92

p'@) =2p(x) -
x'z .2xcose2+r
(b) Suppose p(w)=0, byconsideing p(x)-p(w), showthat
:!(?= = x3 +1w +o;1*2 +1*2 +a1w +ar)x+(w3 *o1rt

x-w +a2w *a3).
(c) Let sn = zl +ii +ti +"1, wing(a) (iD and O), showthat
p' (x) =4x3 + (s, + 4a1)x2 + (s, + ars, + 4ar)x + (4 + s2ar + sra2 + 4a).
lr*r, t"2(x-coso')+l =x-2,

' *x-zr
'= ,r=t,2.1
I -2xcos?, J
Hence show that

sn +alsn-l+ ... + an-.tsl+nan =0
for n =1,2,3, 4. [HKALE 1993]

In the remaining sections of this chapter we shall investipte the nature of roots and study
appropriate methods for solving certain types of equation.
3.3 rvlutTlPtE RooTs
Let f(x) beapolynomial. If

f(x)=(x-a)k q(x)
where k md q(a)+ 0, the equation f(x)= 0 is said to have a multiple
is a positive integer
root a of multiplicity k (or a is said to be a multiple root of order k).
x x
d
Figure 3.3(a) q p, T are simple roots Figure 3.3(b) / is a double root
IHEOREM 3.3 Let f (x)=0 be a polynomial equation, The equation has a as a multiple
root if and only if f (a) = f ' (a) = 0 .
PROOF Suppose a isamultiplerootof f(x)=0, then
f(x)=(x-a)k q(x)
where fr is a positive integer > 2 and S@)+ 0. Differentiation gives
"f'
(x) : k1x - a)k-t q(x) + (x - a)k q' (x)
= 1, - a1k-t {kq(x) + (x - a)q, (t)}.

Thus /'(a) = 0.
Conversely, suppose that f (a)= f'(a) = 0. By f @) = 0 we have
f(x)= (x - a)q(x)
-f ' (x) = (x - a)q' (x) + q(x)
By f'(a)=0,
(a - a)q' (a) + q(a) = g.
4@)=o
By factor theorem, (x - a) is a factor of 4(x). Thus
f(x)=(x-a)q(x)
= (x - a)2 q{x)
where q(.r) = (x - a)qr(x). This shows that x = d isa multiple root of /(x) ll
Remork From above theorem, we assert t\atrf a is a multiple root of the polynomial equation
-f(x)=O of multiplicity k,then /(x) and f'(x) haveacornmon factor (x-a)k-r. Also,
let a bearootof f(x)=O,rf a isnotarootof f'(x)=0, then d cannotbeamultipleroot

of /(x) = g.
lllustrotion Let /(x) =*5 -7"0 +19x3 -25x2 +l6x-4, then
-f (x) = 1x-t13 1x-212

We see that x =1, x = 2 are multiple roots of the equation of multiplicity 3 and 2 respectively.
f'(x) = 3(x - l)2 (x - 2)2 +2(x -t)3 (t - z)

= 1x - l)2 (x - 2)(5x - 8)
We seethat x=1, x=2 are roots of /'1r;=6 of multiplicity 2and. l respectively. That is
x=| and x=2 arethecommonrootof f(x)=0 and /'(x)=0. But r=$ isnotacornmon
rootof .f(x)=0 and f'(x)--O. Itisnotamultiplerootof f(x)=0. [nfact x=$ isnota
root of ,f(x) = 01. I
EXAMPTE I2
(a) Prove that the polynomi il f (x) has a as multiple root if and only if f (a) = f' (a) = 0.
O) Prove that the equation *3 + pt * q= 0 has a repeated root if and only if
4P3 +27q2 =g'
Reduce the equation *t -*2 -8r+12=0 to the form tt *pr*q=g and hence, or
otherwise, solve it.
SOLUTION
(a) Refer to tleorem 3.3.
O) Let f (x)=x3 +px*q, then f'(x)=3x2 +p. f (x)=0 has a repeated root a (say) if
and only if
f(a)= f'(a)=0.
i.e. o' * po +q =0, 3a2 + p =g (l), (2)
Fut (2) in (1)

p
+pd+q=0
"( J
3q (3)
a=- 2p
Put (3) in (2)
'(-*)'*p=o
4p3 +27q2 =g.
(b) Bythe transformation x = z +b.

(z + b)3 - (z +b)2 -8(z +b) + 12 = 0.
z3 +(3b-r)22 +(3b2 -2b-8)z+(b3 -b2 -80+12)=0.
The equation is of the form z3 + pz +q = 0 provided that
(3r-l)=0, ie b=tr.
Thus, by the transformation r = z +|, the given equation becomes
1z+l)3 - 1z +!)3 -8(z++) +12 = o

z3-!z+ff=u.
rs ?50_n
For
4e+)3 +27(ff12 =s
by (a), the given equation has a repeated root.
Let a, a, B be the roots. By the relation between roots and coefficients,
2a+p=0, a2B=-z5o =) o=1, B=-+.

By x = z +{, the roots of the given equation are
tf+]l=2, 2, (-f+Jl=-:. T
EXAMPI.E I3
(a) Let p(x) be a polynomial of degree n (> 3 ). Prove tlnt a is a root of multiplicity 3 of
the equation p(x)= 0 if and only if
p(q) = p'(a) = p', (a) = 0
and p"'(a1*0
where p', p", p"' represent the respective order of derir,ative.
O) If the equation
t4 **3 +bx2 +cx+d =0, 3a2 -gb +0,
6"=- ob
has three equal roots, show that each ofthem is equal
' to 3a'-8b
SOLUTION
(a) Suppose that d is a multiple root of p(x) =0 of multiplicity 3, then
p(x) = (x - a)3 q(x)

where q(a) * 0. Differentiation gives
p' (x) = 3(x - a)2 q(x) + (x - a)3 q'(x)

p" (x) = 6(x - a)q(x) +6(x - a)2 q' (x) + (x - a)3 q" (t)
p"' (x) = 6q(x) +18(x - a)q' (x) +9(x - a)2 q" (t) + (x - a)3 q,,, (x)
Then we have
p(a)= p'(a)= p"(a\=O
and p"'(a)=6q(a)*0.
Conversely suppose tlnt p(a)= p'(q)= ptt(a)=0 and p"'(a)+O.
Let
p(x) = ao + ar(x - a'. + ar(x - a)2 + ar(x - a)3 + ... + an(x - a)', n ) 3.
p' (x) = a, + 2a2 (x - a) + 3a3(x - a)2 + 4aa(x - a)3 + "' + ro n(* - a)n-r
p" (x) = 2l a2 + 3 - 2a3|.y - a) + 4. 3a a(x - a)' * ... + n(n - l)a n(x - a)n-2
p"' (x) = 3l at + 4 - 3. 2a o(x - a) + .'. + n(n - I)(n - 2)a n(x - a)n-3 .
By hypothesis,
aO=O, a=O, a2=0, 31.a3= p"'(a) +0. i.e. a3*0.
Hence
p(x) = a3(x - a)3 + aalx - a)a + "' + ar(x - a)n
= 1x-a)3 lar+aaQ-a'1+ +an1x-a1"41.

_/ 3
-t x a) q(x')
where q(x) = + oolx - a) + ... + an(x - ol"-t) and q(a) = 43 * 0, therefore a is a
fo,
multiple root of p(x)= 0 of multiplicity 3
(b) Let
p(x)=*4 **3 +bx2 +cx+d
p' (x) = 4x3 +3ax2 + 2bx + c.
p"(x)=12x2 +6ax+2b.
Let a the multiple root of multiplicity 3, ther! by (a), f'(a) = 0 and f "(a) = 0, therefore
4a3 +3aa2 +2ba+c=o (l)

(2)
l2a2 +6aa +2b =o
3x (I)- a(2)
3aa2 +4ba+3c=0 (3)
Solving (2), (3) for a2 and a, we have

2
a-a1
lgac-ffi2 6ab -36c 4gb -Iga2
grving
6ab-36c 6c-ab
4gb-rga2 3a2 -gb'
3.4 RAIIONAT ROOTS
THEOREM 3.4 If the real rational number L in bwest terms is a root of the polynomial
q
equation
aoxn +arxn-l + ... *on-1x*an =o

where ao, ar, ...,en_,, an are integers, then p and q must be factors of an and ao
respectively.
PROOF Substitution * = L inthe given equation

q
',(+)^
.^(t)"-'* "'*o,-,(t)*".=o (r)
and multiplyingby qn
oop' +o1pn-tq* ... +an-1pQn | *anqn =0. (2)

Dividing by p and transposing the last term,
oopn-l +a1p'-lg+ ... *an-1Q'-l - -o'Q'
p
Since the left side ofthe above equation is an integer, so also is the right side. But since p has
no factor in common with q, it cannot divide q' and so must divide a,.
Similarly, on dividing (z)by q and transposing the first term,
orp'-l+ ... + ar-1pQn

2
*orQ'-' =-aoP'
q
We find tln;t q must divide ao. ll
CORO|.LARY 3.5 Let

aoxn +arxn-l + ... +on-rx*an =o
be an equation with integral coeficients in which the leading cofficient equals l. Then every
rational root ofthe equation is an integer. Il
EXAMPTE I4
Prove that Ji * Jl cannotbe a rational number
SOLUTION
If x= Ji+Ji then, squaring
x2 =5+2JC *2 -5=zJ6
and squaring again,
to -ror2 +l=0.
The only possible rational roots of this equation are +1 by above theorem, and these do not
satis$the equation. Itfollows that Ji+Ji, which satisfies the equation, cannotbe a rational
number. I
EXAMPI.E I5
(a) f (x)=m3 +bx2 +ac+d is a cubic polynomial with integral coefficients and p, q are
two relatively prime integers. Prove the following assertion:
(*) n !q isa root of the equation -f (x)=0, then p is afactor of d and 4 is a factor
ofa
O) Is the converse of (*) true? If you think that it is true, give a proof. If you think that it is
false, give a counter-example (i.e. an example to substantiate your statement that the
converse of(*) is false).
(c) Prove that the equation
8r3-6r+l=0
has no rational roots.
SOLUTION
(a) Refer to theorem 3.4
O) The converse of the statement (*) is not true. For example, consider the equation
8x3-6x+1=0.
and let t=i ,n"o I is a factor ofthe constant term and 2 is a factor ofthe leading
coefficient, but
s (*)t -o (jl +r = t-3+t * o.

I is not a root of the equation. Therefore, the converse of the statement (*) is not true.
(c) The integral factor of 8 and I are respectively

tl, +2, +4, +8, and +1.
By (a), the possible rational roots are
+l +l
-z', +l
-4'
+1
-8
Because
.f (l) =8(l)3 - 6(1) + I * o.

,f(-l) =s(-l)3 -o(-t)+l *0
f (+) =ttll'-or*l +l * o.
f e r= 8(-+)3 - 6(-+) + I ;c o.
f eil=8(1+)3 - 6(t+) + I + o.
ftt*) = 8(t+)3 -6(t*) +l * o.
Thus the equation 8r3 -6r+l =0 has no rational root.
3.5 COMPTEX ROOTS
THEOREM 3.6 The complex roots of a polynomial equatim with real coeficients occur in
conjugate pair. That is, if p + iq is a root of
aoxn +arxn-l * ..- +on-rx*an =o

where ao (+O), ar, ... an, p,q are real, then p-iq is also a root.
PROOF Let z be a complex root of the equation, then

aozn +arzn-l + ." *on-12*an=0
Taking conjugate at both sides
aozn +arz'-l * .-. *on-pian=0

Since the coefficients are real, a, =4 therefore,
oor" +or2"-'* ..' *or-rr+or=0.

We see that 7 satisfies the equation so it is also a root of tlte equation.
EXA l6
^PT.E
Form the equation of lowest degree with real coefficients whidr has 2+3i, 3-2i as two of its
roots.
SOLUTION
Since in an equation with real coefficients, complex roots occur in conjugate pairs. therefore the
required equation must have at least four roots namely
2+3i,3+2i
Therefore, the equation of lowest degree with these four roots is
{x - (2 + 3i)} {, - (z -li)}{x - (3 + })}{x - (3 - 2t)} = 0

{t, -21'+ r}{t'- 3)2 ++} = o
(x2 -4x+l3Xx2 -6x+13) =0

14 -1013 +50x2 -130x+169 = 0 I
REMARK The result of this theorem does not hold if the coeficients are not all real. For
example, the roots of the equation
+(2i-3)z+(5-i) = 0 or {t-(Z-ti)}{z-(1+i;}
z2 = I
are (2-31), or (1+i) Theyare not in conjugate pair.
COROLIARY 3.7 Polynomial equation f(x) with real coefficient of degree n has at least
one real root if n is odd. Il
Theory of Equation r69
lllustrotion Showthat the equation x5 +x+l=0 has only one real root.
Existence In fact, let
.f(*)=x5+x+l
Because
"f
(-t) = -t, "f(0) = I
and -f is a polynomial which is continuous on \ therefore, there is one real root in (-1, 0).
Un i qu e n e s s Differentiation gives
-f'(x) =5x4 +1>0 forall x eR

This implies that f is always increasing. That is, the graph of / cuts the x-axis only once. The
uniqueness is proved. t
EXAMPTE I7
Let f(x)=x4 +I. Show that f(x) can be expressed as the sum of the square of two
polynomials with real coeffrcients, i.e.
.f (*) =lp@)12 +lqfu)1z .
SOLUTION
For /(x)=x4+l we see that f(x)>O for all r eR. The equation f(x)=0 has no real root.
The roots are
x=[li="o"2klr o*,"in2k ll o, k =0, r, 2,3

44
Denotingtherootsby a, F, o and, p, m"n
d= cos+E+ isn! zr:f (t+i)
F = cos I n+ i
ft(_l + r)
s:rr-;. z=
F=cosio+isnlr=fr(_t_D
a=cos|r+isnf,n=t(t_r)
We have
(x - a)(x - fi= [x-f(r+ il]

['-;<-r+il]
[(' - ;X,.#) - +] -'[#(, - #).i(' - t)]
=
=1xz -t1-iJix
and 1x - Byx - al = [' - t r-t -,1] [' - #(r - r)] = 62 - t1 + iJix
Hence,
x4 + l = (t' - t)' + 1.1-2x12

3.6 IRRATIONAT ROOTS
IEMMA 3.8 If JA it irrational, but ,4 and B are rational such that
A+BJi =o
thenl=B=0.
PROOF On the contrary, suppose that B * 0, then, from ,4 + SJE = 0, we have

A
.rlb =_E
this implies that Ji is rational which contradicts the fact that Ji is irrational, therefore
B =0.
Now, when B = 0, the equality n+ BJi = 0 becomes
A+oJi =o
giing A=0. ll
IHEOREM 3.9 Let f (x)=0 be a polynomial equation with rational coeficients. tf a+Ji
(where a,b arerational,but Ji isirrational)isarootof f(x)=Q, then a-Ji isalsoa
root of f(x)=0.
PROOF Suppose that a+JD is a root of the equation where a and b are rational nd Ji
is irrational.
Since
l*-ro*J5-1] l*-to-J;tl= 6-a)2 -b

therefore
f(x)=l*-ro*Jt)]l*-<o-Ji))atO+@x+k) (r)
or f(x)=l{'-o)'-bfa@)+(hx+k) (2)
where 4(x) is the quotient and (hx + k) is the remainder.
Notice that h, k are obtained by division of a polynomial with rational coefficients by anotler
polynomial which involves only rational numbers, it follows thaL h, k must be rational.
Now, by hypothesis,@+J = 0, therefore from (l)

f
h@+Ji1+k=o i.e. (ah+k)+hJi =o
By the Lemma 3.8, we have simultaneously
ah+k =0
h=0
grving h=k= 0. Thus, (l)because
f =l' - <o*.6i] l' - o - Ji>]a<,t.

(x)
observing that a- Ja ir also a root of /(x) = 9. ll

Theory of Equation 171
EXAAAPTE I8
(a) n p * J q is one root of a quadratic equation with rational coefficients, show that the
other root must be p - JA, p and q beingnumbers of which q is not a perfect square.
(b) Construct the equation of the fourth degree, with rational coefficients, having
Ji *t and 2-16 rot two of its roots.
SOLUTION
(a) Any quadratic equation with rational coefficients may be represented in the form
x2 +bx+c =O
It p*Jq is a root ofthe quadratic equation, then
@*Jq)'+b(p+,\fi*c=0
(p' *q +bp+c)+(Zp+D,tq =g
It is necessary that
p2 +q+bp+c=0, and 2p+b=0
Hence
(p2 + q + bp + c) - (2p + D,! q = g

@-Ja)'+b(p-,,[fi+c=0.
This shows that p - Jq is also a root of the quadratic equation.
(b) The quadratic equation with rational coeffrcients which has JZ + t ur one of its roots has
-Ji *t as its other root so that the equation is
@-FJr)(x- t+J2) =o
(r-l)2 -(Ji)z =o
t2 -zt-l=o
Similarly the quadratic equation with rational coefficients which has 2- Jt as one of its
roots is
@-z+Ji)(x-z-Ji) =o
x2 -4x+l= o
Hence the equation of the fourth degree, with rational coefficients, which has
Ji +t, 2- J1 for two of its roots is
1x2 -zx-l)(x2 -4x+1) = o,

*4 -6t3 +Bx2 +2x-r=o
3.7 Appendix: SOLUTION OF POLYNOMIAL EQUATIONS
The reader is assumed to be familiar with the method of solution of the polynomial equation of
degree 1 Qinear equations) and degree 2 (quadratic equation). There also exist formula for
solving the polynomial equation of degree 3 and 4 which are given, without proof, below.
Gubic Equolion o*3 +bx2 *cx*d =0 (a+0)
By the translation 4 = * *
+ , the equation is transformed into
{3 +3P(+q =g,
3ac-b2 2b3 -gabc+27a2
where P= go, , n=
u;
Its discriminant is q2 +4p3 . The roots of the latter equation are
t=3Ji +tlp, ,3,[i +12l{p, ,rtJi *r1lf ,
where
23
-q+ q ++p
21ri
-t+t6i a
a e 3 (Cardano'sformula)
2 p 2
Casus irreducibilis (the case when q2 + 4 p3 <0). Putting o = r"tO (F = a), the roots are
6 =z{ cos!, zlli

"o"9!{, z{i
"orL{.
Quorlic Equolion (Biquodrotic Equcfion) axa +bx3 +cx2 + dx+e = 0 (a * 0)
,*
By the translation 6 =
* , the equation is transformed into
6o *p4'+qf +r=0.
The cubic resolvent of the latter is
t3 - ptz - 4rt +(4 pr - q2 ) = o.

If to is one of the roots of the cubic resolvent, the roots { of the above equation are the
solutions of two quadratic equations
€2 x'/7oul€-tc;-d].+=0 ( Ferrari'sformuta)
The formula for the cubic equation known as Cardano's formula was first obtained by
Tartagalia andpublished in 1545 by Cardan. A little later, Ferrari obtained a formula for the
Theory ofEquation ',73
solution of the general biquadratic. l,ater on, Euler and Decartes also obtained formulae for
solving the general biquadrtic. A detailed study appears in Dr K.T. Leung, Polynomials and
Equations (Hong Kong University Press).
Niccolo Fonlqnq (1500 - 1557) wos on ltolion mothcmoticion. Becouso of o

spccch dcfcct hc wos olso known os Torlogolio, which meons 'stommerer.
Girolomo Cqrdqno (1501 - 1576), commonly known os Cordon wos on holion

molhcmolicion. lcornl fic mcthod of solving cubic equotions from Toriogolic on rho
promisc thot hc would kccp thc mcthod sccrot but lotcr on hc publishcd it in his
book Ars Mogno.
tudovico Ferrori 11522 - 1565) Cordono's ossistont.
Remork that the solutions of quadratics, cubics and quartic equation are given in terms of root
ettraction md rational operations (i.e. addition, subtraction, multiplication and division)
performed on the coefficients of the given equation. That is, the algebraic equation of degree
< 4 can generally be solved algebraically.
Equolions of degree > 5 From the sixteenth century to the beginning of nineteenth century
many mathematicians tried to obtain similar results for quintic equations but without complete
success. It was then suspected that equations of higher degrees could. not be solved by root
extraction and rational operations on coefficients. This was confirmed by Paolo Rffini (1765-
1833) and Niels Hendrik Abel (1802-1829) that there is no general formula of such form. The
definitive answer of this kind of study was obtained by Evariste Galois (1811-1832) who not
only confirmed the results of Ruffini and Abel but also provided criteria for solvability of any n-
th degree equation by rational operations and root extraction on coefficients. The search for
general solution of equations that began with the Egyptians and the Babylonians ended with the
discovery of Galois. The method that he used is now called Galois theory and is included in
many standard undergraduate courses on abstract algebra.
Niels Henrik Abel (1 802 - 18291 wos lhc son of o poor Norvcgion minister. Hc
modc volucblc contributions lo tho lhoorics of infinito sorics qnd clliptic functions.
Hc dicd ot thc corly ogc of 27 dua to tubcrculosis.
Evorisle Golols (1811-18321, Fronch molhcmqticion, is onothcr importont nomc in

thc history of olgcbro.
Reference;
Dr. K. T. Leung Polynomials and Equations (Hong Kong University Press)
EXERCISE 3C
Muhiplc Roots
I (a) Given that the polynomial p(x) is divisible by (r-o)2, show that p'(x) is
divisible by (x-a).
(b) The polynomial (ra +t3 -r2r2 + px+q) is divisible by (x+2)2. Find the values
of the constants p nd q.
2. (a) Prove that rf f (x) is a polynomial and the equation f (x)= 0 has a repeated root
a then f'(a)=O.
O) (0 Deduce that if the equation *3 -3r2 -3x+k= 0 has a repeated root then ft
has one of the values 5 $Jr.
(ii) The roots of the equation x4 +4bx+c=0 are known to be a, a, P, f.
Express q, intermsof D and c,assumingtlat b+0.
3 (a) p is the statement:

(t - o)2 is afactor ofthe polynomial /(x).
q is the statement:
(x - a) is a factor of the polynomial f' (x).
(i) Prove that p + q.
(ii) Showby a counter-€xamplethzt q* p.
O) Giventhat
f (x)=4x4 +4x3 -llx2 -6x+9.

write down /'(x). Given also that /(x) has a repeated linear factor, factories
f'(x) nd f (x).
4. Prove that if the polynomial equation f (x)= 0 has a double root r then /'(r) = 0. State
and prove the converse proposition. Hence, or otlrcrwise,
(a) determine the constants A and, B so that
Ax'*l + Bxn +l
is divisibleby (x-1)2;
O) prove that the polynomial equation

2n
xx
I+x+ ,+ .. *, =O
cannot have a double root.

Theory ofEquation 17s
5. (a) Prove that the polynomial f(x) has r as multiple root if and only if
f(r)=.f'(r)=0.
(b) If n is any positive integer, show that the polynomial
(x+l)'+(x-t)u
has no multiple root.
(c) Let r beadoublerootofthepolynomial g21*1+t21t), where g(x) and h(x) are

r is also a root of the polynomial
polynomials without common roots. Show that
g'(t)2 +h'(x)2.
6. (a) Show that the polynomial equation f (t)= 0 has a repeated root x = B tf, and only
tt f (n =0 and f'(F)=0.
(b) Hence, or otherwise, show that, if the equation
,3 +or2 +bx+c=o
hasarepeatedrootand a2 +3b, then
(D (9c - ab)2 - 4(o2 -3D@2 -3ac) = g
(ii) and the value of this root may be expressed in the form .
9c-ab
-_-_:-'
2(a" -3b)
(c) Find the roots of the equation
x3 +zQ-Ji)x2 +Q-ali)x+6 = o.
given that it has a repeated root.
7 (a) Let f (x) be polynomial with reel coeffrcients, /'(x) its derivative and r a reaT
number. Prove that /(x) has r as a multiple root if and only rt f (r) = f'(r) : 0.
(b) f (x) and g(x) are polynomials with real coefficients without multiple roots, and
"f
(x), S@) have no common roots. Let
F(x) = f (x)S(x)k
where k is a positive integer greater than l.
(i) Show that if F.(x) and F'(x) are expressed in the form
F(x) = g1x1k-r 11.:x7, F'(x) = g1x1k-t Q@)
then P(x) and Q@) are polynomials having no common roots.
[You may assume that (a) holds when r is complex number.]
(ii) g(r) is a greatest cornmon factor of the polynomials P(x) and

Show that
QQ)-kP'(x), i.e. that S@) is a factor of both polynomials and every
common factor of the two polynomials is a factor of g(x).
8. Suppose the equation
t4 -3*2 +k =o (*)
has two roots a, B such tlnt a + p = 2.
(a) Showthat a*p

O) Show that o2 , p2 are two distinct roots of the equation
y2 -3y+k =0.
Hence find the value of k.
(c) Solve (*) and express the roots in the form of Ji xJi where a, D are rationals.
Hencefindthevalues of a and B. [HKALE 1996]
9 Consider the equation
x3 -3Px+2q=0 (*)
where p, q arcreal numbers-
(a) (i) If(*) has a rep€ated root, show that p3 = q2 .
(ii) If q=/1, ,no* thil Ji isarepeatedrootof (*)

l1
(iii) If q = -rl p' , show that (*) has a repeated root.
O) Consider the equation
2x3 +3*2 *x*c=0 (**)

where c is a real number.
(i) Transform (**) into the form y3 -3py+2q=g by using the substitution
x = y - h for some constant i.
(ii) Find c> 0 suchthat (**) has a repeatedroot.
Solve (**) for this value of c. [HKALE 9981

.l
Rdional Roots
10. (a) Let

ao +arx + -.- + anxn ,
for n>0, an*O be a polynomiat with integer coefficients. Prove that if I h a

,s
rational root of this polynomial with r, s coprime integers and s > 0, then r divides
ao and s divides an.
(b) Using (a), factoize the polynomial
,5 +3r4 -zr3 -7x2 +3x+2

as a product of prime (i.e. irreducible) polynomial over Q (the set of rational number).
ll (a) For -!<e<t andanypositiveinteger n suchthat cos(2r+r)0+0, showthat

*11,*,0*,,
, r-r>o("
tan(2n+r)o=-#
:(_D-[ ; o- ),^,0,
(s\ r! (r\
*n*. *o
[,J="rd,x [;J=t
(b) Let
f(x) = x' +a.-rx^-l + ... +arx+ ao =o

beapolynomialwithintegralcoeffrcients as, a1, ..., em_r (m>I). provethatifa
rational number L, *itt"nin its lowest term, is a root of f(x), then Q = tl.
(c) Using (a) and O) or otherwise, show that tanA cannot be rational for any odd
integer s different from +1
12. Let p and q be integers. We say p and q are relatively prime, if I is the only common
positive integral factor of p ffid q.
The following lemmas may be assumed in part (a).
Lemma l. Let m, n and p be integers such that p is an integral factor of mn, and
p and n are relatively prime. Then p is an integral factor of rr.
Lcmma 2. Let p and m, and p and n be two pairs of relatively prime integers.
Then p and mn are relatively prime.
(a) Let
P(x) = anxn +an-rxn-l + ... +arx+ao (n > 0)
be a polynomial with integral coefficients a, (i =L, ... ,n). Prove that, if 4q is a
rational root of the equation P(x)= 0, where p and q are relatively prime integers
(q*0), then p isanintegralfactorof ao and q isanintegral factorof ar.
(b) Let a be an integer and P(r) a polynomial
2x'*2 -sxn*r +2xn -2ox3 +(5a+2)x2 -(2a+5)x+2 (n>I)

Show that P(2)=0. Using (a) or otherwise, show that P(x)=0 has exactly two
rational roots provided a does not take one of the values 0,2, -2.
(c) Show that Jt - J, sadsfies the equation
*4 -lo*t *r=o
Hence use (a) to deduce that Ji - Jt is an irrational number.
Complu Roots
13. Given that 3 - i is one root of the equation
224 -323 -3922 +1202-50=o

find the other roots.
14. Giventhat 2+3j where i =fi is a rootofthepolynomial equation P(z)=0, where

P(z)=14 -3rt +7z2 +212-26
factoize P(z) into linear and quadratic factors with real coefficients.
Find the other 3 roots ofthe equation P(z)= g.
15. Let x3+px+q=0 beanequationwithrealcoeffrcients.Showthattf a+ib, where a,
and D are real numbers, is one of its roots, then 2a is a root of x3 + pt - q = g.
16. (a) Show that there is only one positive root ofthe equation
,4 -zo*-7 =0, (*)

and that this root lies between 2 and3. Show also that there is only one negative root.
O) Let these roots be a and p respectively, and the remaining roots be y alrrd 6.
Show that lBl . t u"0 obtain an approximationto I by neglecting the xa term in
the equation.
(c) Use the symmetric properties of the roots of the given equation to obtain expressions
tor and Re 7 in terms of
lfl and B a
17. Givenaninteger r>2, considertheequation rn +r+1 =0 .(*)
(a) Show that (*) has exactly one real root if n is odd and no real root if r is even.
(b) Let a1, a2,... , an betherootsof(*).

(D Showthatif a isarootof(*)then Z isalsoarootof(*).
Deducethat {41, a2,..., an}={ot,ar,..-,

""}.
n
(iD Prove that Zoro is real for any integer k.
r=l
(iii) Evaluate
n
(r) t &,I
r=l
n
(2) > d r n-l
r=7
IHKALE r9891
Irrdional Roots
18. Suppose r +Ji is a root of the cubic equation x3 +m+b= 0, where a b, r are rational
numbers and Ji is not a rational number.
(a) Showthat ,3 +3r2 *ar*b=0 and 3r2 +r*a=O.

O) Using (a), or oqherwise, show that
(i) , -J7 is also a root ofthe equation, and
8a-9b if a+1.
(ii) r=7@4) 4
IHKALE 19971
lg. (a) It is known that Jt is irrational. Show that, rf A and B are rational numbers such
that A+ AJi = 0, then A : B :0.
(b) f (x)=ao+arx+az*2 + ... +enxn is a polynomial with rational coefficients; c

and d are rational numbers.
(i) Show that, for each positive integer ft,
g+ali)k =At +BrrJi

and
g-alT)k =Ar,-Br,J2
where 17, and Bo are rational numbers.
(ii) Henceprovethat, rf c+dJ2 isaroot of f(x),then c- ali isalsoarootof

f (x).
(c) Solve the equation *o **3 -6x2 -sx-l = 0 given that l-JZ is a root.
+
Ckapter
Ratlonal Functlons
We now pass to the consideration of functions of the fo* jP where P(x) and, Q(x) are
Q@)
polynomials. Such an expression is called arationalfunction.
4.1 RATIONAT FUNCTION
DEFINITION If P(x) and QQ) arepolynomialsof degree m and n respectively,where m

and n are positive integers or zero, then
P(x) aoxm +arx--l + -.. +a^-rx+a,
=
Q@) box' +brx'-r + ... +bn-rx+bn
is defined to be a rqtionalfundion of x.
For instant,
3 xa -5x3 +7
x2 -l .' x3-l -
are rational functions.
P(x)
In particular, rf n=0, the polynomial p(x) reduces to a mere constant, becomes a
O@
polynomial of degree m in x.
If m<n,the rational n rr"rion is said to be a proper fraction;bnt, tf m<n, it is an

ffi
improper fraction. However, an improper fraction can be expressed as
P(x\ R(x)
6=s(x)+ffi
where S(x) is a polynomial of degree m-n, and R(x) is a polynomial of degree not greater
then r-1.
lllustrotion Consider R(x) =

2x3 +* +3x+2.
By division, we have
x- +l
(2, *_I)G1. l)j (rj l)
+4j!
R1x,1 =T=\Z = (2x +rl
x.+l
Rational Functions l8r
EXA'\APTE I
Let f(x) be apolynomiat with distinct roots al, d2, ..., dn
(a) Showthat
,f'(r) _ $ I
L.,-",
i6- r=l
where /'(x) denotes the derivative of /(x).
O) Let ar, a2, a3, ao be roots of the po$nomial
8(x) = *4 -rot2 +r
Using (a), evaluate the sum
$4,,+t
L-s, -1'
r=l
SOLUTION
(a) ff oyd2,...,qn arerootsof /(x), then
f (x)=as(x-a)(x-a) ... (x-an)
Taking logarithm
ln/(x) = hlool,.itr'l * - o,l.

r=l
and differentiating
$':x-ar'
,f'(r) I _
T6- r=l
O) Using (a),
I ar+l-l v"+#=i['.#]
4
_
d,
r=l
4
I
=a_22 I- o,
r=l
--'-';(I)'
^ " 8'(1)
where
g(x) = t4 -lor2 +1, g'(x) = 4x3 -zox

so that g(l) = -8, g'(l) = -16
Hence
$ a' +t =o_rl-ru1
-L
2o,-r--
t=I
-s.l
-0.
182 Rational Functions
The ronge, moximum ond minimum of ihe function

The following example gives the
method of determining the range and the extremum of a rational function of tle form
ax2 +bx+c
.r/- a
px'+qx+r
EXAMPTE 2
(a) Find the conditions that the expression ax2 + bx + c should be positive for all real values of
x
(b) Given
1a
x -'ctx+zQ
x2 -3x+2
where a + l,
(i) Show that the expression can assume any real value for real values of x only if
tr<o <2..
(ii) Show that, tf
a = 0, there will be two extreme values between which the expression
cannot lie, and determine these.
(iii) Draw a rough graph of the function.
SOLUTION
(a) By completing sqwre
! = ax2 +bx+c
bc ,,
="{ x +-.r+-
aa
b
='{ ** zo r---\
*f
"a oo'J
)'
( ,\2 4ac - b2
="[ '* *) 1-
'4a
y should be positive for all values of x provided
a>0 and 4ac-b2>0.
(b) (i) writey=t2 -3o*+2o2

;ix+z,then
Y2 -3ry+2Y = x2 -3ax+2a2 (l)
(y - I)*2 + (3a - 3y)x + (2y - 2a2 1 = g.
x is real provided
(3a - 3y)2 - 2a2 ) > o

- 4(y - r)(2 y
(2)
y2 +18a2 - 18a +8)y+ o' u o.
Rational Functions r83
Bv (a)
1Ba2 -lla+g)2 -4a2 <o

18a2 -t8a+8+2a)(8a2 -t8a+g-2a) <0
1a - t12 (za- r)(a - 2) < o.
I
t<o<2'
(ii) If a=0,
y2 +8y>-0.
(y +8)(y-0) >0
y<-8 ory20.
This gives the range of the function
When Y = -8, bY (1)
-9x2 +24x- 16=0
(3x-4)2 =9. t=1.

3'
Wheny=0 by(1) x=0
We obtain the minimum point (0, 0) and maximum point (f , - 8) of the function
o x
r=l x=2
Figure4,l The graph of the expression cannot lie between y = -8 and y = O.

EXERCISE 4A
1. Find constants a, b, c such tlat

x2 -5x +l ab c
(x+l)(x +2)(x+3) - x+l'
: !-!
(.r+1)(x+2) '
Glnclzxx+3)
2. If (*2 +bx+c)y+Ax2 +Bx+C=0, showthat x isarationalfunction of y rf

(aC - Ac)2 = (aB - Ab)(bC - Bc).
a
x +/L and x is real, find
3. Given that y =
x+2
(D thesetofpossiblevalues of y when )"=5,
(ii) the set ofvalues of J, for which y can take all real values.
3x+k
4. Giventhat y=#.where x isrealand k isaconstant,
x' -I
show that y carltake all real values if f < l. I |
x2 +2ax+b
5. Let f(x)=+, where a,b arerealand a*0.
x' +l
(a) Show that there are two real numbers ft such that f (x)-k is of the form
(Ax + B)2
1
D(x'+l)
ff these numbers are k1, k2, where k1 < k2,, show that
Itt-k-'t* +o\2
f (x)-kr =!---J:-;J-, r =1,2
(l - k, )(x- + l)
(b) Prove also that (1 - ft1 X | - k) = -o', and deduce that, for every real number i,
h<f@)<k2'
Make a rough sketch of the curve y = f (x) for a > 0, indicating the position of the
curve with respect to the lines y = l, y = kt, | = k2.
Rational Functions 185
4.2 PARTIAT FRACTIONS
If P(x) nd Q@) be two polynomials and the fraction *9 U" expressed as the algebraic
Q@)
sum of simpler fractions according to certain specified rules which are given later, the fraction
P(x\
is then said to be resolved into partial fractions.
D(,
lllustrotion For
5x-l 2t
(x-3)(2x+l) x-3 2x+l
5r-l
the fraction
G:jn2x+D
is said to be expressed in partial fractions ,"tl.t ar" .;f and
I
2x +l
4.2.1 Simple portiol froction iheorem
THEOREM 4.1 If a(x), b(x) are relatively prime polynomials of respective degree m, n
p(x)
both > 1, and if p(x) is a polynomial of degree I m * n, the rationril "function n^
iffi
a unique representation in the form
p(x) _A(x) _B(x)
a(x)b(x) a(x) b(x)
where A(x) and B(x) are polynomials ofdegree less than m, n respectively.
PROOF By Euclid's algorithm, for relatively prime polynomials a(x), b(x), there are
polynomials m(x) and n(x) such that
l: m(x)a(x)+ n(x)b(x).
Thus,
p(x) = p(x)m(x)a(x)
p(x)n(x)b(x)
+
p(x) _ p(x)m(x), p(x)n(x)
a(x)b(x) b(x) a(x)
pQ)m!x) p@)n\x)
Suppose ur6 are improper, then, on division,
b(x) a(x)
p(x)m(x) p(x)n(x) A(x)
b(x) =q1xy+p,
b(x)' a(x) =QzG)+
a(x)
. A(x) B(x)
where --^, r@ areproperfractions. Thus
P(!) B(r)
a(x)b(x)={q,e)+q,(r)}+l-Q2+
a(x) b(x)
r86 Rational Functions
Since --{E)- is a proper fraction, above representation shows that qr(x)+ qr(x)= 0. Hence
a(x)b(x)
p(x) _A(x) -B(x)
a(x)b(x) a(x) b(x)
with degl(x) <m, deg B(x) <n.
cft] * D(x) is an alternative expression. Then

To show the uniqueness, we suppos.
a\x) b(x)
A(x),8(x)_C(x),D(x)
a(x) b(x) a(x) b(x)
l.q@) - c@)lb(x) = ln61 - a61la@)
Thisimpliesthat D(x) divides lD(x)-B(x)la(x). But,byhypothesis, b(x) and a(x) haveno
factor in common. therefore D(x) must divide [D(x)-B(x)]. But this is impossible as both
D(r) and B(x) are each of degree less than that of b(r) and so is their difference,
lD(x) - B(x)l is divisible by D(x) unless [D(x) - B(x)] is a zero polvnomial. Thus
D(x)= B(x).
Similarly, a(x) divides [A(x)-C(x)] unless [A(x)-C(x)'l isazeropolynomial. i.e.
A(x)= (1Y1
This establishes the uniqueness. ll
We now have the following ntles: For a rational function R(t) = {9,
Q@)
Rule I To the non-repeated factor x-a of Q@) there will be a corresponding partial
fraction
A
x-a
Rule lf To the non-repeatedfactor x2 + px+q of Q@) there will be a corresponding partial
fraction
Bx+C
*2 + pr*q
EXAI/IPI.E 3
Express in partial fractions

sl 5xz
-3x+4
(a) (b) (c)
a;+D@ rx+6)
x-+x-6 x(x2+l)
SOLUTION
(a) Thefactors of xz +x-6 being (x+3)(x-Z) weassumethat
5 A B _A(x-2)+B(x+3)
7 +x4= x+3- x2: (x+3(x-2)
The denominators of the expressions on the left and right being the same, the numerators
must be the same. Hence we have
A(x-z)+B(x+3):5.
A and B can be found from this identity by applying the principle of undetermined
coefficients. Thus, equating the coefficients of x and the term not containing x, we have
A+B=0 and -2A+38=5.
Solving, A= -I, B=1.
Alternative Another and, in the case of linear factors such as we have here, rather simpler
metlod of determining A and .B from the identity
A(x-2)+B(x+3)= 5.
is to give x suitable numerical values so that A and B can be found separately.

Thus by pufting x = 2,
(2+3)B =5, giving B=l
and x = -3,
(-3-2)A =5, grving A= -1.
Hence
511
-=_-
x"+x-6 x-2 x+3
The above result may be obtained by inspection. I
(b) Sometime the result may be obtained in a very simple way such as
| (r2 +I)-x2
x(x2 +I) x(x2 +l)
1x I
x x2+l
(c) Let
5x2 -3x+4A Bx+C
(x+1)(x2 -2x+6) t+l x2 -2x+6
then
5x2 - 3x + 4 = A(x2 - 2x + 6)+ (x + l)(Bx + C;

Since this is an identity, using x = -l
12=9A,,a,=t
and, x = 0,
4=6A+C=8+C, C=-4.
Equating coefficients of 12
5=A+B=!+8, a=*.
Hence
5x2 -3x+4 4 Ilx -I2

G;;A 1r.6)= xx+D- 3C 1x+6)
4.2.2 lIthen p(x) has degree > m+n. In this case, the divisim process yields
r(x)
P(x) = a(x)b(x) q(x) +
where q(x), r(x) are polynomials and r(x) has degree <m+n or is null. Applying the
theorem to r(x), we obtain aunique representation in theform
p(x)
a(x)b(x)=o(r\*A(*)+B(t).
a(x) b(x)
where A(x), B(x) have degree less than m, n respectively.
EXAMPTE 4
x2 +3x x4 +2x +4
(a) (b) a-
; $t-, (2x' +3)(x -2)
SOLUTION
(a) By inspection,
x2+3x x2 +3x+2-2 , 2 )')
t" +3r+r- x13x+, - '- (r+lxx+2) -'-
-r x+l' x+2
-t-
(b) Let
x4 +2x+4 :n4auT-----;T----;-
C Dx+E
.
(2x'+3)(x-2) '-L 2x'+3
Then
x4 + 2x + 4 = (Ax + B)(2x2 + 3)(x - 2) + C(2x2 + 3) + (Dx + E)(x - 2)

Plt x =2
24=ttC, C =#.
Equating the coefficients of xa
l=2A, A=+
Equating the coefficients of
"3
0=-4A+28=-2+28, B=1.
Equating the coefficients of
"2
0--3A-48+2C + D = ]-++fi+ n, D= -#
Equating the coeffrcients of .r,
2= 6A+38 -2D+ E= -3+fi+E, r = -#.

Hence,
x4 +2x+4 x 24 4lx+38
-' Il(x-2)
(2x2 +3)(x-2) 2' 22(2x2 +3)
4.2.3 continuing this process by induction, we have the following generalization:
IHEOREM 4.2 If a{x), a2(x), ". ,ar(x) ore relatively prime polynomials of respective
degree fl1, n2,... , flr and if p(x) is any polynomial of degree n, then there is a unique
representation
p(x)
"' * oJn
_ ^,_,,At(t),Ar(x),,A,(x)
;rfirr:-zs=q\x)*i@*;@*
where q(x), A1@), Ar(x), ... ,Ar(x) are polynomials, q(x) is null or has degree
n-(\+ "' *nr) as n is less or not less than (nr+... +nr) and Ar(x),...,
according
Ar(x) havedegreelessthan fl1, n2,... , fl, respectively.
EXAtr/lPtE 5
(a) Express in partial fractions
2x5
1x2 -t11x2 -+1'

O) If a, b, c are unequal, show that
(x+a)(x+b)(x+c) _r_ 2a(a+b)(a+c) _ 2b(b+a)(b+c) , 2c(c+a)(c+b)
(x - a)(x - t11x - c1 -' - (a - b)(a - c)(x - a)- (b - a)(b - c)(x 4)- (c - a)(c - b)(x - c)
SOLUTION
(a) -2xsabcd
Let
A _;A 4r=2x+;J+t*,-*i;1
then
2x5 =2x(x2 -t)(t2 -4)+a(x+1)(r2 -+)+b(x-ty1x2 -+1

+ c(x + 2)(x2 - I) + d(x - 2Xr2 - t)
Put x = l, -1,2,
-2 in succession, we obtain
2=-6a, -2=6b, 64=L2c, -64=-I2d
Hence
zxsll16t6
tt
1xz -t11xz -+1
3(x-l) 3(x+1) ' 3(x-2)' 3(x+2)
(x+a)(x+b)(x+c)_,, A B C
(b) _
Let 14- x_c
G-rrio-Doi=r-,_o+
Then
(x + a\(x+ b)(x +c)
= (x - a)(x - b\x - c) + A(x - b)(x - c) + B(x - a)(x - c) + C(x - a)(x - b).
Put x = a, b, c in succession,
2a(a +b)(a + c) = A(a - b)(a - c), A - 2o(a+b)(a+c)

(a -b)(a - c)
2b(b +a)(b +c) = 316 - a)(b -c), B - 2b(b+a)(b+c)

(b-a)(b-cl
2c(c+a)(c+b)= C(c-a)(c-b), C - 2c(c+a)(c+b)
(c-a)(c-bl
Hence
(x+a)(x+b)(x+c) - 2a(a +b)(a +c) 2b(b +a\(b+c) 2c(c+a)(c+b) r
(x-a)(x-b)(x-c) -'' (o - b)(a - c)(x - a)' (b - a)(b - c)(x - b)' - a)(c - b)(x - c)
(c -
4.2.4 Fvrther exomples ond opplicoiions
EXAf,APTE 6
(a) Prove that:
(n)t t n.|n@-I), ,(-l)'

"' t;'1i'
x(x+l) -' (x+t1)
=;-t*t---;+t--
O) Deduce, or otherwise, that
t-lrrf .iri- ... +(-r)'

#q =#
SOLUTION
;GlT+G+tl) =i
Ar
(a) Let
x +r'
then
r=0
n
nr=lArx{x+l) ... (x+r-1)(x+r+l) ... (x+n)
r=0
Put x = -r, allthe terms onthe rightvanish exceptthe ons involving lr. Thus
n! = Ar(-r)(-r+1) "' (-r +r-fX-r+r+1) "' (-r +n)
= Ar(-l)' rl (n - r)l
o, =fryrn-r1,=eD'c:
Hence
nt _ *1t-ti'cl
t(t+t) "' (t+r) - L x+r
(b) Put x = I in (a), the result follows
nt _ *1f-tl'ci
(lr+lX-L
r=0
r+t'
Altemative Integration or
Jo,{t+r)
' * =t ri It-x'dx wtllgive the same result. I
r=0
Rational Functions r9r
EXAtvlPLE 7
(a) Resolve
1
(r+x)(l+2r) ... (l+nx)

into partial fractions.
(b) Use the result in (a) to prove the identity
n
l{-t)"-'cirn =nl
r=0
where Cf are binomial coefficients.
SOLUTION
I
(a) Let
@: r+x-t+2xt-...*A,
-:Ar-A,
"'?Tl-rx-=#o,
Lr+m
r=l
n
then I =lA,{t+x)(1+2x) ... [t+1r-l)x][l+(r+l)x] ... (l+rx)
r=l
I
Putting * = -V, r =1, 2, ..., n,
r=.a,(r_1)(,_f (,_+)(,_+) (,_f

(r-l)(r -2) ... (r-r+l)(r-r-l) ... (r-n)
=A,
r n-l
=A,
1-l)'-'(r-l)l(n-r)!
r n-l
n-l
therefore A, = (-l)n-r and hence
Ojf6=fr.
I n -.n-l I
ry = fr=l {-t)'-' o;w=il.' r+tx
O) Futting x=0 in(a)

r n-l
1
t
r=l
n
( 1)
n-r
(r-l)! (n-r)l
n-l
n
n-r r
^" rl (n-r)l
T ( r)
(r-l)! (n-r)l "r
I .-
nl.
r=l
n
= l{-r),-' hr: --i<-rr-ir;
r=l r=0
n
$vlng Ir -I)n-'C!r"
r=0
= nl
4.2.5 Summotion of o finite series by use of poriiol froctions In this method the terms
in the given series to be summed are in fractional form, and the method of procedure is to find
the rth term of the series and express it in its partial fractions. Then r is given the values
l, 2, 3, . . . , n, and the sum of the terms thus obtained is found.
EXAMPI.E 8
(a) Use partial fractions, or otherwise, show that
+ 3r+I 5 2 "l
u-_zt(r-l)(r+1) 2 n n+l
(b) Use any method, find
n
I
r(r +2)(r +4)
r=l
SOLUTION
(a) With the usual partial factions method, we have
3r+l 2 I I
r(r -l)(r +l) r -I r r +I
Hence,
+ 3r+t _+ 2Ll
Zr 4r +I\ - /-/
-I)(r r-l-V- r+I
r:2 r=2
2 I l\ + 2tl
_____ .( 2t1 + (z l l I ____
t 2 3) T-3-4 1-4-5 [+ s 6 ). +
I
2 I I 2 11 2 I I
n-3 n-2 n-l ). n-2 n-l n .( n-l n n+l
2l 2l I I
-l 2' 2 n n n-tl
-
___!
52 I
=t- n-
"+l
(b) Similarly, using partial fractions, we have
n-n
\-r\a ll I-
I
lJ*"+2)(r+q- ^L 8r 4(r +2) ' 8(r +4)
r=l r=l
I lll
_r_-_-_
llll f
8 | 2 3 4 n+l n+2 n+3 n+4
-r-
Alternative This series can be summed most quickly by observing that
I I 11
r(r +2)(r + 4) 4 4r +2)- (r +2)(r +4)
and using the method of difference.

EXAMPI.E 9
I
(a) Express inpartialfractions.
C_rt(i_t
(b) Giventhat f(x)=T#_r, where a and b areconstants.
(i) State the set .S of values of r for which /(x) may be expanded in a series of
ascending powers of x.
(ii) Find, in terms of a and b, the coefficient of xt (r = 0, l, . ..) in such an expansion.
(iii) Determine a and D so that, for x e.S,
€
.f (*) =l(z' +t)x'
r=0
SOLUTION
(a) With usual method,
I 2l
(l-2x)(1-x) l-2x 1-x.
(b) (D f @) may be expanded in a series of ascending powers of x, (infinite geometric
series) provided
lzxl<t and lxl<r ie. l'1.*

(ii) Provided Irl.*, we have
f(x)=(#-r=('*bi{:u *}
6
a +bx) 2lel'+f {')'

r=0 r=0
=r,*a,l{i[r'.'-,],']
=o*flo<r'*t -1) +t1z' -gfx' .
r=l
The coefficientof x' is a(Z'+r -l)+b(Zr -l), r =1,2, 3,
@
(iii) Now, tf f(x)=l{Z' +l).rr, then

r=0
-r)=2' +l
a12'*t -L7+b(2'
(2a+b)2' -(a+b)=2' +I
2a+b= I
a+b=-l
a=2, b=-3. I
1?4 Rational Functions
4.2.6 CALCULUS METHOD OF DETERMINING THE COEFFICIENTS When Q@) of

P(x)
has non-repeated factors (x-ar), the following partial fraction theorem may be
O@
applied.
THEOREM 4.3 Let ru a properfraction. Suppose that QQ)=(x-ar)(x-ar)"'(x-a,)

ffi
where a1,q2,...an are all distinct. Then
_$ r(o,) I
P(x)
O@- L-olo) *-",
Q'(x) denotes the derivative of Q@\
PROOF Differentiate p(x) with respect to r,

n
Q'(x)=l(x-ar)(x -az) .-. (x-ar-)(x-ar+t) ... (x-o n)

r=l
So that, for r = 1,2,... ,n,
Q' (a r) = (a, - - a 2) "' (q, - a r-1)(a, - G r+t) "' (a, - a r)
a 1)(a, (l)
By the simple partial fraction theorem, we have constants A, (r = l, 2, -.' , n ) such that
P(x) .1 Ar
(2)
eG) 1,-o,
r=l
Then P(x)=iO,1r-or) ... (x-q,-)(x-a,*) ... (x-an)

r=l
Put x = d, (r = 1,2, .., , n)
P(a r) = Ar(a, - ) ... (a, - a r_)(a, - a ral) ..'
q (.a, - a n)
= ArQ'(ar) tbY (t)l
P(a,)
"r, Q'@,)
Hence, by (2), we have the following representation
P(x) _$ P(o,) I
r=l
-Q@-',0\q)'x-a,
REMARK From above representation, we have
P x) _
-
$ P(o,) Q@)
!T@ ,-q,
2) ". (x - a r_1)(x - a r,,) ... (x - a n)
n
=I (a, -r)(x)(a,- )(x
P (a
- )
a
- a
a
a
.. - (a, - a r_1)(a, - a ral) ... (a, - a r)
r=l
which is the Lagrange interpolation formula.
EXAMPI.E IO
Establish the idenrity :
(-ts rs i e I
I6(x + 2)(x - aXx - 6) = (x - 1)(x - 3)(x - s)(r - 7){t-r*r-l
- x++ ,q1
SOLUTION
Let P(x) =I6(x+2)(x-4)(x-6), we have
P(l)=729, P(3)=249, P(5)= -I12, P(7)=432
Let Q@) = (x - 1)(x - 3)(x - 5)(x - 7). Differentiation gives
Q'(x) = (x -3)(x - 5)(x - 7)+(x- 1)(x- 5)(x- 7) +(x -l)(x -3Xx - 7) +(x- t)(x - 3)(x - 5)
and
Q'(I)= -48, Q'(3)=I6, Q'6)= -L6, Q'(7) = 48
By theorem 4.3, we have
P(x)=P(l). I -P(3). t -P(5). I -P(7). I
Q@) Q'Q) x-r Q'Q) x-3 Q'Q) x-5 Q'Q) x-7
,20 240
= -48(x-l)* l6(x-3)+ -lI2 + 48(x-7)
432
-16(x-5)
__ t5 + 15 + 7 * 9
x-l x-3 x-5 x-7
The result follows by multiplyine Q@) to both sides:
-15 15 7 el
l6(x + 2)(x - \(x - 6)= (x- l)(x - 3)(x - t(x - D{ x-l' x-3 + ,-5+ ,aJ
-I
The result may be represented by
P (x) = -15(x - 3)(x - s)(x - 7) + l5(x - 1)(r - s)(x - 7)
+1 (x - t)(x - 3)(x - 7) + 9(r - 1)(x - 3)(r -s)
EXAMPI.E I I
Let f(t)=(x-a)(x-a) ...(x-a) where a,, e2,...,q,n arealldistinct.
(a) Express f'(a,) intermsof a1,G2,...,&n.
(b) lf m is a positive integer less than r. show that
a" f (')
'-' -{? f'(a,)(x-a,)'
r=l
(c) If q is a positive integer, prove that
0 q<n-r
t 7Gj-
n
r=l
q;a
n
I Q=n-I
Lo, Q=n
SOLUTION
(a) lf a1,d2,...,an zrezerosof /(x), then
"f
(x)=(x-a)(x-a) ... (x-ar).
n
f' (x) =l@ - ar) .-. (x - a,-1)(x - a r+r) ... (x - a n)
r=l
Thus, for r =I,2, ..., n,
.f ' (a r) = (a, - d 1) ... (a, - a r_1)(d, - a r+t) ... (a, - a n)
O) By the partial fraction theorem, there are A, (r = l,2, ---, n) such that
-=
x
f (x)
m
t
r=l
x ar
Ar
(l)
or t^ =ZAr(x-a1) ... (x-a,_1)(x-ara) ... (x-an) (2)

r=l
For r=I,2,...,n
art =Ar(ar-a) ... (ar-ar_)(ar-d7a1\ ... (ar-an)
= Arf, (a r)
Ar =d"
.f '(a r)
Hence, by (l)
o'^ f(x)
--^ :{1f'(a,) -x-a,
r=l
(c) It follows from (b) that
xm t
r=l "f
dr'
'(a
. f
r) x- d,
(x)
n
ar^
T 7GJ\/x-a) ... (x-ar_1)(x-ara1) ... (x-an)
r=l
("
II f'
['=r
dr^
(ar)
1""-'
+Cr-rx'-2 * -,- *C{*Co
Therefore, if 4 is a positive integer, then
- =(2;#)*-'*c.-,*n2+ +Crx+Co
Hence, by comparing coefficient of xn-t, we have
{"f 0 if
L.f'(a,) =! 1 if I
q <n-I
Q=n-I
r=1 t
If q=n, let
Ar
h=r.f x-d, r=l
n
Thenxn = f (x)+\,1,{r-a) ... (x-a,_)(x-a,*) ... 1x-an)
r=l
Put x= aP r =1,2, ... , n.
af, =f(ar)+Ar(ar-a1) (a, - a ,a1) (a, - an)

=O+Arf,(ar)
o:
again, A, = Hence,
xn = f(x).2#@-a) ... (x-a,-t)(x-a,a) ... (x-an)
ln n-
=lxn -opn-t +,,r,n-z+ ... +(-r)n ...
"5.12;hl,^'*
where or denote the elementary symmetric function of roots. Comparing coefficient of
x'-1, we have
o=-dr.i;+
tf/')' ,=rt
i'e' 3a-nn
>,ofu= o1(sumof roots) =ro,' I
EXAMPTE It
(a) Express +- in partial fractions.

x'-l
(b) Let z be a positive integer, show that
I 1+ r-xcosffr
r.t'=n Lr; J*"r2t=t, "*r
SOLUTION
(a) Let f(x)=15 - l,.f'(x)=5x4. Therootsof f(x)=0 are givenby
2rtr 2rr
ar = cos-3-+isin--, r =0, 1,2,3,4; and a r 5 =1.
By partial fraction theorenq we have
4
o, . | 4
15
x
-l
T
r=O
f'(a,) r=0
ar I
x-a, - 5ar4 x-a, I = $o,''. t
1z 5 x-a,
r=O
-= -.-
The complex roots may be gtouped in pairs in the form a,, d, where
a, =cos!+isin!, a, =cos!-tsin2T .
Taking such a pair the corresponding partial fractions are

I ar2 .drl-z I _r x(a,z +a,z)-(ar+ar)
5 x- a, ,-ar)
"{{"orf i"a!)2
1
* +(cosf -ir !)'}-{(cosf +isin !)+{"or!-i"i"!)}
5
,2 -'{{"o"!+ ; sinf) + (c os! - i sn!)} + t
_z xcosT-cosT
5 t2 - 1t"osT*t
Hence
x
,5 _l 5 x-ag
r.+{ ot2
ao2 oq2
x-dt x-44 ",' I
) 5 lx-a2 *-at)
I.:[:t-*
I I ll a,2 o,2 ) tl a"2 a"2 f
=5rL-5.] x-a,- x-a, : sl r-o.- x-a. (
r . ') ")
I I z*cos*-cos4 2rcosY-cos9
=5,-1-r?;;U-i7@
REMARK Note the method of this example extends directly to functions of the form
m
:-,n where m and, n arcpositiveintegers and m<n.

x -l -'
(b) The roots ofthe equation f(x) = *2' +I= 0 are givenby
o7, : cosffr+isinffr, (k =1, 2, ---, 2n)

By partial fraction theorem
I
2n
I Ak
I+ x2' x-ak
k=l
where
.llotapak
"K
A
=-=-
f'(at) 2n(-I) 2n'
2nak2n-r znq,k2n
Using the fact that the complex roots of a real polynomial occur in conjugate pair we have
I =_r{ oo =_r{( "o * Zo )

' ,-dt
l+x2n 2n L x-ap 22 Llx-at )
I + (ap+op)x-2apa1,
2n L2
y=1x -lap*ap)x*dp'ap
I-xcosTr
+>. x2 _Zxcoszk;t r +I.
k=l
4.2.7 Ertended porliolfrqclion lheorem We extend the simple partial fraction theorem to
the case that the denominator of a rational function has repeated factors.
IHEOREM 4.4 Let U" aproperfraction. Suppose Q@)=1x-aykQ1@) where Q(x)

ffi
is prime to (x - a). Then
P(x)=or - o2 ,...- ok *4(x)
"' - -0,(r)
Od- x-a- @_a\2- ,r_of
wnere
, P'(x)
is a properfraction.
ffi
PROOF By simple partial fraction theorem, tf A@) is prime to (x - a), we have
P(x)
_4G) AJx)
Q(i==<r-ry* n-
*r,"r. i(4
(x a)
*o -4(x) *" ProPer fiactrons'
- QrG)
Since l, (x) is of degree (ft - l) at most, it can be expressed in the form
Arlx-a)k-r +Ar(x-a)k-2 + ... +Ao-rQ-a)+41,

where some of the coeffrcients 11, Ar, '.. , Ap_1, Ap may be zero. Hence
Ar(x) _ Ar(*-a1k-r +Ar(r-o)k-2 + .'. +Ao-r(x-a)+Ao
(, - o)k (t - o)k
Ar A^
"t -... - A, A,
'-k-l +----!
=-j- .
(x-a) (x-a)-) (x-a).k-l .
(* - o)*
At@)
In general, tlte proper fraction can be expressed in the form
Io(')]o
Qr@) , qz@)"'*1o6;t
Q*G)
"@-G'
where q(x)'s all have degree less than that of a(r).
Rule lll To every repeated linearfraction (m+b)k of Q@) there will be k cotesponding
partial fractions.
Ar A2 "''(**bfAk '
ax+b+
@x+b\2*
Rute lV To every repeated quadratic fraction (axz +bx+c)k of Q@) there will be k
cone spon ding parti al fracti on s.
Arx+B, _ Arx+B, _..._ Akr*Bk

"' -
o; *br*"-@;;.&- ,; *tr*"f '
EXA'UPIE l3
a
2x2 +l x +x+I x3 +l
(a) (b) (c)
x'1x' +11' t nx+r (t-rj
SOLUTION
(a)
+I A B Cx+DT----;-Ex+F
2x2
1 lT-;T---;-
,'1rt +r12- ' *2 x2 +r (x2 +r)2'
then 2x2 +r=Ax(x2 +l)2 +B(x2 +r)2 +(cx+D1x21x2 +t)+(h+F)x2
Put x=0, I insuccession,
I= B;
-1= (iE +F)(-l), F =1, E =0.

Thus2x2 +l=Ax(x2 +l)2 +(x2 +l)2 +(Cx+D1x21x2 +r)+x2
= 1A+C1xs +(D+I)xa +(2A+C)x3 +(3+D)x2 +Ax+I

Comparing coeffrcients,
A+C=0, D+1=0, 2A+C=0, 3+D=2, A=0;
A=0, c=0, D=-l
2x2+I I I I
Hence
ZA;f =7- ; *r- e *Dr'
o) In this case, it is easy to write down the desired result,
x2 +x+I (x2 +2x+l)-x (x2 +2x+1)-(x+l)+l

x2 +2x+t x2 +2x+r
:'::-
- r- x+l T
=r-'
(r+l)iz
(c) Let x3 +l= ao+a1(x-27+a2@-2)2 +ar(x-2)3
3x2 = at +2ar(x -2) +3ar(x -2)2
6x = 2az +6a3e -2\
6 = 6az.
Put x =2,
9=as, 12=ar, 12=2a2, az=1.
Hence, x3 +1= 9+I2(x-2)+6(x-2)2 +(x-2)3 and
x3 +l 9+12(x-2)+6(x-2)2 +(x-2)3
(, - 2)a (* -2)a
9t261
(t- l)a (x-2)3 (r-2)2 ' (x-2)
_f _I_t_
=
I
EXAtvtPtE l4
(a) Resolve
I
into partial fractions.
x(x -2)(x -l)6
O) Show that, when n is a positive integer
lll
x(x -2)(x -I)2n 2(x -2) 2x I
r=l @-D2'
1
SOLUTION
(a) Let y=x-1, x=y+1, x-2=y+l-z=y-L Then
1 = I =c *D -'$,'
x(x-2)(x-l)6 Qr+I)(y-I)ye v+I' v-I' ,=Loy'
Then
6
I = [Co-l) + D(y +I)\,,6 *ZA,yu-' (y+ t)(y- t)
r=l
Put y=1, -1 insuccession
'
l=2D, D=+
l=-2C, C =-*
Thus,
6
ll__t____l_l +f A,r
Qt+t)(y-I)y6 zlt-r Y+ll
=
r=l v
I r[ l r I . ArY6-' 6
(y+l)(y-1) =_t
zlt-r y +t )' +f
r=l
-__tt,
6
or Aps +A2!a +A3!3 +Aqy2 +Ary+Ar+ v
I
y2 -t t- y'
6
4,y
-(l +y +y )-
2
.
I- y'
Comparing the coefficients,
AZ = Aq = A6 = -1, At= Al = AS =0
Hence
I I l-t
t___ ll I
[r r rl
-l-*-*-l
(y+l)(y-l) v 6 , Ly-r y+l.l lv v v)
BY Y=x-1,
I 11 _f
111 _r_
x(x -2)(x -l)6 2 x1-; (r-l)2 (r-l)a (r-t)5
(b) In the same manner, we obtain the required result. (as exercise) I
EXATIAPTE 15
I Ar
3
I Br
(a) If find A, and B, for r = I,2,3.
(x-a) t(,-p)t r=l (*-a)' @- A'
(b) Prove that
I
1x-a1" (x- B)'
=#i",{l#) n-r
+
s- F\ n-r
,-B)
-t
(n + r -l)l
wnere Lr =
rt (n_U
SOLUTION
(a) By the extended partial fraction theorem, let
-l
I _+[ A, Br
G-AI-F- 2lr.-"r- r'a' 1
Then, by multiplying (*- o)3 at both sides,
z,
{*-fr-=*o,rt-o)'-'+(r -o'*!^{*-h'
-l--:
B'
At(x- a)z +Ar(x- a)+A3+c(x) (1)

=
where g(x) =(r-o)'i. 4. *itt g(a) = g'(a) = g"(a)=o.

,=-=rG- A'
Differentiate (l) with respect to x,
(-3) (2)
".A1(x-a)+A2+g'(x)
@-h4-'
(3)
. (-3X-4)
and :--::-t' =2At+g"(x)
(x- f)'
Put r =d in (1), (2) and (3),
r 3 G3)(-a)=zl
,=Ar-
' ,=-4r-
-
(a-h' (a-F)" (a-F)'
By symmetry (or by the similar procedure) we have
I -3 (-3)(-4)
------------a _ ,
-----------; - u1, t - -2, "
- --l
(F-a)' (f-a)"
-------
(F-a)'
Hence
I 6 -t 1
+
G-AG-rt (a - B)s (x - a) 1a - B\a 1x- a)2 1a - 813 1x - a13
6 J I
+
(F - o)s (r- h (B - o)4 ('- B)2 (B-o)3 @- nt
O) In the same procedure, we can obtain the required result (as exercise.)
EXERCISE 48
1. Express in partial fractions
(a)
3x3-x2+22 2 L 2
= ----:-
x1x2 -l; x x+l ' x-l
(b)
2t3 -*2 -ix-r4 r z 3x+2
xa +3x2 _4 x+l x-l + x2 +4
2. Obtain the representation

6 ^2
\4,,
x" +2x-
,,
- 2x-l
-3 =^ 2-r=--;- 2x+l
A-
x' +x- +l ,t -r+l x2 +x+l
^12
(b) +=2x8 +2x4 *2*-J-.--f-
x'-l ,t-l x2+r
I
3. (a) Resolve into partial fractions.
(l + x)(l+ 2x)(1+ 3x)
x2 +l
O) Resolve
(l+x)(l+2x) ... (1+rx) into partial fractions where n > 3.
4. Express in partial fractions
/a\ (-1)'-""-l I
\*/ (l-x)(l-2x) ... (1-nx)-$ (n-r)lI-rx
?'e-\l
(b)
ffi=i(-D"-'rrff]ua, r=O
5. If (l+x)t = co+ctx+ .-- +cnxn . Prove that

co cl c2=- ... * cn
(a)
y - y+l- - y+2 y+n y(y+I)(y+2)...(y+n)
zn 1n1l t q ,(-l)nc,
o) (y+l)(y+3) ... (y +2n +I) - y-t- y-lr "' t *2,q1
6. (a) Prove that
(x - l)(x - 2) ... (x - n) (-t)'-'*l(r+r)!

, *$
(x+1)(x+2) ... (x+n) - - ' L @-r) ! r! (r-l)! (x+r)
(-l)i'(' +")l
I-(-l)'
(b) and show ttut f. =
/=, {rl)'(n-r)l
/. (a) Express into partial fractions
x
(i)
(x-I)(x-z)(x-3)(x-a)
x n+l
(iD
(x-l)(x-2)..-(x-n)
(b) Deduce that
f{-D"-'c,rn*t =l@+lt
r=l
where C, denote the coefficient of t' in the erpansion of (1 + r)"
Applicdion in Summation of Series (Question 8 to 13)
I
8. Obtain tlte expression of in partial fractions and deduce that the
An-I)(3n+DAn+,
sum of l0 terms of the senes
llt
2.5.8 5.8.11 8'11.14
ls- 37 -+-+-+..
2240
2x+l
9 Express -;------;
x'(x+I)"
in partial fractions. Hence, or otherwise, show that
I
n
2r+L2 +2n
1r +t12
2
r=lf n2 +2n +l
10. o!.!!
Express ,=
(2r ., in partial
+I) ' fractions and hence, or otherwise, show that
-I\2r
4r+3 I 5 I I
I
n
I
(2r -I)(2r +t) .r-l 2 2 2n*l .n-1 '
r=l -= JJ
11. Let f(x)=G_I#5

Express "f(x) into partial fractions. Hence, or otherwise, determine ak and, bp
(k = 0,I, 2, ...) such that
€
f(x)=Loo*o when lxl<l
k=O
and .f(x)=i+ when lrl>z IHKALE r99rl

k=0x
12. Let n be a positive integer, and a1, arrd. bk the coeffrcients of r& in (l+x)" and
(I + x1"+2 respectively.
(a) Showthat,for 0< k<n-2,

bk*z = ap +2ao*r*ak+2.
(b) Showthat
r(;Jrt -'
nl
(r+tx) =
k=0
i l) k ap
x+k
(c) Using (a) and O) or otherwise, show that

n
(-r)k ot, (n+2)l
T (x + k)(x + k +I)(x + k +2)
k=o
2x(x +I) ... (x + n +2)
13. (a) Let d1,e2,...,an be distinct real numbers. Suppose f(x) is a polynomial of
degree less than n-l and the expression
f (x)
is resolved
(x + ar)(x + ar) ... (x + ar)
c-t lz *
into partial fractions u x+al * x+a2 ,C,
-r-.
x+an
Showthat q+c2+ ... +cn=0.
O) Let F(x) = .. px + q
i(x+a)(x+a+l)(x+a+2) be resolved into partial ftactions as
4b2b3
x+a-V+a+ITV+a+2'
Show that for N > 3,
N
trror=#.**ffi*"+.
k=l
(c) Using (b), or otherwise, evaluate
lim
N-+o k=l
tW
N
I
IHKALE 19851
14. (a) Let a1,a2 ...,q, &distinctnumbers, Q@)=(x-a)(x-a) ... (x-ar) and
Q'@) the derivative of Q@). Forapo$nomial P(x) of degree <n in r, prove
that
P(x) S p(o,) I
Q@)= 2OA;,-",
O) Establish the identity
$ a,'-l{r- a) ... (x-qr-)G-ar+t) ... (x-a) _-.n-r

:^
L @, --ar) -' (a,-ar-rx,,,
r=l- '
15. (a) Let br,b2,...,bn B(x)=(x-br)(x-b) "'(x-bn) and 8'(x)

berealnumbers,
the derivative of B(x). Show that b1,b2, .'.,b, are all distinct if and only if
B'(b), B'(b), ..., B'(b) are all non zero.
O) Now suppose that Dr, b2, ...,b, are all distinct. For a polynonral A(x) of degree
<n in x, prove that
r(x) _ $ A(b,)
B(*)= LEO)G-b)
(c) Let p be an integer <n. By using (b) or otherwise, resolve
xP
(x+l)(x+2) (x+n)
into partial fractions. Hence show that
f Zp "' - GD"-2 (, -L)P , Gt)n-r rP _ n

1r4! t! --- nt -u
_--J
f @-fi.-rt@:T.-
16. lPartial Fractions as Lagrange Interpolationl
Let d2,..., an be n (>2) distinct real numbers, f(x) = 1x-

a1, a1)(x - a) ... (x - an)
and /'(x) thederivativeof /(x).
(a) Express -f'(oi) (i =1,2, ...,n) intermsof a1, a2,---, an.

O) Let g(x) be a real polynomial of degree less than n.
(i) Show that there exist unique real numbers 41, A2,' .' ,1, such that
g(x) = i,a,6-or1... 1x-a;-1)( x-aia1).'. (x-a). (*)

i=l
(ii) Using (i), or otherwise, show that if S(r) is of degree less than z -1, then
S tlo'l =0.
L. f'(o,)
,=l
(iii) By taking ai = i (i = I,2, "' , n) and suitable g(x) in (ii), Show that, for any
non-negative integer m3n -2.
n.m
I(_D,-' (, _;G{x =o
t=l
(Given that 0!= 1.)
(c) If bb b2, ..., b, are n real numbers, find a polynomial ft(x) of degree less than n
in the form of the right hand side of (*) so that h(a,) = bi (i = l, 2, 3 - - -).
17. Showthat
*3 +5x2 +4x+5 2 15 x+2
(a) =+{ x-l
(x-t)1x3-1) 1x -D2 x2 +x+I
-r-I-
(b)
2x2 +x+4 I xI
x(xz +2)2 x x2 +2' 1x2 +2)2
-I_
18. Express in partial ftactions

(x-a)(x-b)(x-c)(x-d)
(x + a)(x +b)(x + c)(x + d)'
(i) when a, b, c, d are all unequal, (ii) when they are all equal.
19. (a) Express *6 +3*4 -7 as a polynomial in (x2 + 1).
O) Find a polynomial g(x) in x which satisfies the equation

P(x) I
*
g(x)
Q@) x+2
1r'*Y
where
P(x) = *8 *r7 +6x6 +3x5 +r2xa +4x2 -1x-r3

Q@) = (x +2)(x2 +t)a .
Hence resolve f(t) into paftial fractions.

Q@)
20. (a) Let A(x) be a polynomial of degree n in x, with real coefficients and n real roots
xl, x2, "', xn. Prove that
+ t -V@'
/- x-\ _A'(x)
j=l
where l'(x) is the derivative of A(x). Hence or otherwise, prove that
$ r _A'(x)2-A(x)A"(x)
fi{* - r,)2 A(r)2
2x-l
(b) Resolve . into partial fractions.
(x- 1)'
(c) Let x1 , x2, x3, xo be the roots of the polynomial
B(x) = *4 -IOt2 +I
(you may assume that all the roots of B(x) are real).
Using (a) and (b), or otherwise, evaluate the sum

$\_ zx, -r
ft@' -t)2
Ckapte, 5
Algebralc lnequallty
In the present chapter, we shall deal with some important algebraic inequalities. The inequalities
which we shall discuss are of frrndamental importance in various branches of mathematics.
5.I INTRODUCTION
Our discussion of inequalities will be based on the following fundamental properties of the order
relation ' > ' on the set of real numbers. Firstly, the
DEFINITION Let a, b be real numbers. We say that

(i) a>b f a-b ispositive,
(ii) a b , it lhe point on the real axis conesponding to a lies to the
right of the point conesponding to b.
The fundamental properties of order are the following:
(i) Law of Trichotottty For each pair of real numbers a and b, exactly one of the following
statements is true
a>b, a=b, a<b.
(ii) Transitivity If a>b and b)c, then a)c.
The rymbol > denotes greater than or equal to. The result x > y when stated in fi.rll may be
expressed in several equivalent ways:-
(i) x is either greater than or equal to y.

(iD x is not less than y.
(iii) y is not greater than x.
The symbol < denotes less than or equal /o. Thus r < Jil means that x is less than or equal to
y, or alternatively x is not greater tlnn y, or y is not less than x.
Algebraic Inequality 20?
5.2 ETEMENTARY INEQUATITIES
We begin by setting down some theorems which are of constant use although quite simple in
themselves.
THEOREM 5.1 If a<b, then,forevery c,

(1) a+c<b+c,
(2) a-c<b-c.
THEOREM If a <b, then
5.2
(3) ac<bc ond !.! 7or"r"ry
cc "rO,
(4) ac>bc and !r! fo, every c<0.
cc
IHEOREM 5.3 If 0 <a <I_
a' b'
5.2.1 We shall firsfly restrict ourselves to algebraic inequality only and obtain some direct
consequences from the fundamental properties and definitions stated above
EXAMPI.E I
(a) lf a>b>0, a*6, provethat
(i) o3 +b3 >ab(a+b)
(iD o3 -b3 >3ab(a-b)
O) For positive real numbers a, b, c, prove that
2a3 +2b3 +2c3 > ab(a+b)+bc(b+c)+ca(c+a)
SOLUTION
(a) (i) Infact, as (a-b)2 >0.
o3 +b3 =1a+b)(a2 -ab+b21=@+Dl@-b)z +abf

> (a +b)ab
210 Algebraic Inequality
(ii) As a> b, we have

o3 -b3 -3ab(a-b)=o3 -3a2b+3ab2 -b3
= 1a -b)3
>0
therefore, a3 +b3 >3ab(a-b).
O) By (a) (i), we have

o3 +b3 > ab(a+b), b3 +c3 > bc(b +c), *o3 > ca(c+a)
"3
Adding
2(a3 +b3 +"3; t ab(a+b)+bc(b+c)+ca(c+a)
EXAT'IPIE 2
(a) If a,b,c>0. Provethat
(r) 9*!>z
ba
(ii) @+b
{*4)'-
(iii)
'(i. i).,(:. *)
.
"( i. i),,
O) lf a, b, c, x, !, z are positive, prove that
(:.i.r(:.#i),sffit
SOLUTION
(a) (i) Infact,
(a-b)z >0, o2 -zob+b2 >0, 44 >2,

a b
+->2
ab b a
(ii) By (a)(i), we have
( ! !')
'a + b,['\a + b) = r*g*4 *r =z *( ! * L) >2+2,
b a [, a)
(iii) By (a)(i), we have
!*!r_2. !*9r2. 9*!>2.
bacbac
Adding,
abbcca
-'+-+-+-+-+->6
bacba c
'(;.:).,(:. *)."(*.;)''
Algebraic Inequality 2',11
O) Usine (aXi)
(x v z\
+bv+cz)- (x + v +z)2
l;.;.;)(ax
= 1r2 + y2 + z2 ) +9 *+.ry.T.T.u+
-(r'*yt +t21-21ry+v+y)
b a\ (c a\ ( cb
,( --2+ t )+*l;-z*; :-2+-
a )**l
bc
>0.
therefore,
(: 4. :\rm + bv + cz) > (x + v + z)2

Similarly,
(a 6 c\
+ by + cz) > (a + b + c)2
l:. ;. : )rax
(a b c
l-+-+- z
[x Y
(a b c
l.e. l-+-+-
['r Y z
EXAttlPtE 3
(a) Let a, D and c berealnumberssuchthat ab+bc+ca=1, provethat

.' a'2+b'
,2+c'2 >l
O) Deducethat, if a+B+y = 6,
,^' i o * t^2 | F * t^r' lr . r.
SOLUTION
(a) For, by completing square method,
o2 +bz +"2 -r=o2 +b2 +"2 -1ob+bc+ca)
=*lto-tl' +@ -c)2 +(c-a)2

>0
therefore
2+b'+c'21.
,2 2
a-
(b) Fromtrigonometry, rf a+B+y =n,
=tarr|{o_ F_r)
îo
I r-tan+Ptarl+y
tAn+(B+D tanlf +tnlr
so tanl a tan! f + lan+ p tarr.+ y + tan| y tanj a = r.
Hence, by (a)
,^'to+:rln2 +p+tan' jrrt I
EXAMPI.E 4
(a) Showthatforrealnumbers a and b,

(i) o2 +b2 >|{a+b)2
(ii) a(r-Q<f,
(b) Deduce from (a) the minimum value of
v)=('.+J' .0.j)'
r(x, ,
where x and y arerealnumberssatisfying x+y-I. Hencefindapairofvaluesof x

and y such that f attains its minimum.
SOLUTION
(a) (D We have
o2 +b2 -|ta+t)2 =+@2 -2ab+b2)=j{o-t)2 >0.

The equality holds if and only rf a = b.
(ii) Completing square
a(I - a) = -(a2 - * tn
a1 =
t)'
-(a - i =
The equality hold if and only if a=
{.
(b) Using the rezults of (a),
x+-xI .('.;)' =+l [".+).(,.i)]' bv (aXD

)'
+[ (x+y).+l' =+(,.+)'
l\2
+( l+_x(t- x) ) |
I
2
.+[ + by (a)(ii)
_25
2
Theequalityholdsifandonlyif r*l= y+L undr=], i... *=y=L

xy2'2
Algebraic Inequality 213
5.2.2 Use of telescoping properiy Inequalities can sometimes be established by means of

"telescoping". The examples are self-explanatory.
EXAMPTE 5
(a) Prove that
zJnr+t-zJ-m I <zJi
< -zJrn-t
J;
(b) Show that
zJi -z.r*{+{+ ... ++ <2Ji -r,

.lz Jr J,
z being a positive integer. Deduce that
X=
.1ll
li---i---* ... -i---.
Jz Jt Jroo'
lies between l8 and 19.
SOLUTION
(a) Infact,
zJm+t-zJi 2(Jm+r-Jm><J,r+t+Jil
Jrrr+t+Ji
1
=-Jm+t+Jm
2T
- 2Jm
u J *+t>.fi. fhus we have established the first part of (a). Again
,,1; 2d; -Jrn-r)di +J-n-g

-2,t*i =
m+ m-l
2
m+ m-l
, -2:=
2J; -L
J*'
* Jii.Ji. rne second part of the inequality has also been established.
o) Putting m= 2, 3, ... , n (a) successively, we have
zJi -zJi .i.zJi -zJr

1
zJ+ -zJi <
6 <zJi -zJi,
I
zJn+t-zJi < <zJi -Jn-r.
J;
Adding the respective sides of the above, we have
zJ,+r-zJz .+.+. .+ <zJi -2J7.

Adding I to each part of the above inequality, we have
zJn+r-zJi+t<t+*.+** ... **. zJi -t

Jz J: Jn
Since Jra .Jn+r, 2J, <3, therefore,
zJi -z <zJn+t-zJi *t
Hence, we obtain
ll
+-i <2Jn -t.
J2 '.' 'ln
2J; -z<r+4+
Take n = 100, we have
t8 =zJtoo -z <l +i+i+
I I I
.'fu= <zJtoo -t = ts
That is, x lies between l8 and 19.
EXAttlPLE 6
If 0 n.
am+l -r a^ -r
talm.+l'm,^+l-m
B^*1 -l B'-l
(b)
a^ -L a'-L p^ -L p" -t
mn mn
(c) a^ -l>m(rr-r), B^ -t>m(p-r)
SOLUTION
(a) It is evident thatif a>1, and, m is a positive integer, then
ma > q, +am-2 +... +1.
m m-l
so that
*(o^*r -D-@+L)(am -l)

=@-l){m@m *om-r + ... +a+1)-(z+1)(o^-r + +a+1)]
=(a- r){ma^ -(o'-r + ... +a+l)}

>0
i.e. *(o^*r - 1) > (z + l) (o^ -t)
As z is a positive integer, we have
m+l.m q -I
a, -I
m+I m
Similarly,tf 00
which reduces to
tr*'-r - F'-r
--i+l-
(b) By (a), for m> r, we have
n-
a^ -r o*l -r a'-2 -l a -l
m m-l m-2 n
p' -r p^-r -r Bn -r
m m-l n
(c) Particularly,when z=1 and z>l
m
a -l I
m
>a'-l
i.e. a^ -r>m(a-l).
tB^-l >p._l r
^d *
i.e. p^ -I>m(B-r).
Remo* The above inequalities can be obtained by calculus method in a simpler way, see
Example 8(b)
EXAMPI.E 7
(a) Forpositivenumbers d,b, ---, ffi,fl, provethat O A""

tr|rl,
a la+mc+ne e
b'lb+md+nf - f
al a2
(b) Suppose
ml m2
a... aon.
mn
Provethat
al at+a2+... +an
aon
ml ml+m2+ ..- +mn mn
where a, >0, m, >0, (i
=1,2,...,n). Deducethat, if 0 <at <a2 < --- <a, <!, then
sina, +sina. + ... +sina--
tarat<4<tanan
' cosal +cosd2 + ... +cosaz
SOLUTION
ace
(a) Let ft, for positive numbers l, m. n, we have
U, Vr T = then any
la-mc
k- _> k-
ne
lb
-> md nf
i.e. la > k(lb), mc> k(md), ne = k(nf)

Adding
la+mc +ne> k(lb+md +nf)
glving
la+mc+ne\2-_, e
(l)
lb +md +nf f
Similarly, bt n =1, i, we can obtain
|,
a la+mc +ne (2\
b lb+md +nf
Combining (1) and (2)to get
a la+mc+ne e
b lb+md +nf f
al a2 Qn
o) From
ml m2 mn
, we have
4l
-al -on
-t- at- ^"'
ar -ak ,dn
for k=2,3,... ,n-I
ml mp mn ,
ana SL aon =on

ml mn mn
ct,
orr ml
.t/tr =ttr aon .^,
llmnr
al
ml
.mk 1ak.h.*0, for k =2,3, ,n-I
ana L
ml
ffin 1Q, = u'*n
Adding
al
(mt +mz + ... +mn) < at + a2 + *on.%{*t+nh+ +mn)
ml
: _ al , al+a2+ ... +an - 4n

ml ml+m2+ ... +mn mn
Since tan is strictly increasing on (0,
f), therefore. for 0 1d11a2 1 <an <f ,we
have
0 <tana, <tana, < ... <tartan
sina. sina-- ,
i.e. talal' 1-cosa2< "' <
cos4z_l
By previous result,
sln4 +srn4 + ... +sln4n
tana, <
cosal +cosa2+ ... +cosan
<tana n I
5.2.3 CALCULUS METHOD Many inequalities are obtained in an elementary manner given
above but some important results can be best proved by methods of the calculus given below.
Recall, from differential calculus, that
Let f (x) be a continuousfunction on an interval [a, b] and diferentiable in (a, b).

(D If f '(x)>0 for all x e(a,b) (i.e. f (x) is increasing), then
f (a) < f (x) < f (b) for atl x e[a,bl.
(ii) If f'(x)<0 forall xe(a,b) (i.e. f(x) isdeueasing),then
f (b) < f (x) < f (a) for att x ela,bl
(iii) If f (x) attains its greatest value at xo efa, bl, then
f (x) < f @d fo, all x efa,bf .
(iv) If f (x) attains its least value at x, efa,bl, then
f (x)>- f (xfi for all x ela,bl.
The above facts are illustrated by the following graphs:
ct a baxo b a xob
Figure 5.2(a) Figure 5.2(b) Fagure 5.2(c) Figure 5.2(d)
f is increasing I is decreasing f attains its f attains its

greatest value at rg least value at ro.
EXA'I'IPTE 8
(a) For 0<x<1, andforanyrealnumber p>2. Showthat

(1+x)P + (1- r)P < 2P-t 11+ xP 1
O) If r > 0 and p is a positive integer, show that

,P*l -L \_xP -L
p+r p
and that the equality holds only if x = l.
SOLUTION
(a) Let f (x) = (1+x)P +(L-x)P -2P-r11+xp ). Differentiation gives

.f'(x)= P(I+v1P-r - PQ-.4p-r -2e-t p11+xP-ri

p-l p-l
2x
= p1l+x)rr l+x
{'(+*)
2x
p(l+x)P-r
>
{'(#) 1+x
-0.
o.# <r, o <#< 1 forall x e to, r1]
[*
/(x) isincreasingfor 0<x<1. Thus,for 0<x<1,
f(x)<f(L)
(t+x)p +(l-x)P -2P-t11+xp) <,f(D -2p -2p -0.
(I+ x)P + (l- x)P < 2rr 1l+ xP 1
*m+l x'
(b) Let f (x) = - *-l
-l Differentiation gives
^*,
f' (x) = tm - rm-l = r^-l (, -l)
<0 0<x<1
f '(x =Q x=l
>0 x>l
/ attains its leastvalue at x= I so thatfor all x> 0, f(.x)>/(1), i.e.
m+l.m
x -I x -l ,*l xt
- * >u i'e' *+r-r '- -l
p1a1
^
The equality holds if and only if x = l.
In integral calculus, it asserts that { f(x) and g(x) are continuous over fa, bl and
-f (x)< g(x) for all x efa, bl,, then
rb rb
)"f {r)* <

)"s@)ax l
EXAMPTE 9
(a) Showthat,if p and 4 arerational, p>q>0 and x>0,then
q@P -D> p@q -t).

O) By integrating this inequality or otherwise, deduce that for positive x,
I
I'o
p (p+D'-rir1
__lx'
a
f
+r)' ) a (q
where n is a positive integer

SOLUTION
-r- -'xe ..-l'.

(a) Let f (x)=*'Ppq Differentiationgives
=
f.O 0<xcl
-f'(x)=*e-t -te-t]=0 x=l
Lt0 x>l
I
We see that /(x) attains its least value at x = 1. Thus, for all x > 0,
f (x)>"f(1) =0
l.e.
xP -l xq -r >0
pq
Since p, and q arepositive, therefore
q@P -r)> p@q -D.

O) Integrating the inequality in (a),
Ionf,o -r)dt> li n<,0 -t>a,
'[#']',[#-,
Since x is positive, therefore
+({" 'J=+[*']
The result is true for z= 1.
Suppose that
')
t( _-1
_l xP Jxq
_t
a[{a+l)'
I
P {r+ t)'
[ )
Then, on integration, --t
I tp
p l; (p +l)"
I
v, '+r(#-'\'
q+l
I x'o+l x-
p (p*l)"*r
,= ;I (q *l)"*r ']
xp xq
t.e. 1
+[ (P+1)"*t 'l= q (q +r)n*r
'j
By the principle of mathematical induction, the result is proved.
5.3 FURTHER USEFUT INEQUATITIES
Certain inequalities are particularly important in mathematical analysis. The most important
ones are given below which can be proved by algebraic methods.
THEOREM5.5 [Bernoulli'slnequolityl Let x>-1, thenforallpositiveintegers n,

(l+x)" > I+nx
The equality holdswhen x=0 or n=L
PROOF Prove by induction. When r = 2,

(l+x)2 =l+2x+x2
> I+2x,
Suppose tlte result is true for n = k> 2
(r+x)k > r+tu
Then,for n=k+l
(t+x)&+l = 1l+x)k(l+r)
> (1+kr)(l+x)
=l+(k +I\x+tu2
>1+(k+l)x
By principle of mathematical induction, the result is true for all positive integers z.
Using the Bernoulli's inequality, we can deduce Ihat: For positiw integer n,
['.*)'.[,.#)".'
PROOF Using the Bernoulli's inequality: (I+ x)n > I+ nx for all x > -1,
(,. *)'.' (,. *)-' = (#)'.' (*)' =(f#]" [x)

=(+#)'(x)=(,-r;^)'(#)
( n \ /n+2\
>lr- [bv Beroulli's inequalitv]
7;2n + t)l,., ' )
n3 +3n2 +3n+2
n3 +3n2 +3n+l
>1.
n+l
I I
Therefore, l*-n*l +
n
WEIERSTRASS' INEQUALITIES The following inequalities are of importance in connection with

the theory of infinite products.
THEOREM 5.6 [weierstross's inequolities] Let xpx2,...,xn be numbers such that

0<t, <1, i=1, 2,...,n, and sn=!xr. The,
r=l
(D r-", .fltr I
-x,) <
t*"
r=l
n
(ii) l+s, <ff {t+x,,) l+(x, +xr+ ... *xr)
=.+f*,- l+'sn
r=l
In particular, if xr = xz - ... = xn = x, we obtain the Bernoulli's inequality:
(l+x)" > l+nx.

(ii) [By mathematical induction] When n = 2
(1- xt)(l- x2) = l- (x, + xr) + xrx, > l- (x1 + x2 )
Suppose thatfor k>2

(l-x1)(1-x) ... (l-xo) > l-(xr +x2+ ... +xk)
Then
(1 - xr)(l - x ) ... (I- xo\(l - xK+r) t [t- (r, + x2 + ... + ro )](1 - xp*1 )
= 1- (xr + x2 + ... + xp) - xp*1 + (\ + x2 + ... + xp)xp*t
> 1-(xr +x2+ ... +xp +xp*1)
By principle of mathematical induction, provided s, < l, we have
n
l-", (fltt-x,) or
t-
I
n
I
r=l ",
f]{t-',)
r=l
(iii) As 0(rr.l for r =1,2,...,n, tlerefore
(1-rr)(1+x ) =V xl < 1 for r = 1,2, "', n
Since 1-x, >0, therefore

I
r =l'2""'n'
l-\'r+x"
Multiplying,
g+'1]tt*")
The proof is completed. ll
EXATT'IPIE IO
(a) If x1, x2, ... , xn are all positive and if xr +x2 + ... *xn = s' show tlrat
(l+xr)(l+xr) ... (l+x,) > 1+s,
O) fr or ) l, r = 1,2, "', il. Prove that
(i) (I+ ar)(l+ at;1t+a3) > 2(I+ar+ a2 +a3)
(ii) (I+a)(t+a2) ... (1+a,) ,ftO*or+a2+ ... +an)
SOLUTION
(a) Refer to Theorem 5.6.
(b) (i) By Weierstrass inequality given in (a),
(l+ ar)(I+ a2)(l+ a.1 = 23

+.+)(+ .+)(*.+)
=23 r+i
a, -l
)(
,.+)(*+)
>z'(t*a:)
)( '.t/)('.t|)
>z'(t*t1,.+.+)
:2(l+q+a2+a3)
(ii) In the same way,
(I+ar)(I+a2) ... (l+a,) =*2( +.+)=*n('.+)
'*l( ,.#)
ar-l -l - ... o, - l)
>2"(t* n+l-,a,n+l* "'* , n*1
)
2'
n+l t I+ar+ar+... +an)
I
DEFINIT|ON The number defined by

rlI + ... +j-
l{-=l1-:q-
' 23 n
is called the harmonic numbet.
IHEOREM 5.7 As n increases, the harmonic number increases without bound.
PROOF We see that, for sufficiently large n
H-=l+1+l*1*...*]
" 234 n
I
*[1*1.)*f!*
=r* 2\34)\s
1\ (r
*t.,|*l.t* +-ll) +
16)
, r*l*[!*1)*11* (t
+-r\l+l .+-I +
2\4 4) [8 8) 116
-+ 16
,ll*-*-*-+
I I ..'
=
222
We assert that for any non-negative integer m,
2^,
Hz^=L;--
-'tt+l. ,' (*)
r=l
For m = 0, the equality holds. Suppose that for m= k (> 0)
2k,
sI k
H2r = LV>t+-.
r=l
For m-- k +1, we have
Hrt*r 'or ( t *Ti*

=t;.[7; I .j")l )
r=l
,,.+.(;;.;;. .#)
,v!(tt*lr*t* I "' + l)
,*r+ zk+t)
1
= r+-k
,+z
ft]1.
= t* 2
By principle of mathematical induction, (*) is true for all positive integers rn.
From (*), we see that for any given positive number M, no matter how large, we can find
n =22M such that
H,>*ff> M.
This shows that Hn increases without bound. ll

EXAMPIE I I
Let k be any positive integer. The k-th harmonic number I/o is defined by
lll +...+:
H,.=l+1+-
" 23 k
The graph of the functio ny= I is shown in Figure 5.3.
.,
f r+
Figure 5.3
By Considering an integral of y, show that

lnk < Ho < 1+ lnft
SOLUTION
From the figure, we have
tll
- (i(l forall x elr,r+ll,
r+l: x r
Integrating
['*'|r+I
Jr &=l'*tlat=
Jr x r" !d* r
I - r+l I
_<ln_<_.
r+l r r
Hence
k-t , k-r
tr:< yhr+r
z-rf+L z-/ r
r=l r=l
+.+. .+='"(+1, t*)

ll l
l+r+j+...+k<l+lnk.
l'e. Hk < l+lnk
Simitarly, mrn Ir=trnl1.l
r = il,
7-r r
we have
I
hk<t+1+...*
2 k-r
.t*1*...* I *1.
2 k-Ik
Combining the above two results, lnk ! Ho < l+lnft
TRIANGLE INEQUALITY is also one of the fundamental inequality in mathematics. Firstly, the
DEFINII|ON The absolute value of a real number x, denoted by lrl, * defined as

x when x)0,
I'l= -x when x <0.
-x o x
Figure 5.4 Geometrically,

I
lx Sives the numerical distance of the
conesponding point on the real axis from the origin 0.
lllustrotions
l-sl=-(-5)=5, lzl=2, l-31= -F+)=? lol=o .. etc.
Some simple properties For any real numbers x, !, z, ...

(i) l-rl=lrl
(ii) lt l = O is equivalent to x =0.
(iii) lryl=l'llyl; \ry, ...,1=l'll yllzl -..1,1;
in particulat;
l,,l=1*1, =,,.
(iv) -l'l ='< I'1.
(v) lr-ol <d is equivalent to a-6 <x <a+6;
lr-ol>d is equivalentto x<a-6 or x>a+5
(vi) lr-yl =ly-xl represents the distance between two correspondingpoints.
EXAMPTE 12
Sketch the graph of the function
h(x) =lx l+lx- tl+lx- zl

Hence solve the inequality
lxl+lx-tl+lx-zl> r
SOLUTION
We have
f-x-(x-l)- (x -2) when x <0
h(x\=1I
x-(x-l) -(x-2) when0<x<1
I
x+(x-l)-(x-2) whenl<x<2
I x+(x-l)+(x-2) when2<x
l-3x+3 whenx<0
I
_J-x+3 when0<x<l
I x+l whenl<x<2
lrx-r when 2<x
The graph is given below
y = h(x)
v= 3
x
o t2
Figure 5.5
From which we obtain the solution of the given inequality

x<0 or x>2
One of the most important inequalities involving absolute values is the so-called triangle
inequality.
THEOREM 5.8 ffriongle inequolity] For any real numbers x and y,
I l,l -l rll <l rtyl s l'l+l rl.

PROOF By the fact that I'z I = I' ll r l, | *'l=l*l' = x2, and -l' | =' < l' l, we have
lr * yl' = (x + y)2 = x2 +2xy + y2
,ll yl*l yl,

< | x l2 +zl
=(rl+lr[2.
But l* * yl ana Jxl+lf l are positive numbers, therefore
l,*yl<l'l+lr| (r)
Replace y by -y in(l),
l'+Gil;<lxl+l-rl i.e. l"-ylsl'l+l/| e)
In(2), replace y by x-y,
l'-('-y)l=l'l*l*-yl, lyl=l,l*l'-yl, lyl-l'lrl,-yl. (3)
Since (3) holds for all real numbers x andy, therefore, by interchanging them, we obtain
l'l-lyl=ly-"1, i.e. l'l-lrl=l'-yl @)
Combining (3) and (4),
ll'l-lyll=l'-yl (5)
In (5), we replace y by -y,

ll'l-l-vll<l'-(-v)l i.e. ll'l-lrll=l'*vl (6)
Conclusively, we have
ll'l-l yll
=l't yl <lrl*lrl
CORO|.|.ARY 5.9 Let x1,x2, ..., xn be any n realnumbers,
lxr+ xr+ ... +xnl.l', l*l rrl*...*l', I
PROOF [By induction] The result is true for n =2 by above theorem.

Assume that
l'r+'2+ .-- +xnl=lrrl+lxrl+ ... *l'"1

Then, by triangle inequality again,
lxr+rr+ .-- +xn+xr+r

I
<lrr+tr+ ...
l*l ,*rl
+ xn
.l't l*l 'rl* ... +l

', l+l',*1 |
By the principle of mathematical induction, the result is true for all positive integers n 2 2. tl
EXAMPTE Ia
(a) Show that f (x)= r i,

t an increasing function on (-1, o).
l+x
(b) Using (a), or otherwise, show that
p+q+r lpl- l'l , lql
l+ p+q+r = r+l;l- r+l?l- r+EI
for any real number p, q and r
SOLUTION
(a) Forany x1,x2> -1,
xr _x2
f (x)- f (x) =
l+x, I+x,
xl - xz
(l+xt)(l+xr)
We see that /(x1) <f (x) whenever xt1x2. This proves that f is an increasing
function on (-1, o).
O) By the triangle inequality, for any real number p, q and r,
ln*q*,1=lpl*l al+lrl
therefore, by (a),
p+q+r lpl+lq l+lr I
1+ p+q+r t+{lrl+lal+lr11
lpl +
t+ilz l*lq
q
, r*{l l'l
t+{l r l+l q l+lr l} l*l'l] p l+la l+lr l}
lpl , lql l"l
- r+l;l-Gl?l-G1;1
=
EXAi'IPI.E IA
{or, or,
..., or} d {fr, bz, ..., bn} are two sequences of real numbers. Define
sk=Qt+a2+ "' *ak for k=1,2, "' ,n
(a) Prove the,4Del identity:
n
Zooto = s1(01 -b) + s2(b2 -br) + -'. + srq(bn-1 - bn) + snb,

k=l
O) f Dr t bz2 ... ,bnrj and there are constants m and M such that ls*l<U for
k =1, 2, ..., n.
Prove the16 el's inequality:
i
k=l
alrbl, < Mbr
SOLUTION
(a) By simple algebr4
atbt+arbr+ ... +arbn=srD, +(s, -s)b2+(s, -s2)03 + ... +(s, -sr_1)bn (l)
. = sr(b1-b)+s2(b2-b)+ ...+sn_1(bn_t-b)+snbn. Q)
That is, we have transformed (l) into another shape, namely (2) wherein we sum the a's
and difference the D's.
(b) Using the triangle inequality,
n n-l
Z"obo snbn +Zto#.o -br*r)
|c:1 k=l
n-l
= I + ll r,l*Zl'o llbr - bo*rl
k=l
n-l
,lu. +l{4 -b*r)
k=l
Mlbn + 4 bn
l Mbr
EXERCISE 5A
l. If 0<xcl, 0 <y<I, provethat 0<x+y-ry<I.
2. lf a, b, c are real positive quantities, prove that

L, bc ca ab
-la+D+c)---
2' b+c c+a a+b
can never be negative.
3. Let a, D be trvo positive real numbers and m, n two positive integers. prove that
m,n n,m - m+n ,m+n
ao+aD<a+b
and that the equality holds if and only if a = 6.
4 By using the identity
1a3 + b3 1 - @2b + ob2 1

: 1o2 - b2 y1o - by,
or otherwise, show that for any positive numbers a, D, c
o2b+ob2 +b2c+bc2 *"2o*"o2 .2(o3 +b3 +c31.
5. (a) If x and y are positive numbers, prove that * * L a ZJ y.

Hence, find the least value of , +A
n
when r is restricted to be positive integer
(a) Prove that x(a-x) <to2 forall realvalues of x.

Hence, show that
n\n(
,t=rlZ) for n=1,2,3, ... .
6. Prove the identity
112 +m2 +n211t2 *y2 +121-Qx+my+nz)z =(mz-ny)2 +(nx-tz)z +(ly-mx)2

Deduce that, if a, b, c are positive and unequal,
(D 3(a2 +b2 +cz)-@+b+c)2 >o;

(iD 1a+t+c{ !*1*1]' s.
\a b c)
7 Given that p, q , r and s are positive and unequal, show that
(a) (pq+rs)2 <(p' *r')(q' *r'),

O) ptq * pq3 . po *q4 .
(c) p4 + q4 + 14 + s4 > 4pqrs.

8 Let a, b and, c be real numbers. Prove tlnt

aa1
a' +b' +c' > ab +bc+ca,
and that the equality holds if and only if a = b = c.
Hence, or otherwise, show that the roots of the equation

(x - a)(x - b) + (x - b\x - c) + (x - c)(x - a) = 0
are real.
9. (a) Express
oa -21b2 +"21o2 +1b2 -c2y2

as a product oflinear factors.
O) Let a, b
and c be three positive numbers such that the sum of any two is greater
than the third. Using the result in (a), show that
o4 +b4 *"4 .z1a2b2 +b2"2 +"2o27.

Hence showthat o2 +b2 *"2 .Z(ab+bc+ca).
10. Giventhat a>b>O and

as+b(k-s)
'sk
where s and t are positive integers, prove that
L.a.2.
xl x2 x3
... ..*o-, .*o-t.
xk-r a
11. (a) Let a, p and 7 be positive numbers. Suppose
(x-a)(x-B)=x2 -2ryx*q
and (x-a)(x-B)@-D=13 -3br2 +3cx-d
for all x.
(i) Show that p2 >q .
(iD By expressing b, c and d in terms of T, p ffid q, or otherwise. show that

b2>c>0 and
"2rbd.
Hence, or otherwise, show that b>J; >W .
o) Let A, B, C be the angles of a triangle. Show that

ABBCCA
tarLTtanT+tanttanT+tan
,tan , =l
Using (a), or otherwise, show that
tan
ABC
2+tanT+tant>43
and
A B C.I'
tanjtani^Z=i IHKALE 1998]
12. Let c and D be two positive numbers and let n be a positive integer. Making use of the
n n
equality fI(on +bk 1 =fl1o"*'-o * bn*t-o ), or otherwise, show that
k=l k=l
)
n
fl{ok *tk) , (on*' +b'*l)n IHKALE r9891

k--t
lll I 1
13. Using - for r>3,
,3 (r-2)(r-t)r z (r-2(r-D- @-l)r
provethat + Ir' ll8
i.;. n
Obtain a similar inequality +4I

"t i.i. n
14. (a) Prove that, if a and D are positive numbers such that o2 .b2 , then a <b
(b) Prove that if k is a positive integer, then

.lEA+Jt -t<2Ji
Hence, deduce that
l_
4.Jt +t-J.'-r
'lk
(c) Using (b), or otherwise, prove that for any positive integer n,
,lllr------=
l+---F+----+ ... *---; <4n+I+Ji-t
42 a/3 ,ln
ls. (a) Show that when the sum of two positive real numbers remains constant, their product
increases as their difference decreases.
(b) if z is a positive integer,

Deduce that
(i) 2n 2n-l ... +l <(n+I)2,

2n+r<r+2.ffi+3.#;+
(ir) n" <1n112.
16. (a) Let p and n denote positive integers. Use the identity
bP -aP =(b-a)(brr +bp-2o+bP-3o2 +...+baP-2 *oo-t).

to show that
_rp*r
,e .(n+r)p,*r
p+r <(n+r)p.
n-l D+l n
(b) Hence, prove that 2tn .ft1<LkP.
'
k=r k=r
17. (a) Obtain the form of polynomial /(x) which satisfies the identity
,m+t -r x^ -l 1x-t)2 p1x1

m+l-m=*1**r'
where m is a positive integer.
O) Deduce that, if x > l,

,m+l -l x^ -r I
(r-l)'
nxal - * <1x '-t ,
and that
x'-r x^ r
-l <;(n-m)x"--.t
-(x-l)-,r
nmz
where n is a positive integer greater than m.
18. {or, or,..., on} anA {ft, b2,..', br} are two sequences of real numbers. Define
sk = dt+a2+ "' *ak for k =l' 2, "', n.
(a) Prove that
n
Z" ou n = s1 (D1 - br) + s2(b2-0, ) + "' + s

n1(b r-v - b,) + snbn
k=r
(b) tf br>b2 > ... >

m<sp <M for k=I, 2, ..., n,
prove that
n
mbr<lalrbk < Mbr IHKALE 19941
k=l
t9 (a) For x > 0, prove that lnx < x- I where tlte equality holds if and only if x= 1.
(b) Provethat
rl
lnr{. for r>1.
r_l
Hencededucethat lnz.f:/-/ k for n=2,3,4,.--. THKALE i9951
k=l
20. (a) Givenarealnumber a with 0<a<1, showthatif 0<x<1,

(i) (l+x)d <l+u,
(ii) (I-x)o <I-rrc.
(b) Show that for any positive integers n and k,
n n
(+)[u *,;h-r#).
I
irn+t -
7rn+l
r#)[ 1l,, -11n+t
(c) Showthat
llll
t4 998 < ;7*;-;*=;* "' *_- < 15 000. IHKALE r9871
Vt ',lz 'Jt {t ooo ooo
21. Let a be a positive real number not equal to I and let p, q, r and s be four real numbers
such tlnt
p+q=r+s and 0<p-q<r-,s.
(a) (i) Show that the function f (x) = a' + a-' is strictly increasing for x > 0.
(ii) Byconsideringthevalues of f at iro-n, aoa jt"-"), deducethat
aP +aQ <q' +at.

O) Let u and v be two distinct positive real numbers.
(i) Showthat
upvq +uqvp <urvt +utvr.
Hence deduce that
(uP +vP)(ua +vq)<(u' +v')(ut +v').

(ii) Show that
1rz8 +v8;1280 +u80111900 +v900)(21000 +v1000) a231ut988 +u1988).
IHKALE 19881
22. Let a and D be positive numbers.
(a) Prove that
oobb > obbo

where, if the equality holds, then a = D
(b) Using (a), or otherwise, prove that

a+b
a+b
> obbo
2
where, if the equality holds, then a=b.
(c) Showthat r'11-r;1-" .) to, 0<x<1
where, if the equality holds, then ,:'. I

Deduce that ao bb ,( ":u)"*u
[2 )
where, if the equality holds, then a=b. IHKALE r9951
23. (a) Let p and q be two positive integers with p> q
(i) Let
pt
'r =3k, ,, =!1so
2
-t),
where k is a positive integer. Show that
P*+Q**I= Pt*,r-Q*r.
(iD Show that
lllll ... +-+-+-+ - r_I
I I 2q+I
p-q p-q+l p-I p p+I p+q-l p+q p
Let
-+-+
o)
I
2' -l\.
m =:-(3n
where n is an integer greater than l. Using (a), or otlerwise, prove that
-1
l+-+ ... +->n. I
2m
24. (a) Evaluate jlo*t*t'+ ... +{-t)dt
(b) Showthat
r+(r-x) +(L- x)2+ ... +(r-x,'-' =:[;,J(-1)'*'''-'
*n.,.[i) =f,ando!=1.
Usingthe substitution x=I-t in (a), showthat
n I
.+=[l +(-'I)'*r
'1*+*+* [;F.[;J+ n n
(c) Prove by induction that

2^
lm
-i2>I+-
t=l
for any non-negative integer m.
(d) Find a positive integer n so that the value of
i,-rr'.t[')l
t\ i)i
--
i=l
exceeds 1000.
Given any positive number M, no matter how large, will the value of
i,-u''(lJi
always remain less than M as n becomes larger and larger? Explain your answer
25. (a) Let a and 6 be nvo distinct positive real numbers. Show that for and positive integer
an+l-a n,D>aD
,n , n*\
-b
(b) Hence show by induction that
b'l{n + l)a - nbl. o'*r

for any positive integer n.
(c) Using (b) or otherwise, show that for any positive integer n
['.*)"('.*)'.'
26. (a) Let a, b and, c be real numbers.
(i) Showthat o2 +b2 +"' , ob+bc+ca.

(ii) Hence deduce that if a+b+ c> 0 then
o3 +b3 +"3 >3ob".
O) Let lx | < tnz.
(i) Show that

lll
("-*)t +(2-ex73 +(e* -e-' +l1l >0.
(ii) Using (a) or otherwise, show that
e-* 12 - e' 11e' - e-' + r) < l. IHKALE r99rI
27. Find the range of values of x for which x2 -7x+g <3.
28. Find, graphically or otherwise, the set of values of x for which | 2x -Il+ |
+ - x |> S.
29. Find the set of real values of x for which I

zx+ll-lx++l<Z
30. Solve the inequality l

r -tl -l x +Zl> Z. IHKALE 19901
31. For what values or x is .t

l# I
32. Find all (x, y) in R2 satisfying the following two conditions:
lzx-tlty*t IHKALE r9931

y=lx+31.
33. Let {a1, o2,... }, {br, br, '.. } U"twosequencesofrealnumbers,and 6r=S.
(a) Showthat
k k-l
}o,Q, -b,-) = akbk +ltoi -a,*1)bi, k :2, 3, -...
j=l t=l
O) Suppose {a,} isdecreasingand la,l<f forall i,where K isaconstant.

Show that
k
2o,@, -bi-) =
K{ l"t l+zla1,l}, k =t, 2,
i=l
(c) Using (b), or otherwise, show that for any positive integers n and, p,
(-l)t <_3
- 2n' IHKALE 19921
t=n
Among all the possible inequalities that we might consider, we shall concentrate on just two :
The arithmetic-mean - geometric-mean inequality and the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality in the next
two sections. In addition, we shall consider various algebraic technique for establishing an
inequality.
5.4 THE INEQUATITY OF THE MEANS
In this section we discuss the algebraic and analytical techniques for establishing the theorem of
the means and its applications.
5.4.1 The Arithmetic Mean and Geometric Mean
DEFINITION Givenany n positivenumbers d1,o2,.., ,dn, thepositivenumbers A and G,

defined by
L
'l=;(ar+ar+ ... +a,),
G=4loro2...d,
are called respectively the uithmetic meun and the geometric mean of cty e2, .. . , ctn
EXAA'IPTE I5
x1,x2>-..,xn are n realnumberswhosearithmeticmeanis x and a isanyrealnumber
otherthan i. Provethat
n n
l{*,-r)' .lt ,-o1'

r=l r=l
That is, the sum of the square of the variation of x, from the mean is less than thatfrom other
number.
SOLUTION
Since x1, xz, ... ,xn = n7, therefore, if a is any number other than 7,
n
f tt, -o)2 =\{*,-t+*-o12

r=l r=l
n n n
= ){r" - x12 +z1x - a)>@, -7.1 *l{t - "12
r=l r=l r=l
n n
= I (r, -i'12 +z1x - a)(x1 + x2 + ... + xn - rr1 +11, - o)2
r=l r=l
n n
= I(r, -r12 +l{r-o)2
r=l r=l
n
>l{*, -*)2
r=7
238 Algebraic Inequalily
The first theorem is
THEOREM 5.10 A and G both lie between the least and the greatest of a1, a2, ..' , dn
PROOF The numbers A and G are unchanged if the n given rurmbers are named in any different
order. Accordingly, suppose that the numbers are named in non-decreasing order, i.e. that
at1a2< "'< an Then
na,r< at+ a2 + *dn na_
al=
n n
3-f = a'
I ll
and ar=1a!1i <(a(2 o)i .@f,1i =on
Thus,
ar1 A14n, arlG 1an.
For equality to occur at all here, it is clearly necessary and suffrcientthat ar=e2= = en.,
and then A= G. ll
The last theorem tells us the confines between which ,4 and G both lie. The next theorem gives
the relative magnitudes of A and G.
THEOREM 5.1I Let A and G denote the arithmetic mean and geometric medn respectively of
41, Cl2, "' , An, then
A>G,
the equality holds if and only f q = a2 = .'. - an .
PROOF Here the proof is given in a traditional procedure. To begin with, we prove the theorem
for a set of 2u numbers, using induction on rn.
For two positive numbers a1 , a2,
A-G =!2 (ar+a2)- J;r%

_l (J4
a -,[")',
>0
therefore, A > G, with equality if and only tf a, = a,
ia'
I
I
I
Figure 5.6 Geometric lnterpretation
Consider the semicircle with diameter AB = a+b. From trigonometry,

r =radius=|@+b)
L=tano=h i.e h2 =ab

hs
Geometrically, h<r, i.e. Jab <|{a+r)
Assume that the theorem holds for 2* positive numbers

21
2k
=fI",
{;:''} t=l
and let at,a2, ... ,azk+t be 2k*l given positive numbers. Group these numbers into the two
sets a1, ..',a20 ffid o2o*1, ... , ct2k+t with Zk numbersineachset. Then
2k+t 2k+l
2r*
I I
*a Zo,
i=l
t l;i"'.;,8:;ll
'{fi:", ll; fr:,ll' "'*"

casen =z
, , )'o
lfi.,lr[ fi",]r f
L,=tl fi=l.rl J
2k 2k+L 2k+t
=no, flo, = flo,.

t=l j=l+l
i=2k
and equality holds if and only if Qt= "'=o2o =d2k+l= "' =azk+t. This completes the
inductive proof.
Now suppose that we have any r positive numbers, e1, e2, ... , an with arithmetic mean I
and geometric mean G. Let m be apositive integer such that n 12^ . Consider the set of 2-
positivenumbersconsisting of a1, a2,...,dn andof A taken 2^ -, times. Then
I
a1 -la2+ ... +an+(2m -n)A ^m
2(ap2... arA t-n )
2^
z^
I
*+-2(Gnsz'-n, 2'
A2^ >OnO2^-n
A>G
a1+a)+ ... +an I
l.e. (apz ... an)'

>
n
and equality holds if and only if er= ... = an = A
EXAtriPl.E 16
(a) Prove that, for any four positive real numbers a, b, c, and d,
4
(D
a+b+c+d > abcd;
4
(ii)
a +, +c)3
2 abc.
3)
(b) Deduce
-t
tlnt, if the triangle ABC is not equilateral, then
QAn2 A + :rlri B + rln' C)t, 27 (tanA + tanB + tanc)z
SOLUTION
(a) (i) Because, trom (Ji -Ji;2 > 0 and d; -Ji)2 > 0, we have
a+b> zJab, and c+b>2.1A.

Hence, for positive numbers a, b, c, d
a+b+c+d>z{J'r +J|a}
>2.z{J"bJ;A}+
+b !.c +d|o
, ou"o
f 4 I=**
{a
(ii) Put d = !(a +b+ c) in (a)(i), we have
{! <a + n + c1 + } @+n+
"1}a
> anc.
!@ +b+ c)
{!t' * t* ")}n t atc.!@ + b + c)

{!<r+u+c1}3 >onc.
Alternative Since
o3 +b3 *"t -3ob"- (a+b+c)(a2 +b2 +"2 -bc-ca-ab)
= l{a +b+
"711o
- t'12 + (b - c)2 + 1c - aff
>0
therefore, tle result follows.
O) Since AIBC is not equilateral, tarf A, 1mn2 B, tanz C are unequal positive quantities so
that by (aXir),
(t^rr2 A+tar3 B+:rrn'C)t ,27t^2 Atan2 Btan2 C-

But, from trigonometry,
tarrA = tanlr - @ + C)]= - tan(B + C; = - J- n11*9

i.e. tanA +tanB +tanC = tnAtanBtanC,
(an2 A+t^2 B*t^'C)t r2l(tarlA+tanB+tanCi2 I
EXA^ PtE l7
(a) Prove, by mathematical induction, that
(D 12 +22 + ... +r2 =[n@+I)(2n+I)

(iD 13 +23 + ...+n3 =Lon21n+l)2
(b) Using the theorem of the means, show that
(D nt<{}tn +r) pn+r)}t
(ii) r.3.5 ... (2n-r).(+)'

QD " (+)'" ,rn'r'
SOLUTION
(a) As exercise
(b) (D Applyrng the theorem of the means on the set of positive numbers 12, 22 , ... ,2, *e
have
12 +22 +_... +n2

,(t2.22 ... nr)+
!@ +t)(2n+t) > (z!)3.
(ii) Since
rz +32 + ...+(2n-r)2 ={f *22 +32+ ... +(2fi2}-{22 +*2 + ... +1znf}
= !{zn){zn+\$n +\-ln@ +t)(2n +r)

=!n1+n2 -t).
Applying the AM > GM onthe set of positive numbers I' , 3' , ... , (2n- l)2 , we
have
+32 + ... +(2n-I)2

12
n
,df .z' ...(2n-r)2
n
i
(iii)
t+l >1.3.5 ..- (2n-l)
Applying the theorem of the means on the unequal positive numbers f , 2t, ..., n3
we have
L3 +23 + ... +n3 .. ?

I
> (l- '2- ,3)"
"
n(n+l)2
4 {t, rl'}*
Raising both sides to power r, we have
>(,!)3.
"(+)'"
EXAMPI.E 18
Deduce ftom the theorem of the means that if a and b are unequal and positive, then
(a) on +on-rb*on-2u2 + .-. +b' >(n+I)(ab); ,
(b) o' *(n)o'-'u*(')o'-'b2 + ... +b' >z' 1ob1tr

[t] lz)
SOLUTION
(a) Applyrng the theorem of the means on the set of the unequal positive numbers
an , an-lb, ... , bn, we have
on +on-rb+ ... +bn >1n+g{1a'11an-rb71a'-'b'J ... (b')}#

"' +2+rbn+{n+t)+ "' +z+ri*
=1n+\{a'*(n-l)+
= g *u{ot('*rtuio,a}*
L
= (n +I)(ab)
2
(b) By the binomial theorem and applying the theorem of the means on the unequal positive
numbers a and b,
n rb+ n
an+ + ... +b =(a+b)n
I 2
,(zJ"t)"
EXAN'IPIE I9
(a) Forpositivenumber a and b, a*b, pravethat
@r1*.'#i
O) Deduce that if n be positive integer, then
(i) ('.;)'.(,*-!)'."
(ii) ('-+J'.(,-#)'."
Algebraic Ineqaality 243
rt,t (r+1)'*''[t*-t,)'.'
SOLUTION
(a) lf a, b,..., D be positive numbers (not all equal), then by the inequality of the means, we
have
I
/_a+b+... +b
(ab ...b) n+l - n+l
a +nb
I
i.e. (ob"\A - z+l (*)
I
o) (i) Putting a=1, b=l*V, wehave
('.*)-.*{ '.'('.+)]
n+2 I
n+l '' n+l'
-l,
Raising both sides to power n +1, we have
('.*)"('.#)'.'
(ii) Putting a =1, b =F+, in (*) above, we obtain
rl (
{('-+)'*+-' 'r*ttt*'[ '-il]
nI
=-=l--
n+l ' n+l
Therefore,
('-*i.('-,-.J'.'
n
(iii) Replace n by n+I andput a=1, b n+l' in (*) above, we obtain
(*)-.#{'.,,.'(*)}
n+l
n+2
Hence,
( n+z\n+2 ( n+l\"*1
(#)'.'-(#)".'' or
[;iJ '[,J
n+l
'
srvins, l+-nI I
[t.#)'-'.(
We have just seen that the differences An - Gn are never negative : can we say how they vary
with n? One general answer lies in the next theorem of R. Rodo.
THEOREM 5.12 Let A* Gn denote the arithmetic mean and geometric mean of the positive
numbers a1, a2, ... , en. Then
+l)(An*, - Gn+t) > n(A, - G,)
(n
with equality if and only tf ar+r = Gn.
PROOF We have
(n +l)(An*r- Gn+t) -n(A, - Gn)
I
= (a, + a, + -.. + a n t a ral) - @+ I)(a, ... o
r*t)# - (a, + a, + ... + a n) + n(ar... an
= an*t*n(a1...a)* -@+r)(at ... or*r)*
I
Consider the r + I numbers, consisting of ar*, and of (a1 . .. ar) taken n times. By the
theorem of the means,
I
I n+l
n
ar*r+n(arar ... an) n I
4n+l (ara, ... an)"
n+I
I
= (qpz ... anar+t) n+l
I
and equality hods if and only if on+t = (a1 ...an)" = Gz. The rheorem follows.
PROOFS OF THE THEOREM OF THE MEANS In the mathematical literature there exist a
number of excellent and comprehensive proofs of the inequality of the means. The proofs given
below and problems in exercise 58 are some collections which are so elegant that they suggest us
useful lines of thought and stimulate us to independent work.
Constont-sum, moximum-product principle; Constont-product, minimum-sum

principle. Let a, D be positive numbers. From tlre identity
4ab=(a+t12 -1a-t72 or (a+b)2 =4ab+(o-b)2 e),e)
we see that
(i) If a+b =constant, then ab will increase as a-b decreases, maximum of ab occurs
when a = b.
(iD If ab =constant, than a+b will decrease as a-b decreases; minimum of a+b occurs
when a=b.
Proofthat A2G
PROOF Let a1,a, be the greatest and least of the a, (i =1,2, ...,n). Replace a1, a, by
o't= e'r= l{ot+ a), thenby constant-sum, maximum-product principle,wehave
1l
A =-(at+a2+ ... +an)=;(a'iaz+ ... +an_t+atn)
but G=4lap2 ... qn 3 a'lo2 '.. er-Id'n
Similarly, if we replace the least and greatest (say: an_1, a2), of ot
1 , o2 , ... ,en_1, ctt
n by
d'2= e'n-l=
|(ar_, + a2),
11
I = - (at r*a2 + ... + an_, + a' n1 = - (a' r+a' 2+a3 + ... I a
n_2 + a' r_1ia' r)
but G< dtld2 .,. on-1atn1 at 1at 2 a3 ... Qn-2Qt n-1ct',
Proceeding in this way and the product ara2...an has maximum value when all
C\, Q2, "' , Qn are eql l,
G34ta'1e2... en-1atn
a' rat, a, ... an_ra' n_rat n
where 4 =!ro, +a^z + +4r). Hence,

n"
G- ...an si (ar+a2* ... *ar) = I ]
lllusiroiion As an example of this process, consider the case ar = 2, e2 = 4,

a3 = 8, a4 = L2. The algorithm described yields the following sequences of sets:
{2, 4,8, 12} -+{i, 4,8,7 }-{2, 6,6,i }-{f , +,+,+}

We see that the arithmetic mean remain constant ut +, but the geometric means
conesponding sets increase to f , i.e.
A(2,4,8, 12) = A(7,4,8,7) = A(7,6,6,7)= A(+,+,t,tl
G(2, 4,8, 12) < G(7, 4,9, 7) < G(7, 6,6,7) <Ge,+, *, El
where A(...), G(...) denote respectively the arithmetic mean and geometric
mean of ( ... ). This illustrates that
G<A. I
Alternative By the constant-product, minimum-sum principle, replace the greatest a, and the
least a, by G and k, where Gk1 =alan,then G remainunchanged,but
11
A=-(at+a2+ ... +ar)2-(G+a2+ ... +frI)
Again,replacethegreatestandtheleastof G,a2,..',\ by G and, k, sothattheproduct
remains constant but the sum will decrease. Proceeding in this way, we final have
At+a2+ "'+an
A_
n
+an_t
>G+kr+a2+.,.
n
G+G+kr+k2+ ... *dn_2

n
G+G+.'. +G
n
-G.
[See Exercise 58 problem 17]. l
A Proof of the Theorem of the Meons An2Gn
Prove: log.x<x-I forall x>0.
PROOF It f(x)=log"x-x+l, x>0, tlren

l _r_ l_x
f,(x)= xx
As
>0 0<xcl
f'( -0 x=l
<0 x>l
therefore / attains its greatest value at x = l. Thus, for all x>0
f(x)<f(r)
log, x-x+l <0
log"x3x--l
Proof that A> G
n
PROOF Then, for positive numbers a1, a2, ,an, tf A=L Lo,,
r=l
"r"(Z)= (+)-'
ft
Q,
Itoe, A )=2(+)-.
r=l
-.-
t"rrI ala2a3 an
1n-n =0
AN
A' u ora2a3 -.. a,
A>4larara3... dn
al+a2+a3+... + an
l.e.
n
,4lofza3...a, ]
The theorem of the means can be obtained from the theory of convexfunction.
IEMMA 5.73 Suppose that f : R -+ R satisfies
'(ry)'leye
and all x and y in an interval (a, b), x + y. Then
xt+x2+.-. +xn _ ,f (xr) + f (x)+ ... + f (xn)

n n
whenever the xr's are in (a, b), with xi + x j for at least one pair (i, j).
PROOF The proof is given in a manner completely analogous to Example 35 Chapter 0. ll
IHEOREM 5.14 Let x,>0 for i=I,2,...,n. Considerthefunction f (t)=logt, we have

I
(xfi2 "' x)i <\*x2*-"'*x'
n
with equality if and only if all the x, are equal.
PROOF Considerthefrrnction .f (x)=logx, x > 0. For x1; x2) 0 with x1*x2,
Gli-,1a12 'o + "?''[-'r*,

x,t +x^
'-1
2,,lxrx,
-/t'*t'
= It o
'o'[lz,lxtx, )
+ *("+") -bgJ;,xz >o
:+ *[5t), ]{,or,, +rogx2)
I.e. t(ry),)lr<,,t+re)f
with equality holds if and only if x1= x2,
therefore, by above lemma, for x1, x2,... , xr)0, we have
(x,+x^+...+x'\ :(toerr+togxr+
t,
t"*l# ... +logx,)
),
I
=log(xrx, ... ,n)n
Since logarithmic function is an increasing function, therefore.
W+u'
,
':
"'xr)n.
->(xqz x, are equal.
with equality if and only if all the
5.4.2 Harmonic Mean
DEFINIIION Let a1,a2, .'- ,a, be positive numbers, the number

n
H_
11 ... +_I
-+-+
al a2 Qn
is called harmonic mean of ay d2, ..' , on
lllustrotion Theharmonicmean of I,2,3 and 4 is

Lf-
t
"-T-l r l
1*r* l*4
IHEOREM 5.15 Let G and H denote the geometric mean and harmonic mean respectively of
thepositivenumbers a1, a2r ... , a* then
H <G.
Equality holds if and only ifthe a, (i = l, 2,..', n) are all equal.
1 1
a7, a2,
PROOF Applyrng the positive numbers
a,
i/t*)(+) t;) =#
lll
_+_+ ... +_
ar d2 dn (1)
n
I
the equality holds if and only if all Q =I,2,...,n) are all equal , i.e. if and only if the
4
a, (i = I, 2,..., n) areall equal. Equation (1) is equivalent to
n
lll <4!ap2 "' an
... +_
-+-+a2
al 4n
l.e. H<G
The equality holds if and only if the ai(i = l. 2,.'., n) are all equal.
Combining the theorem of the means, we have,
coRoLtARY 5.16 A>G>H.
EXAr\,lPLE 20
n
Let ar,a2, ... ,a, loepositivenumbersand sn =Zo, Prove that
r=l
sn 't,, su -
sn-dl sr-d2 '2
sr-dn n-l
SOLUTION
Applytng the theorem H < A on the positive numbers sn - a, r = l, Z, ..., n,
n
lrl = *{u, - a1) +G, - ar) +... +(s, - o,)}
Sn-Al Sn-A2 Sr-An
I{
n
flsn ,t?
]
Hence, the result follows
Alternative Applying the theorem of the means twice

r[ I I J_
I I\ I
I
nLsn-q
-l sr-Q2 Sn-An ) (s, -a1Xsn -az\ ... (sn-an)
-r-r I
+Gn-a2)+ .'. +(sn -o)j
)(r,-orl
n
nsr-(a1+... +ar)
n
sn(n-l)
s'l .t ? .tn , n2
sn-Qn--n-I
Hence,
sr-al sn-o2 I
5.4.3 Root Mean Square
DEFIN|IION Given any n positive numbers e1 ,ct2, ...,an the positive number Q defined
by
or2 +or2 +..,+on2

Q= n
is called root mean square of at , ct2, ... , e,
IHEOREM 5.17 Let A and Q denote the arithmetic mean and root mean square respectively
of the positive numbers e1 , ct2, ... , an, then
A<Q
The equality holds if only if the a, (i = I, 2, ... , n) are all equal.
PROOF Using the identity, for all positive numbers er ,o2, ... sen,
n1"l +"|* ... *oj)=(ar+ar+ ...+an)z +1ar-a2)2 + 1o1-4)2 + ...+(a, -on)'
+1a, - a3)2 + ... + (ar-r- on)2
we have
o12 +o22 + "- +on2 *on)2

,!r<or+a2+ ... (l)
the equality holds if and only tf ot = a2, at - a3 , o1 = ctn, a2 = Q3, ctn-1 = ctn> i.e. if and
only if the a, (i = l, 2, ..., n) are all equal. Equation (1) is equivalent to
2+ 2
+ ... +on2 +an
>al+a2+...
n n
i.e. Q>A
the equality holds if and only if the a, (i =1, 2, ..., n) all equal
We have the final conclusion that:
COROLLARY 5 l8 If H, G, A, Q denote the harmonic mean, geometric mean, arithmetic

mean and root mean square respectively of the positive numbers ay d2, ..., en,, then.
H <G <A<Q
the equality holds if and only if the a,(i = l, 2, ... , n) are ail equal. ll
EXAtvlPtE 2l
Let a, b, c be positive numbers. Prove that
(a)
a2 +b2 a+b
2 - 2'
(b)
a2 +bz +cz a+b+c
JJ
SOLUTION
(a) Usingtheidentity o2 +b2 =|l<o+tl2 +1a-fi2f. we have
a2 +bz >){o+t)'
$vlng
a2 +b2>_
a+b
22
o) Usingtheidentity a2 +bz *"'=!l<o+b+c)2 +(a-b)2 +(a-c)z +(b-Q21,

we have
az +b2 *"'>!@+b+c)z
gl"ing
a2+b
,2+c2 a+D+c
\_
JJ
5.4.4 Weighted Means
By generalizing the notions of arithmetic mean and geometric mean it is possible to generalize
the theorem of the means. One such generalization is the following theorem of the weighted
means.
DEFINIIION Let mr,m2, .-. ,m, be any n positive rational numbers. The numbers A* and
G*, where
,t* _ffiIdl+m2a2+
... +mnan
ml+m2+... +mn '
I
G* = (ar^r ar^, ... an^n)@F^r.:*^),
are called respectively the arithmetic and geometric meqns of a, (i =1,2,..., n) weighted
respectivelyby mi.
The theorem to be proved is
THEOREM 5.19 Let A*,G* be respectively the qrithmetic and geometric means of
a, (i =1,2, ..., n) weightedrespectively by m,. then
A* uG*:
and equality occurs if and only tf ar = a2 = . . . = an.
PROOF Since flt1,...; ntn are positive rational numbers, they can all be expressed in the
forms 4L, pt,.'., p,

+,... ,!!-
y,11s1s arepositiveintegersand q isacommonpositive
integral denominator. A* and G* can then be expressed by
/*- mlat+m2a2+ ... +mnan

ml+m2+... +mn
4or+4o"+...+!on
qrqzq
Pr Pz ,P"
--r--r
q q q
_ Ptat+ P2a2+
... + Pnan
h+Pz1 ... *Pn
,r4+m2+... +rrn
G* =(ar^rar'r...on^")
pl I>2 Pn
Als A2 s an q \pt.p2, ... *p,
<t q
)t
pl+P2+...+pn
= (arPrarPz an PN
The theorem is now seen to result from the application of the ordinary theorem of the means to
thesetof pr+ ... *pn numbersconsistingof a, taken p, times, ..., en taken pn times. ll
EXA'I'IPtE 22
Let ap a2,... d* rr\, rn2>...,fln be positive numbers and / and M the least and the
greatest of the numbets o1, ct2> ..' a,r. Prove that
mpt+m2a2*... +tnnan
l< <M
mt+mZ+ "'+mn
the equality holds if and only if ar = e2 = =an
SOLUTION
For i = I, 2, ... n. we have
m,l <mra, 3mtM.
Adding
(mr+mr+ .-- +mn)llmtat+azmz+ -'. +rnnan<(mt+mz+ ..- +mn)M
ml0l+m2a2+ ... +mnan
or l< mt+mz+ -.. +mn <M
the equality holds if and only if for i =1, 2, ... n
mrl=mrar=miM, l=ar=M.
i.e. at=a2= "' =gn. I
5.4.5 The Mean of mth Power
IHEOREM 5.20 Let a and b be positive numbers, m positive integer, then

(o^ +b^) /o+r\'
l--,
\/ l'[-r)
The equality holds if and only if a=b
y"1o!! o
22=,, =U =d, then
PROOF s isalwayspositive. Now
o=s*d, b=s-d.
By binomial theorem,
q. = 1s+d)n
m m_L m(m-l) m_2 ,2 ,m
=s +ms a+ 2l s 6l +...+cl
6^ = 7s_d1^
m m-1, m(m-L)
=.s -ms cl 2l
,n-202 -..- (-r)'d^
Adding,
a^ +b^ =Zl ^ *m(m-l) --z o.z -...

2! " * ... I
t" I
in which the power of d is always even and hence every term inside the bracket is positive. Thus
a^ +b^ >zs^
and the inequality becomes equality if and only if d= 0, i.e.
at +bt (
:t_l a+b\^
2 '\2 )
and the inequality becomes equality if and only rf a = b.
f(x) = x^
+ b^ ,'/
),"'
(+)^
a + b
2
Figure 5.7. Geometric interpretation
a^ +b^ :l-( a+b\'

2 'l 2 ) I
We have the following generalization.
IHEOREM 5.21 For any positive numbers 11, !2, ..., ln, and positive integer m,
yr^ +yr^ + ... +yn^ ( yr*yr+ ... +yn\^

,
n [,J
and that the equality holds onlywhen m=I or !t= lz = .-. = ln
PROOF Let f (x)=x'. Becausefor x1, x2>0, byTheorem5.20,
( xr+xr\^ \-
tlz x,^ +x^^
IrJ 2',
l.e. .f(x)+f(xz)
'('?) 2
therefore, using the Lemma 5.13, the result follows:
xI+x2+ -.. +xn ...

axrt +xr^ + +xn^
n n
Alternative - see problem 27 and,28, Exercise 58.

2s4 Algebraic Inequality
EXERCISE 5B
1. Prove that
I
(; ')( --1
v )[+-')'-,
where z, v, w are positive and unequal and u +v +w = I.
2 If a, b, c are distinct positive numbers, prove that
abc3
(a) b+c+ c+a+ a+b>r'
(b) ab(a +b) +bc(b + c) + ca(c + a) > 6abc.
(c) (a+b)(b +c)(c+a)>8abc.
3. Suppose the equation
*t -3p*2 +qx-r =0,

where p, q nd r are constants, has positive real roots a, B and y
(a) Find p,Q,r interms of a,F y.

^d
O) lJsing A.M.> G.M., show that p3 > r.
4. Let a and D be positive real numbers such that a+b=L
(a) TJsing A.M.> G.M., or otherwise, show that on<!

4
(b) If 0<x<y<1, showthat

tl
x +-> y+-
xy (*)
By putting x = ab in (*), show that
.lt7
ab+_> _.
ab4
(c) (i) Shorv that !*Lrz
ba
and a+-aI ,( a+-aI (,.*)

)'.(u.i ), )
(ii) Using the results in (b) and (c)(i), show that
)
a+-aI .(,.;)' 25
>-
-2
Algebraic Inequalily 255
5 Show that, if x ) 0.
xn I
l+x+ ... +x2' - 2n+I
6 If a, (i=I,2,3,... , n) arepositivenumbers and atd2 ... an =1, provethat

(l+ ar\(l+ a2) ... (I+ a,) > 2n .
7 If a, (i = l, 2, 3, . . . , n) are positive numbers, show that

at
.., +an-t
a2*42
a3*43
a4+ Qn+!_r_>n.
aI
8 Prove that Z" , nrJZn-r for all positive integers z.
Fiinr: considertheA.M. alrrdG.M. of the numbers, I,2,4, ... ,2

,-tf
9 Let o1, a2, .., , an be r

positive numbers and S - a1+a2+ '.. +an. Using the
inequality of the means, show tlrat
(I+a)(l+a2) ... (l+ar) < l+S+, + .

s2
a-
s'
' nl.
10. (a) Showthat

3ln
L\ _=_
r(r +I) n +I
r=l
O) Using (a) and the inequality A.M.>G.M., or otlerwise, show that

n_l
nt > (n+I) 2
for any integer n > l.

(c) Showthat
(n +l\n
It.,| "'
foranyinteger z>L
11.
34 n+l
By applying the theorem of the means to the numbers
l, t, 1' , -i-, and to their
reciprocals, or otherwise, prove that, for any itfteger n) 2,
ft* ,n
.. <(n+t)I < t+&
L- srg1 n
ll I
where s, = l+7+, + "'+-.
12. (a) Show that the function f (x) =* tr strictly increasing for x > 0.
(b) Showthatforany non-negative real numbers x1, x2,'..,xn,

"' +xn . 'l - *2 - .--
xr+x2+
l+rr+.r+ - +-, = l+t -l+ x2 "' --1*rr'
'n
When does the equality hold?
(c) Using (a) and (b), or otherwise, show that for any non-negative real numbers
X1, X2, ... ,Xn,
$',
L/tnn
"' xn a i=t
x1x2
.\-_ji
/- "'
l+xf, .* *n=-----;-= i=1n*x:
n +fri
t=l
(d) Using (a) and O), or otherwise, show that for any real numbers dy a2, ... ,dn,
al+ a2+ ... +an lorl
l+ al+ a2+ ... +an = r+lAl*
. l"rl *..."' -*_11"1 rrrNn
*r+l;;l* r+l;;-l IHKHLE reas]
13 Let xt, x2, !1, 12, 21 and 22 be positive numbers such that x1y1 -212 >0 and
x2!2- 222 > 0.
(a) Let D1=xtlt-zt2 and Dr=x2!z-rr2.IJting A.M.>G.M., showthat
(i)
frnr*f,or>2,,[oror,
(iD or*fio, 3 xryz + x2y1-22p2,
fr
(iii) (x, + x)(tt* y) - (2, + z2)2 > 4JD.D2.
o) Show that
8 r I
(x, + xr)(y, +
- xtyl zt-2' x2!2 z2 2'
yr1 - Q 1 + z2)2 - -
and if the equality holds, then xr = x2, lr = lz and z, = zr. IHKALE 1997]
Because of the importance of the theorem of the means, it has a number of proofs using
different approaches. Such proofs, as given in the following excellent exercises, often appear in
Hong Kong advance level pure mathematics examination. It is of little use simply to be able to
recite any ofthese proofs; it is far better to analyze the techniques involved in each of exercise.
These techniques can then be seen to be applicable in handling similar inequalities.
14. (a) Let x> -1, prove that

(l+x)'>l+nx
O) Forany n positivenumbers d1,a2,...,a' define

I
An =-(a1+a2+ --' +an)
Gn \loto, an
(i) Show that tr Gr S Ao and. l* ;c 0, then

Goo oo*, < Akk+r (l+ x)
where x -a**r -y.

Ak
(ii) Hence, prove that, for all positive integers n,

G, < A-'
15 (a) Let x > -1, prove that

(l +r)' > l+rtr
O) a1, a2, ..., ok are positive numbers whose product is 1 and whose sum exceeds k ;
prove, by using (a), that
at+a2+ "'+ak+x
>x
k+l
for all positive x.
(c) Deduce inductively that if c1, c2, ..., cn arepositive numbers, not all equal, then
cr+cz+ "' +cn
>(cfz ..."r)I.
n
16. (a) Showthatif x<l</, then

x+y-ry-l>0.
Hence prove that for any n+I(n>I) real numbers 11, x2,"',xr11, if
x, < 1<xr*, and xrxr*, +x2+... *xn2r, then
xt+x2 + ... +rr+l >n+1.
(b) Using (a) and mathematical induction prove that for arry n (n > 1) positive real
numbers xb x2, "' , xn, tf xtx, "' xn = 1, then
xt+x2* "'*xn) n.
Hence, or otherwise, show that for any z positive real numbers lt, !2, "' , !n,
!r+!z+ "'+Y, >\lvtvr "'vn
n
17. Forpositive real numbers e1, ct2, ..' , an, let

G(av.,. , an) = (ara2 ,,. an (geometric mean)
and A(at,..., a;=tty# (arithmeticmean)
(a) Showthatlf ot-a2- ... --er=4, then G(av.-.,an)=A(ay...,an)=a
(b) Show that rf a1, a2, .-. , an are not all equal, then there is one a, which is gleater
tltalr G(ar, .-- , ar) and there is one a, which is less than G(ar, ... , ar)
(c) Let at> G(at, ... , an) > a' and let a'1 = G(a1, '.. , on), oL = oz, o\ = ot,
Qlon
^' - G(ar, --.
a'n-t = an-1 and "n Show that
,on)' '
G(al, "', a') = G(ar, "', an)
and A(ol, ... , < A(a1, ... , an)
"'")
(d) Using the results above, show that
G(av ... , an) 3 A(ar, ... , ar)
and that the equality holds if and only if ar = e2 - ... - an
18. (a) Let k be any positive integer and x any positive number. Put x0 = l, show that
(i) lok <rk-r + ... +x+l if xcl,
(ii) bk >xk-r+ ... +x+l if x>1.
Hence show that
kk*t +l> (k+l)xk

and determine the value of r for which equality holds.
(b) Let 11, .-., xk, xo*, be any k+l (k>l) positive numbers. Byputting
11 x2 xk
'-,t1r+t; - -*, .*, ' '-*,
and using (a), show that
ll
k(xrx, ... x )E I x k+t 2 (k + I)(x rx, ... x 1rx 1ra1)A
if
and equality holds if and only
xr . x2 ... xk
xk+r xk+l xk+l =l
(c) Using @) or otherwise, show that, for any n (n >l) positive numbers x1, ... , xn
xl+x2+...+xn
n
> (xfz ...*r)I
and that equality holds if and only if xr= x2 = ... : xn.
19. (a) For any positive numbers x and )" with 0 < )" <1, prove that
xt <(l-A)+)x.
The equality holds if and only if x = l.
(b) Let a,b, p bepositive numberswith

I
+
1
and 4 pq =1. Provethat
ll
oPb4 .o + b
pq
The equality holds if and only if a= D.
(c) Ofthepositivenumbers xyx2,.-.,xn, An and Gn aredefinedas

I
An=-(x1+x2+...+xn)
I
Gn=(x1x2 ... ,)i
Using (b), prove by mathematical induction that
Gn s An.
The equality holds if and only if xr = xz - .. . - xn
20. (a) For any non-negative number x and for any integer k > l. prove that
xk +k-l>te (*)
When does the equality hold?
(b) Let n be an integer grcater than 1, {or, or,, '.., on} be a set of positive real
numbers. For m=1, 2, ..., n, let
am
t-
A^ =;Lo,
i-t
m
Gr=[ il
t=1
ai
(D Show that, for m= 2, 3, .. .

, n,
m mA^-(m-I)A--t
(*) (**)
G^-t
(ii) Making use of (*) and (**) , or otherwise, prove that
m-l
A. - G^ r_-(Or_t- G._)
for m=2, 3, ..., n.
(iii) Deduce that A,>G,, and show that the equality holds if and only if
dl=d2- "'-an IHKALE 19851
21. (a) (i) Show that ,*-r >r for any real number x.
n n
(ii) Given ar, o2,...,ar)0, letA=i|rt,, O=
i=l
II
f=l
tr)
Bypufting *=j (i=1,2, ,n) rn(i), show llrn;t A>G

n
Norc : fla, denotes the product aro2 ... an
t=l
O) Let ar, az, ..., anbe an arithmetic sequence of positive real numbers.
(i) Show that \tC, *^ =!t?

(ii) By considering the products aian_i+r (lx -
forall xeR.
(b) Let a1, d2,..., an and, by b2,..., b, bepositire numbers. Showthat
,{(f=,t)'} ,Ii
n n
Hence, or otherwise, show that - Sn, then flo,=frt,
Zt r=l t=l
(c) Using the result in (b), show that for any positive numbers ep ct2, ..., an,
n n
I
fIo, n 2",
t=l ]- i=l
Hence, or otherwise, show that
I 1l
n
>0,
ai m
i=l
n
where rn = 1 Eo, IHKALE r9891
n
t=l
Algebraic Inequality 26'.1
23. (a) Given .r, > 0 (i = 1,2,..., n), xlx2 ... xn = I.
Show that xl+xz * ... * xr>. n
O) Deduce that
1 1
ar'+ar'+ ... +an* <(ap2, ... ar)n 3
all +arl + ... +arl
n n
where ar>0 (i=I,2,...,n) and x<0<y

(c) Hence, or otherwise, show that
I
n - d, +a2+ ... +an
<(apz...ar)'=ff
llI +-a,
-+-+...
al a2
for a, >0 (i=1,2,...,n)
24. (a) For )">1, let f(x)=(l+x)1 -l-Ax.

Show that f (x)> 0 for x > -1, and that the equality holds if and only if x= 0.
(b) Let x1, x2,...,x, bepositiverealnumbers.
For any positive real number /, define
s(t)=(*"
*"t!"'**")+
\/
(i) Define n, =ft-t for k=1, 2, ..., n.
Showthat h+fz+ ... +yn=0.
Hence use (a) to show that g(r) > g(1) for f> I, and that the equality holds if
andonlYif x, = x2= "' =xr-
(ii) Use O) (i) to show that g(r) < g(s) for I < r < s, and that the equality holds if
andonlyif xr = x2= "' =16n. [HKHLE 1989]
[REMARK The result of g(r) < g(s) for I < r <s asserts that for positive real
nurnbers x, x2o ... , xn,
!
xl+x2+ ... +xn - t,,2 +*r2 + ... +rnz tt3 + x2 3 + ... +xn J 3
n n n
]u.[
etc.l
The l{eighted Means
25. (a) Provethat lnx<x-l forall x>0. Theequalityholdsifandonlyif x=1.
O) Let a1, a2, ... , an be positive numbers. Use (a) to prove that
l1(a1 + a, +... + or)'
; a n) > (apz...
The equality holds if and only if ar = a2 - .-. - an
(c) Let y1,!2,...,ln be realpositive numbers arl'd m1,ffi2, ...,mn positive rational
numbers such that mt+mz, + ... +mn = l. Use (b) to prove that
ytt' yzh "' ! n^n < mtlt + mzlz + "' + mny n
When will the equality hold?
26. (a) Let f(x)=x-I-log"x forall x>0.

Find the minimum value of f(x) and show that log"x<x-l forall x>0. For
what value of x will the equality hold?
(b) Let xr, x2, ...,xn and, ly 12,...,ln bepositivenumberssuchthat

),rxt + ),rx, + ... + )"nxn = )", + )", * ... * .tr", = I.
Show that
xrl'xrr' "' tnl'<I'

Forwhatvalues of x1, x2, ..., xn will the equality hold?
(c) Provethat, tf ey ct2, ..., en uld h, pz, ..., pn arcpositivenumbers, then

I
ptal+p2a2+ ... +pnan
(arPt arn, --. onr,) Pr+P2+ "' 'tPn 1
Pt+ Pz 4 --. * Pn
When will the equality hold? IHKALE r9811
The m-th power of the means
27. (a) If x> 0 and p is a positive integer, show that

*P*r -r xP -r
p+L p
and that the equality holds only if x = l.
n
O) Let x1 , x2, . .. , xn be positive numbers and Zr, , ,.
l=l
(i) Show that, for any positive integer m,
n
L",^,,.
t=l
n
(ii) fr Lr,'=n for someinteger m greaterthanone, showthat
i=l
Xl=XZ=!.. =Xn=1.
(c) Using @), or otherwise, show that, for any positive numbers !1, !2, ..., !n, and
positive integer la,
y.t^ +yz^ + ... +yn^ ( yt*yr+ ... +y,) m

n l.r.,|
andthattheequalityholdsonlywhen rz=1 or !t= lz = ... = !n. [HKALE 1980]
28. (a) Prove that
(ar+ar\^ .ar^ +ar^

[ 2 )- 2
where a,, az are positive and m is a positive integer
(b) Prove tlnt

al+a2+a3+a4
aar^ +ar^ +ar^ +ao
4 4
where a1, e2,e3,q4 arepositive and m isapositiveinteger
(c) For n = I, 2, 3, . .. , let P(n) be the statement
al+a2+ ... +an

m
+a2m + ... +arm
aalm
n n
where a1 , d2, .,. , an arepositive and m isapositiveinteger
(D Provethatfor h=0, 1,2,...,

if PQh) istrue, then Plzh+r) istrue.
(ii) Prove thatfor k =1, 2, 3, ... ,

if P(ft+l) istrue,then P(ft) istrue.
(iii) Hence prove that P(r) is true for all positive integers r. IHKALE 19961
5.5 SOME WEtt.KNOWN INEQUATITIES
Algebraic inequalities are usefirl in virtually all areas of mathematics, and inequalities in this
section are among the most beautifiil.
5.5. 1 Cauchy-Schwarz's Inequality
ln 1A21, the French mathematician A.L Cauchy proposed an important inequality called
huchy inequalitlt. ln 'l 885, Schwarz obtained the Cauchy inequality together with its vector
form and integral form. Bu! 1859, Bunyakovskii got the Gauchy inequality and its integral
form independendy. Thus, we sometimes like to call it CauchySchwarz€unyakovskii inequality.
IHEOREM 5.22 lCouchy-Schwoa's lnequolityl Let a1, a2, ..' ,Qn) bt, bz, "' ,bn be
real numbers.
(L'n,)' =[:.'][:,,'i
a1 a2 a,
The equality holds if and only if
4b2bn
PROOF Foranyrealnumber ),, welnve
n
\{o,t -t,)2 >o

i=l
theequalityholdsif andonlyif a,),=b, forall i =l,2, ..-, n, Thus, expandingandcollecting
terms,
(2",)r - 2
^(i ",b,j. [i,t ],,
For the quadratic expression to be positive for all values of A it is necessary that the discriminate
is less than or equal to zero*. i.e.
r(2' n,)' -[i't

][l,t ] =,
or
(2"r,)' =[i't][loj
ai
The equality holds if and only if a,.L = b, or
bi
= ), for i = l, 2,..' , r. This completes the
proof. lt
*As .Y-t- f(x)>O forall r eR +

fl)=m2 *t**"=o(**+)' b2 -4*.0
Algebraic Inequality 26s
EXAMPTE 23
Use the Cauchy-Schwarz's inequality to prove the following:
(a) lf aya2, ---,dn, b1,b2,...,bn berealnumbersandnoneoftle D's bezero,provethat

r2
(arz +ar2 +
.-a-a
+an")(b1- +br' + lon
_1
)-(
al
br
+
a2
b2
+ .+)
(b) lf a1,a2, -.. ,an areallpositive,provethat
(a,+ar+ ... +4,)[+.+. ... .+)rf

(c) Real numbers ayo2,... ,dn, not all zero, are given, and x1,x2,... ,xn are real
afr + a2x2 + ... + anxn= l. Prove that
variables satisfying the equation
I
t12 +t22 + *'r2 )
al +arz + .., *ar2
SOLUTION
(a) Applyrng Cauchy-Schwarz inequality to the numbers cr1,a2,...,dnl nr',n;',...,b;',

we have
I r) a
{. q *a2 (+). rdn

br) <1a12 +ar2 + ... +anz)(br2 +tr2 + ...+nrzy
l.e. 1ar2 +ar2 + ... *on2){brz +tr2 +

_.t
+b ,') -(t.t. r2
.+)
O) Similarly, using the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality,
ltl
(a1+a2+... +an ,( _+_+
al a2 an
={{.r)' *(J%)' * *(JC)'}{# .#. .#l

,I#-E- -EI,
n
(c) Using the Cauchy-Scharwz inequality,
1xr2 +xr2 + ,.. +xn2)1ar2 +arz + -.. +an2)>(aft+a2x2+ ... +onrn)2

-1.
Therefore,
) I
t12 +tr2 + *xn =
a:+C+ ... +C
Geomeiric Prool Let P(xr, y) and Q@r, !) be two points on a Cartesian plane with
origin O.
(xrx2 + y/2)2 < (rr2 + yrz 1{122 * yr' ).
PROOF
v
P(x1, l)
QQz, Yz)
x
o
Figure 5.7
By cosine formul4
cosd=qffit
(*: +yt2)+1xr2 +yr21- 1xr*x2)2 *(yr-y)'l
2 1xr2 +yl)@22 +y22)
xf2 + YrYz
,l{*r' *lr')1xr2 + y22)
Since cosd < 1, therefore,

(xrx, + yryr)2 < (tJ + yr2y1*22 + yz2 ).
which is the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality for n =2. !r
EXAA'IPtE 24
(a) If x1, x2, h, lz be anyreal numbers, showthat
(xrxr+ yryr)2 <(r,,' + ytz)(xzz + yzz).
Deduce the triangle inequality:
f,{rr-'r)' +(yt- y)2 =,[ri . ; *rl*] * y],

where the .igo J- denotes the positive square root.
(b) Giventhat ok2 =bk2 +"02, k=I,2, "',n where a1r,b16,ck areallpositive.Let
nnn
Ar=Lq, Bn=Zbt,Cn=L"t
k=t k=t k=r
Show that Ar' > Br' *Cr2.

SOLUTION
(a) The first inequality is proved in the book work:
(xrx"+yryr)2 <(*r2 +y:)@22 *yrr) (l)

or lxrxr+yryrl=,[;: .r:,[;: .y] (2)
Hence,
2
a a
(x1-x2)2 +(yt-y)2 - t12 + yrz + x2 +%
= (x 12 - 2xrx, + tr2 1 + {112 - 2ylz + yz2 )
-1xr2 +yrz)-2( tt2 + yt2 ,22 +yz2)-@22 +y22)
2 (xtx, + yp2) + tr2 * yt' ,22 + yzz

{
<o bv Q)
2
l.e. 1xr-x2)2 +(h-!)2 < xl z *yr, * ,22 + yz2
Taking positive square roots, we have,
1l{rr-r;2 +(yr-y)2 < *r2 + yrz + ,22 + yz2
REMARK Geometrically intercepted, the above inequality expresses the fact that the sum of
two sides ofa triangle can never be less than the third side and this is precisely tlte reason
for the name 'triangle inequality'.
(b) For =(2",J'=3 ao2 +z\(ara2)

^r
n
,r=(L* =)t,,, +zl6rnr1
k=l
I
n
cn
'=[ i"o co2 +z\(cp2)
k=l k=l
where in each equation denotes the sum of all terms of the same t)?e as the one given.
Hence, by (2)
A n2 - {8,2 + c n2 ) = Z{o n' - 1b o2 + 1,2 )} + z\{a ra, - (b

i z + p )}
c
"
k=l
=21{ap2-Q{z+"p)}
>zl{oror- 1br2 +cr211br' *"r')
=21{apr-agz}
-0
Therefore An2 > Bn2 +Cn2
5.5.2 Tchebychef s lnequality
IHEOREM 5.23 fl-chebychef's lnequolity] If xrx2, "' ,x, and lb!2, "' ,ln are any
real numbers such that xrSxr<.-. <xn and yt3!23 "' < !n, then
*f,.,,-[+i'][ +2,,)
PROOF For every pair of different sufftces i and j, the differences xi-xj and yi-yj
have tlte same sign or at least one is zero. Hence
1x,_xi)(!i_ti)>o
i.e. xili +x j! j 2 x,yi +xili
Summing the inequality for values of i between I and z
nn
Zl', r, *' i y il.Ll*,r, * * p,l
i=l t=l
n n n
Lt,r, +nxi!i > !iEt, **rll,

t=l i=l j=l
Again, summing the inequalities for values of 7 between I and n.
,fo',t, *,i, t i. -
i
[:, ] [: J. [:, J [i,, J
znir,y, rri*,ir,
t=l ,=1 ,=l
or, in symmetric form,
1n (, n $r \
'
iL_,,,r, =[;Ir,J[;Ir,J
.
i.e. l l.
.'. +xnyn)>;(\+x2+ .1.
... +xr)i(y+lz+ ... +!n).
;(xilr+xzlz+
The equality occurring only when xi = x j or li = ! i for all i, i.
EXAA'IPIE 25
If a1, ay, a3, b1, b2, b, areanyrealnumberssuchthat a' laz<a3, blubzrD, then
3(arb, + arb, + a3$ >- (a, + a, + a)(b1+ b, + \).

This is the Tchebychefs inequality for the ezse n = 3.
SOLUTION
Since at 1 a2 , b1 > D, , therefore (a, - ar), (bt - b) are of opposite signs, so that
(ar- a)(b1-b2) <0,
and therefore,
arbr+arbr<arbr+arbr.
Similarly
arb, + arb, < azbs i a3b2, a3b, + arb, < arbr+ arbr.
Adding
2(a rb, + a rb, + a3\) < a
rb, + a rb., + a rb, + arb, + a rb, + a rb,
and then adding arbr+ arbr+arb, to both sides, we have
3(a rb, + a
rb, + a3\) < a
rb, + a rb.' + a rb, + a rb, + arb, + arb, + (a rb, + arb2 + a 3\)
<(ar+a2+a)(b1+br+\).
5.5.3 Hd lder's lnequality
In 1889, Otto Hcilder (1859 - 1937) generalized the Cauchy inequality to obtain the celebrated
Hcilder's inequality.
IEMMA 5.24 [Young's lnequolityl If a, b be positive numbers and p, q be non-zero positive

rational numbers such tnat ! +! = l, then
pq
aP 6a
<_+_
ab
pq
PROOF Let f(x)={*1-"

pq" for x) 0, p>2. Differentiariongives
f '(x) = tP-r -r
l<o osr<l
I
-f'@)1=o r= I
I
L>0 x>l
/ attains its leastvalue at r= l. Therefore, for all x20, f(x)> f (l), i.e.
xPlll
+--x>-+--l=0.
P q pq
or xPl
pq
-+->x.
Put x=obl-q, wehave
opbQ-q)p -n or opbo-q)p+q
pqpq*!r ot *u1a ou.
ll
inwhich (r-q)p+q=(p+q)- pq= *l#-tf= *l -+--
pq I = 0. Therefore
aP 6e
afi
pq
-1'->
THEOREM 5.25 tHitlder's inequolityl If x1,x2,...,xn1 !r,!2, "',ln be two sets of

positive numbers and p, q be non-zero positive rational numbers such that 1* 1 = I, then
pq
n (, \)(^ r*
!*'t'=[:'''J [I,,',J
lVith p =2, the Hrjlderb inequality is reduced to the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality:
b,'
[i',0]'=[l','] t:
PROOF Let a, =--l ,, bi =--t--- for i = I,2,-..,n
n q
[I"]'
Since xy x2, ", , xnl lp !2, "' , !n,
Lv,n
t=l
are positive numbers so that a,,b, >O
(i = 1,2, ... , n) Therefore, by Young's inequality,
x: y,
+
I l- n n
q
Z*,'
n P n
Zv,t
z*,, Lv,'
t=l i=l
t=l t=l
Adding all the inequality for i = 1,2, "., n
I
q
n
x, v,
<T
n
+
ll /-/
i,:
n
t=l , \p (n q t=l
L,,ol lI yiq
r=r J [r--r
L,,o
t=l
i.,,,
j=1
i*,' f1:
-li=t li=t
l1
(n \i(, )a ' L*,0 'Ly,n DnAn
[T"I [T":J t=l i=l

1l
pq
-l
I
,\
I
n
$vlng
t=l
xi! =[ L,=r'''
)
'I 2,, ,)'
t=l
ll
5.5.4 Minkowski lnequality
In 1896, the great geometry Hermann Minkowski (1364 - 1909) proposed a famous inequality,
known as Mi nkow ski ine quali ty.
IHEOREM 5.26 [Minkowski inequolity] Suppose {tr, tr, ... , xn} and {h, !2, ... , !n}
are two sets of positive numbers and p>\
I I I
n
l1r,+t)P
t=1
p
i rr'l
i=l
v
.{*-'}'
PROOF Firsfly, we have

nn
\(xi + l)e = ){rr + y)(xi + y,)nr
t=l i=l
I{r, 1r, * y,)rt + li(xi * y,)o-'}

t=l
n n
= Ir, (r, *y,)nt +lh|ui +y,)rr

i=l j=l
1
Applyrng the Htilder inequality, *11h *1=
pq 1,
I
n n P n q
Ir,(r, *y,)P-t t L',0 l{*, *t)@-Dn

i=l t=l t=l
ll
={:'," .,r'l'
l'{i'',
and, in the same way,
t I
, (,
iy, a, + !i)P-r= . rr'lu
{;*,}t{i,',
Thus,
ll
i{,, * t)o= .r,"}i .{ Lr,o

n
."'lu
{i',"}*{i,'
I
i=l l'{:''
I
1
n a n p n
l{r, *t,)P Z",o .12,,'
i=l t=1
I I
("
*v,)o
q n
+ lr !iP
It
={}"}
{i,, lt=r I
I I I
+vi)p .{I"} n
{3,o lu= {I-'}'

Reference:
G.H. tlardy, J.E. Littlewood and G. Polya, Inequalities, Cambridge University Press, revised
edition, 1952.
EXERCISE 5C
1. (a) Let n be a positive integer and Ci be the binomial coefficients. Find
ci +ci + ... +ci.

(b) Making use of the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality, show that, for n >1,
n12n -11> ,[1 *rE *'.' .{c:
2. Prove the following Schwarz's inequality:
(L'n,)' =[i",'i[:,,']
where ar, b, e R and n eN.
Hence, or otherwise, prove that
I
n n
I I J
n zo,, n
ai IHKALE 19931
i=l ,=l
3 Let a,,b,,c, eR, i=1,2,...,n.

Prove the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality:
.,
n
Zo,t,
t=l [i','J[:-']
Hence, or otherwise, prove that
n n n
(o, - b,)' <
i=l
(a, - c,)2 + l{q -b,)z
t=l i=l
4. Let ft be a non-negative integer.
(a) Let x, >0 for i=1,2,3,...,fl and x, +xz+ .,. lxz= 1, provethat
+ rrk + *xn k
"rk < rrn*t *rrk*t + ... +trk*l
n
lHint : Making use of the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality.l
(b) Let y, >0 for i=1,2,3,...,n, provethat

k+l
yrk +yrk + ... +ynk * !c, k+l I "' *ln k+l
. Ir
n !t+lza ... 1ln
5. (a) Showthatthe quadraticfunction f (x)=ax2 +2bx+c where a, D and c arereal,

is positive for all real values of x if and only if
a>0 and bz <ac.
(b) Let n eN.
(i) Prove the Cauchy-Schwarz's inequality
Zo,t,
t=l ]"[].'l[i-'J
where a;,6, eR.
Deduce that
(Z" r,r,)- -- --
=
[i',. J[i" ] [: J [i ]
where a;, bi, ci, di eR.
(ii) Using (b)(i), or otherwise, show that
(, \3 (n \(" tr,r.-r)
[r',*,, 1 =[.:'',J[I.',1[]", I
where xr, li,zi2O,
I
6. (a) Showthat W<){rz *y27 foranytworealnumbers x and y.
(b) Let ar,e2, -..,an, and b1,b2, "', bn, be 2n positiverealnumbers.

ai
(i) tf A, =
T
.lLot'
and fi=
n
Zr,'
(i =I, 2, ..., fl),
I r=t j=r
n
prove that I,n,A, <t.
t=l
274 Algebraic Inequalily
(ii) Hence show that
(2",,)' =[l','][i-'j
bl !2- ..'
and that the equality holds if and only
-J- if al = az = = !o-
an
(c) Let a, f aurrd 7 be positive real numbers such that a+ B+ y= v.
Show that
,unlt^! * t^rE^L * r^Lana = L

222222
By using (b) (iD or otherwise, deduce that
"(
a\ .2 r
tan-[7J+tan '(+). mn 2
l. IHKHLE 19861
7 (a) Let ap, bk (k =1, 2, ..., n) be non-zero real numbers.
(D Prove the Schwarz's inequality
{:-'}{"r, ';l'{2'rrl'
(ii) O O=*3q for k=1, 2,...,n. provethat
pqat2 -(p+q)a1,b1r*bk2 t0 for k=1,2, "', n.
Deduce that
n n n
@+ilLorbo>Lbo'* pqZoo'
k=l k=l k=r
(iii) If 0<m<a*<M and 0<*<bk<M fork=I,2,...,n,

prove, by using (ii) or otherwise, tlnt
l" 1 ln 2
]I
It=r
ak
J
l{-t"'
'l=i(
M
m
+
m
M lr
Ir=1
at bt
O) Using (a) or otherwise, show that
(..+)' . . r99rl
{:['.+j']{,r'[' #)'] i#(..+)' IHKALE
8. (a) Let ai,bi be real numbers, where i=1,2,... ,ft. By considering the function
n
f (t) =\1a,t -b,)2, or otherwise, prove Schwarz's inequality

t=l
("
lLo,u,
It=r l'=[l-'][:"]
O) Let x1, x2, ... , xn be positive real numbers. Show that
("
IT ',r-).[i',*'J[i--]
It=r
for any non-negative integer k.
n
(c) Let x1, x2, .., , xn bepositive real numbers such that It, = 1. Prove by induction
i=l
on p that
n n
Lt,o 3nlx,P+r
t=l t=l
for any non-negative integer p.
(d) Let !1, 12, ..., ln bepositive real numbers. Showthat
[:.][i. ')='2,:.'
for any non-negative integer p. IHKALE 19991
9 (a) Given that xv x2, x, and !t, !2, !3 are two sets of real numbers such that
xr3x, < x, and \3 y2 3 yt.
Prove tlnt
(i) x1!2 * x2!1 < x1!1+ x2l2 .
(ii) (xt+ xr+xrXyr + y2 + \) <3(xilr+ xzlz + \fu).

O) Let a, b, c &the three sides opposite to the three angles A, B, C (in radians) of a
triangle.
(i) Using (a), or otherwise, prove that

lt aA+bB+cC
3 a+b+c
(ii) Using the fact that, in any triangle, the sum of any two sides is never shorter
than the third, prove that
aA+bB+cC n
a+b+c 2
10. (a) Let a1,e2,...,an; bbb2,..., D, bepositivenumberssuchthat at1a2< ,.. <an

and ,l . bZ . < Dr. Explain why, for a fixed 7,
rio -_ l@,
rn
-a j)(bi -b j)>o
j=l
Show that
Bj fo,u, -bj i',-',tb,+na,b,

t=l i=l t=l
Deduce that
.+L",u,
[i''J[+i-]
(b) t", f",rl,=r,2,...,n; j=1,2,...,^
b"^ nxm matixof positive numbers such that
ary3a2, <.'.<
Show that
[*i.'] 0L'") I;2'-)=)ia"'''

ai^)
(c) Let ar, d2, ..- , an be positive numbers and m aninteger )1. provethat
GL',)^.+L",
11. [Hti lder's inequolity]
(a) Let 0 <)" <1. Show that
)t +(I- ,L) > tt for all t > 0.
Deduce that
)"a +(t- x)82 ax pt-t" for all a, B> 0.
(b) Let p, q>0 such andlet {a1, a2,... ,an} and {br, br, -.. ,b,}
^" +.+=l
be two sets of non-negative real numbers such that
nn
Zo,o =lb,a =t
t=l t=l
Using the result in (a), show that
n
\a,b, <t'
t=l
Hence show that, for any two sets of non-negative real numbers {rr, ,r,, ..., ,nI
...
and {lr, !2, , !n},
IHKALE r9821
fr.,,,=[i-"]'[i-']'
12. [Minkowski inequolity]
(a) Let p>l and -f(x)=ro -p* forall x>0.

(i) Find the absolute minimum of /(x) on the intewal (0, -).
(ii) Deduce that xP -f > p(x-f) for all x > 0.
O) (i) Let a, p, T and d' be positive numbers such that
l1 and y+6=1.
A*V=l
By taking x = aT and Bd respectively, prove that, for p >I,
oP-tf , +pP-tgr ,t.
where the equality holds if and only if ay= B6=1.
(ii) Deduce thag if a, b, c and d are positive and p > l, then
(+)"' "' .(+)'-' " d (c + d)P
(c) Suppose {o, },=r,

,, ... *d tD, },=r, 2, ... *" two sequences of positive numbers and
p>1.
I
(n )t (, P
By consideritg a = IT o,ol
Ir=t )
and D= lr,
Ir='
jP , prove that
I I I
(" n n
It ''"lu.[ Lt,,
n
Ii=r j=l
(i*,.u,,'
where the equality holds if and only if =!-r-
bnb =o lHKALE r990I
t= ,t=
ckapter 6
Compler llumDcrs
This chapter introduces complex numbers as the ultimate result of a series of attempts to remove
the inadequary of the real number system in the provision of solutions to polynomial equations.
The system of complex numbers is viewed geometrically as a two-dimensional extension of the
onedimensional system of real numbers. Some rough idea about a possible geometric picture of
the extended system may help us reach the goal.
6.I INTRODUCTION
Historically, imaginary and complex numbers arose as a result of the efforts to solve algebraic
equations like
x2 +1=o
which have no real roots.
Euler wasthe first to use the symbol ,, for fi
DEFINIIION The symbol i is defined such that
(i) i =Ji o16

(ii) i obeys the laws of algebra of real numbers
We call the number i the imaginary uniL
He was thus able to discover the hitherto unknown roots of the equation
x2 +l=0.
This discovery of Euler is an important landmark in the history of mathematical progress, for it
enabled tlte number system to be extended.
The number i has simple algebraic properties,
l=1, I
.2..3.4 I I =L
=-L, =-1,
andfor any integer k,
i4k+l = i, i4k*2 = -1, i4k*3 = -i, i4k = r.
EXAA'IPI.E I
Evaluate (a) i-r, i-2, i{, i4. O) i.iz .i3 . ... .i8n
Complex Numbers 279
SOLUTION
(a) Indeed,
I
.-l Iri i,
I
2rl
ii2-l -1
i2 -l
-3 l, .-4 _ I _l_,
-.3-.4-"
It
I -F-T-','
(b) Indeed,
. .2.t.3... I.8n r'.(l+2+3+ ... +8n)
,.1 =
8n
.;(l+8tr) .4n(r+En\
' '=I' -fl+Sn)
=l' =l
-1.
The oxiomotic definiiion of complex number
As a sequel to the introduction of the slmbol j, the symbol a+ib (where a and b are real
numbers) also came into being. This qymbol was called a complex number.
For a long time, real and complex numbers were used without providing a logically sound basis
for their use. The theory of complex numbers was put on solid foundation by Hamilton and by
Gazss only after the super-structure had been raised.
WILLIAM ROWAN HAMILTON (1805-1865). At thc ogc oi 22 hc bccomo

profcssor ct Trinity Collcge. Hc conceivcd o complcx number os on ordcr
poir cnd dcfinod oddition ond multiplicotion of ordcrcd poir.
KARL FRIEDRICH GAUSS (1777-18551, lho princo of mcthemolicions, wos

for forty eight ycors direclor of lhe observolory ol Golingen. Hc mqde
fundomcnlol contribuiions lo osironomy, physics, gcomclry ond diffcrcntiol
gcomclry.
DEFINITION A complex number is defined as an ordered pair (x,y) of real numbers x and
y subject to the following operations:
(D Equality (x1,!1)=(x2,12) ifandonlyif xt=x2, !1=!2.
(ii) Sum (x1,!)+(x2,!2)=(xr+xr, yr+y),
(iii) Product (x1, l1)(x2, lz) = (xrxr- !t!2, xp2 +x2!1)
m(xvy)=(mx1, m!1).
Fromthisdefinition,wecanassociate (x,y) with x+iy, where j isthesymbolfor (0,1)

and has the property that
i2 = (o,l)(0, t) = (-1, o).

Also (1,0) can be considered equivalent to the real number 1. The ordered pair (0,0)
corresponds to the real number 0.
280 Complex Numbers
With the conventional notation for complex numbers, we have
DEF| NII|ON A complex number is an expression of the fonn

=x*iyz
where x,yeR and i is the imaginary unit. The real numbers x and y are respectively
called the real part and imaginary part of z and written as
x = Re(z) and y =Im(z).
The set of all complex numbers is usually denoted by C.
Two particular cases arise:

(i) lf y = 0, then z reduces to merely a real number. Thus, the set of real numbers is a subset
of the set of complex numbers
(iD If x= 0, i.e. z = iy, then z is said to be pure imaginary-
Operotions of complex numbers I.et zt=xr*iy1, 22=x2+iyr, wheta x1,x2,!1,lz

are real, be two complex numbers. The fundamental laws are as follows:
(i) Addition and Subtraction :
z1!22 = (xl +,/l) t(x, +iy2)

= (xr! x2) +t(yr+ y2)
(ii) Multiplication:
mz, = m(x1+iy1)
= mxr+i(my1)
zrz2 = @r+iyr)(x, +iyr)
= xrxz + xr(i!) + (iy)x2 + Qy)Qyz)
= (xf2 - ll) +i (xp2 + xz!),

(1i1\ Division
zr_ xr+iyr _ (xr+iyr)(xz-iy) _xp2+yJ2+i(x2yr-xil2)
z2 x2+iy2 @r+iyr)(xr-iy)- ,r, _iryr,
.
l.e.
Zr
---r-
z2 --*;;7- ; *;
_xrxz+!il2 , i(xzh-xp2)
We remark that
(i) The set of complex numbers, does not, however, possess an order structure similar to that of
real numbers.
(ii) lf zr, z, be any two complex numbers , then

Re(zr+22) = Re(zr) +Re(22), Im(zr+22) = Im(zl) +Im(z);
R:e(zp2)* Re(zr)Re(22), Im(zp2) +Im(zrlIm(z).
Complex Numbers 281
EXATIIIPTE 2
(a) Simplify (: +i;a -(3 -r)4
o) calculate 1a + J-ti11a - J-nDe" + JiDeo - JEi)
SOLUTION
(a) (r+i)a -(3-D4 ==:r:r:;,:r*rurl','+4'3i3 +ia'1-1za -4'33r+6'32i2 -4'zi3 +iay
=216i -24i
= l92i
(b) @ + Jiir(o - JiDeo + Jii11-o - Jii) =lo' - tJi,flle'l' - ,Jir'l

=1a2 +b)(az +b)
= 1a2 +b)2
EXAtr/tPtE 3
b(l+it\
Let z=a*#,
I- tt where a and 6 arerealconstantsand t isarealparameter.
Showthat, rf z=x*iy, then (.r-a)'*y'=b'.
SOLUTION
x*iY =7
b(r+it)
=Cll-
t-it
. (I+it)z
=a+b
11-isyr+iD
= o*u(l-t2)+2tt
l+t'
(r-r')
,,n,)
=1""'1;).PI
=[,*
By equating the real part and imaginary part we have
(pt'\ zr,
x=a+bl ^ I !=______;
[t+r' ) t+f
and elimination of / gives
ztt
('-o)2 +v2 ='['.".1
-^',(v"\' -[.'*'J'
-(
=b2
282 Complex Numbers
GEOMEIRIC REPRESENTATION OF COMPLEX NUMBER Jean Robert Argand, a Swiss

mathematician independently published an account of the idea of a complex number from a
different viewpoint in 1806.
v
,v)
x
o
Figure 6.1 Argand's diagram
The complex number z = x * iy

may be represented in a plane by a point P
whose Cartesian coordinates are (x, y) and polar coordinates are (r,0).
fs ever! point of the plane there corresponds one complex number and
conversely, to every complex number there corresponds one and only one
point of the plane.
This representation of complex number by a space of R2 is often calledArgand's diagram. We

refer to r and / ixes the real and imaginary ares respectively and to the Argand diagram as
complex plane or z-plane.
We also can associate with the complex number x+iy to the vector OP where P: (x,y), in
call OP = x+r)l the position rector ofP.
this case we
Representotion of oddition ond subtrociion.
v
QQ14 z2)
PzQz)
PtQ)
x
R(21- z2)
Figure 6.2 Parallelogram law of addition
Let the numbers Zt=xt*iyr, z2=xr+iy, be represented by the points

!),
Pr(x1, P2(x2, y2), then
(l) zt+22 isrepresentedby OQ whichisthevectorsumof O\ and OP2.
(2) zr-22 isrepresentedbyOR whichisthevectorsumof OP, and -OP,
Complex Numbers 283
6.2 COMPTEX CONJUGATE
,
Figure 6.3
Geometrically, the complex conjugate of z is the reflection of z about the real-axis.
DEFINITION To every complex number z = x+iy, the associated complex number

Z= x_iy
is called the complex conjugde, or briefly conjugde, of z.
The complex conjugate has the following properties.
IHEOREM 6.1 If zr=xr+iyr, z2=x2+iy2 are complexnumbers, then
zl zl
(1) 21+ 22= zt+zz (2) zrzr= zt.Zz (3)
z2
)= .2
PROOF We can easily veri$ the results. In fact,

(l) lf zr= \+iyr, xr+iyr, then
22=
zr+ z2 = (x1 +71) + @2 +iy) = (x' + x2 ) + i(h+ tz)
= (x1+x2) -i(yr+ y) = (xr-iy) +(x, -iyr)
_:,_
-zlaz2.
@ Similarly,
Zrz2 = @t+iy)(x2+iyr) =(xfz -yil)+i(x/z+!f2)
= (xtx2 - tJ) - i(xilz + !f2)
= (xrx2- tJ)+i(-x{2- !f2)
= (x, -ty1)(xz-iyz)
zr'z2
(3) By (2)
I
zl
z2 .J
)=u(")
="(r+)
284 Complex Numbers
xz+iyz.xz-iyz
=o@)=,,( tz2x2 +iy2yz2 +
zl
*22 + yzz xz - ilz
| ')-"t
-'t[r, _iyz )-
-,( z2
IHEOREM 6.2 For any complex nurnber z=x * iy,

(4) Z=z
(5) z =i if and only if z is real.
(6) ,2 = t2 + y2 which is always a non-negative real number
PROOF It is easy to venfy
IHEOREM 6.3 Let z=x+iy, then
('t) Re(z)=
|<'*il Im(z)= j<'-;l
PROOF In fact,
z +i = (x + iy) + (x - i!) = 2x and t -i = (x + iy) - (x - iy) = Ziy
therefore,
l-l-
Re(z)=x=r(z+z) kn(e)= y=
r(z-z)
Of special interest is the reciprocal of a non-zero complex number z = x + iy'.
r z x-iy (* )f y ')
t=E= ; *y2=lii)-'lii)
EXAMPTE 4
Complexnumbers z, and 22 are givenbytheformulae

i
zt= Rt+i@L, zz = &- oC
and z isgrvenby
lll
ZZt22
Find the value of o for which z is areal number.
SOLUTION
Because
Complex Numbers 285
1 I I Rr-iaL
zr Rr+i@L
-=-=_._ Rr+ioL R1-iaL
R1-iaL Rl .aL
R2 +at2I1 R2 +at2I3
-'
^3
*;;'
1 I nr*#
and z^ I
R"-+
' ax- R2
2 r_
' AL2^2
_r'c'Rr+iac _ ,'c2 R. atc
a2c2 R 2
+l ,2c2R2 +l a2c2Rr2 +!
Therefore, on addition
Itt
zzlz2
[ ^, ,'c2R, I + aC roL
Ir.7..77-;ryR; +rl 77ry'rt- R:;n

If z is to be a real number, the term in { } must vanish; this requires that
atC coL
2 =-
a2c2 R +l Rr2 +a2I?
from which it follows that
I
a)
I t- nr'c It t
ITcd:trcrl
6.3 MODUTUS AND ARGUMENT OF A COMPTEX NUMBER
P(x, v)
x x
o
Figure 6.4
Let z - x+ iy be a corrrplex number representing the point (x, y) on the Argand diagram. If
the length of OP is r and ZxOP = 4 then
f=
22
x+y and tanl = L
x
r iscalledthe modulusof z andwritten lzl; e iscalledtheargumentoramplitudeof z and
written argz or ampz. Weshall measure 0 inradians unless otherwise stated.
286 Complex Numbers
Since r is by definition positive, and
cosd: sind:I=xt! x22+y ,
foragivenvalueof z(=x+iy) thereisauniquevalueof 0 intherunge -nT<d<a. Thisis

known asthe principal value of argz, other values being given by the formula 0+2kr where
k is any integer, not zero. In subsequent work, argz will denote the principal value unless
otherwise stated.
lllustrotion Find the modulus and argument of the complex numbers:
\=4+3i, 22=-4*3i, z3=4-3i, zq=4-3i.
4,3) (-4,3)
4 4
ir
(4, - (4, -3)
Figure 6.5(a) Figure 6.5(b) Figure 6.5(c) Figure 6.5(d)
l,,l=J7**:s l',1='{(4*'* =5 l,,l=,{(4.(4 =5 l,ol:.[+'*r.S =5

are(2,;: tan-I1f,) = 0.64G arg{zr): tan-t{l; = z.s" lr;g(4) = h-t(*) = -2.s" : t"n-t (t') : 4.6+a
"rg1z,)
In connection with the definition of argument the following observations are important:
v
v B(
(zz) 4)
zz -zl
(zt) x
- zr)
x -r)
o
- zz)
-6)
Figure 6.6 Figure 6.7
zt-22. lt follows lhal arg(22-21), arg(4-22) are the respective angles made by these
vectors with the x-axis, and
arg{2, - z1) = atrg(zr - zr) + n.
Also,
lt, - ,rl=lr, - ,r,l= PrPr.

Complex Numbers 287
EXA'I'IPIE 5
Giventhat zr=3-i and zr=-2+5i.

(a) Represent onan Arganddiagramthe complex numbers 21, 22, 21* 22, zr- z2
O) Findthe modulus andprincipal argument of zr+2, and zrzr.
SOLUTION
(a) With reference to Figure 6.7, OA represents 21, OB represents 22, OC represents
zt+22=l+4i,
and BA represents
- '2-"
--<6i.
O) The modulus of zr+ z, and zr- z2 are respectively given by
, r-l------.-
zr+z2l= {t' a4' =1111 (length of OC)
zr-z2l= Jtt +(-6)2 = GT (length of BA)
and the arguments of zr+22 and zr-22 are respectively givenby
arg(zr+z) = a where tar16z =+

aryQr+22) = 1.33o
aryQr-z)=B where tat F=-t

arg(21-22) = -0.88o
The modulus of complex numbers has the following simple properties:
(D lftwonumbers z, and 22 areequal,then lrtl=lz2l and argzr=argzz

(ii) l,l=l;l=l-4.
(iiD l"l=O ifandonlyif z=0
(rv) l"lto, lzl>lne1z;l, lzl>lIm1z)|, -lrl<ne1z;<lzl.
and
THEOREM 5.4 Let z=x*iy, zr,z, be complexnumbers,
(v) lrl' =lrl' = "i = +y2 .
"
(vi) lrrrrl--lrrllrrl, l:il = F],.
1,, I l'rl
PROOF Directveri$
288 Complex Numbers
EXAMPTE 6
Show that for any two complex numbers z,z,

(a)
l
r, + rrl' *l r, - r"l' = zl zrl2 + zl t, l2
o) lt-rr4lt -l,r-,rl' = 1t-lz1 l'xr-l,rl'1.
SOLUTION
(a) lJsing zi - *' + y' =lzl2 tor any complex number, we have
l
t, +, 212 +l r, - r rl2 = e, + z2)(21 + Zr) + (2, - z )(v1 - v2)
= (z
F z + z 17, + z ri, + z 27 2) + (.2
r7, - z rZ, - z r7, + z 27 2)
= 22171 + 2z 222 = zl rrl' + zl z2
l2
O) In the same way,
I
t - z rz, l' -l r, - r rl' = e - z rZr)e - Z rz r) - (z 1 - z r)(Z 1 - Z2)
= L-7(2 - zrZ, + zrZrzrT, - (2r7, - zr7, - zri, + 2272)
= t +l z rl2 l' rl' -l' rl' -l', l'

= 1t-lr,l2Xt -l'rl'>. I
EXAT'IPTE 7
Foranyrealnumbers a, b and c such that a2 +b2 +"2 =l and c+1, let

a+ib
l-c
(a) Showthat ltl'z =?:
O) Express each of a, b and c in terms of z and Z
SOLUTION
(a) Giventhat ,=# where a, b and, c arerealsuchthat o2 +b2 +c2 =l and. c+r.
a a+ib a-ib a2 +b2 l-c2 l+c
z
l-c l-c 0-42 (r-")2 I-c
O) It follows from (a) that
(I-c)zZ =I+c,' "==zz+I

From
a +ib a +ib (zZ +r)(a +ib) (zZ +I)(a +ib)
-r) =-
z
l-c l_
zZ -l (zZ +l) - (zz )
zz+I
Complex Numbers 289
we have
., :L-
a !rh
2z 2Re(z) +2ilm(z)
zZ +l zZ +I
Comparing the real part and imaginary part,
2Re(z) z +7 2Im(z\ z -Z
^=-=_.
zZ +I zZ +l' - zZ +l i(zZ +l)
t
We are going to prove a theorem which includes that of Theorem 5.8
IHEOREM 6.5 [Triongle inequolityl If zy 22 are any complex numbers, then
I 1,, | - l'rllrl zt * z2l<l'l+l'rl.
v +zz)
QQz)
P(z)
S(21 - z2)
T(-zz)
Figure 6.8 Geometric interpretation
Using the fact that sum of any two sides of a triangle is greater than the third side,
we have, by considering the triangle OPR,
oR<op +pR= op+oQ, i.e. l4+"21<lrrl+lr2l;

and by considering the triangle OSP,
oS <op + ps = op +oe i.e. l"r- trlrlrrl*ltrl.
PROOF
(i) Using 0
=lrlt = z7 , wefiave
z' + z''' + z'z' + z'z' + z'z'

I
zr T:'i':..'r
j':
=:,'
I
z(2 zFz +lz2l'
|+ + =lrrl2 +2Re(zp2) *ltrl'
1,',' r',',', -it',',,'il,' i!,,, = l

z1
lz
+ zl, 1 ll, 2 l +1, 2 12
= {1,, I
*l'rl}'
Hence o <lz, + zrl<lzrl+lzrl
(ii) Replace z, by - z, in (i), we get the companion inequality
lzr+(-z)l<lzrl+l- zrl i.e. l'r-rrl<lrrl+lzrl

290 Complex Numbers
(iii) We write z, = (21- z2) + 22. and apply (i)

l
r, I = (2, - zr) + zrl<lz, - zrl+lzrl
|
i.e. lrrl-lrrl=lr,-'rl.
We then wite z, = (22- 21) + z, and,apply (i) again,
l
t rl = l@, - z,) + (2,)1.1 - z,l +l z'l
i.e. lrrl-1",1=l'r-"1 "
Since lrrl-ltrl and its negative ltr.l-ltrl are less than or equal to 1,, - tr l, *.
conclude that
ll,,l-l,,ll=1,, -,,1
(iv) Using -2, in place of z, in (iii), we get the companion inequality
lla l-l -'rll=lzr-1-2211 i.e. lla l-l 'rll=lz1+z2l

Combining the above (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), we obtain,
I le l-l ,rll=lzr!zrl<lzrl+lzrl
EXAMPTE 8
zr, and zz are complex numbers. Show, with the aid of an Argand diagram, that
lz, + zrl<lzrl+lzrl
Given that lrrl= O and z, = 5+12i, obtain the gleatest value and the least value of lz, + zrl
SOLUTION
zz
'l '2
zl
x
Figure 6.9
The triangle inequality is explained in the text. The greatest and least value of I
z, + zrl are
lr, + rrl = l r, I *lrrl= + +ls +rzi1= + *J?E

=I7
and
| 4 +'2 l.l E l-l zrl =l s + rzi l- + = +122 -4
-9
respectively
Complex Numbers 291
We have the following generalization of the triangle inequality
COROLIARY 6.6 Foranycomplexnumbers 21,22,... , zn,
lzr+zr+ ... +znl=lal*l zrl+ ... +lz,l.
PROOF By mathematical induction. When n =2, we have previous theorern.
lzr+zrl<lrrl+lrrl
Suppose that
l'r+22+ ... +rnl

=lr,l*l'rl+
... +lr,l.
then
lzr+zr+ ... +zn+zn+rl<14+t2+ ... +znl*lr*,I

... +lr,l+lr,*11
=1",1*l 'rl*
By principle of mathematical induction, the result is true for all positive integers n> 2. l
EXATT'IPIE 9
(a) Show that for any complex numbers 21,22,
lz, + zrl<lzrl+lzrl.
Hence deduce that for and complex zp 22, ... , zn,
lz1+'2* ... znl

=la I
+l'rl+ ... *l',1
O) Let 0 be real numbers. By considering the modulus of the left hand side of the equation.
zn cosnl+z'-l coslz -I)0+ ... +zcosl =1,

Show that if f is any root ofthe equation, then l t l r *
SOLUTION
(a) Refer to tleorem 6.5 and corollary 6.6.
O) If f is a root of the given equation, then

tn cosnl+tn-lcoslr -I)0+... +/cosd= I
so that, by (a)
t=lt cosne+{-rcos(n- I)0+ ... +rcosAl
=l
r' cos,al+l r'-r cost,-r)dl+ ... +lrllcosal
ll ll
=l'" l*l '"-'l*... *lrl

(l)
Suppose, on the contrary, that I
r|<
|, ttren
292 Complex Numbers
lt' l.lt'-' l*
... *lrl =lrl"+1,1"-' *... *lrl
<(+)'*(i)'-t * "' *()
,{t-t}r"}
r
t-tr
=t_(t)"
Q)
<r
The contradiction between (l) and (2) shows that I
r |
* -|. fnus, all roots of the given equation
lie outside the circle ltl= i. I
The next inequality concerning the modulus of complex numbers is the following so-called
Archb old's inequality.
EXAMPI.E 1O
(a) Prove that if the z's are any complex numbers and 1" is positive, then
r, + r, l2 < Q + n)l zrl2 + Q + ).-\l

l
Under what condition does the sign of equality hold?

^rl'
O) Prove also that, if the a's are positive numbers suchthat orl * --- +arl =1, then
lrr+"r+ ..' +znl' =orlrrl2 +orlrrl+ '.. +o,lt,l2 .
SOLUTION
(a) Consider the difference
(t + .1) rl'
V *(, . *) V ;' - 1,,
+, r12 = I + .r1 z rr, .(t. !^),
22 2 - e 1
+ z r) (2, + z 2 )
= zrZ, + )zrZ, + rrZ, + j"rZ" - (zf 1+ zr7, + zr7, + z2Z2)

t_
= A zr7, + - (zFz + 227)
^2r7,
rrz, - )" (zrz, + 227) +zrzr}
=
){*
I
=
7{lrt - z)(iu1-22)
l, - t2
=7lhr-zzl
>0
therefore
I
lrr+rrl2 <0+Dl'rl2 + I + -;
L
,rl'
Complex Numbers 293
The equality holds when fot- zz = 0, i.e. zrf z, = 7.

Alternative Using calculus, we can show that the function
f (t\ =(r+z)l ,rl, *(r*))l,rlr, ).>0,
attains its least vatue at =l?1, so that for all 2 > 0,

^ l,rl'
(lrd\
f ().)> fl'Ilal.J
+
= ( *lr2l)2 >lrr+'rl2
", I
The result follows.
(b) Prove by induction. When n = 2, we have, from (a)
I
z1 + rrl' =
orl rrl2 + o2lrrl2
where ar =l+1, az=I+(UA) sothat
tllt
at az l+ ). I+(Il,L)
Thus, the result is true for n = 2.
Suppose the proposition is true for n = k,
1", * ... *rol' .orl"rl' + ... +oolr,,l2

with a-l + --. +a1rl =I.
Then, by (a)
lzr+zr+ ... +zk+zt*tl

<(r+i)l zt+22+ ... +zklt. l,o*rl,
[t.*)
< (r + z) r1l2 + orl,zl+ ... + o pl'
].(t.+) l, o*rl'
z
[a,l 1,1
= (t+.Qa1lzrl2 +Q+ 1)orlrrl' + ... +(t+2 )aklzk;' *(r* zk+r

t'
+)
where
1111I)"
(l+.l)ar " (l+l)ap ' I+Il)" Q+l)ar "
... f _I_;_! ___ I_t_
(l+l)ap ' )"+I
=
r (r "' +-+t)
I )
-r 1*2[4+
I
= 11
1*
=l ^G+
The proposition is also true for n = k +1. By the principle of mathematical induction, the
proposition is true for all positive integers z > 2. I
294 Complex Numbers
6.4 POTAR FORM OF A COMPTEX NUMBER
v
z=xqiy
r
= rS[tB
x
o x -rcose
Figure 6.10
DEFINIIION The polarform (or modulus-amplitudeform) of the complex number z=x+iy

is the expression,
z =r(cose+i sin@
where ,=lrl,O=arg(z) are the modulus and argument of z. It is often written in an
abbreviated form as cis0
lllustrotion Let z= l-i, wefindthat

f= 12 +(-t12 =J2
0=ug(t_i)=_t
Hence t-i = f[co(-f;)+isin(-f;1]
Conversely a complex number given in polar form can be expressed direcfly in Cartesian form,
4(cosS +i s in!) = 4e, + +1$1i

= -2+2iJi
EXAMPTE I I
1-cosd-isind
Let " - l+cosd+isind'
(a) Find the modulus and argument of z when 0 < 0< tr.
(b) What are the modulus and argument when a< 0<2r?
SOLUTION
Using trigonometry, I - co s 0 = 2 sin2

| 0, t + cosl = Z cos2 i 0
(l- cosd) -i sind
z=
(l + cosd) +r'sind
_ z sinz i e - zi sini e cosi e

2cos2 lo +zt sin|ocoslo
Complex Numbers 295
sinlalsinla-icosld)
coslalcosj e+isinloy
. sinjd(cos] 0+isinlel
- -' d("*1, d*,.i"1, d)
"*1,
= _itarr+e
= tan*d{cos(-}a) + i sinl -+
")}
(a) When O <0 <r, tan|0>0 and so the modulus and argument of the given complex
numberare t*r+e and, -!n respectively.
(b) When zr< 0<2r, t^+e.0 andwewrite

l-cosd-isind
"
=
ffi = 1- tn| ey = e tu+q{cos} n + i sin} n}
Hencethemodulusandargument ate (-tnle) ana
tn respectively. I
Multiplicotion ond division of complex numbers in polor form
IHEOREM 6.7 Let z, = rr(cos?1+l sindl) and z, = r2(cosg, +i sin?r), then
O zrz2 = rrrrfcos(l1+ gr) +i sin(/r+ 0)f
(iD = e) +i sin(l1- 0)f

t tl*'@t-
A generalization of (i\ leads to
(iili) z p 2 "' Z n = rrr2 "' r, [cos(d1 + 0, + ... + 0 ) +i sin(0, + 0, + ... + 0 )].
PROOF By compound angle formula,

(i) ZrZ2 = rrrr(cos?r+i sindlXcos9r+i sin02)
= rrrrf(cos?rcosd2 - sind, sind2 ) + i(sind, cosd, + cosdl sind2 )]
= rrr2lcos(l1+0r)+i sin(d, +d2)].
zF2
v
o x
Figure 6.'l 1 Geometric interpretation of multiplication

296 Complex Numbers
Thus, the effect of multiplying a complex number zr = /r(cos + i cos dt by a I )

complex number zr-r"(cos0r+istn0r) is to rotate the vector which
represents 4 counter-clockwise through an angle 0z and stretching the
vector by rr.
(iD Similarly,
zl _ 1(cosd, +l sindl)
z2 r2(cosa2+i sind2)
_ rl cosdt +i sindt
.cosar-i sin4z
r, cos02 +i sine2 cose2 -i sin02
cosd2 +sindl sind,]+ i[sind1 cosl 2 - cos01 sind2 ]
-rr12[cosd,
er+sin2 e,
"o"2
=
f,lcos{e
t - e ) + i sin(e, - o )].
v
zl
z2
rl h-oz
z2
x
o
Figure 6.12 Geometric interpretation of division
Similarly, lhe effect of the division of two complex numbers is interpreted

geometrically by the figure.
ltustroiion simpliS tr+{lx6+il

(l-r)
For (t+J-3r) = 2(cmf +isinf), (16+i) =2(cost+isinf) and (l-t) = Jilcos!+isinff)
By Theorem 6.7,
(r+J-:,)i.6+i) 2(cosf +tsin{)2(cosf, +lsinf,)
(r-t) (Jill"os!y+tsin(?)]
= zJilcos(! * t - +) + i sin(t + + - +)l
= z.6fcost-fl *i'iof-fl]
=zJz<-ft+iftt
= 1+2i
Complex Numbers 297
Remork From the result of Theorem6.7, we see that
(i) lrrrrl=lrrllrrl, *o |,,I l"l

l',1=Fll
(ii) arg(zp2) = arg(z)+aryQ) and *(+)=ars(z)-arg(22)
The lafter result is not necessarily true of the principal values since the right-hand side may
exceed 2r. Itshould revised to
atg(z p) = aryQ1) + arg(z) + 2kn for some integer k.
EXAMPTE I2
In the Argand diagraq PQR is an equilateral triangle of which the circumcentre is at the origin.
If P represents the complex number
zt=2+i
find the complex numbers represented by Q and R.
SOLUTION
v
a P(2 +i)
x
Figure 6.'13
In above figure,
ZPOQ= ZQOR= ZROP and OP =OQ= On.
OQ is obtained by rotating OP by an angle ?. So that, if z, is the complex number
representing the point Q, then z, is given by
z, = (2+i)(cosf +tsinf)
=(2+i)(-++i+)
= -1r+f)+,(.'6 -+)
Similarly, OR is obtained by rotating OP be an angle ?), ro that the complex number
representing the point R is given by
z, =(2+i)(cosf +isinf)
= (2+i)(-+- i+)
= -(r-+)- itJi +D r
298 Complex Numbers
EXAMPTE I3
The vertices P, Q, R
of an isosceles triangle whose equal sides are PQ and PR represent the
complex numbers 21,22, z, respectively and the angle QPR is a.
(a) Showthat
1zt - z2)2 + 1zt - 4)2 = 2(zt - zz)Q1 - 4)cosa.

O) Deduce that
,r2 +r22 iz32

- zlz2+224+z3zt
if and only tf MBC is equilateral.
SOLUTION
v
Q@z)
P(zt)
x
o
Figure 6.14
(a) Since PQ=PR and IQPR=a, let

z2-zr = a(cosd+isind)
then, (as PR is obtained by rotating PQ about P by an angle a)
23 - zr = (z2 - z){cosd +i sina}
Because
(zr-zz)2 +(zt-zz)2 _ I
["-t'*
2(21-z)(zt-4) , l4-ts
I zr-22 . (2, - z){cosa +i sina}'l
t@ *t
)
!I I
2l cosa+isina'
r_l
cosa +f sina I
I J
= j{t.oro -lsina) +(cosa +isina)}

= cos''
therefore, tl,e result follows:
12, - r2)2 + 12, - 4)2 = 2(2, - z2)Q1 - 4)cosa.

O) LPQR is equilateral if and only rf a =t. nV @)
12, - z2)2 + 121 - 4)2 = 2(2, - z2)Q1 - 4) cos!

i.e. ,12 +rr2 *r32 - zF2+2223+z3zl
Complex Numbers 299
EXAtvlPtE l4
(a) Suppose A and A' are two triangles in the complex plane with vertices
zy 22, 23 and 24, 25,26, respectively. Prove that following statement:
ztz4l
rf 22zsl = 0, then L. and L' are similar
23261
(the definition of the determinant of a square matrix with real entries also applies to a
square matrix with complex entries.)
O) Construct an example to illustrate that the converse of the statement in (a) is not true.
SOLUTION
(a) Expand the determinant,
zt24t
2225l -0
z326l
zF 5 + 22z6 + z3z 4 - zF6 - z2z 4 - z3z5 = 0
z
t(z 4 - z5) - z2(z a - z6) = z r(z a - z) - zr(zo - z 5)
(zt- z2)Q+- z6) = Q1- 4)Qa -25)
zt- zl 24 - 26
l- -- I l- -- I /-- \ /-,=o-t_
-\
lzr-zzl _lzq-zsl and *c[=i=-r[ ]
E;r]-I'o-rul \"q-"a ) \ zt-zs )
The last two equations show that ZrZ, : Z1Z3 = ZoZt : ZoZ, and lZ2Z{3 = lZ5ZaZ6.
Therefore, A - A'.
(b) Consider the triangles in the following figure,
l+i
Figure 6.15
we see that A - A'. But

001 iT I
rlt l+i 1+i
r'. ,{ i I
=(l+t)(t-l)r0.
l+i l+i I
This shows that the converse of the statement in (a) is not true.
300 Complex Numbers
In connection with the geometrical significance the following observations are important.
v
P(z)
Pt@r Pz@z)
x
A B
Figure 6.15
Let Pr, Pr, P represent complex numbers \,22, Z respectively. From the lurangleABP we have
/APB = /.PBx - ZPAv = arg(z - z2) - arg(z - zr)
z-22
{ "l
In particular,
(i) tf = k for some real number k, then 4, Pz, P are collinear.

..1
=
las I.APB = arg(k) = 0J
(ii) ,f = ik for some real number k (k +0), then PrP is perpendicular to PP,
..1
=lAPB=ars(ik)=*+.1
las
EXAMPTE 15
Let P, Q, R and S represent the complex numbers zp 22, z, and. zo respectively in an

Argand diagram.
(a) If aryQ, - z2) = arg(4 - za), show that + is real.

23-24
z, -ila^
(b) lf ,s
tr, where k is any non-zero real number
Show that, LPQR is a right-angled triangle.
SOLUTION
(a) Bygiven, because
*(ffi) = arg(zt- z2) -arg(4 - za)
-0
This implies n
' 6 1-!Z-
z3-24
is real. Geometricall y, pe is parallel to RS.
Complex Numbers 30r
(b) If zr-ib2
z3 = then
t-ik '
z
z3-zl -zr Q1-ila)-(21-ila) _ ik(21- zz) _ ,,-
-_
(zt-ilzr) - (2, -ila2) zr-22
1- -22
therefore,
*r(#)=*+
Arg(2, - z) - Arg(4 - z) = xl
This implies tlln;t ZPRQ is a right angle. I
EXA /tP[E l6
Let p and q be non-zero, distinct complex numbers such that I
p- ql=l p+tl.
(a) Showthat
pq+pq=0
(b) Let O, P and Q be three points on the Argand plane representing the complex numbers
0, p and q, respectively. By considering the of L, or otherwise show that
"rgu-"oi
oProQ.
SOLUTION
(a) Infact,
p-q p+ql | + lp-qlt =lp+12
= (p-il(F-il=@+q)(p+Q)
+ pq+pq=0
(b) It follows from (a)
Pq+Fq=0 =
PF
-*:
qq 0
3
[;).(;)=,
= zn"(e)=o
= *4+)=,+
+ are@)-ary(il=ttr
+ lzrox-zgoxl=|n
+ OPLOQ.
T
302 Complex Numbers
EXERCISE 6A
1. If z=
2+i
-;----, find the real and imaginary parts of z +:zI
l-r'
2. Giventhat (l+i)n =x*i!,

where x and y arerealand z isaninteger,provethat x2 +y2 =2'
3. Ifan electric circuit the two branches are in parallel and have impedances zr and 22
ohms, the total impedance of the circuit, z ohms, is given by
lll
zzlz2
If zr=3+4i and z2=lr+]i, calculate z intheform x+ly.
4. Let aeC ald a+0.

I
(a) Show that rt lzl=lz - a tlren R.(
a 2
(b) If I
, | = lt - ol= la l, express z in terms of a IHKALE 19951
5. Two complex numbers are givenby 21 =i, 22 =

fr{t+i).
(a) Find the modulus and argument of each of z, and. zr.
(b) By considering the number zt + 22, or otherwise, but without using tables, prove that
^*"=t+J2.
6 Let zy 22,... ,Zn be arbitrary complex numbers.
(a) Prove that tp, + t2t2, ,p2 + tr7r.

O) Using (a), or otherwise, show that
lrrl2 +lrrl2 + ... +lr,l2 >-Re(zrz, +2223+ ... +zn-rzn +2,21). IHKALE 19921
7 Suppose z, and zz are complex numbers suchthat

lrrl=Frl=lz1+z2l=t
(a) Evaruate U,. rr(+.
+)
O) Using (a), show that ,12 + rrr2 + zr2 = g .
Hence deduce that zr3 = zr3.

Complex Numbers 303
8. (a) Prove tlnt, for any complex numbers 21, 22, 23,
(i) lrr+rrl' *lrr-rrl' =zlzrl2 +zlzrl2

(ii) lzz, - z, - trl' *1222 - 4 - rrl' *lzr, - rr- rrl2
= z{l'z - rrl' *l r, - rrl' +l 4 -'212}.
O) Let z, u, v becomplexnumberssuchthat ,2 =u2 +v2. Showthat

lz +ul+lz -ul=lz +vl+lz -vl
9 (a) The tfuee vertices of a triangle in the complex plane are represented by the complex
numbers zy 22, z, . Prove that, if the triangle is equilateral, then
,12 +r22 *232 = 224+4zl+z(2.
O) The three vertices of a triangle in the complex plane are represented by the three roots
ofthe cubic equation
3^2
z" +3pz- +3qz+r =0.
Prove that, if the triangle is equilateral ,then p2 = q.
10. (a) Suppose u and v are two non-zero complex numbers such that
u+v+l=0.
Show that
lzl=lvl=t
if and only if
1+ I
+l=0.
uv
lzl=lvl=t
if and only if
,'+r2 +1=0.
(b) Let A, B and, C be three distinct points on the complex plane representing the
complex numbers 21, z2 arrd za, respectively.
Using the second result of (a), show that ABC is an equilateral triangle if and only if
,12 + ,22 + 232 = 224 + 4zr + zF2. [H KALE I 982]
11. If z, and z2 are a y two complex numbers, show that
(a) lrr+'rl=la *l'rl, I
O) l4+,21=la l-l'rl.
Showthattheequation z4 +"+2=0 cannothavearoot z suchthat lzl<t.
304 Complex Numbers
12. (a) Show that for any complex numbers 21, 22,
lz, + zrl<lzrl+lzrl
Hence deduce that for any complex numbers zb 22, -.. ,zn,
l4+'2+ ... +znl=laI +lzrl+ ." *lr,l

O) Let 0o, 0r,...,0, (n> 0) be real numbers. By considering the modulus of the left
hand side ofthe equation
zn sin0n+z'-l sin 0n-t* ... +zsinlr*sindo =2,

show that if t is any root of the equation, then It lt *.
13. Given any two complex numbers u and v.
(a) Provethe inequality lz+vl<l ul+lvl.

(b) Prove that the following three statements are equivalent:
,Sl
lu+vl=l zl+lvl or lz-vl =lzl+lvl
^t2
: Im(zv) = Q,
,s3 : uv=uv,
where Im(zv) denotes the imaginary part of uv.
(c) Ifboth lu+vl+lul+lvl and,lu-vl*lrl*lul, proverhat,foranycomplexnumber

z,thereexistrealnumbers a and b suchthat z=au+bv. [HKALE l98l]
14. Let u, v eC.

(a) Showthat
lul+1" l> lz+,l.

O) Suppose zv eR.
Prove that
(i) there exist real numbers a and B, not both zero, such that au + pv = O.
(ii) l"l+lvl= ! u+vl if uv> 0
tt u-rl if ui <o
(c) Suppose uv eR.
Given z eC, show that there exist unique a, B eR such that

z= utifu. IHKALE r992I
Complex Numbers 30s
15. In an Argand diagram, the origin and the point representing the complex number (l+i)
form two vertices of an equilateral triangle. Find, in any form, the complex number
represented by the third vertex, given that its real part is positive. l19ggl
16. (a) Show that, for any complex numbers 21, 22,
I
z, +r rl' *l', - "rl" = zl z rl2 + zl z, l2
(b) Two sequences of polynomials

PoG), Pr(t), P2(t),
Qo(t), QJt), QzQ),
satisfy the following conditions:
PlG)=QoG)=t,
Pk+rG) = 4,G) + tzo go{t)
Qrr+rl) = 4rG)-tzo gr{t) forall k =0,r,2,-'.
(D Using (a), show that rf z = cosl+JJsin d, then

l
ro e)12 *le*{')l' = zo*'
and hence show that
lroe) l=(Jr)0.' and ler,<,t l=(Jr)0.'

(ii) Find the degrees of Pp(t) and QpG), and prove your assertion.
17. (a) For 0<x<l andforanyrealnumber p>2, showthat
(l+ x)P + (I- x)P < ze-t (t+ xn).
rhat (#)-' = i; *. (#) "' = #f

lu,*,Note
P p
(b) Let h(0)=11+12 +2rcosl)Z +(l+r2 -2rcosl)t , where r >0 and, p>2.
Provethat h(0)<h(0) forany d
(c) Using (a) and (b), or otherwise, show that for any two complex numbers z, and z,
and for any real number p > 2,
lrr+'rle +lrr-zrlP <2p-t4trle +lr2lP). [HKALE 1986]

306 Complex Numbers
18. (a) Givenacomplexnumber z=r(cosd+isin@ with r20 and 0<0<2t, then
ltl=, and argz=O.
Prove from first principles that
(i) arCCZ)=argz-n+2kr
for some integer &.
(ii) nl'l--l and lrl=L then

2 ary@ + w) = arg z + argw + 2k7T
for some integer k.
(iii) For all complex numbers z and w,
lzl+lwl>lz+*1.
O) a B are the roots of the equation z2 +az+b =0, show that if l"
and l= | Fl=r,
then lal=z,ltl=1 ana
argb =Znga+2kn
for some integer k.
le. (a) Let P, Q be 2 distinct points representing the complex numbers zb 22. Given that
OPQ is an isosceles triangle with OP = OQ ar.d the angle POQ = 45", show that
,12 +r22 = J-zrp2.
(b) If zr,22, z, are the vertices of an isosceles triangle which is right-angled at 23,
show that
,12 +r22 +242 -2zr(21+22).
20. Let u, v be non-zero complex numbers.
(a) Showthat
ui+*=0 ifandonlvif
'v
l=rk forsome keR.
(b) It ui +tw = 0, what is the relationship between argu md argv? IHKALE r99rl
21. Let Argz denote the principal value of the argument of the complex number
z (-1r<Argz<r).
E
(a) If z +O and z + z = 0, show tJnt Argz = +
,
(b) If 21,22*0 and lz1+t2l=ltr-trl, show tnat !+]=0
22 22
and hencefind all
possible ralues of ArglL IHKALE r9941

z2
Complex Numbers 307
22- In Figure 2, a triangle 4AtAz and a point Bo other than l0 are given in the Argand
plane. For &=0, 1,2,3,..., let Bp*, be the image of Bk under an anti-clockwise
rotationof l20o withcentre Ap,where -4t isthesameas A1r_, when k>3.
83
Br l2o'
Ar
B2
Figure 2
-
Let 2tt 2tt
cos-3-*lsin5. Suppose ao and bp are the complex numbers
al = represented by
Ao and Br, respectively (k=0, I,2,3, ...).
(a) Showthat br=(I-a)ao+do.

Hence deduce that D, = bo + (l - co)(a2 ao + o a1 + a2).
O) Show that for any positive integer n,
b3n = bo + n(l- co)(a2 as * oa1+ a2).
(c) fr Bgg =Bs, showthatthetriangle AoArAz isequilateral. IHKHLE lggl]

308 Complex Numbers
23. O, A and B are 3 distinct points in the Argand plane where O is the origin, anrd A and
B represent the complex numbers a and b respectively.
(a) Show that LOAB is equilateral if and only if

( a\3
a+b+O ard =-t
IAJ
O) Let the point C represent the complex number c'
(i) Suppose C is rotated counter-clockwise about I through an angle a to Ct

which represents the complex number ct.
Show that
c1 = ctt + a(I- u) where z = cosa+isina.
(ii) C, is then rotated counter-clockwise about B through a to Cr, and finally

C, is rotated counter-clockwise about O through u to Ct which represents
the complex numbers ca.
Express c, in terms of u, a, b and c.
2n
(iii) Suppose o=3 Show that, if C, coincides with C, LOAB is equilateral.
IHKHLE r9881
24. Let Zr, Z, and Z, be 3 distinct points representing the complex numbers 21, 22 srtd z3
respectively.
(a) Suppose ltrr, W2 and. W3 are 3 distinct points representing the complex numbers
wr,w2 and w, respectively.Provethat LZ(24 issimilarto Lwrl'yz\tr3 if and
only if
z3-zl _w3-vl
22-zl w2-wl
(b) Using (a), or othenvise, show that LZ(223 is equilateral if and only if
zr+Ez2+e2zr=g
where e = *{?).,.'"(?)
(c) Apointrepresenting a+ib issaidtobeanintegra/pointif a and D areintegers.
Using (b), or otherwise, show that no triangle with distinct integal points as vertices
can be equilateral. [HKALE 1993]
Complex Numbers
309
6.5 EQUATIONS OF CURVES IN THE COMPTEX PTANE
An equation involving z = x + iy may be a real equation in which case it represents a curve in

the complex plane. In this case the equation reduces to a single equation in x and y, and the
curve may be found by
(a) putting z = x * iy and deriving the x, y-equation of the curve , or

(b) using the geometrical significance of the terms in the z-equation to interpret this equation
directly.
If aandb are fixed complex numbers, z is a variable complex number, and k is a real
number.
Po@)
Pz(b)
Pr
Figure6.17 lz-ol= tc Figure6.18 arg(z-b)-arg(z-a)=constant
(i) The equation
lz - al= k,
represents a circle, center Po, radius k. This equation is equivalent to
zZ-dz-az+(aa-k21=g.
In fact
lr-al=7, :> (z-a)(V-a)=ft2

+ zZ -az-aZ +(aa -k2) =0
(it The equation
( z-b\
*slr_")=rr.
represents either the rnajor arc or the minor arc \p, of a circle through p, and pr.
In fact, let P, P, and P, represent the complex numbers z, a and D respectively in an

Argand diagram.
(
*tl, z-a\
U constant
= ZP2PPT = constant
)=
and so P moves in either the major arcPrP, or the minor trc4Pz of a circle through p,
and. P,
Complex Numbers
310
(iii) The equation
l'- ol=l'- bl
represents the perpendicular bisector of the line segment ioining the points
P(a) and QQ).
(iv) The equations
lz - z,l+lz - zrl= 2k, l' - t 'l-lz - zrl= 213

represent respectively an ellipse and a hyperbola with foci at P1Q) and P2Q2).
EXAMPTE 17
Represent on the same Argand diagram the loci given by the equations
lz -tl=z
and lzl=lz-zl.
Obtain the complex numbers corresponding to the points of intersection of these loci.
SOLUTION
v
- z4l=t
l=l'-zl
Figure 6.19
Let z = x +iy, byinspection, l, -31=3 is equivalent to
(t-3)2 ty2 =32. (1)
and is equivalent to
lzl=lz -21
x=I Q)
Solving, x=I,y=1l6. Therefore the complex numbers corresponding to the points of
intersectionoftheloci are z=11116. I
EXAMPLE I8
If lz-Il=3|"+tl, prove that the locus of z in an Argand diagram is a circle and find its
centre and radius.
SOLUTION
Forany z=x*iy, wehave zZ=x2+y2, z+Z=2r.Thus
Complex Numbers
3il
lz-tf ={z+rl + Q-I)(z -t)=e(z+I)(v+r)
=) 8zZ +l0z +l0Z *g = 0
+ zZ+f,(z+4*1=0
+ ('*i)' *y'=(+)'.
which represents a circle with centre (-i, o), radius f I
EXAMPTE I9
In an Argand diagram the point I has coordinates (1,0) and the point B has coordinates
(0, 2). The point P represents the complex number z. Given that
( z-r\ n
u\:zt
)= +
(a) Describe the locus of P and sketch this locus on an Argand diagram.
O) Find the Cartesian equation of the locus.
SOLUTION
(a)
B (0,2)
Figure 6.20
(
The geometric significance of the fion *\tli z-l\
equi n
saYs that L4pB=t
)= +
P describes on the major
Therefore segment of a circle withAB as a chord.
O) Let z=x+ry. For

z-l [('-t) +iy]fx-i(y-2)l
z-2i +et_2)2
x2
_lx(x-t) + y(y -z)l+i[xy -(x -t)(y -z)]

x2 +(y-2)2
therefore,
(z-r\ r
*\'tt + ,,"1[ry-(x-I)(v-z)l_n
)= + l'('-y(yr)+y(y-2)) 4
+ r(x-l) + -2) = xy -(x -I)(y-2)
+ *2 *y2 -3x-3y+2=o
which is the Cartesian equation to the locus. I
312 Complex Numbers
Tronsformoiions
If w=u+iv (where u and v arereal)isasingle-valuedfunctionof z=x+iy where x and

y are rea[), we can write
w = f (z) or u+iv = f (x+iy) (l)
Figure 6.21(a) The z-plane Figure 6.21(b) The w-plane
By equating real and imaginary parts this is seen to be equivalent to

u = u(x, y)
(2)
v=v(x, y).
Thus given a point (x, y) inthe z-plane, there point (2, v) in the w-plane, The
corresponds a
set of equation (2) [or the equivalent, w = f (z)] is called a transformation. We say that point P
is mapped or transformed into point P' by means of the transformation and called P' the image
of P.
EXAMPTE 20
Let w=f(z)=22.
Find the values of p which corresponds to
(i) zr=-2+i
(ii) z2 =I-3i,
and show how the correspondence can be represented graphically
SOLUTION
Let w1,w, be the correspondingpoints of 21, z2 respectively, then
(i) wr= f(1+i)=(-2+i)2

=3-4i,
Therefore zt=-z+i, represented by point Pin the z-plane has the image point
wr=3-4i by P' in the w-plane.
represented We say that P is mapped into P' by
means of the mapping or transformation * = 12 .
(ii) w2 = f (l- 3i) = (l - 3i)2

= -8-6i.
Similarly QG-3i) is mapped into Q'(-8-6i) by means of the transformation. I
Complex Numbers 313
EXAMPI-E 2I
The frrnction / : Ct{-t} -+ C\{ l}, defined by

z-l
f(z)= z+l
maps the complex number z onto the complex number w = p *iq,
(a) Express p and q interms of z and Z.
O) In each of the following cases, find the locus of z and interpret the result geometrically:
(i) w is real.
(iD w is pure imaginary.
SOLUTION
(a) We have
p=Re(y) =|{*+w)
I(z-L t- z-l )\ z7-l
-)2lz+I' 7+I -_
-
J- z7+z+7+l
I
q = Im(w) (* -w)
2i
I z-l Z -I i(v - z)
2i z +l- +l =-zV+z+7+I
-z
O) (D If u, is real, then 4 = 0, in this case

,_;
i.e. z is real (z describes on the real axis excludin g z = -I).
(ii) If p is pure imaginary, then p = 0, in the case
zz=r, l"l'=t, lrl=r.

z describes on a unit circle (excluding z = -I).
EXAMPTE 22
Giventhat *='-i,.
z+i
(a) Let wt and, w, be the images of z, and, z, respectively under the transformation. Show
that if zl + 22, then w, * wr.
(b) find the image in the w-plane of the circle lrl=Z in the z-plane. Illustrate the 2 loci in
separate Argand diagrams.
SOLUTION
(a) Because
314 Complex Numbers
-wl--w2
z1-t 22-r
.r+i z2 +i
_ (zrzz +izt-izz - (ztzz +iz, -izt+l)
+L)
(zr+i)(2, +i)
=ffffi
therefore,weseethatif zt *22, theln wt*w2.
Remork : Such a transformation is known x iniective mappingl
O) Solving z from *=ft, weget
i(w+1)
l-w
So
r,r=l#l=lgl=]#+
Thus, if l" | = 2, th"n
lw+11 _"
It-rl
or lw+tl=zlt-wl.
--L
Let w = ulir,then wF =u2 +v2, w +fi =2u,

qlt-*12 (w+1)(7+1)=4(1-wXr-w)
lw+tl2 = =
e 3ww =5(w +w) +3 = 0
+ u2 *r2 -fz+l=o
.. 5)' , .., -(+\'
= lu-1) *'
(
=[.rJ
That is, the image in the w-plane of the circle lrl= Z in the z-plane is also a circle
Figure 5.22(a) Figure 6.22(b) The image set
lzl= z, ,2 * v' -- 2' @-tr)'*u'=(t)2

Complex Numbers 315
EXERCISE 6B
Locus hobl.ems
1. Given that
(24\
n
u\r*r)=Z'
show that the locus of the point representing z in the Argand diagram is an arc of a circle,
and show this locus on a sketch.
2. Giventhat l4l=,
lz+Il
(a) Find the Cartesian equation ofthe locus of z represent the locus by a sketch in the
Argand diagram.
O) Shade the region for which the inequalities 2 and o <argz< Z are bottr
satisfies.
l#l>
3. Let z be a complex number satisfing 2lz -2t | = lz+i I.

(a) Show that the locus of z on an Argand diagram is a circle. Find its centre and
radius.
O) Let s={"eC:21 z-zil<lz+il}

Draw and shade the region which represents ,S on an Argand diagram.
Hencefind zo e.! suchthat lzs l<lzl forail z eS. IHKALE tggS]
4. Giventhat z=x*i!, where x and y arereal.

( z+i\
(a) ShowtJnt, whent\;;ZJ= 0, tlte point (x, y) lies on a straight line,
\
o) Show that, when *"['*t the Point (x' Y) lies on a circle with centre
\'*2)=o'
(-L-+) andradius fr6
5. Let a=3+3i, f=I+t.
The complex number z is represented by a point P in the Argand plane. Describe
geometrically the locus of P when
(a) l"-ol=lr- Fl
(b) lr-ol+lz-Bl=+
Find the Cartesian equation of the locus of P?
316 Complex Numbers
6. Let a=I-i, F=2+2i, f =-I+3i.

Show that z = x *iy satisfies the equation
lzl2 +u+ PZ +y =g
(*)
if and only rf x, y satis$
(z 2 ^ +3Y
)r' * y' +3x -l= 0
lx-y+3 = o.
Hence solve equation (*)
7. (a) If lt+zl=lz-zl, find Rez
O) Find all z eC such that
zl2 -z-z+ifr-A=I and

IHKALE r9931
t+zl=lz- zl
8. (a) Let w be a complex number. Show that
lr-;l=lw+il ifanaodyif w isreal.
O) The complex number z satisfies the equation
lzu - il=t (*)

Sketch the local of z in the Argand plane.
(c) Show that the complex number u (+ i\ satisfies equation (*) if and only if
iu
v= -:-
t-u is real.
In this case, show that the points representing u,v and i in the Argand plane are
collinear. [HKALE 1983]
9. (a) Consider the equation (in z)

I
lz (*)
lzl- +qz+r7+s=0,
where q,r eC,seR with s<0. By putting z=xii!, or otherwise, show that
equation (*) has at least two solutions.
O) Let ur,rrz,vt,vzeC suchthat
l"rl'*lurl'=lrrl2 +lrrl' =l and u,ur+rrr,

For 0 <f <1, use (a) to showthatthe equation
{u 1 + zu r11u, + rr 11 =f tu
ri z+Q - t) v rv rJ I l r, * r"r l' *lu r * rr r l' ]
has at least two solutions. IHKALE r986I
Complex Numbers 317
10. Let P, Q c such that p, e, C ne non-collinear and

be two points on a circle with cenfte
takenanti-clockwise. ZPCQ=a and M isthe mid-point of pe. Let zp,26, zs and
z* bethe complex numbers represented by p, e, C and p,respectively.
(a) Showthat
zc-zM =i(zu -tr1cott.
(b) Express z" andtheradius r ofthecircleintermsof zp,zg and a.
(c) (i) Show that any circle in the complex plane can be represented by an equation of
the form
zZ +az +bZ +c = O
where a,D eC and c eR.
(ii) Let f,: zz+az+b7+c=0 be a circle passing through the points representing
l+i and -1. If the chord joining these two points subtends an angle atne
t
centre, findthevalues of a, b and c. [HKALE lgg5]
11. (a) Let a eC and D > 0. Show that the equation

zZ = az +dz +b (z eC)
canbewrittenintheform of lz-al=r where r>0.
(b) Let A and B be two points on the complex plane representing 2+3i and, l+2i
respectively. P, representing the complex number z, is a moving point so that
p.l = J-ZpA. Show that the equation of the locus of P is a circle with equation
f,: z7=i7-iz+3.
Find its radius and centre.
(c) Let Q, representing o), be a point on the circle f, rn 61.
(i) Show that the circle
I r ,,-i)l
l'-[' F;TJl='
touches fat Q externally.
(ii) For any given r > 0, write down the equations of the two circles with radius r
whichtouch f at Q. IHKALE 1996]
318 Complex Numbers
Transformdian
12. If z isa variable complex number subject to the consideration ltl= t, and, if
I
w=22*-,
show that the point of the complex plane correspondingto w describes an ellipse.
13. Let C be the set of complex numbers. A function f :C -+ C is said to be an isometry tf it

preserues distance, that is, if
lf <,)- f (z)l=l,r-'rl
forall zr, z2 eC.
(a) If / is an isometry, show that
s(z)=f(z)-f(o)
f(r)- f(0)
I and g(0) =
is an isometry satisffing 8(1) = Q.
(b) ff g is an isometry satisffing 8(1) = I and g(0) = 0, show that

(i) the real parts of g(z) and. z are equal for all z e C,
(ii) g(i) = i or -i.
(c) Ifg is an isometry satisfying g(1) = l, g(0) = 0 and g(i) = i (respectively -l), show
that s@) = z (respectivety 7; for all z eC.
(d) / has the form f (z) = az +b or f (z) = ai +b with a and
Show that any isometry D
constantandlal=t. [HKALE 1980]
14. (a) Let a and B betwocomplexnumberswith lal<t ana lplrt. Showthat
(i) rt aB =1, then 6 = 0,

(ii) if lalct, then
,lo-! l, =r."
l'-aP l-
where the equality holds if and only if I B l= t.
O) Let a and D be two complex numbers with , + 0. Consider the function
n)=#
defined on the set D = C\ *on"'e 1,-r,i eD and
{*}
lrrtl ; = | rt-tl | = | 7ti)l = r.
(i) Show that b =i and, lt<tll= I forall z eD with lrl=t.

(ii) Show that J"Q) isa constant tunction if I
a|= 1 IHKALE 19841
Complex Numbers 319
15. Let d, be a complex number aad, u, v be variable complex numbers sati$ing

-mt*d =q,a
and dv+ai =w-
respectively. Let Z be the locus of z and C be the locus of v.
(a) Showthat
(i) the equation of Z can be wriften as
lu- al=lul
(ii) the equation of C can be written as
lv-al=lal.
(b) For a, =2+i,
sketch L and C on an Argand diagram.
(c) (i) Let , =!.

It
Showthat z satisfies &+tr=zV for someconstant B.
Hence sketch the locus of z on an Argand diagramfor a =2+i.
(ii) Let , =!.

v
Sketchthelocusof z onanArganddiagramfor a=2+i. [HKALE 1999]
320 Complex Numbers
6.6 DE MOIVRE'S THEOREM
The De Moivre's theorem which is named after the French mathematiciarU Abraham De Moiwe
(1667 - 1754) is one of the most remarkable elementary theorems on complex numbers.
IHEOREM 6.8 [Oe Moivre's Theorem] For positive rational number n

(cosd + i sind)n = cosne + i sinn?
PROOF
(a) l[/'hen n is a positive integer (prove by mathematical induction)
The proposition is obviursly true for n =1,
Assume that the proposition is true for z = t,
i.e. (cosd+isind)k = coskl +isinke.

When n =k+1,
(cosd +i sind)k+l = lcosd +i sind)e (cosd +i sind
= (coskd + I sinfrd)(cos d + I sind)
= (coskd cos d - sinkd sind) + i (sinkd cos 0 + cos k0 sin9)
= cos(k +I)e +i sin(k + l)d.
Thus the proposition is true for n = k +1.
By the principle of mathematical induction, the renrlt is true for all positive integers n
O) Il'hen n is a negative integer. Writing n = -tn, where nr > 0.
I I
(cosd+isind;n = (cosd+l sin?)-^ - +i sinm9
(cosd+i sind)u cosmO
cosm9 -isinm9
(coszd +i sin m9)(cosm9- i sinm9)
cosm0-isinm9
2^.22
cos'm0-i'sin'm0
= cosrne - i sinm 0 = cos(-m)0 + i sin(-m) 0
= cosnq +isinne
(c) Wen n isarationalfraction, n-L, where p ffid q areintegers.
q
o0
{cosA+isina)'=[ cos:d+isin:d
q q
)'
=( qq qq
t "or1p*rrinld )'=( "o.]d*rrinla )"
q q
This completes the proof.
Complex Numbers
321
z2 = cos29+i z = cosd +i sin d
-l =cos(-d)+isin(-d)
Figure 6.23 Geometric interpretation
Complex numbers of modulus 1 are represented by points on the unit circle of

Argand diagram, the result of De Moivre's theorem shonvs that their powers
remain on the unit circle.
EXAtvlPtE 23 _
If n is a positive integer, prove that
(a) (l- i tanqn (l+ i tanne) = (t- i tannl)(I+ i rlne)n

0 if r isodd
O) (t+D2" +(t-i)2" = ,n+t if jn is an even integer
-rn+t if jn is an odd integer
ti+#ffi#)^ = *{+-,a) *,.i"( ry -,u)

(c)
SOLUTION
(a) Using the De Moiwe's theorem,
I
(l-itnnqn (I+irannl) (cosd-i sind) nl (cosn9 +i sinn?)
cos'o cosn0
I I
(cosnO -i sinn9)
cosn0
(cosd+ i sind)'
cos' 0
=
- \wvr'v0 - i sinno).-f-1.ora + i sinD)n
-lcosn? (cos n *
d
"or,
= (1-i tmLn?)(t+itanqn
(b) Using the De Moiwe's theorem again,
Q+ D2" + (l - D2n = z'

{Goti o + i sin! r12n + (cos} z - i s i,.loD'" }
= z' {@o"T r + i sin! n) + (cos! r - i sin! D}
_.n+l
_L cos|rr
0 if r is odd
Zn+l rf |n isan even integer
-rn+l rf |n is an odd integer
322 Complex Numbers
I + sind +i cosd (1+ sind+ i cosd)2

(c) For
l+sind-icosd (1+sind)2 *"o"'0
(l + sind)2 - 0 *2i11+ sind) cosd
"o"'
2(1+sind)
2 sind(l+ sind) + 2i(l + sin 0)cos0
-= 2(l+sind)
= sind+icos 0 = cos(*n-0)+isin(\n-0)
therefore, by De Moiwe's theorem,
(++##,-*#) = {""u+' - e1 + i sa1!o - a1}'
= cos(tr -n0) +i sn(f r - n0)
EXAMPTE 24
n
Let f (z)=Zooto be an nth degree polynomial in the complex variable z with real
k=O
coefficients. Show that
n n
I f <r>l' = ZLrk*i a1,a , cos(k - i)o,

k=oj=0
where z = r(cosd +i sind),
SOLUTION
In fact, by De Moivre's theorem, if z = r(cos9 + t sind),
lf <rll2 = f(z)f ()
n n
=(2'ru\z",,') =llooorrkzi
k=0j=0
= LLooo,rk+i lcoske +isinklffcos7d -l sinTd]

k=0j=0
nn
i
= ZZooo,rk+ lcoslk - ile + i sin(k - Del
k=oj=o
nn nn
j illooo j j\0
= LLooo,rk+ coslk - fle + rrk* sin(k -
k=oj=o k=oj=o
nn
=LZoooirk+i cos(k- j)0
k=0j=0
n
where LLooor sin(k - j)0=0 as sin(k - j)0+sin(j -k)0=0 and sin(k-k)0 =0. I
k=0j=0
Complex Numbers 323
6.7 APPTICATION IN TRIGONOMETRY
The result of De Moiwe's theorem is of great importance in analytical trigonometry.
6.7.1 Expressions for cosn9, sinn? etc. in terms of powers of cosine ond sine
If n is a positive integer and 0 is real, then
(D cosnl=cosn e-Clcos'-z 0sin2 e+Cf,cosn-4 esina 0-

(iD sinn? = C I cos'-l 0sin0 -C ! cos'-3 0sin3 0 +
(iii) tann1 =ci

tane-ci:n3 o+ci terr-s e- "'
t-c!.tan2 o+citana o-
PROOF For any positive integer z, using the De Moiwe's theorem and binomial theorem,
cosnd +i sin n Q = (cos? + t sin?)n
={cffcos'0-clcos"-2 0sin2 0+cf,cos'-4 osina e ...}
+ i{Cf cos'-l sind - cf cos'-3 osin3 o + ...}

Comparing the real part and imaginary part, we obtain
cosn2 - cff cos' 0+cicos'-2 0sin2 0+ ...

sinnl=cf cosn-l lsin-C!,.or'-3 esin3 0+...
and
sinnl Cf cos'-l 7sin7-Cf cos'-3 0+ ...

0sin3
t^ntH
-
_
-^ cosnq
cffcos'e-ci.os'-2 0sin2 0+ .-.
ci tne-ci tan3 e+ ..
ct t*r' o-citan'-r e+ ...
The two parallel formulae for cosrd and sinnd that we have just obtained can be further
exploited to get other classical results in trigonometry. ll
EXAMPI.E 25
(a) Use de Moiwe's Theorem to prove that
-35!3 +21!s -t7-,

tan70 =7t where t =tanl
l-2lt' +35t" -'7t"
(b) Use this result to form a cubic equation with integral coefficients whose roots are
21r l2n l.3t
tan
7
, ,^' + and tan2
f . teauce that
.rE c2r o3n\( 1 t 2n .3n\

( sec- 7+ sec- J-+sec 7 ;*COS ec- = I92.
)lcos""' 7+cos""'l)
324 Complex Numbers
SOLUTION
(a) By De Moiwe's theorem
cosTd +i sinT Q = (cosl +i sin0)7
= 0 -2r.ort drin' d+ 35cos3 lsina 0 -7 coslsin6 0

"o{
+i{z cos6 d sind - 35cor' d rint 0 + 2lcos2 0 sins 0 - sinT e}
Equating the real part and imaginary part, we have
---4n - sinl0 7cos6 esine-35cos4 0sin3 0+zlco.'drin5 0-sin1 0

cos70 e-zl"o.5d.in2d+35cos3 lsina 0-icos0sin6 0
"or7
Dividing numerator and denominator by d -d let / = tanl, theresult follows
"o.t
(b) Pfi e =! to, k =1, 2, 3.
t tmff - sstan3 + ztt^s T - t^' T

!
tan ,(+)=
t -2rtAn2 ! + 3stna ? - r r^' ?
o=tanSlt -3st^'f +zttana +-^'-.,)
Since tanf * 0 for k --1, 2, 3, therefore
!-zttâ S+s5tan2 f -l
t^r6 =0.
showing that tan2 t, r*' T, areroots ofthe cubic equation

^' !
t3 -zrt2 +35t-7 =0.
By the relation between roots and coefficients,
t^'q+t^'T*^'T=zt
tan2
+tun2 T*^'itan2 !+tan'+t^t T=ls
,^'+r^'?r*'T=,
Therefore,
[.""' 7 * .o
2
! * ro2 T]1"t" *' ff + cos"c2 ! * "ot ""2 lf
=[:*t*t f +ta,_z !+tn2#]"[r**t2 f +cot2 !*"ot2 lf
I r-l tl
=[:+zt]lt.-r#. R+ '
,^'+)
2
tan 2n tan 3r
2
t^'t 23n 2 a-
2
7 tan -T
-l 3+ 7 7-
.2
tan
tan
+t^' 2n tan
7
.2
7
+ tan
3r
7
=24(3+!) =tlz
I
Complex Numbers
325
6-7.2Power of cosine ond sine expressed in multiple ongles
Let z : cos4+lsinfl then by de Moiwe's theorem, we have
7-l = (cosd+isind)-l = cos(-d) +lsin(-d) = cosd-i sind

Consequenfly, by adding and subtracting the above results.
cosd=
!{r*r-t) and (l) (2)
"in6=}p-r-,).
Generally, we have
7n = (cos? + i sinl\n = cosne + i sinne,

7-n = (cos? * i sinl)-n = cosn1 - i sinnl
Adding and zubtracting the above results.
cosno=irr' +r-n) and sinno=je" -r-") (3) (4)
Powers of cosd and sind can be expressed, with the aid of above results and the binomial
theorem, as powers of
z and z-1, and these expressions can then be replaced as cosines and
sines of multiple angles by means of (3) and (a).
For any positive integer n
(i) t =*i|*r cos(2r+r-2r)o

"or"*t 2.n !=o
I n-l
(iD f"|cos(2n -z,ye*|4'
"or2nd= ,2n-l
tk
(iii) sin2n*r e= + IH (-t)n+r i:n+t sin(2n + r- 2r)0
)zn - r=0
I n-I
(iv) sin2' e =
f{-t)'*' 1n cos(2n - 2r1t * }1"
,2n-l
PROOF (iii) (Usingthe relation sinnl =j{r' -r-n),

12i sinl)2k+r = 7, - r-r 12k*r
= gf;k +t
rzrc+t _ i?k+t z2k-t + ilk +t
z2k-3 _ ... + clfi r-rzr-r) _ c?tilr-(2k+t)
+t) _ -r
= cf;r,+r lrzr'+t _ z-(2k ilo*, (rro _ z-ek -r) ... + (_r)k cf;k*t _ r-t 1
) )_ 1,
*r
= r,{40*t sin(2k + t1 o - ilk sin(2k - t)0 + ... + (-l) r clk*r sino}
k
= zilel)' (o*"in1zt + r - 2r)0.
r=0
326 Complex Numbers
It follows that
612k+r(sind)2e*r = zift-u'4r+1 sin(2k +L- 2r)0

'zk+t r=0
. srn-
2k+t^ ' k
r.e. -
d = +t ( -11r+k (k+r sin(2k +l-2r)0
2"* 7=o
(rv) Similarly,
(2i sinl)zk = 7, - ,-t 12k
=ctk ,2k -czrk ,zt'-z +clk ,ztc-o - "' +cl! ,-2k

=CAk e2k *r-20)_C?o p2k-z +z-Qk-2))+ ... +(-l)o-tc?!_r1z+z-t1+1-tyk cf;k
= r{r3o cos2kl - clk cos(2k -2)0 + "' 1-t7k-r cl!, cosl}+ 1-t7k clk
k-l
= r'f<-tl' 4k cosPk - 2r)o + (-r)o c?o .
r=0
the result follows.
The other two results may be obtained in the same way. [Example 28 gives an alternative
approach.l lr
EXAMPIE 26
(a) lf z = cos' +i sind, show that
2cos0 = z * z-1, 2i sinl =, - r-l

and Zcosnl = zn + z-n , 2i sinn? = z' - z-n
(b) (i) Showthat cosad+sin4 e=f,@os4l+3).
(ii) Express .or3 d rirro 0 as a sum of cosines of multiples of d
-
SOLUTION
(a) Refer to the text.
(b) (i) IJsing zn +z-' =2cosn/, zn -z-' =2isinn?, we have
(2cosl)a + (2i sinl)a = 1z + z-r - z-t 1a

)4 + 1z
=2{Q4 *'u)*e}
=2{2cos40 +6}.
Hence
cos4 d+sin4 e =l6osa0+3).

Complex Numbers 327
(ii) Similarly,
(2cosd)3(2isinl)a = ('.+)'(,-:)'
(r -;)'(,-:)
(" -t".;-;)('-:)
(t .
))-(' +) -,(, . ;).'(, .:)
= 2(cos7 0 - cos50 - 3 cos20 + 3 cosd).
Hence
I
"o.'d.irro
d=
64
(cos7d - cos5d - 3 cos2d + 3 cosd) I
EXAMPI.E 27
Let z =cos4+isin? By expressing cosd in terms of z, or othenrise, show that for any
positive integer z.
cosn 0=i2", cos(n-2r)0
SOLUTION
Let z= cosd+isind, then, we have
- l-'
')
|{rn + z-')
cosd= and
,(z+z "o"rg
=
Hence, using binomial theorem,
cosn e =!p*r_r)"
2n
= =
i|"r'r'-(n-r) i|"r'-(n-2r)
= - 2r)o - i sin(n - 2r) ol
)ir: fcos(n
2n
ici *r1, - zDe - +>c!
r=0 2
sin(n - 2r)0
r=o
I
2' ici
r=0
"os1n-2r)0-o
k C: sin(n - 2r)0 + Ci-, sin[n - 2(n - r)0) = o.

328 Complex Numbers
6.7.3 Summotion of Trigonometric Series
A further example along the same lines is to obtain sums of finite series of trigonometric terms-
EXAMPTE 28
Using the identity: l+z+22 + ... +zn =+, prove that for all values of 0 , which are
not multiples of 2z
l+cosd+cos2d+ +cosno=#('*# e*,ie)
sind+sin2d+ . +sinno=*g['.f e*"ie).

-
SOLUTION
Substituting z = cos? +i sin d in the identity and simplifying by De Moiwe's Theorem, we get
(1 + cosd + co s20 + "' + cosn 0)+ i(sind + sin 20 + "' + sinn?)
= I + (cosd + I sind) + (cos2d + i sin20) "' + (coszd + i sinn 0)

+
= 1+ (cosd + i sind) + (cosd +i sin 0)2 + "' + (cosd +i sind)u
1- (cosd+isin?\n+r
1- (cosd +t sind)
1- cos(r + l)d -i sin(r + l)d
l-cosd-isind
_ 2sin2 fo-izsinf ecos4, e
zsinz l-tzsin$cos$
sin!0 sin?.o-icas*0
=[ e
sin a
It stn$-icosl It;l
sin#0 cosf d+isin!o
=[
sin$ It cosf +i sinf l
sinr*o lcosio
+isinie coslro +isinle
=[
sin$ It +i sin
sinf e
=[ e
sln ,
lr "orie*,"iîe)
Therefore, equating the real parts and imaginary parts,
l+cosd+cos Z0+
"
.6'llz ecosle.
... +cosn1=
-lsin! z
sin1 + sin20 + ... + sinn1 = |o rinf. 0 sinlo.

sinf
Complex Numbers
329
EXERCISE {'Q
1. Show that, when r is a positive integer,
(a) (Ji -i1' +(Ji +Dn - rn+t-r(+)

(-D^ 4m+I
(b) (r*,r^!:J,)" =- J' sec
n
4n
(l+t)
-1f
2. The point representing the complex number z inanArgand diagram describes the circle
lz-tl= t.
(a) Showthat
z= l+cosd+isind,
where -a <01 r,
and deduce that the point representing the complex nurnber ,-l
describes a straight line.
O) Find the modulus and argument of z and hence, or otherwise, express

(l+cos+isin0)" intheform x+iy,where r isapositiveinteger,and x and y are
real.
(c) By writing cosd+isind = ot, and using the binomial expansion of (l+ar)", prove
that
(;1.(;)*.'.(i)*",'. .[;)' osno = ('*'1)'"o"!

3 Let r and, 0 be real numbers.
(a) By considerirg z = r(cosd + i sin 0), or otherwise, simpli$
r +cosd+i sind
l+ r cos9 - ir sin9
O) For any positive integer n, shorv that
( r +sin? +t cosd )' ( ,o , , _,-( n,

, -ne^))
.
-no^\
I r+'sine-,.""dej "o\ ,
=
)+isi\
(c) Find r and, 0, with r > 0, such that
( r+sinl+icosd )3 Ji*i
Il+rsind-trcos9 ) 2
For such r and 0 , sketch the points representing z =r(cos0+isin0) on an

Argand diagram.
(d) Determine with reasons whether there exists r and 0, with r > 0, such tlat
3
r + sind +i cosd
1+r sind _lrcosd =Ji+i IHKALE 19981
330 Complex Numbers
4. (a) Let n be a positive integer. Prove tlnt

( t+itane\" r+ilann|
|
[1-rtandJ l-itann9
--
where -l i = JJ. I{ence show that
i(tann0) _(cotl+i)n -(cot?-i)n

(cotl+i)n +(cotl-i)n
and tann9^=
ci cot"-r e-c!cot'-3 e+ci cot'-S o- : ,
where c! =Th
(b) By using (a) and considering the roots of the equation
xn +clx"-r -c|t"-'-clt"-t +cf,x"-a +clxn-s - "' -0

or otlerwise evaluate
(i) i
k=l
. (4k
COt- -t)n
4n
n
(4k -l)n
(ii) tk=l cot 2 4n
2n 2tr
cos;+isin:,
5. Let z= where n is a positive integer
(a) Provethat z'=l ifandontyif lz isdivisibleby n

n-l
Hence evaluate Zt^' for the cases:
r=O
(i) z is divisibleby n,
(ii) lz is not divisible by z.
n-l
o) Let f (x) = Use the result of (a) show that, for any given 7 (0 < 7 < n- l)
lolr*k.
k=O
n-l
Zf (t')'("-t" -'o,
r=0
(c) Givenapolynomial g(x). Let h(x) and f(x) bepolynomialswith degl<n-L

suchthat g(x) = 1x" -t1tr1x7+71x1.
Show that
, n-r(n-r I
.r (x) = iZlZ re' v@- i)'
r=o l.r=o
lx
)
t IHKALE r9841
Complex Numbers 33r
6. (a) Show that cos5d = l6cos5 0 -20cos3 0 +5cos0.
O) using (a), or otherwise, solve l6cos4 0-20cos2 0+5=0 for values of d between
0 and,2r. Hence find the value of
2
cos
tT z3t
-10 .
15cos- [HKALE 1990]
7 Express cos8d intheform
.o.ta[t-rt o2 e+qtâ 0- ptm6 e+tan8 e1r,
where p and q areintegers tobe determined.

Hence prove that
r^^ Z1
o
tans
fi +70 tan
# *, = 28tar? ia(r-
8. Show that, when sind * 0,
sin4d - sin3d 8cos"7. n
0 - 4 cos' 0 - 4 cos4 + I
sine- =
and hence by a substitution that the three roots ofthe cubic equation
,3 -*2 -2x+l =o
E315r
are 2cos;,2cos=- and 2cos*.
rtt
9 Use De Moivre's theorem to prove that
sinT 0 =? sind-56sin3 d * I 12.irrs e - 64rin7 e.

Deduce, or otherwise, that the only real solutions of the equation
sin70 =7 sinfl
are given by 0 = nn, where n is an integer.
10. (a) Given that d is not a multiple of a, prove that

sin70y-3+y-2
sind = -2y-I
where y =2ns20.
(b) Explain wny zcos!, z"or! na zcosl are the roots of the equation
y3 +y2 -2y-l=0.
By considering the identity
y3 * y' - 2y -t = (r-,""t+)( ,-r*"+)(r-r*"ff)

deduce that
2n 41
cos, cosT-+cos 41
Z
61 6tr 2r I
cos7+cos cos7-=-t
7
332 Complex Numbers
(c) Show that an equation having roots which are the sqwres ofthe roots ofthe equation
yt *y2 -2y-L=o
may be wriffen in the form u(u -2)2 = (u -L)2 .
Deduce that
z2r z4t +cos-z4ncos-7+cos-
z6r z6ncos-z 2n3
cos-7cos-, Z Z 78
11. (a) rf 0 <0<1 , prove that

2
sin(2m+r)o= sin2'*l e P-6ot2 0)

where P- isthepolynomialofdegree z givenby
p^(x)=(*Jr)" _(*ir)"-'.['i.f ,^-2 _ +
Use this to show that P^ has zeros atthe m distinct points xo = *r(#n) for
k =I,20... , m.
(b) Show that the sum ofthe zeros of P^ is grven by
z,*r(#)=*?,
and that the sum oftheir squares is given by
r)qt g)
2*r (#) -
m (zm - + rom -
12. Let z=cosd+isind,byexpressing sind and cosd interms of z, or otherwise,prove

that
2s sin4 e cos2 0 -- cos60 - 2 cos40 - cos20 +2
13. Let Tn(x)=cos(narccosx), where -l<r<1, n=0, I,2, "'

(a) Prove that
Tn+r(x) = ZxTr(x)
-Tn-r(x),
and hence show that Tn@) is a polynomial in x of degree n with leading
coefficient 2n-1 , where n=1, 2, ... .
O) Using De Moivre's Theorem, or otherwise, determine ap (k = 0, I, 2, .., n) in

n
cosn e= la 1, cos(n - Zk)0.
k=O
,I (n-r)
(c) Show that vn = -J- L cX rr-zt @) for n=1, 3, 5, "'. . [HKALE ]982]
2'-' k=0
Complex Numbers
333
14. (a) Prove by mathematical induction that, when z * l,
l+22+322 + ,,. +nzn-l =

I-(n+I)zn +nr'*r
(r- r)2
O) Hence, or othenrise, prove that
z+:(])++(+)' * ... *,(+)^-' =6-(n+2)(+l'-'.
(c) Show that, when z * 0, the right hand side of the identity on part (a) may be written
z-r -(n+l1zn-r +rrn

-l +z
-2
Hence, by writing z= cosd+isind and using de Moiwe's theorern, show that the
sum ofthe series
l+2cosd+3 cos20 + ... +ncos(n - l\0
(z + l) cos (z - l)0 - ncosn? - cosd
rs
2(l-cosd)
where d is not a multiple of 2tt.
15. Let a and P be real numbers, n be a positive integer and CX be the binomial
coefficients
(a) Let A = Lci cos(a +kp),

k=0
n
B =Lctsin(a+kB).
k=0
By considering the expression A +iB and, using De Moiwe's Theorem, or otherwise,
show that
nB
A =2'**(f)*{ a+ T )
B =2n**[f),'"( a+ nB
2 )
(b) Showthat
(i) i"l*r*=z!,
k=O
"o"T,
(ii) t o"l"or!=n,zT
k=o
"or9{ IHKHLE 19831
334 Complex Numbers
6.8 ROOTS OF A COMPTEX NUMBER ' BINOMIAI EQUATION zn = d
The use of De Moivre's theorem in finding tlte complex roots of numbers and the equivalent
problem of the solution of equatiors in z is shown by the following theorem.
IHEOREM 6.9 For any complex number a=r(cos0+lsind), the equation zn =a has
distinct n roots given by
zk=rn cos- nn
. 2kn+0
2kr+0+ r.slll- k =0,1,2, ... ,n-l
where ri denotes the positive arithmetical root.
PROOF For
a = r(cos? +i sind)
= r{cos(2kr + 0) +i sin(2kzt + 0\}
where k is any integer, therefore, the nth roots of the complex number a is
1lI
oi = ri {"ot(2kn+o)+isin(2kn+e)}i
I
where ri is taken to be the positive real nth roots of r. Hence, using De Moiwe's theorenL
the z roots are given by
I
zk=an
1 2kn+0r, . . 2kn+0
rn COS-
nn SlIl-
This result will give all the zth roots of the complex number provided that k is given the values
0,1,2, .-. , (n-l), or any other n consecutive integral values.
All other values of & will give repetitions of these roots, for when ft = fl * rn, the root is
,1
(n * r) o * e
*,
"inU!
I o . e}
=
; r . r#)., "r{, " . r#)l
{"o,2 "
{"".( "
! 1 2mn+o 2mn+0)
= r' +t sin-i
tcos-
which is a repetition of the value of the root when k = m. ll
EXA'i'IPLE 29
Obtain, in the form r(cosd+isind), where r > 0 and - n <0 <tr,
(a) thefourfourth roots of S(-l+t16), andplot them on an Argand diagram;

Complex Numbers 335
Jz -J-zi
O) the three roots of the equation 823 =
t+J:i
SOLUTION -
(a) As s(-r+i$; = re("orf*i,t"?),
therefore, by De Moiwe's theorem, the roots of the complex number are given by
t( (
zk =t6q
Ico\2k.r++l*;ri"(zr"
.+\'
6k+2 6k+2 I
=r{ cosl;tt+isin O rj
=r{ cos-6-a+i sin3k+l
3k+I
I
U rJ, k=0,1,2,3.
That is, the four roots are

zo = 2(cosl tr + i sin| a)
z, = 2(cos!w +i sin!n)
z2 = 2(cos! r + i sinl fl = 2(cos2 n -i sinf z;

zt = 2(cos* n+ i sinN a) = 2(cosf - t sin?)
v
z
"2
z^5
Figure 6.24 The four roots of 8(-1 +r16)
Geometrically, the roots of a complex number represent the n vertices of a regular

polygon of n sides inscribed in a circle with centre at the origin.
(b) Similarly, because
2(
nlr
Ji -J-zi -l ) cosT -t srnT
823
t+Jri 2( aI + 2
lfE
cosJ +, sm
3
-=
rO{
,f 7t 7t z\
=
4'3 -t 't"( o*t )
-f-
7r smlr-
7n
= cos
,, -r
336 Complex Numbers
thereforethetlreecuberoots of z are givenby
,o = j{.",;(*.*)"-i,i"l[zr .+)"] k =0,1,2.
We are particularly interested in
COROLLARY 6.9 [Roots of Unity] The equation zn =l=as2kn+isin2kr has n distinct

roots
2kn 2kr
k =0,1,2, ...
=cosZ+isina,
Zt*nn ,n-1.
JC
Figure6.25 Theroots ot zn =l
Geometrically, they represent the n vertices of a regular prlygon of n sides
inscribed in a circle of radius one wilh centre at the origin. the circle has the
I |
t
equation z = anO is often called the unit circle.
THEOREM 6.10 If a denotes the root nn then the nth roots of unity are
"or!*,rrn!!
.2n-l . , ol" '
I, co. ctl' , -. and
l+a+a2 + +an-l =0.
PROOF Infact, ot isarootof zn =l and,for k=0, 1,...,n-I,

( ztr\
zk=coskln +i
) ","0(+)
2tr 2n
nn+i sin-
cos-
)-
k
=4.
sothatthen roots are zo=1, Zl=Q), 22=Q)2, "' ,Zn-l=r'-l . Further, @":land
-L+@+oz + l-an
+on-r=_l:;
-0.
Complex Numbers 337
EXAMPTE 30 _
If o is the complex cube root of unity. Show that
(a) a2 +b2 *"2 -b"-"o-ab - (a+bat+cat211a+baf +cat),
O) a3 +b3 *"3 -3ob"=(a+b+c)(a+bat*"r211o+bof +cat). Ilgg?l

SOLUTION
(a) If or is the complex cube root of unity, then cr3 = I and l+o+o2 = 0. We have
(a + ba + caz 11a + b at2 + croy
=a2 +b2at3 +"2t3 +ab(az +ro)+ac(atz +at)+bc(a2 +ota)

=a2 +b2 +c2 -ab-bc-ca
O) Hence,
a3 +b3 +c3 -3abc=(a+b+c)(a2 +b2 +"2 -ab-bc-ca)
=(a+b+c)(a+bo+ca211a+bar2 +cra) I
EXAMPI.E 3I
(a) Express the fifth roots of unity in the form cosd +i sind and plot their positions in an
Argand diagram.
(b) Denoting by o thatroot for which 0 a 6 a !, show that
(i) l+ot+rr] +a3 +ro4 =0,

(ii) (,.:)' *(,*1)-,=o
(c) showturtherth"t *r(?)=,"tt,

SOLUTION
(a)
2n
2r
5 x
zl
Figure 6.26 The fifth root of unig.
The roots of z5 = l= cos2kn+isin2kr are given by

338 Complex Numbers
zk = cos++i sinry, k =0,r, 2, 3, 4.
(b) Denoting at =cosT*,"rn!

(D For =1,0)*1, wehave
ar5
,5 -l=o :=> (a-l)(I+a+t'*r3 +ot41=g
= r+at+a2 *rt *to =o as a+l
(ii) and
)
I 2+r
('.*)'.[ (D +-
a
_l -
(+) +
o)
o)
-l
to *rt +al2 +a+r

=- 2
a
-0.
1
(c) Further, solve for @+-
Q)
from (b)(ii)
1 -1116
,* r=---r-
-1r.6
(.o.f *,,'"?).(*' ? -, " T) )
2tr -tt.6
2cosg =--T-
Since o .?.i,therefore, *r+=+ T
The next example explores the relationship between the roots of a complex number and the roots
of unity.
EXAtriPtE 32
(a) Provethatpreachinteger n2l, the n complex nthrootsof

z = r(cosfl +i sind)
2 n-l
Afg v, V(D, VA , ... ,vQ) ,
where v = r"
I 00
cos-+isin- and a -
21+i sin-
cos-
2r
nn nn
(b) Let z=-88-16i.
(i) Verifythat zo=2+4i isacuberootof z.
(iD Hence,findtheothertwocuberootsof z, givingyouranswerintheform a+ib and
locate them on an Argand diagram.
Complex Numbers 339
SOLUTION
(a) By De Moiwe's theorem, the z complex nth roots of z = r(cosd +i sin 0) are grven by
zk=ro COS-
I 2kr+0+,.sln-
. 2kr+0
nn
I ( ztcr d\ ( 2kn e
=rn ss$ ,? n)l+isinl
\ nn
\.
-11 -+_ )]
I e..e)(
2kr
=rn cos-n+, srn-n)| { cos- +i srn
2kn
I n n
=
I e
rn cos-+isin-! { cos- +,
e)( 2n sln-
2n
k
n n) I nn
= VCt
o (k=0,t,2, ., n-r).
I (ep\ ,2n2r
where y = r" I cos-+isin- | ana @ _ cos_+,
( n n) nn
O) (i) In fact,
(2 + 4i)3 = z3 +s(2)2 (4i) + 3(z)(4i)2 + (4t)3
= 8+4& +96-&i
= -88 - l6i.
Therefore 2+4i isacuberootof z.
(ii) It is known that

2tr 2tr I ..6
ro=cos5*isin5=-i*ri
is a cube root of unity. By (a) the other two cube roots of z are given by
z,=(2--,,[-+.,fj
= (-t-216) +i(-2+Ji)
..,( .
z2= (2+4i)[cos7+tsin
2r . zo\2 ..,( 4r+isinrJ
. . ar\
3 J =(2+4i)[cos,
I
(2+
=
2 +J= e.+zJt)+i(-z-Jt\
z0
21 = Zg(O
z2 = Z0(D2
Figure 6.27 Location of the n complex roots of a complex number

340 Complex Numbers
6.8.1 Equotions reducible to binomiol equotion
Certain tlpes of algebraic equations can be solved with the help of De Moiwe's theorem. In the
present section we shall consider the applications of De Moiwe's theorem to the solution of
equations.
EXA'r/lPtE 33
Solve the following equations:
(a) ,e -r5 +24 -1=o

(b) ,6 *r5 *14 *rt +22 +z+l=0.
(c) ,'o -15 +l=0.
SOLUTION
(a) Because
9
-15 *ru -r=zs(24 -t;+124-g
= 1zs +ty1za -t)
and the roots of +\ =0 and ,n - | = 0 are respectively
"5
z= (-l)5
= [cos(2k + 1)n+ isin(zk +I)x]I

= cos%* x* i dn! r, k = 0, l, 2, 3, 4.
z =I4
=fcos2kn+ isinzkn]I
=costr+isintn, k=0, l, 2,3.
we have, therefore, tJre above nine roots ofthe given equation. I
(b) Since
*15 *14 *13 *12 +z+l)

"7 -l=(z-l)(26
therefore the roots of ,6 +25 *ro *r3 +22 +z+l=0 are the roots of z7 -l=o except
z = l. Now, by De Moiwe's theorem, the roots of z7 -l=0 are given by
zt = cosT+isinT, k =0, l, ..., 6.
Hencetherootsofthe z6 *rt *ro +23 +22 *z*l=0 aregivenby
zk =cos++isinff, k =r,2, "' ,6. I
(c) Solve the equation as a quadratic equation in 25, we have
ltJt-a I . .,6 cosT+r
zs= --- 7r lr
slnT
=
rt, -r- =
Complex Numbers
34r
By De Moiwe's theorem, the roots are given by

I
z=
[cos]zr+isin]a]5
2k+Irz*isin 2k+L3n
-cos
55
= cose zt isinff r, k = 0, l, Z, 3, 4. t
EXAMPTE 34
(a) Showthat
cosd+isind-l t aAlr_
e
cos d+ sind+l
-
f 2
(b) (i) Show that, if n is an odd positive integer and z is a complex number such that
(I+z)n -(I-z)" =9,
tlen z =,r"t{y\, where k isoneoftheintegers 0,1,2,...,(z-l).
\, )'
(ii) Solve the equation
1x+aiy2" +(x-ai\2" =1x2 +a2y',

where a is a real constant and i =.,/--1
SOLUTION
(a) In fact, using the half-angle formula,
cosd +i sind - I 1 - 2 sin2

f; + zi sinf;corf;-,
cos +isind+l
l^2 .e e
cos
l-t* 2i smt cosT + I
.e
slnt
(e +
.e
smt
["o't
-a
cost
0 (e +
.e
slnt
['o't
,^,e
(b) (D The given equation is equivalent to
( l+ z\'
[i-J -l
Therefore, by De Moiwe's theorem, the roots of the given equation are given by
(t+zo) ,,'r (cos2kr .. ^, .I
= 4l = + i sin2kz) "
lTd
Zktt 2kr
=cos-+isin-, k =0,1,2, ... ,(n-l)
Solvefor zp andusing (a), the roots are
342 Complex Numbers
. 2ktr
2ktr+r.sln-
cos- n -l
zk=
2kn+,.sln-
cos- . 2kn +1
n
kr ...,(n-l).
= i121--JJ-, k =0,1,
(ii) Write the given equation as
1x + ai12" + 1x - ai12" = (x + ai)n (x - ai)" .
Let u=(x+ai)n, v =(x-ai)n. The equationis equivalentto

u2 -ru+v2 =o
a
H (9 +1=0
The roots ofthis quadratic equation are given by
(u\ r .. E
ltJt-4 t+{3r'=cos5trsm5.
l- l:-=-
[uJ22
That is
.( 2kr +
(H)' ="o{ 2kn +
+). ""1. +)
6k +I . (e*+t
='o{ ^J "). "\, ")
By De Moiwe's theorerq the roots are given by
-'K
x,- +ai 6k +I
--.=cos-jrtisin 6k+l
x7, - tll 5n a r, k=0, 1,2, , (n -l)
Hence, solve for xp, the roots are
ai
6k+l . . 6k+1
cos:=jatisin-;:z+1
-5n 3n
k=0,L,2,...,(n-f).
6k+1 ...6k+l n-I ,
xk (1)
cos:o;t+isinlf
Bv (a),
cosd+isind+ I 0
cos9+isind- I
- -icot7
and
cosd-isind+l cos(-d)+isin(-d)+1cot[-
.( d) = icotl
e
= = -t
cosd *r'
- r' sind L 1 7J
iosl-6ry .in1-6,; -
Therefore, by (1), the roots are
(0)0
xr = aillicotlj= f,acotl, k = o, l, 2, "" (n -l'1.
Complex Numbers 343
6.8.2 Resolution into Fociors
Let f(z) be a polynomial with real coeffrcients. To each root a of f(z)=O, there
correspondsafactor (z-a) of f(z).
Itisknownthat,inapolynomialequationwithreal
coefficients, complex roots occur in conjugate pair. Therefore, to each factor (z a'1 where a
-
is complex, there is also a factor (z -7). Since
(z - a)(z - a) = 12 - (o + a) + aa
= 12 -2R"(o)*lol'
is a quadratic polynomial in z with real coeffrcients. Thus we see that
IHEOREM 6.12 A polytomial f(z) with real coeficients can be expressed as product of
factors of degree <2 with real cofficients.
The following examples are those polynomials /(z) whose zeros can be determined with the
help of de Moiwe's theorem.
EXAMPLE 35
Solvetheequation (z+1)8 -28 =0, andprovethat
(z+r)8 - rt = |{zr.rli{*t * +, *"""' (}

Hence show that
3
kn
l6(cosr6 d-sinl6 o) =coszofr cos2 2e+cot2
k=l
8
]
SOLUTION
The given equation is equivalent to
/z+t)8
= r = cos2ktr +i sin2kn
l; )
By De Moiwe's theorem, the roots are given by
2,. tI ktt+isin7'
kn
-;= cos
n
Solving for zp,
zk=
I _ (cos*-t)-isin?
cosff+isinf'-t (cosf; -t12 +sin2 !
_
(t - z sin2
*) - t - iz sin* cos
* _ -z sin2
Y - i z sin* *
cos
@_@
= -i-L*t+ k =r,2, ... ,i.
34 Complex Numbers
Hence, by factor theorem,
(z + r\s-
"- = rf{,. i. L^*}
Itkr)
='( z+ *,+){ z+1-yot
lg{'.+.; ,J
+-4I cot J kr
=*( z+ +E{[,.f' 8
I 3 ( n
16Qz
*DfI +az+I+cot-"kr)
5J
k=l l4z'
3 (
I n
v6Qz
+t)fl "kn)
+42 +cosec-
k=l l4z' 'j.
Pttt z=-sin20,
ro{cosr6 d-sinr6 a} =
{r-zsir,t
a}li{+.i" o o -qrir? e*nrott (}
3
(
= cos2dfl
k=l {ro.'za*.o
+}
EXAMPTE 36
(a) For positive integer re, show that

n-l -
*2n -r=(*2 -t)fi[l -zxcosra+t] wherc a=X
r=0
(b) Using logarithmic differentiation, show that the expression fo, ;l- in partial fractions
z -l
with real quadratic denominators can be written
n I €l zcosrq---l- lr
a=_.
2, .=_T__ ) ----- *-here
n
z'" -r z' -r
7=rt' -2zcosra+l
(c) Bywriting z -- cos9 +isind, prove that
ncotno= =titd
z-/ cosa-cosra
"otd-S
r=l
SOLUTION
(a) The solution ofthe equation r2n = l= cos2kx +isin\ktr are givenby
oo
xk =cos- *r"rooo
n
, k=0, r,2,...,2n-r.
Thus, by makinguse of the equality lI1"=)ror =ilT\or,-n,
Complex Numbers
345
( to..kn
,2n -r='_!J,- I cos- +, srn-
t/rn )l
=o-ril[,-(*"4*'","()]a.r_y.,['-(*,{.,"^()]
n-l
(,' l) n l, -(*,+., *,+)]fr l, -(*,r*,
k=r
*,,,"?!.!,)]
n-l
= 1x2 -r;fl - (*,+., ..+)] l. -F,+ _,,^*)]
k=r [,
kn
=,,'_ufr[,, - 2rcos-
n
+I
I J
(b) Taking logarithms and differentiating with respect to x,
tn(r2n - 1) = ln(x2 - U. ilr' -ztcosra +l

r=0
,rr2n-l 2x 5l
\ 2x -2cosra
=-r
t2n -r ,'-t' r=l
1 x2 -2xcosra+l
writing , =!,
= 2(r-') *S
2n(r.-r)2'-r zr-r -zcosra
(r-t\'" -t (r-t)' -t',=L.12-r12 - 21r-tlcosrq +t
2nz n-l
l- z2n l-
= _J-
2z
z2
I -222 cosra
2z
r=l I-2zcosra + z2
nIn-l -l z cosrq
z2,-L-=-zz_l--Z z2 -2zcosra +lr=l

(c) writing the result in (b) as
nz-n z--l n-l cosr(, - z -l
n-n-l' =
-t I
r_lz + z -z"o"ro'
--!
and,if z=cosd+isin2, z-n =cosnO-isinnL, z-l =cosd-isin0, zn -z-n =2isinnl,
"
- r-l = 2isinl,, + r-l = 2cos0, so that
n(cosn?-isinn?) cosd-isind
----zi sinne-- = --2iso.r- - €l
cosra cosd+i sind
L -0 -2cosra r=l
Equating the imaginary parts and multiplying by 2,
n-l
ncotnT = cotl-f .*ffi,_ I
r=l
346 Complex Numbers
EXAMPTE 37
(a) Let a be a positive real number and n apositive integer.
Solve the quadratic equation y2 -2yon cosnl+a2'= 0 where d eR

Hence, show that
n-l
t2n -2o"'cosno+a2' = n
r=0
x - zctx *{
'.+).rl
O) Deduce, or prove by any other means, that
cosna-cosn| =r'-tfi cos(r - co '( 0+ 2rr

n )]
=0
SOLUTION
(a) The roots of the equation y2 -zyon cosne +a2n = 0 are
! = a' cosnl rtl a2' cosz ,o - azn ,

= an (cosne!isrnn?)
Iftheequatioo *2o-2xna'cosne+a2n =0 isregardedasaquadraticin y=x", itstwo'
roots are grven by
x' = o'(cosn0+isinn0)
Thus the 2z values of x satisffing equation ,'n -ztnon cosne+a2n =O are tlte n
values of a(cosnl ti sinnl)* . These can be written as
x = a{co{d+ ff)xisi"(e.+)}
where r =0,r,2,...,n-1. Hence t2'-2tnon cosne+a2n can be resolved into 2n
factors:
,'n -zrnon cosne+a2' = .T). t,n{e.a)

I [, - "{* {' ]l
" -'{*{ u.T)-, ",{'.T) ]l
['
ill" -z*o"o{e*'+).*l
(b) Take a = I in the given identity, and is dividedby xn,
n-l 2rn\
*2n -2"n cosnd+l= fI x2^-Lxco 0+
{ ,)* +
r=0
n-l
I - 2rr
0+-
xn -2cosn?+n -
x
II
r=0
x-2 *{ n ).+i
Complex Numbers 347
Let r=cosd+isind, then r+f = 2cos0 and by De Moiwe's Theorem,

x
-I
x
2 cosna - 2 cosno= *r" -, *{t .+)l

{
r=0 {,
=r'fi{*,"-*{t-+)l
Hence,
COS?A-COSn9 =2 '-'fr{*," -*{'.+)l

EXAI'IPTE 38
[De Moivre's property of the circle] As, A1, A2, ... An_, are the vertices of a regular
polygon inscribed in a circle of radius a, center o. p is a point such that oP = x and the
angle POA, = Q.
(a) Prove that

n-l
fi,ru, = (x2n -2xnan cosno+a2nytr ,
r=0
a result known as De Moivre's propergt of the circle.
Hint: x2n -2anxn cosne+a2n =g{" -z*"o{e++).r}]

(b) Prove that
(i) when P lieson Olo,
n-l r
fi.re, =lx" -a
r=0
(ii) when OP bisects the angle An_rOA,,
n-l
n Pa, = xn +an.
r=0
These two special cases of De Moiwe's result are known as Cote's Properries of the circle.
11eezl
SOLUTION
(a) Ao, Ar, A2, ... An_, are the vertices of a regular polygon, OP = x, angJe pOA, = g
Then
348 Complex Numbers
ZA;OAT= ZAtOAz= "' = /'An-2OAr-r= Z-ar-qAo=T

2rn
and IPOAr =0+- for r = 0, 1,2, "' ,fl-I-
OxP
Figure 6.28
Consider MOA. since OP = x, OAr = a, therefore, by cosine rule,
PA? =or2 +oAl -2oP'oA,cosPoA,

22 2rr
=x +a -lm 0+- n )
Hence,
n-l n-l n
f7r4 =fl x - zxlr e+2"r

""{ n
*o'
r=0 r=0
=x2n-2x
^nna cosnu+a 2n
[Refer to example 38(a)1. Thus
n-l
ilrn, =(xzn -zxnan cosne+a2'1tr
r=0
(b) (i) When P lies on OA0, 0 = 0. The result in (a) reduces to

n-l
fi,rn, = (x2n -2x'an +a2n)+
r=0
=l*n -onl
tt
(ii) When OP bisects the angle Ar-1OAe, t = 1, cosnl = coslr =-1. The result in (a)
becomes
n-l
fi,ro, = (x2n +2xnan +a2')+
r=0
nn
=x +a
Complex Numbers 349
EXERCISE 6'D -
1 Solve the equation
z3
=8i
grvingthe roots intheform r(cosd+isind) where r > 0 and 0< 0 <2r.
, If d is real and r is a positive integer, prove that
(cosd +i sind)" (sind +i cosd)" = +i

"orT "inT
E:press the three values or 1t+"/-lry+(J5*iy* in the form a+jD, where a,beL.
3. (a) Prove that1+ sind+i cosd = sind+jcosd,

and hence show that
{r+sin(f) *i.o.fl}t +i{l+sin(f) -icoqf;}s = o.

n
l+sind+icosd
O) Prove that one of the values of 1+ sind - r'cosd
is equal to
cos n(| r - 0) + i sinn(| r- g)
(c) obtainallthevalues
I\'Jz+t-i
,r*"form a+iD, where a and barerear.
"(++]+ I
,,,
4 -212r
Let ar=cos, *isin r.
(a) Veri8 that the complex number a is aroot of the equation ,5 -r=0, and deduce,
or prove otherwise, that I + ar + ,2 * ,3 + at4 = 0.
O) Find a quadratic equation whose roots *" , *ro and at2 +af .
2r -t*.6
cosS= 4 -.
(c) The points A, B, C and D on the Argand diagram represent @, o2 , at3 and a4
respectively. Find the rano ADIBC.
(d) In an Argand diagram the point P is represented by the complex number z. Sketch
and describe geometrically, in each case, the locus of the point p when
(i) l'-rl=lz-11,
( z-at\ lr
(u) arcl
zL.,|=5
350 Complex Numbers
5. If ar is a non-real cube root ofunity and z is an integer, positive or negative.
(a) (i) Show that ato has one of the values l, o, -I- o.
I
(ii) If a and D are real and not both zero, express VrT6 in the form Aat+ B,
where ,4 and B are real.
O) If p(z) is a polynomial in z with integer coefficients, show that p(at) can be

expressed in the form aa+b, where a and b are integers, and, if p(a)+0,
I
beexpressedintheform Aa+B, where I and B arerational.
Od "
6. (a) Show that for 0 +2nn, where n is any integer,
1 I
(cosd-isind)-l 2 ('-,*,9)
(b) For any complex number z+1, let f(z)=t*+, where 7 denotes the
conjugate of z.
(i) Show that fo r arry z + I, f (f 121) = z.
(ii) Let z * 1. Show that l, z, f (z) are represented by three collinear points in the
Argand plane.
(iii) Let z +l and lrl=t. Show that the real part of f (z) is a constant.
(iv) Let n be an integer greater than 2 and a1, o2,... ,con-, be the nth roots of
unity other than I itself. Show ftat in the Argand plane,
f(at), f (a), ..., f (a n-) are representealby (z-f) points lying on a line
segmentof length 4cot1. [HKHLE 1987]
2n
7. Let 1l+ x + x2 1n = larx' , where n is a positive integer
r=O
3 3n +l
and
3 3'-l
(a) Showthat Lo*=-t- /ar,-r= 2
r=0 r=l
(b) Let co (* l) be a cube root of l.

(D For any real numbers A, B and C, show that rf A+Ba+Ca2 =O, then
A= B =C.
2n
(ii) Showthat larco' =0.
r=0
(c) Using @), or otherwise, show that the numbers o;1,a1,a2,...,ct2n can be divided
into three groups zuch that the sum of the numbers in each gloup is 3'-1. [HKHLE leeo]
Complex Numbers 351
8. For 7= 1,2,3,4 or 5, let a, be a complex number such that qj -1.
5
(a) (i) Suppose (z-a)(z-a)(z-a)(z-a)(z-a5\ =\bozk for all complex
k=0
numbers z, where the 67r's are constants. Show that
d,ra2a3q,4a5Eo = -b1, and

ata2a3a4usFz = -bs.
55
(iD ff Eo i =L"1= 0, show that
j=I j=r
(z - a)(z - a)(z - a)(z - a )(z - a ) = z5 - qta2a3a 4a 5
O) Using (a), or otherwise, show that the five points which represent the ar's in the
complex plane form a regular pentagon if and only if
55
Zo, =Zo,' =0. IHKALE 1988]
j=r ,r=l
9. Forany n=I,2, '.., thesets G, and Hn aredefinedby

G, ={t.C: r" =t}, nn ={r.C, r' = -t}.
Let p, q be any two positive integers.
(a) Showthat
(i) GonHo = A,
(iD GowHr=G2p.
(b) Showthatif p isoddand qr iseven, then Hrr-tHn=@
(c) Suppose p = mq where m is an integer. Show that
(i) Gn cGo;
(iD rf m is odd, then Hn c. H o:
(iii) if rz iseven, then Hu cGo.
(d) For any S,c C, define SZ by
Z
SZ = { z eC z = st for some ,r e,S and t eT }.

Show that
(i) GoGp=HoHo=Go,
(ii) GrHo=HoGo=Ho IHKALE r9931
352 Complex Numbers
10. Show that the poinS in the Argand diagram corresponding to the values of z for which
(I- z)n = 7n
all lie on the line whose equation is Re(z) = j.
11. Show that the roots of the equation

(z+I)6 +(z-1)6 =g
may be expressed in the form -,""tlg{], r = r, 2, 6.
12. (a) Show that

l5 ( tro..kr\
xl6 -l= II lx-cos8-,ttnSJ
k=0
Hence show that
7
rtu-l=(x-t)(x+l)fl (,'-r,r*(*r)
k=l
O) Deduce from (a) that
. t, = J,
Lltin.
I
k=l zu
(c) Aprimitive l6throotof lisaroot a oftheequatioo

"16=1
suchthat a^+1 for
any divisor m of 16 where I < m <16. Show that there are eight primitive l6th roots
of l, a, (i=1,2, ... ,8) andfindtheconstants A1,42,...,As suchtlnt
8
f[{r-ai) =x8 +Atx7 +Arx6 + ..' +Ar.

t=1
13. (a) Show that

cos d+ i sin d- I .0
= I [2ll--
cosd+isind+l 2
O) Using (a), or otlerwise, find the 2z solutions of the equation
1r+x12" +(l-r)2u =0.

Hence show that
1r+x12n +1t-x12n =rillr .,^,,(+)") (*)
(c) By substituting two suitable values for x in (*), or otherwise, show that
. E 3r "'
Sl[-Sl[-
(2n-L)r
Sl[-=Z ^+-
4n 4n 4n
Complex Numbers 353
14. (a) For any integer n > l, prove the following identity
sinnl = zn-r sine( cord -.or1)l. -

[ ,/[ "or0 "or2o
n n )
O) Using (a) or otherwise, show that for any integer r > |
. n 2r .'. sm(n-t\r Ji
(l) srnT-nsln 2n-n 2;j-= ,r_r,
n-
cot0-ncotn0 I
(ii) T
sind rft
r=l COSd - n
where sind*O and snn0+0.
15. Let n be a positive integer and a be a real number.
(a) Express the two roots of the equation *2 -2r"o"no+l= 0 in the form a+bi,
where a and 6 are real numbers.
(b) Using the fact that the n distinct nth roots of cosd+i sin9 arc
*{r#).,"{r#), k = 0,1,2, ... ,n -1,
showthatthe n distinct rthrootsof cosd-isin? are
tote+ztcn\ e+ztr\
( (
k =o't'2""
" .,|-tti\ , J' 'n-r'
(c) Using (a) and (b), or otherwise, show that
n-l ., 2kr
,2n -zrn eosnq+ t = fI z- n
+1
k=0
n-l
(NOTE:
flao denotestheproduct aoara2 --. an-1.)
k=0
(d) Using (c) or otlerwise, show that

n-l
f]sin2 (t.+)=4=,in'{,il
k=0
where d is any real number IHKHLE 19851
354 Complex Numbers
16. Consider the equation
(*) (z +I)n = )'(z -I)^ '
(a) Show that the roots ofthe equation (*) are represented on the Argand diagram by a set
of conryclic or collinear points; and distinguish between the two cases.
O) Find the roots of the equation (*) in the case 2 = l.

Hence show that
(i) (z+r)2n+t -(r-r)2n*r =rfi(f -*t'#),

k=1
.kr
s'oT'i I
(iD II
k=l 2n'
17. (a) Find all the roots of the equation f (z) = 0 where
f (z\ = ,2n -2on rn cosno + a2n

where r is a positive integer, and a is a real consbnt. Show that
f(z\= -z**{e.!z) +a 2
nlr
O) Show that the square of the distance of the point (c, 0) from the point with eccentric
angle a ontheellipse +.+=1, (a>D), is

ab
1u2 - zuk casa + k2 y1v2 - 2vk cosa + k2 )
k2
I
(a+b), v=1(a-b), k- it is assumed
where u
2 :{ c+ "2
- 4uu and that
a1a
c >a -D
Hence prove that, if n points with eccentric angles O.+, (r =0,1., ... , n-l),
are taken on the ellipse, the square ofthe product oftheir distances from (c, 0) is
1u2n - 2un k' cosnQ + k2n 11v2n - 2v' k' cosn f + k2" y
k2n
355
Answers & Suggested Solulions EXERCISE 0B
1. (x- l)2 - k
EXERCISE OA (r+l{r+3)
(k -l)x2 +2(2k +r)x +(3fr - l) = 0.
r -p qAr - (q nr) - pv-(qnr) It has no real solution ifand only if

r. (a) v q
F F T F T T 4(2k +1)2 -4(k -r)(3k -t) < 0

k2 +8k <0
(b)
p q r q r p n(q nr) -lp n(q l.r)l
-8<&<0
F T F F F T
&e (-8, 0).
2. The statement may be written symbolically as.

2- (a) ,t _r
-t "ff n = 0,1,2,
)
(a) (pn - q)v r ={ o,+,+,r, -+,-+,-r\
(b)
p q r -q p^-q (pn - q)vr n(A) =7
T T F F F F n={cosff,n=0,t,2,...}
3. (a) (i) P
^q
(1i) pn-q n(B) =7
-( pvq)
(111) C={sinf, n=0,1,2,...}
(iv) - pn- q
=
&6
(v) pv(-pnq) {.. 2 2
.'.n(C) = 3.
(vi) -( pv - q)
(b) (pn - q)-+( pvq) (b) .q -..a={0, +, 4,t, -1,-4, -t }
means
"Ifhe is short and not ugly, then he is tall or ugly."

Ar.c ={0,4,
[ ' -+}
")
P q -P -q P^-q - Pvq (pn-q)-->( pvq) (c) For sin(-a) =0 eA
F F F but
T T T T
-n G.U
T F F T T F F therefore, if sin/ eA, it is not always true that
F T T F F T T
F eu.
F F T T F T T
3. (a) Pa(QoR)
4. (a)Let p be "3+2=7" andlet q be "4+4=8". =rwf{d, f , g}^{a, b, f , c, h, i}l
e,
Note p is false and q is tue. By T4, p -+ e is
true. In other words, the given statement is true. ={a, b, c, d, e}v{f , g,}
(b)Let p be "2+2=5",let q be "4+4=10", ={a, b, c, d, e, f , g}
andlet r be "p if andonlyif q".Note p artd q (PwQ)aR
are each false; hence by t, p e q is true, i.e. r
=l{", t,c, d, e,}tt{d, e, f , c,}].,R
is true. Since r is true, the given statement, which
is the negation of r, is false. ={a, b, c, d, e, .f , s}n{",b, f , g, h, t}
(c) Let p be "1+I=3", let q be "2+1=3", and ={a, b, f, s}
let r be "p or q".Note that p is false and q is
true; hence, by T2, pvq, which is r, is true.
Since the given statement is - r, it is false.
3s6 Answers and Solutions - Chapter 0
(b) By distributive law n(V nSnD)>n(V nS)

Aw(B aC) = (Aw B)a(AwC) or > n(V nD)
=(AwB)nC. or >n(S aD)
We see that all ofwhich contradict the facts.
(Aw B)aC = (Aw B)a(AwC)
7. The m.rmber of students in group B is
<+ C=AwC
=n(PwCwB)
<+ AcC.
- n(C a B)
= n(P) + n(C) + n(B)
4. (a) (28+34)-42=20 -n(B nP)-n(P nC)+n(P nC aB)
(b) 20+7 =27 = 144 + 108 + I 02 - 36 - 42 - 30 +12
=258.
5. (a) A = {x eE, x is square number}. Hence the number of students in group I is
300 -258 = 42.
={t,0,e,... ,302}.
n(A) =3s. 8. n(X -\=n(X)-n(X nI)

B = {x e E:x is amultiple of7 =53-26=27
} n(X w Y t-t Z) = n(X ) + n(I) + n(Z) - n(X n I)
= {7,14,21,... ,7 xl28\
-n(X a Z) -n(I a Z) + n(X aI n Z)
n(B) = 12s'
= 53+38 +37 - 26-23-24 +19
C= {x e E x is even number}
:
=74.
= {2,4,6,...,900}.
n(C) = 456 9. (a) n(X) =53 =125
(e n(B w C) = n(B) +n(C) - n(B n C ) (b) n(I)=43 =64

=128+450-*x128 (c) n(X aI) = 33 = 27
= 514 (d) nG w Y) = n(X) + n(I) - n(X nY)
(c) AnBnc =125+64-27 =162
= {t, 4, 9,...1 n {7, 14, 28,...1 n Q, 4, 6, (e) r(-\-\f =n(X)-n(X nY)
={r*,2*} =125-27 =98
= {196,1Ut
a,b,c eS where S = {0, l, 2}
'"'={[: :)'
6
n(D=27
,={[; '.)'".,'.']
s
{t:I t: ;) t: ;) t; It; I
The given data are put in the above Verm diagram. t; i)t; t(; ;)t; :\
Using
n(VwSwD) ,={[":)'.,".4
= n(V) + n(S) + n(D) - n(V a S)
-n(V r:D)-n(S aD)+n(V nSnD).

100 = 86+79 +67 -70-75-67 +x {t; :) t: :) t: I t; :)(l I
x=80
It is not to be believed because (: tt; tt; )c )
Answers and Solutions - Chapter 0
357
(") r^B={[: =(AwB)a(B" u A")
t; I t; :)}
;)
=(AwB)n(A" uB")
,. {[: It: ;]t; It; ?l
=(AwB)a(AnB)c
= (Aw B)\(Aa B)
t;;lt; :\
(b) n(A)=9.
n(A w B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A n B)
=9+9-3
= 15 EXERCISE OC
n[(T - A)- B]= (27 -e)-(e -3) = t2
1. The result is true for n = I
ll (a) E w F = {0, 1, 2,3, 4,5, 6, . . .} Suppose
nl
(b) (AaB)c = tr,2,3,4,s,7,s,...1.
lrQ +t)(2r + l) = ]n(z
z
+ 1721n +2y
r=l
12.(a) (Ac r''B)nBc = Ac rt(BaB') then
n+l
:A"aA +t)(2r +t)
lrQ
=a r=l
(b) (A" r-tB)wA=(Ac wA)n(BwA) It
a(Bw
= rn(n+l)'(n+2) +(n+l)(n +2)(2n +3)
=U A)
lr
=BwA = +t\(n +2)'(n+3).
7@
= AwB. By principle of mathematical induction, the result is
1c) (,4nB")u (AnB)= Aa(B" wB) true for all positive integers z
= AaU
2. Suppose the identity is true for n = k. Then
=1. sincr+sin2q+ ... +sinla+sin(f +l)a
All the statements are correct.
sin($a)sinf a
13 (a) h fact,
+sin(&+l)a
sln a
2
n (Ac n B" )"
A
*n(f a) sin f a + sin I sin(k + t)a
=ii!,:i:
;':
"
" sinl
-A *n($ a) sn
f a + sin
f 2 sin(
+ ") *4+ ")
and sinf
An(Ac n@)c = An(A,oOc) sin(f a sinla+2sinl*'(#")
= Aa(AwE)
sinf
= ActE
=A ,i"(g')[,i" ! a + sin(ff a)-'
(b) (lnB")ur (BnA")
I"f
d
stn
=l{.t n u" ) u afnle n a" - > tf 'i"(!)a,i"(ff)a

2
r)^ sinf
=
[C2., t a" - n>l^ff.ev A" 1 n1B" u o" )f
The result is true for all positive integers n by
=[1lw a1r-'zl.'[r'..,1r" - o")l mathematical induction.
3s8 Answers and Sohttions - ChaPter 0
3. Suppose that Assume that
.. (3+.6)*-t +1:-S)k-l = qr2u-'

,*+($t) @ -lx,l -t) [!n -
(2, -t)]_ _
"_, (m -2\m -4) "' lm - (2r -2)l ^ (3+16)& +1r-16)e = qr2o
Then for some integers Qv ez. Ttrcn
(3+.6)r*l +(3-.6)&*l
t*I\n+3) (m+l\m-l) (m+2) -(2r -3)
(m\m- 2) ... l(n+ - (2r -2)
r=2
2)
= [<: *.61 *<r -.6>][<r *.61e +1: - .6)r
]
m+r +(3t (m+I) (m+2)-(2r-3)l *..61r - .6{<s * .6lu-t - rfslr-r ]
= la-a ) - 1a + 1:
m2 rlm-2) (n+2)-(2r-2)l
=3
= o[<r * '6lu +1: - .6lr] - +l<z + Ji>k-t *1r - .Ele-']
m+l
=l+ m =6qz.2k - urzo-t
(m-r) -.-lm-(2r-3) l =3qz2k*l -qr2u*t

-,* -*r
ml
Jr*$')
2 (m-2) ..' = 13q, - qrl2k+r
lm-(2r-2)l .
I ,=z
By the second principle of mathematical induction, the
m+l
=l+ m
xm=m+2 proposition is true for all positive integers n.
4. Assume that P(k) is true, i.e. 7. HKALE 1998 Poper lQuestion 5.

2 2.4 2.4-6
_r-a-r
'(2k)
2.4-6
3 ' 3.5 ' 3.5.7 '
3.5-7...(2k+r) 8. (a) Let \(n) = 7' - 6n - l, then
- ^' ' 2.4 .-. (2k+2)
Pt(2)=t2 -e121-t=zo
t.l ...(2k +l)
the result is true for n = 2. Assume that
Consider
2 2.4 2.4.6
_r-+-+ ... 2.4.6 ...(2k) P{k)=f -agc;.-r=xq,
3 ' 3.5 ' 3.5.7 ' '3.s.7 ...(2r+D
f-
for some tnteger q1.

2-4-6 -..(2k)(2k +2)
' 3.5'7 ...(2k+t\2k+3) Consider
.2-4.6 -..(2k+2) . 2-4-6 -..(2k)(2k+2) Pr(k +l) =lk*L -e(tt +t) -t

= -o^ -Tl,
s - -(2k +D - rs:7 - <2k +r)ek +,
=7(7k -6k -l) +36k
2.4.6.'.(2k+2)(2k+4)
= 7 ' (36q) + 36k by assumption
1.3.5 .-.(2b + +3)
=36Qqr+k).
By principle of mathematical inductron, the result is
kue for all positive integers n. Therefore the result is true by mathematical
induction for all positive integers n > 1.
5. By previous result,
Similarly, let P2@)=5n -4n-l.Then
l+7 +9+ ... +(3n2 -3n+l)
P2Q)=s2 -ap1-t=rc
=t{t;-sr+r} Assume that
r=l
PzG)=5k -4k-l--16q2
= 3.*n@+t)(2n+l) -3'!(n+t) +n Consider
--n3. P2@ +t) =5k*1 -4(k +t)-l
6. When n=1, =sl.sk -qr-D+rct
1r*i5)t +1r-.6)t =6=3.2r =16(5qz +k)
The result follows by principle of mathematical
1r*.6)t +Q - Ji)2 =28 = 7.22 induction.
Thus the statements are true for n = I and 2.
Answers and Solutions - Chapter O 359
(b) (i) Using (a) x'-

kk-211
+x" - + ... +17*jrk*1.
'I'-5n -2n=(j" -6n-l)-(5n -4n-t) xx
thenfor n=k+2.
By the first part, in -6n-l is divisible by 36
x_.k+2+xk +xk-2 + ... +-ir+T*j=
t,l I
and 5" -4n-I is divisible by 16. Therefore,
there are Q, and Qz .Z such that > xk*z +7k+l)+f+
gn - en -g - 6n - 4n -l) = 36er- t6e2
=aQh-aQz)
>2,k.'z ++G+t)
I k+2
vx
= k+3.
This implies 7n - 5' -2n isdivisible by4.
(ii) Similarly, showing that P(k + 2) is true.
2.7" -3.s" +t=zl7' -0"-r]-{s, -4n-rf 11. When z = l, the equality holds.
=2x3et_3.l6ez Suppose that
=24pq_zQzl. ( a+b\^ a' +b*
This shows that 2.7' -3.5n +l is divisible l.-r) = z
exactlyby24for n>I.
then
m+l m+l ,m+l
9. (a) Assume 9n +7 = 8q for some integer q, then
(+) a+b
2
gn*r +7 +7)-8.7
=9(9n
_( a +b\( a+b\^
=9'8q -8'7 -[-2-J[ 2 ) ------r-
*Um+r
om+t
=8(9q -7)
a+b a^ +b^ om+l *6m+l
(b) The common factor of 3l +5 = 8, 32 +5 = 14, -77)
33+5=32, ... is2. Thus
-o-*l +ob^ +bo^ -b*l
3' +5 =2q, for some integer qr. 4
Hence _ _(a-b\a^ -b^)

4
33' +5.32' +7.3" +35
<0
= (33)' +s.1:2;' +7 .3n +35 By principle of induction, the result follows.
=9' .3' +5.9n +7.3" +35

12. (a) See Theorem 5.6 Chapter 5.
=3n(g'+7)+5(9n +7)
(b) When n is a positive integer greater than I and.r is
=(3n +5\9n +7)
positive real number, then
=(2.qr\8.q2) forsomeintegers % and q,
=16(qflz).
n logls(l +x) = logro(l +r)'
= logro {(l + x)(l + r) .' (l + r)}
.
10. When n = 1. Since > logro {l + r +.r + ... + r}

/ r2
= logro {l +nr)
lV;-+)'>o+"+f
\
-
.rt) x
>2=t+t.
> loglg nr
P(l) is true.
= logro.x + logto z.
When z = 2,
tl
x' +2 +
i > zx(L1 +z = 4 > 2 +1. 13. u1=2r +30 = 3
r1z; is truJ. uz=22 +3-7

Assume that P(k) is true, i.e. The results are true for n = 1,2
350 Answers and Solutions - ChaPter 0
Assume that 16. HKALE 1995 Poper I Question 6.

ut -t=2k-r +3k-2
17. HKALE 1997 Poper I Question 2
ut =2k +3k-r
then 18. a, B are roots of x2 - px + q = O,
up*1 = 5up -6'*t a+P=p,
slzk + zk-r1 _ alzk-r + tk -2f aB=q
= tltl q
+:r-2[s.r- x1= p--O_l
=zk-tls.z - al o]
.4 +3k-2 .g aB
=2k-r =(d+p)- @+pyr
=2^k+l +J^k
By principle of induction, the result is true for all (o+f)2 -(a+B)-aB
positive integer n. (a + fl-l
14.Putting n=0, I insuccession, @-nlk-z +aP+Pz)-(a+B)
4ar-ao=Q, 6ar-3ar=0. (a- (a + F)-
Thus (ot -p')-(o'-p')
llll
or=4=7, at=ta2=7' (o'-B')-(o-B)
The result is true for n = L
Hence the results are true for n = 2,3.
Suppose that
Now assume that it is true for 2 <n < ft. Then (o"*2 - Bn*')-(o'*1 - Bn*l)
2(k +lp r*, = Nk -l!k - (k -2Y*-r 'n=@
_\k-t) _(k-2) then
2k zk-r
k+l xn+l=P--j-
q
2k rn
i' ak*l =
I ofl{o"*t - p"*\ - (o" - p" )f
_\q
zê*l' ,,')
' E2 .
\d -tl"*2)-(o"+l -pn+l)
The general reasoning requires the tn'o preceding cases
to be known, and since the result has been verified for (o"*t - pn*t ) - (o'*2 - p"*' )
n= 2
and 3 it is true in general. --(on*2 p"*2 (on*l
- )- - B"*t)
15. When n=0, l. By principle of mathematical induction, the result is

true for all n> l.
ao=10 +(-4)o =-l+1=0
a1 =1+-(r')=-l 19.When n =1.
for n = I,2. lr
The results are true
Suppose that
n=ftfo*fr-r'-6)]
an = -3n +(4)n ,
2J'
2J3
an+t = 1n+l +(-4)"*l
v, =1t+rE)+ Q-Jt=2.
then
u1:11 iareintegers.
dn+2=l2ar-an*1
Suppose that
= n{-3" + 1-+;" } - {-1"*t * (-4)"*t }
"r =#10*J1.k -6-,1-skl
= -9.3' +16(4)n
= -3n*2 +(4)"*2 uo =6*Ji)u +1r-6)&
361
are integers arld vk is even.
Consider *{r,",* ... + "f (rr_)j
,r., = -t[{r* J:;t*t - tr-Jryo*t xl+ '.. +xn_l
] n-l
=
; + fU1 * fo o - 1r -.JIxr - Jl: I &
[rr ] Therefore l(n-l) is also true.
=
;[rr *6li - u- J-rr). *[<r * fo* + 1r - Jl:)e ]
(iii) For any positive integer n, there is a positive
=up +lvp. integer /r suchthat ,<2k. By(i)and(ii),
Since uo and vp are integers and vk is even
l1zft; istrue :+ Iek -l) istue
zo*,
= tlzk -21 istrue
therefore is also an integer.
vo*, = (l+.6)e*r +(l-.6)t*l 3
+.fOr +(r - JsXr - J3)r 3 1(n) is true

= 1r +.6;1r
= 1r *.6)o +(r - J-O& *.6[<r *.610 -

(b) Let f(*) =sinx. Forany xr, x, elO, tf,
1r -.fOe ]
I
+sinrr) =
=,r +-9kr+6>* -rt-6)o] 7(sinxt '{=t)."{t*
vp*,
=vp *6up.
is even integer.
'-('t)
That is it P(k) is true, then P(ft+l) is also true,
thus, by the principle of mathematical induction, p(r)
i.". !r[f t,)+f @z)]< ,("+)
is true. Bv (a),
Now j{rt', + .'. + sin-r,}

='-(Ir=-)
ur, = 1le * Ji1r" - 1r -,1-z7r,f
=
;[rr + J]y' - 1r - J-o" * Jal' + 1r - J5),
]frr ]
=uk'vk.
Since vp is even and up is an integer, so as uzn.
20 (a) (i) Same as Example 35
(ii) Suppose that
f (x)+ ... +f(x,) Il * ... *r,

n n
Replace r, by
xrf,if:t, tn"n
EXERCISE OD
I f(x,-r)+
'("#.))
+
n
{'u, r (u) fI t--rI il /r-l\
n n
t_t-__ 12 n-l I
rt * ..' +.rz_l +
tl* )c
n- r=2 r=2I r )-23 nn
n-l
't n (b) Similarly
II (r-1)(r+l)
n
1 t f (xr ) +
n
+r(x,_)j+!r(=+.; II('i) r=2 r
)
(n-l)!(z+l)! n+l
xr+ "' +xn-,
/'( ,-r 2n
[ 2!(nt)z
362
k
2. We have
=r-(1-at*)f]{t-ai)
(l +x)(l+r2[ l + *2' 7... (l +r2'-r, t=l
k+1
I r .2 tn-l
= l_r(l-r[l+x[l+ x'\l+x' ) "' (l+x' ) = r-fl(r-4l)
t=l
= j{r-"2 yr+r2yt+12'; ... 1l*r''-'; The result follows by principle of mathematical
induction.
1 .2
= l_r(1-x'
-2
Y7+x' ) "' (l+r'tn-l )
1n
lto 5. In fact, if m- =lI r.
= .i. = ,t-x (l-x- ).
nnuI
i=l
n
n n Sn =l{x, -mr)2
3. (a) Suppot"lol, < lDo, ttt"n i=l
n n
k--l k=l
n+l n
=>-n -2^nlx, +nrfi
i=l t=l
Zou =\ap+a,*1 n
k=l k=l
n
=tt -2m,(nm,)+nri;
i=l
<fbo +b,*,
n
k=l
n+l
=Z','-"'4
i=l
=Ltu
*[ I
n n
k=l
n n =zi xi
(b) Provided each ap , 0.f7"r. fI au , implies i=l i=l
k=l k=l
n+l (n \ 6- an+t
-!-t(ry1=u*, -urk"*|. - Oz
rroo =[g'-1..' an ilniln+l tn urkn-t
The series form a geometric series with common ratio
k2. H*""
'[[*J'-, _urur1- k2"l
n+l I( url*+
l- k2
=fItr k=t
k=l kQ- k2")
for n =I. Infact,

t- k2
4. The result istrue
LHS=at=RII,S. n n
7. Let sn =l{Zr +t)3' = 33+Z(2r +t)3'
Suppose that r=l r=2
ki-tk n-l
ar + t',fl(t - a
) =l -fl(r - d,) zs, =l{2r +l)3'+r +(2n +l)3'*r
:-a i-l t=1
J_L r=l
thenwhen n=k+1,
k+l i-l =LQr -l)3' +(2n+1)3"+r
ar+l",fle-"r) r=2
i=2 j=r Subhacting

k i-l k ^n
=
"r+l",ll(t-a j)+ak+t fl{t-ar) -2s, = 32 + lz' l' - (2n +l)3"*r
i=2 j=r j=r r=2
k k l8(l - 3'-r
=9+ - (2n +l)3"+r
= r- ff tt - a,1 + a o*rll(r - a,) l-
t=l j=1
The res-rlt follows.
Answers and Solutions - Chapter0
36s
8. (b) (i) The amount is 2m
= 100( I + r%)2a + 2 x 100(l + r%o)23

= 21-r)'-t j n@+t)
n=l
+3x 100(1+r%)" * ... +24xl}O(l+r%)
= |l{r. z - z. z) + (3.4 - 4. s) + (5. 6 - 6.7)
+ ..' + (1zm - r)2m - 2m(2m + t))l
t-
= l0o[(2s - 24 yt + rvo1?a + (25 - 23)(t + r%)23
+ ... +(25-l)(r+r%)] = *lr<r- 3) + a(3 - 5) + 6(s - 7)

24
+ ... +2m((2m - t) - (2m + r))l
= lool(2s-r)e+r%)k .
k=l =-2(l+2+ ..' +m)

(ii) If r = 1. The amount is = -2't(m+l) = -m(m+l)
24 2m+1 2m
f toolzs- r;r.or&
k=l
ZAn =lA,+ Ar^*,
n=l n=l
24 24
= roox2stl.ort -roof rlr.ogr = -m(m+l)+(-l)2^ Bz^*t
k=l k=r = -m(m + l) + lQn + l)(2m + 2)
= l00v 25xl.ol(l'I _- l.0l

1.0124 )
= 1m+t)2 .
(i)
-too"24xl.ol26 -25 x l.ol25 +1.01 10. (b) Using method of differences
*.y nnnn
= 32,156. dollars. Lrt =\r(r + t\r +2; -3f r(r+ l) + f r
r=l r=l r=l r=l
(c) (i) Amount received by Miss Au
= f,(n+t)(n+2)(n+3)
= P (l +loh)24 + P(l +lVo)23 + ..' + P(l + l%) 3.!(n +t\n+2)+!(t+n)
r.orph - r.or2al 2
LI = i1n+t)2
t-lJt
(i) As
= 27.04tt5P
r(r +3\r +6)
(ii) P = $1211
= +l+2\r +2 + 4)
r(r
= r{(r +l\r +2)+4(r +l)+2(r +2)+8!
9. For n=1, lr=l=( 1;t-t Btt
= r(r +l\r +2) +r[6r +6 + l0]
Suppose An = 1-l1n-r B* then = r(r + l\r + 2) +6r(r+ l) + l0r
20
An+t = A, +(-l)" (n+l)2 !r(r+3{r+6)
i=l
= (-l)"-r B,+(-t)'(n +l)2
=(D"l-u,+12+ry2]
= ! {zr[zzxz3) +2.20(2t)(22) +to x
+ (r +20)
=73710.
(ii) Hence
= er)"|- + "(n
+ I) + (n + t)2
mm
= (-t)' .|(n+t\n+2) f{-t)'*r'3 =1" -zlf ++3 +...+tz-r)3]
r=1 r=l
- (-l)n Bn*t. m^ + - m +,
The result is also true for n + l.
=Zrt -zl{zrl3 =Zrt
-16113
r=l r=l r=l r=l
, )'(T.,)'
Hence l2 | ( m-l\
2m 2m -m
4
(m+ )2 ,u.o.l
ZAn=){-r),-tr, = t{zm-tNm+t)2
n=l n:l
364 Answers and Solutions - Chapter0
11. (a) Using method of differences,

n n1 iu, =?.*it",-n,-t]
t\r r=l r=2
lrQ +l) = l r[r(r+
+2) - (r -l)r(r +l)]
I
r=l r=l -_r lrrn,-nr)
J
=!n@+t\n+2).
I
r1 =tun- l.
(b) S, =
lt
k=l
=rr1,+r1
15. From trigonometry,
n-l+(n-l).2 + ... +(n -r1l)r + "' +2(n -l) +l' n
2 sn} 0 - sn4 0 = 2 sn2 0 (l - cosZ 0)
= St +Sz + "' +^S,
= 4 singcosg(l- cos2 0 + slr_z e1
nnl
=IS, =lltr+rl = 8sin3 0cosZ.
r=l ,--l- n
,in312"-l a; .o s12'-r e1
=).!n6+r11n+21 2r-l
r=l
I
=rn(n+l\n+2). = n(z " a) -'i n(z ".r a)}
2#{"i
12. Method of difference, = lsin(zd) - ]= sin1z"*r e1
r+a _$f r+z _ r+3 I 2' 2"'-
$
L r(r +l)(r+2) z' +l) (r +l)(r +2))
r=l r=l lr(r
'
16. Using
3 n+3
2 (n+l)(n+2) 2srn0 cos2r? = srn(2r9 + 0) - sn(2r0 - 0)
sn eicos2rl =
*ilr rr, + t)0 - sn(2r - t)gl
13. Method of difference. r=l
"_+
"n-
r _f+ It_'l
LrQ+2)- 2L
r=l
=){"^t n+l)a-sindi
r=l fr
r+2J
r=l
= sinn 9cos(z+l)d
rfl l l l I
2 ll' 2 n+2 n+l)
=-J-t-----\ Hence,for n=I00,
2rtt+lJI
. 3n2 +5n cos
4(n+l\n+2) [*"{#}=:+{ -
1g 2rt+-100
=, )cos
14. For r=l -
vr -9r-l I l0ltt
cos +50
2.5.8 (3r - 1) 2sin1ft to5-
(3r+2)
3.6.9 3r
= 50.
2.5.8 (3r - 4)
3.6.9 -l)
17. HKALE 1990 Poper ll Question 2
2-5.8 ..' (3r -4)l3r -r (3r+2)-(3r -r)
r.6.s...(3r-r)l 3r
(3r-aX3r- l)l
...
='l-*o
^[z.s.e
-6::nr'; .l
= 2ur.
we have
Answers and Solutions - Chapter I
365
EXERCISE IA =-t{c( *C(*t *Cl*'+ ... +Ci*"}
nm+n+r +n +1)l (m +n +I)l
1. (c) Direct calculation, =miLn =nt,(m
,
nt(,n+l)l =-"@+T
@*Dl(1*'f -e:il 4. HKALE 1999 Poper I , Quesiion 2
='.,{[ffi#;' i##-l] 5. From the given hgure, the sums of the nrunbers along
the lines are in Fibonacci sequence.
Fl=l
=<'.'r{-<311}' D_a
t2-L
=1t *t>ld"l'.
Fz=Fz+Fr=2+l=3= 4*il
Fa = Ft + F, = 3 12 = S = Ct + Cl + Cl
2. From Fs=F++4 =5+l=8=C; +Cl +Cj
.ff-1 (2n-t)t (2n-t)t F6 = Fs+4 = 8+3 =B = c3 +cl +cl +Q
ff-x (n-l)lnl (n-2)t(n+t)l
Ft = Fe+4 = l3+8 =zt=4 +Cf +C]+C!
(2n-t)t 1l
(n -2)t(nl) n-l n*l
In general, we have
(2n-t)l (2n)l
(n-l)lnl nl(n+l)l Fru =4k +crzt'-r + ... +cf
Hence Fzr*r=cf;k*r +clk + "' +cf;*r
') r efir.
_tt(
2n (zn)l Using induction and C! +C!-, = Ci*t .
r+lI n )= ,nil "^= nllr*, Fzt *z = Fz* *Fzt *t

-I
2n 2n-l =l4o*c?o-t+'.+cff
n-l n-2 *[.;o.t +clk +... *tf.t]
which is an integer. Similady,
'l (3,?+l)! = 4o*' +(clk + clk ) *(r?o' * 4o-')
.[32+l) (3"*t]_.[ (3n+l)!
1 , J-[ ,+r )- "l(2',+lX',D l-c'l,iufl. * ... *(cf1f +c[.t)+c!
(3n +l)!
(2n +I)l(n +l)l =4u*'*c|o*'*4u * ... +cf*2 +cfi!
Similarly,
(3n +l)! I 3n+l
n+1 (2n+l)l(nl) =-n+l n
FZk*! = Fzk*t*FZ7*Z
I (3n +l)! 3n+1 =g2h+t *c?o*' + ... +cfil.

2n+1(2n)l(n+l)l 2n+l n+1 By principle of induction the result is true for any
integer /<.
This asserts
-
*" I /32+t) t( 3n+l are
6. HKALE 1996 Poper lQuestion 2
-.--{ r*, J ""0 '*t[
integers. Wednesday.
7. Using binomial theorem,

3. (a) Theorem 1.2(a)
.f(x)={r+1t+"+"2;}'
(b) s, = m+gf +g#. 'nl
!-
(m+n\l
= (l+ ))2n
(m+2\l
(n+l)l 4 )----------J- . (nr+z)ll
=.,{ llml 2lml
-t- * f (z) =22"
"r.-l J
/(-1) =0
366 Answers and Solutions'ChaPter I
8. By binomial theorem, Forthe coeflicient of r7, set

22-3r =7
l0 + u)x - (au + b)f^*" = l{* - b) + <x - o1uf^*"
m+n r=5
- b7^*"-k 7x - o1k uk
= fct*" G The coeflicient of x7 is
k=0
I tl!
m+n z
^ll^ll-15
-ws ---r65l6t
=lto1x1uk
k=0
where A1r@) = CT*n @ - o)o (, - b)*'-o 11. HKALE l98Z Poper lQuesiion 8
s(t.f =|n@+t)
9. They are in arithmetical progression,
S(2, n) =
Cr_1+Cr*1=2Cr.
!n@+l)(2n+I)
S(3, ni = |n2 @+t)2
That is
n(n-l) ... (n-r+2) L- n(n-l) -.. (n-r)
(r - l)! ' (r+l)! 12. HKALE l99l Poper I Question I I
2n(n-l) .... (n -r +l) _ (c) 7
O.
rl (n\ t n(n-l)(n-2) ." (n-b+t) I
r(r +1) + (n - r +l\n - r) - 2(n - r + 1)(r + l) r. (a) = k
[oJ o
= 0. kt" n
-n(4r+l)+4r2 -2=0
n2 I (n n-l n-2
_.-.- n-k +ll
-_)
-klln n n nJ
Put r = 14 in the above relation
I
142 -t414r +l) +4r2 -2 =0. <_
-kl -\
(r-9Xr-5)=0. (b) E>emple 6
When n=I4,r =5, then (c) From (b), if 3 < n,
to, t1'l',tt
c.
'5-l. -"4
=c,=- 1.2.3.4 = toot l+-nI <3(n
)'
,r=!ffi]f =toorx2=2002 (n+l)" <n'*l
9
ce=2002"a=3oog.
n+l n
t0. (a)
l6,y/ = 1t + x)(l + x1n = (r + flla,x'
r=0 r=0 EXERCISE I B
Comparing the coeflicients of ,' the result n

follows. t. Put x=2,in (l+x)" =\cix'
r=0
(c) (i) (2 *J1)' +12-Jl)7 a n-l
= z{zj + cl 1z' xJj)' * Q 123 11Jlla + cl 1zyJ116}
t" =lciz' =Zc!z'+cf,zn
r=0 r=0
= 10084 n-1
=lciz'+z'
Since 0 . Q- Ji)1 < l, therefore, the integral
r=0
partof 1z*Ji)' is loo83. thus
(ii) The general term is n-l n-l
3n -2'=Zcir' =lci-,2' aY ci =Ci-,-
t
TV) = g)t 12*2 rtt-r ,r r=0 r=0
'- (3-2){3"-r +3n-2 .2+3n-3 .22 + ... +z*t}=lci-,2'
= ClrGD, zrr-3r "22-r
Answers and Solutions - Chapter I 367
2. (a) 1t+r)' =C3+Cix+Cir2 + ... +Clx'+ +Cf,x" n
E{r*'-t =n(l+x)"-l
x=1, -l r=l
(l+l)" = Ct +Ci +Ci + ... +Ci + ... +C: Put x=l
n
=(c[ +ci + ... )+(ci +c! + ... ).
Z{, =''2"-r
1-Dn =c6-ci +ci- ... +(-t1'C!+ . .-+(-r)ci r=l
0= (cf +C!r+ ... )-(ci +c\+ ... ) Hence
n-l n-l
Adding and subtracting
Ltnr= )ft"+t;q *t-C,*rf
2n =2(C6+Ci+ ...). r=l r=1
nn
zn =z1ci +ci + ... ). =z{,-lc,
r=2 r=2
(b)When r=5. n
10.9.8.7.6
^ro=#=252<28
g;" =lrC,-Cr-LC,
r=l r=2
Assume that P(k) is true, i.e. n
i?k <22k-z
=lrc,-lc,+co
r=l r=O
then
=l+n.z'-l -2"
(2k +2)(2k +t)(2k)t
Lt*l
^2k+2
=l+(n-2).2"-r
+l)!
( +l)!(ft
(2k +2\2k +I)
c?o 5. HKALE 1995 Poper I Question 2
(/c +l[/r +l)
(2k +2\2k +t) (b) 0.
22k-2
(k +l[/c +l)
<2.2.22k-2
7. (a) Using the summation formula for a G.P.,
=z^2(k+l\-2
n-l
By principle of induction P(n) is true.
l-(l-r)"
){t-';'= t-(t-r)
j=0
Hence, by (a) for z > 5,
n
I
g2n .r2n-2 =lrr*rf' =ei +c! +...)2
x
r+lci1-x1k
k=l t]
n
3. HKALE 1992 Poper lQuesiion 4 =Zc1neio-'
n 0 when n is odd, k=l
Z<-t>'cIi =
2" 1-t1i when n is even. (b) htegrating the above identify
r=0
n-l 0
It-D'cli*r= n-l
when z is even,
irt crf-, Il*k-, d* i = !:u - o, o,
r=0 2" 1-t1--t- when n is odd. k=l t=0
n-l I
4. (a) Theorem 1.4 (Il)

>cx+'= I
k=l t=0
,'+ I
n
(b)
Iq" =11+.r)' (l) 8. From
r=0
Put r=1. (l + x)'(l + x1" = 1I+ x12n
n we have
Zc, =zn 2n
r=0
=lcl"*' (*)
Differentiating, (l) [:""']["I ':") r=O
358 Answers and Solutions - Chapter I
. ^2n+l =C2n+1_r
^2n+l
(a) Comparing the coefficients of r" in (*) anOUSe L/
c[ci +cici-r+ --- +cXct =c:n

BY c: =cX-, theresultfollows'
(b)(icr'J[*-:) = (t+x)'(l++)'
(b) Comparing the coeflicients of x'+r in 1*; (l+ x)^+"

n
x
cici +ci-,,ci + ... +cici =C], m+n
c[,ci +cici + ... +ci-rci =C], =lC!*"x'-"

r=0
tV Ci = CI-r. Hence
n-l
Compare coeflicients of r'
.1_r"r"r+t (r + l)!(n _ l)!
r=l tt. 1a; (l +r)2*P = 11 + x)^- t 11 + x)*
2(2n-t)l 2wp - m-p m
1n +t1[1n - r;r]2 Z c?^-o r' =lr=0c!-n *r Lc! *'

r=O r=0
(c) Comparing the coeflicients of xn+r in (*) we
Corr-paring coefficients of .r'
have
cici +ci-rci*r+ ... +cici =C,i, C^-P =c{ PcI+c{-Pc[r+ ... +cf-!ci
cT_!cT, + c[-!-rcfi-1 + ... + c(- n gn
c[ci +cici.r+ .-- +ci-,ci =(i, =
bY ci = cf,-,.. T\eresult follows' =i'r-;'r

r--p
9. (a) (l *r)tn -(l+x)"(l+x)", (b) usirg {f = *ci:l

(" \/" \ z" m2m
I >,r: t ll >r:-,,' l= y4" *' Zi,ci) =\*c!;tc!
t; A; ) ,=o r=7 r=l
m
Comparing the coeflicients of xn*' =*lc!;|ci
c(ci +cici-r+ ... +c!-,c: =c1., r=1
Thus = *iT^-t by (a) for p = I

(2n)t 2 2
I ,t(r!)
m m
r \'' (n+r)l(n-r)l 2,, cr
r=O r=7
(b) From (a), m 2
1l+x12n = "' +f(0)x'+f(l)x'*r + "' +f(n1x2" =^'L@7.')

r=l
Multiplying by wl
(l+r)" = Cn +Cn-1x + "' +Cgxn =-'z?r- ')'
r=0
(l+x;3" = --- +f (0)x" +f (l)x"*r + .-- +71n1x2'l =
2^2m-2
il Lm-l by(a)forp=6
X Cn+Cr-rx+ .-.+Cor"f
12. (a) fInddction step) Suppose that
2n
Comparing the coeflicients of T the result
follows .(;)
[;).(;). ["])
2n+l Ther-
lo. (a) put x = I in (t+ x)z"+t = y("*lr,
r=0
Answers and Solutions - Chapter I 369
n+l Putx=l,andx=-1,
(;).(;). .(;).["]')=
["]').( 2
=(ao+a2+ ... +a2r)+(a1+a3+ ...+a2n4)
3n
(as +a2+ ... + arn)- (at+ % + ... +a2n_1) - l.

=
[']') Adding and Subkacting,
(b) Using the summation formula for a G.P., (as+a2+ ... +azr+ ...+arn)=|<t" *r>
S, = l+(l+r)+(l+x)2 + ... +(l+.r)'
(a, +a, + ... + azr-t * -.. * =
l-(l+x)'+l
a2r-1)
Irt" -rr.
1-(l+r) (b)Replace x by If x,
glvmg n
I
l+"S, =(l+r)"*l 1+-+
x 2
x
Comparing the coelficients of ,3 , the result
=ao+J+-i+
d, d^
..- +-!-+.-'
,4r , , d2n
+-#
follows. -xxx
(l+r+.x2)u
13. HKALE 1994 Poper I Question Z
2n
= dOX +alx2n-l + "' + arx2n-r + "' +A2n.
O) 24{cn.'-4
Comparing the coeflicients, e, = d2r_,
I
+l)k(k -t\k -2Xk -3) (c) +r
,(k 1t +.x2 )" 1l - * + *2 y"
14. HKHLE 1982 Question 4 =(ao+arx+ar*' + .,' +aznx2")

x(ao-af +qzrz -... +(-l)'arx'+... +or,r2'1
15. For
On the other hand,
(l+ax +2x2)6
1l+x2 + x4)"
= [t+x(a +2x)]6 =ao*alx2 +
..' +anx2' + -'. +aznx4n,
=l+6x(a +2x)+15x2 (a +2x)2 +20x3 (a+2x)3
Therefore, comparing the coeflicients of 12' and
+l5xa (a +2x14 +6xs 1a +2x)s + x6 1a +2x)6 bv O),
By inspection, the coefficients of x2, t3 , ,t0 and 4 r = ctgr2n - ara2n-l + "' + (-1)' a rd2r-r * "' * a2rag
,ll *" respectively, 2 2 . .-r 2 2
dn=do-at t "' +\-I) ar + "' +a2n
az = 12 +15a2
17. Given
at = l5(4a) +20a3
am=6'25 +cf;o2'za
Lor*':(1+x+ ... +x^)' (*)
r=0
at = cf a'2s
(a) (i) Put x = I
If ar=27 and all =-192, then
mn
... +l^)n =(m+l)n
l2+15a2 =27 Lo,=(l+l+
r=O
l92a = -192
sothat a = -l and
(ii)Put x=-L
mn
a3 = -6Q-lQ = -$Q
l{-t)' o,= (l-l +1 - ... + (-r)-)"
arc =192+240 = 432 r=O
I lf m iseven
16. (a) 1t+x+r2'1o =ao+arx+orrz * ... +a,x' + ... *or,tzn, 0 Ifz isodd
(iii)Putx=2 EXERC]SE 2A
m
12'o, = It*z*z'+ ... +z'fn 1 (a) Put x = 1,2,3
r=0 d=l
=(2.+r _l)" 8=c+1, c=7
(b) Differentiation gives 27 = b(2)(t) +7 (2> +1, b = 6
+*-;^111+ 2x+ ... +mx*11 Ccrnparing the coeflicients of x3 , a= I
lror"'-l =n(I+x+..'
(b) Put x =I, a=1.
Put x=l intheidentity. Differentiation gives
mn
3x2 = b +2c(x-l)+3d(x-l)2
lror=171*1+ ... +l')'-t(l+2+ ". +m)
r=l 6x
=2c+6d(x -l)
--1'. m Pu: x=1,
=n(m+l)" ,(l+m) b=3, c=3.
tnn
=--=-(m+l\"
z Comparing the coeflicient of x3 , d =I.
nmY (c) Pu: x = 1,2,3, 4,
= ^ ) a, by (a[i).
r=O a=-!,b=4,c=-T,a =?
Thus,
mn mn
2. fo@)=l=0!.to
n*lo, =2Zro,
r=0 r=0 fi(x) = llx+t
m Suppose that
1c) f1-9'r= (-t+2)+(1+4)+(-5+6)+ ... +(-t)^n fn-1?)=(z-1)!x'-r+ "'
rl
m
if z is even f,(x)=nlx'+ "'
2
m+l then
n if zr is odd.
.f ,*t (x) = l(2n + t) x + lff,{*) - n2 *2 .fn_., {t)
lrorr'-1 =n(I+x+ ... +*-1"-t1l+2x+ -.- +mxbl) =l(2n + t)x + tl{"t r' + ...}
r=l
Put x = -1. - r' rt {{n - t)t t"-t * .. -l
lra,(-l)-t =z(l-1+l- '.. +1-9-;-r1t -2+3- ... +n(-t)^-t's
=
{en
+ t)nt- n2 1n - gt}r"*t * ...
If rz is odd, l-l+l- ... +(-l)' = 0. In this case r"+l + ...
= 1z + l)!
the result is true by mathematical induction.
lrar(-l)'-r =0.
r=l
If n is even, I - t +l - ... +(-l)^ = l. and
3 Pz=i[''-'] =#lr -#rl
l-2+3- I i, I
+n(-t)^-r = -| P3
J
5.r
, (3*2 -r-tr]
so that
m =il';-*l=#:[" - 2.5
3.2
']
lra,(-l)'-r = n( ,(-t)
rcl Assumethat P(k +1) and P(k) aretrue,i.e.
I 1.1.5 ... (zt -D I r kG -t) *-zl
=-r*' ^
rr=---ra3tjtc *,r1x -
1x
^ =ltllJtl
rr*r [ rt ](,t+l) r-r'l
r.3'5 ..' (2k+l)
lr+9 [r 2eF+6,
Answers and Solutions - Chapter2 371
tD k+2 6. (a) [sr +sr] suPPose
2k+3 (t+l)
=1|V***r-ffiro f (x)=(x-a\x- B)
g(x)= (x- a\.x- 6)
1.3.5 ... (2k+t) _ k(k+t)
2k +3
k+2 t.2.3 ..(ft+l)
x
k+l
2(2k +t) '*-'*
"'l There exists p(x)=(*-6), q(x)=(x-p) such
that
k+r lf 1.3.5 .(2k-t) xk k(k -t) ,_zl I p(x).f (x) = q(x)g(x).
__Jt
t+z [[ r.2.3 ...(k) - 2e*-D' "'l
l* p(x) q(x)
= sr] There exist
(b) and zuch that
1.3.5.'. (2k +t)(2k +3) f **z *([+l) * 1
[sz
r.2.3..'(k+t)(k+2) L' - 2Qk +Dx "')'
+ p(x)f (x) = q(r)g(r). Then
/c+l 1.3.5 ... (2k-l) k (x+ p\xz +ap+a6)= 1x+q\xz +bp+b6)

k+2 1.2-3...k x+ Comparing coeflicients,
... (2k+l\2k+3)
=1.3.5
r2a -<k+r)(k+2) I or* p=br+q P-Q=bt-at
foo*oro =bo+brq asP-b1P=bo-ao
I G*D* G+t)z I
I o*,-lz1zr'a- o
+
1' 1z*.1y2aq1' I oop=boq aoP =boQ-
Solving from the fust two

_ 1.3.5
... (2ft+tX2*+3)[ k+z G+l)(k+2) r
- 1.r€ -. (fr+l\'*+A L
x -- ro*, x +
+ap1+bs,-as
p= -bl
-b1+a1
4. If f (n(n+t))-f (n(n-t))=n7 bo-ao-arbr+al
then -b1+a1
ora{<n+t)a -(n-r)a \*m3{<"*U'-<"-D'} By the third equation,
**2{{n*ry? -1n-g2}=n7 -t +arbr+bo-a,

=bo
bo-ao-a4t+a?
ar-4 at-bt
8an7 +(8a+6b)ns +(2b+4c)r3 =r'
(o o - bilt + (b1- a 1\bp s - apn) = s.
Comparing coeflicients.
l1l This proves that s, + s,
o=E,b
1c; [Sr+Sr] Let a,B beroots of *2+op+oo=o
Hence
and y, 6 be roots of x2 +brx+bo =0.
la 13 12
"t(x)=gr -6x +12x. Consider
Using above rezult, (o -rXa - 6)(f -r)(f - 6)
n n
*r)) =Io2 -(r +6)a+y6ltB2 -(y +6)B+yfl
Zo' = Z{f U,<* -/(ft(} - l))}
k=t k=t = 1a2 + bra + bsyB2 + brB + bs)
= f(n(n+r))- f (0)
= o' p' + \ap(a + B) + bo1a2 + f2)
= g + r1a - p + r13 + g +r12 +*rap+bsbr(a+fi+$,
!,a !n3 $n2
= o2o +bf oGo)+bs(a? -2as)
5. Similar to problem 4,
16< 8a 7 +f as+b6b{-a)+b2s
f (x)=Tx -T.r" +I'.x.
= 1as - bs)2 + (b1 - a1\asb1 - ofto)
Hence
=0
n
Therefore either a-f or a=6 or f=f o,
Qk -D4 =2lr g,> - f(ft - l)l = f (n) - f (o)
k=l /=d. f(x) aad g(x) have a common
Thus,
16s 83 7 linear factor. This proves that s, + st.
=T' - 7llJ * r5n We conclude that the given 3 staternents are equivalent.
7 (a) f (x)- f (k) p-l p-2

= l+ Af +EArr' - qP x - ZA,qo *'*t - Ao_1eP xP
= al(x' - k"7 +ar(x"-t - pn-17 + ... +ar;(x - k)
r=2 r=I
= (x - k)faoxn-r + (ask + ar)x"-2 p-l
= 1+(4- qp )x +ZU, - Ar-rqP )x' - Ar-1QP xp
+(aok2 +ark+ar)x'-3 + ... r=2
+(aok"-2 +ark"-3 + ... +ar-r)x Conparing coefficients,
+(aok"-l +ark"-z + .,. +an-rk+an-1)l (Afl - q) = (Ar- qP),
=G-Dfasx"-r +brxn-2 + ... +b,-rx+bn-r] , qP -q

ttt= t_q .
= (x - k)g(x) Are' - Ar-te' = A, - Ar-te? .
where
oP -o'
bt = aok +at, bz = aok2 +ark +a2,+ '.. , Ar = Ar-r:---i- ,for r= 2,3,...
l- q'
,
On_Z =
,n-2+alk
aOK ,n-3
+ ... + an_2 DD2
, q'-q xq'-q
Az=
bn-t = aokn-l +ark'-2 +'.' +an-zk +r,n-l t_q r_f,
Hence, if kr= as, ap '.. ,an are all integers, so
,
DD2o3 q'-q
q'-q q'-q
alsoare by b2,... ,bn_t. At= r-q x *-;7,
az
(b) Let
"f
o1*'-l + ... c, n-Ix + a o then
(x) = ogrn +
, (qP -q)(qP -s2) ." (qP -q')
t = f(lo)= aol}n +a10'-r + ... a,-r(10)+an.
-'r ' a
(r -il(o-s')... 0-s')
'
Bv (a)
f (10) - f (t) = (l 0 - 1)g(l 0) = eg(l 0). (b) [nduction s/ep] Suppose
Thus r = .f (t0) is divisible by 9 if and only if /(l)
is divisible by 9.
I+ rp,(x) - qn@D = (1 - Sx)(l - q2 *) ... (l - q' *)
= Fn@)
then
8. (a) (r- qx) F(qx) = (t - qife - q2 x)(l - q3.r) ... <r- q il P
l+gnu(x)-gr*t(qx)
=f0 - q*xt- q2 x) - - - g- n rr *rfrt - n o *, n+l
=t +,p,{i + - x)F,(x)
= (t_ qP
p-l
x)F(x). fi,.re
n+7
(ii)If p11; = 1a
2A,,, then - e,{an - - qn*t,)
r=l fV4,(xXr
(t- qx)F(qx) n+l
p-l = F,o+: .t4tr{rr-r) -(r-q'*'*))
= (l- *rI t+lA,q'x' n
r=l = Fn@)(l-qn*rr)
p-l p-2
= l+ Aflx +lA,q' *' - q, - ZA,q'*' r'*' - A o_rqP rP = (l- qx)(l- q2r) ... (l- q'x)(t- q'*rr)
r=2 r=7 The:esult follows by principle of induction.
p-l
= t+(Arq - q)x +Z(A,q' - A,_tq' )x' - A xp
r=2
o_1ep 9. HKALE 1985 Poper I Question 6
On the other hand (c) eG)= pzJ)=*; -*.

(t - qP x)F(x)
f p-t
=(t-q4llt+l A.x'
L;
Answers and Solutions - Chapter2 373
EXERCISE 2B (b)By (a), for f (x)=*s +1u2, the remainder is
given by
1. By the division algorithm, let r(i = +f (t)(x -2)(x -3)- f(2)(x -3)(-r- l)
f (r)=r8t *"49 **25 **9 ** ++f Qxx-r)(tc-2)
= (x3 -x)g(x)+(o*2 +bx+c) = +G +t)(x - 2)(x - ! - @k +32!.r - 3)(r - l)
then +|{stc +zs){x-t)(x -2)
0=/(0)=c
5="f0)=a+b If it contains no term in x2, then
-s=,r(-l) =a-b ttt' +t) -{tt +zz7 +}1stc +ts1= o.
Solving, a = 0, b= 5. Hence the remainder is k = -90.

r(x) = J;.
(a) c=4
2. By division algorithm, (b) r(x) =19x+14
f (x) = (x - a)(x - b)q(x) + (Ax + B)
f (x) = (x - a\x - c)q(x) + (Ax + B) 6. (a) Theorem2.2
f(a) = Aa+B, f(b) = Ab+ B, f(c) = Ac+B. (b)Let /(x) e,S with deg f (x)>deg p(x), then,
by (a) there are polynomials q(x) and r(x) in
^ I@)- f (b)
A=-
a-D R[x] such trrat
^ af(b)-bf(a)
D-- f(x)= p(x)q(x)+r(x) or f(x)- p(x)q(x)=r(x)
a-b
where r(x) is a zero polynomial or degree of
,,^, _cf (a)-cf (b) , af (b)-bf (a) r(x) < degree of p(x). By condition (I),
a-b a-b
(a - b)f (c) +(b - c)f (a) +(c - a)f (b) = 0. p(x)q(r) eS and hence by condition (I),
r(x) e^S.
But the degree of every non-zero polynomial in S is
3. (a) By division algorithm,
equal to or greater than that of p(x), therefore
f (r) = 1*2 - o21q1*1+ra+r r(x) e S implies r(x) should be zero polynomial,
f(a)=ar+s i.e. r(x) = 0. Hence
f (-a) = -dr + s' f(x)= p(x)q(x)
Adding and subtraction. showing that f (x) isdivisibleby p(x).
s=
!ly1a1+ y1-a1l 7. Let
l-
r= (a)- f (-")l ,t + +bx +l = 1x2 + k2 )(x - q)
^'
^lf
(b) (i) 0, when n is even; =x3-qx2.,2
+tt x-K,2 q
(ii)r(x) =an-rx-a' when z isodd. a=-4,b=k2,k'q=-1.
Therefore k+0 nd ab=|"
4. (a) By division algorithm,
.f (x) = (x -t)(x -2)(x -3)q(x) + a(x -2)(x -3) S f (x) is divisible by g(x) if and only if,
+ D(r - 3\.r - l) + c(; - 1)(x - 2)
,4 * p*2 +q = (x2 +mx+7)(x2 +lu+q)
a(l-2)(l-3)
=
"f(1) Comparing coefficients,
.f (2) = b(2-3)(2-I)
I k+m=o
f = c(3-r)(3-2)
(3)
+km+t= t
Hence la
.f (l) I mq+k=0
"=+,b=-f(2), c=!fG) Eliminate ft from the first and third equations,
374 Answers and Solutions' ChaPter 2
m(I- q) = Q P(x)+1 =1x3 +x2 +7)x

10 If m= 0, then k =0, 4+l= p,
so that P(x) + I is divisible by (r3 + x2 +l) .
2" If (l-q)=Q,
Then q=1, and l+(-m)(m)+l= p
a
14. HKALE 1985 Poper I Quesiion 8
Le. z-m = p.
15. HKALE 1993 Poper I Question l2
9. HKALE 1994 Poper lQuestion l3
10. By division algorithm,
f(*)= s(x)+(4x3 -6x2 -4x+6)

gQ)=lxgx3 -612 -4x+6)+(2xz -r-3)
14x3 - 6x2 - 4x + 6) = (2x -2\2x2 -r- 3) +0 EXERCISE 2C
therefore, the greatest common divisor of /(x) and
g(x) is
l. Let f G) = (x -l\x -2\x - 3)q(x) + ar2 +b* + c
d(x)=2Y2 -*-3 f(l)=a+b+c=0
f(2)=4a+2b+c=-7
11 HKALE 1998 Poper I Question Z
(3) =9a+3b+c = -20
"f
(a) d(x)=x2 +x+3 Solving a=-3,b=2,c=1.
(b) z(r) =*,"@)=-2.-+
2. a=-19,b=-ll,c=30
l2.Let f (x)= *7 **6 + ... +r+1, g(x')= xa +.r3 +.'. +1.
3. By given
By Euclidean algorithm,
.f(l)=l+p+q+a2 =0
f (x)= x3g(x)+(x2 +x+1)
f (-l)=l+ p-q+a2 =0
g(x) = x2 (x2 +x+ l)+(r + l)
Adding and subtracting
,2 +r+l=x(x+l)+l 2(l+ p +a21 = g, p = -7t+a2)
Back substitution
Q=0
l=(x2 +x+l)-r(x+l) Hence
= (r2 +x+ l)- rfsl) - x2 {x2 +r+ r)] f(t)= 14 -11+o21r2 +o2
= -rg(t) + (r3 +l\xz + .r + l) = 12(r2 -t7-a21x2 -r7

111
r;[11x) - *3e(r)] = (x'
-a'\x' -l)
= -rs(r) + 1x3 +
This shrws that /(x) is divisible by ,2 - o2

= 1-x - x6 - 13;g1"; * 1r3 + l)/(r)
r- I = (r3 +t1r8 - t;+1 -*6 - *t -x.Xrs -1; 4 (a) Referto Theorem2.10.
(b) (i)/(x) = x^ (b' - r' 1 +b*

"- 1r' -b'
1"n - *n 1 + 1
13.(a) I =1x3 +x2 +l)x-(.r2+l{.r2+x-l)
Since
(b) From (a), we have
f(b)=f(c)=0
1r3 +*2 +l)x= (x2 +l\x2 +r-1)+1. By the factor theorem, (x) is divisible by
"f
Take P(x) =1x2 +l\x2 +.r-l), {r-D) and (x-c) which are relatively prime,
herefore, /(r) is divisible by
then P(x) is divisible by (-r2 + l) .
(x - b)(x - c) = x2 - (b + c)x + bc
and
Answers and Solutions - Chapter 2 375
(ii) By the remainder theorem, 6. flnduction s/ep] Suppose that
f (l) =l+a +b +c = |
f (2) =8+4a +2b + c =2
f(3)=27 +9a+3b+c=3 fl,.,
then
r=l
Solving, a = -6, b = lZ,c = -6. Hence
f(x)= 13 -6t2 +l2x-6

(iii) Since f(-l)=0, therefore /(.r) is divisible
fl'.r=('.#)I('4)
by (r+l) sothat =g('.i).*q('4)
f(x)=(x2 +x+t)n -(x2 -x-l)n
["
= (r + l)q(x)
where qG) is a polynomial with integral
=t'.: r(r+l) ...(x+r-l)
,l
coefficients-
Put x=10, .#(+)(+) x+n
n
l l l" - 89'
"f(10) =
Since S(10) is an
= l lq(10)
integer, therefore,
r*i x(x+l) .-- (x+r-l )
r=l
ll l" - 89't is divisible by I l. r(x+l) (x+n)
n+
5. n+l
(a) Referto Theorem2.ll
(b) (i) Suppose, on the contrary, that B + 0, then

= t*I x(x+l) ...r! (x+r-l)
r=l
A n+l ..-
@=_E The zeros of t+I r(x+l) (r+r-l) are the
a rl
which shows that is real - a contradiction r=l
Hence l=B=0. n
x
zeros of fl +
r
(ii) ar = -itr* r=l
which is not a real number. For which are x = -r, (r = 1,2, ... , n)
a2 +o+l=0, @+I
7. HKALE l99l Poper lQueslion 4
so
(a) (i) P(a; ) = oi for i = l, 2, ... , n
(a-l\o2+al+l)=0
a3-l=o 8. (a) Refer to factor theorem.
a3 =l Yo
(b) Let 1= .--(ro-rr) then let
(xs -x1xrs -x2)
1c; tf /(x3 ) + xg1x3; is divisible x2 + x by +t ,
then there is a polynomial q(x) such that g(x)= A(x-xr)(r-rz) (x- xn)
Thus
f (x3 ) + xg(xt ) = ("' + r + l)q(x)
^/-- \ - ro[(rs -r1Xxo-xz) "'(to -t,)]
Put r=ar andby(b[ii) 6\--ul (xo -x1[r9 -rz) '.. (xg-xr)
f (r3) + c,g1ot31= g =lo
i.e. /(1)+as(l) =0 and
BvGXi), c(rl) = c@) = ..' = g(x,) = 0.
f(r)=8(1)=0 Let
By (a), both -f (x) and g(x) are divisible by L /-\_ li(x-xs) "' (x-4-1Xx-x61) "' (x-xr)
.ti\*
(x- l) ) -
376 Answers and Solutions - Chapter 3
It is obviously that, for all i, j = l. 2, ..., n EXERCISE 3A

fo if i*j
4@i)=1, ir i=j 1. HKALE 1996 Poper I question 3.
Thus,we candefine h(x) as (a) I
h(x) = hn@)+\(x)+ ... + ht(x)+ "' + hn@). (b)-l<a<3

Then
h(xs) = to, h(x) = rr ... , h(xn) = tn 2. (a) x: -f is a common root.
(c) By (b) the required polynomial is (-t)3 +p(-t)2 +q=0 (l)

(2)(x - 0)(r - 1)(* -2) (5)(x +l)(x - l)(x-2) a(-t)3 +b(-t)+c = 0. (2)
h(x)
(-1-0x-1- 1)(-1-2) (0+1)(0- l)(0-2) (-a) x (1)+(2)
2)
(Ia)(-r + l)(-r - 0)(x - (41)(x + 1)(x - 0)(x
- 1)
' (l+lXl-0X1-2) (2+1)(2-0)(2-t) -aptz -bt-aq+c=0
=2x3 +3x2 +4x+5. ap?t)z -b(t)+aq-c=0.
I = -/ is also a root of the equation
opr'-b**oq-"=o
10. HKALE 1995 Poper I Question l0 (b) Consider the equation
1 f(a)+ f(F)+ f(y)
= 2G3 +h12 -uJi)-ex3 -ts'*J7) =o
B = -l(f +Df@)+(r +a)f(fi+(a+flf (Dl
2J7x2 +t3x-27J1=o
c = Brf @)+yaf (fi+oQf 0)
which has roots
x='\llE Of -
27J7
M
@-Ji) is a common factor of ,3 +J1*2 -l4Jj

and 2x3 -Bx-J1.
Hence
2x3 -Bx-$
=G-Jix2xz +2&x+t)
.Ji\(
f-
=<'
[ ,-j['.-J
-Jit( **J-7 '5'\
3. (a) From
*o -5t3 -19x2 +29x+42

,2 ^,, 2
=(z' +ax+3\x' +bx+14)
3
we.rave, by comparing the coeflicient of x
-5= b +a.
Comparing the coeflicients of x.
29 =L4a+3b.
solving a=4,b=-9.
,n -5*3 -19x2 +29x+42=o
(x2 +4x+3\x2 -9x+141 =0
(r+ l{x+3{-r -2\x-7) =a
x = -1, -3, 2,7
377
(b)Replace x by -y inaboveequation 6. HKALE 1995 Poper I Question 3
(-y)4 - X- Dt - tg(-y)' +29(-y) + 42 = o p=2, q=0, a=4, 9=-3.

ya +5y3 -19y2 -29y+42=0 or p=2, q=0, a=-4, B=3.
Therefore, the roots are x=txiJi x=-3tJ:.,
! = 1,3, -2, -7.
7. (a) y = y3 -3px+q
4. (a) L=(2p)z +4q3 >0 y' =3(x2 - p)

the roots are real and distinct.
vdh= pJi -3pJi +q
(b) a, B q3 = g,
= q-zpJi
are roots of x2 +2px -
a+P= "P YGJ-P> =q+tPJi
of=-q3.
The turning points (J p, q -ZpJi) and
(c) Let (x) = x3 +3qx+2p, for
"f GJ p, q *zpJ p>
_L _t
(a' + f') $
-f
I
q2 -4p3 >0, then
l^ I I
=7a3 +Bt)' +3q(ai +Bt1+Zp @-zpJiY.q+zp,lp7>o
L2 2 f I I
=a+3a3F3 +3a3p3 +p+3qat +3qpt +2p v<J ilyr-Jpl,o
L -Ll 1 I I
= (a + B) +3ai 1ot pt + q) +3pz (di pi + q1 +zp
I _L 1!
= (a + p)+3(a' + I' Xa' f' + q) +2p
-L-t
= 2p +3(a1 + p3 )(-q + q) +2p
=0.
It
.'. o1 + Pi is a root of the x3 +3qx +2p.
(d) By the substitution x- y+1, the given equation
The two turning points either lie in the upper plane or
becomes
in lower plane. Thus, in either case, the equation has
0+ l)3 -3(y + l)2 +90/+ l)-9 =0 exactly one real root.
y3 +6y-2=0. (b)Put x=m+n

y3 +3(2)y +2(-l) = 0. (c) Set
Let a,B be the roots of the p =mn, q = -1^3 +n3)
*2 -2x-8=0 or (x-4)(x+2)=6. Substitution gives
i.e. q=a, f =-a. By (c), a real root of above P

3
3
+n
equation is 3
n
ll_tl
y=43 +(1)3:43 -23. ,u +qnt +p3 =o
andhencearootsofthe ,3 -3r2 +9x-9=0 is Therefore -3 , 13 *"roots of the equation
ll
x - 41 -23 +7. x23
+Qx* p =a
23
5. HKALE 1988 Poper lQuestion I i.e. m3 , n3 =
-q+ q -4p
')
(o -t)2 > 4(6 + t)
By O), one of the roots is
x=2+Jj, x=t+Ji I I
3 3
m+n= -j+ - 4p3 + _l)
2
q2 -4p3
Answers and Solutions - ChaPter 3
378
S. HKALE 1999 Poper I Question I l. 3. (a) By the relation between roots and coeflicients
(b) (i) p ='Ji, q =tJi (a+|)+B=-l

(ii) -(vs +1f3). -(1ler2 +{i(,t), a(r\+aT+f ='p
\al
-(1lsr+3J1r21
"(+)B=-;
(c) /t = 1.
z3 -tsz+rcJj =o (a+!)+P=-l
,t -XJiXJi)z+(51*s*) =o
v B(a.+)=i
n - _-t-
z=zJi, Jt, Jt tp
y=-2Jj-t,.6-r,.6-r t+(-r[-g-+ "] = p'

\ ptl P p)
p22
-s = Pr-qs.
(b) Because
(6tz - (-s)2 = (6X-24) - (l tx-e)

Therefore one ofthe roots is
s-93
n=--=
EXERCISE 38 'p62
Hsrce
l. Let 2k,3k,5k beroots,
6x3 +llx2 -24x-9 =o
(zkx3kxsk) = -30
l0r + 3) = Q
(2.r -3)(3x2 +
k=-1.
(2-r-313r+lNx+3) = g
The roots are -2, - 3, - 5.
p = -(a-3-s) Thatis,theroots *" +,--f *U -t

=10
q= (-2\-3) + (-3)(-s) + (-s\-2) 4. Bysubstitution, r= l.
=31 v
2. By the relation between roots and coeflicients,

(i)'."(i)' *ze(j)*' =o
(a+B)+Q +D=1 +W2 +3py+l=0.
ry3
ap+a(y +5)+f0 +5)+y5 =-17 Let yr, yz, yt be roots, then
ap(y +5)+(a+p)y6=-k
3a
afo6=72 Ir+)k+yt=-i
(a+ F) =(y +5) = -t 3o
lilz+lzlt+hh=;
aB+(t\-t)+(#)=-t I
hlzlt = -V
af +(*tz)=r'
+:4=2Y2
fr= ^3q-]Jt
"po lh = --
t = -18.
r
Hence Y2QY2)+Yh=+
*4 +2*3 -17x2 -l8x+72=o I
ytlzls = -V.
(r-2[r+3{r-3{r+4)=0
379
q= B(kpXB+kB)
F?r'*v,v,=I =k(k+\f (4)
[,,"[-i) =
i (3)+(a)
p 1t2 +t +t7
2q' r 3p A=--k(k+W
rqr
p=
(k2 +k+t) q
(s)
2q3 =r(3pq-r) k(k +r) p
Since p isaroot of x3 +px+q=0 sothat
5. (a) a is a root
a4 +6a3 -5a2 +6a+l=o | 62 +t *r)ql' -Pl--c57-1

. I <*'+k+t)q] +q =o
j(on *aot -sa2 +6a+t)=o L--rcrwJ
p31tt2 +k12 *q'(k' +ft+l;3 =6.
I.u(*)- 5(*)' *u(*)' *(*)n =o (ii)Now, another two roots are
Therefore I is also aroot.
(b)Let a, F,T, d arerootsoftheequation,then

r=ke=
a =-(f +r)
+:;y
a+ B+y +d= -6
_1tz +t+t1q +k+t1q
aB+ay +a6+By+p6+y6=-S --W+np -,1kz1t +t1o
llll
--;T--;r---r- (kz +k +l)q
o' p' y' 6' kp
= o2 * f2 +y2 +62 by (a)
= (a + p + y+ 612 -Z1aB + ay + a6 + By + B6 + y6) 7. (a) Book work
=(-6)2 -2(-5)=46 (b)If a+ 6=f+7, thenby(a)(i)

(c) Since â
a+D=_i.
*4 +6t3 -5r2 +6r+l = o By (a{ii)
rl l\ b=aB+ar+a6+By+p5+y6
,'+--T . u(' +-x)l-5=0
= a(F + y) + (ad + py) + 6(p + y)
t\
* u(' +-l-7=0 =(a+ffi+y)+(a6+ By)
('. +)' x) So
I a6+BY =b-(a+6\(F+r)
x+ -+
x ,('.+-')=' =b-(a+6)2
(x2 +7x+l\x2 -x+l; =
g (o\21'
Jr,l45or x=--r-
rc.t-zi
=u-l-Z) =b- oa'(=B)
t=---z-
By (a) (iii)
aPy6 = d, aqQr)= d
6. (a) p=a(f +y)+fr =-1p+y)2 +py (l) aala - aal= a
q=_aBr=_@+r)fr (2)
@D2 -a@il+d=0,
(b) (i) Let f = kf , then by (a)
oo
BtG'4d
^=-----z-
p=-(f +kf)z +\GF)
(3) By symmetry, we take
=-(k2 +k+t)82.
2(a5)= B*J;? 4d
380
z(FD = a +[-fr-qa .
(b) and
Hence
I I I q2*92+72
pryr' rror' orp, orBry,
*n +o*t +bx2 +cx+d
= {(x - aXx - fi}{(x - p)(x - y)} (a+B+fi2 -2(aB+ay+By)
@FD2
={x2 - (a + 6)x + "uI{" - (p +y)x + By}
o2 -2b
aa
={ x- +t+
B+ 82 -4d
., x 2
" B_G4
*r* .,
c
2
11. We have

a+B+Y =-P
aB+ay+Ff=q
(a) (ii) z =tJz, =tJi.
" afr = -r
3Ji *{i, a{i + o21la,, r2{z + r{q 1a3 + f +y31
= 1a+ p+y)3 -s1a2 B+azy + f o+ pzy +y2a+r'p)-eopr

Symmetric functions of roots
= 1a + B+y)3 -3(a+ p +fi{ap+ ay + fu)+3apy
: -p3 +3pq-3r.
9. As a +F+f +d= -a, then
(p+y +6 - a)(y + 6 +e - p)(6 + a + p -y)(a Bythe substitution a=
l,
+B +y - 6)
v
= l1a + F + r + 61 - 2al[(a + B +y + 6) - 2P] l= P=
+ +Q +r=o
l{a + f +r +6) -2yl[@ + B +y + 6) -26] ytytY
= (- a - 2a)(- a - 2 p\(- a - 2y\- a - 2 5) 3 qz +-Y+-=u
P 1^
'Y+-Yr' r' r
i - ")(- t - p)? t - r)F t - a)
= rc(-
If a, f , f are roots of *3 + p"2 +qx+r=O, then
=rcf(-t) 1. l. I are roots of above equation. By previous
a'P'y
='.1(-r' .
;)' .,(- ;)'."(-;)' .,]
,,,,,
result,
"(-
3.333
_ _t_.,(i)(+),(+)
=4a2b+l6d-o4 -8o". dltyr
I 3
^2
3pqr q 3r
10. Using,
r,
a+P+Y =q.
aB+aY +ff =b 12. We hate
aFY = c' a+p+y+6=6
(a) we have
aB+a7+a6+py+p6+y6=8
lll apy +up6+ ayd + py6 = 4
a' P' r'
-r-l-
aByd =4.
fr' + a 2r+a
22
f L"'=o2 +f2 +y2 +62
(aPDz
=(a+B+y +q2 -zlaB
_(af+ar+ FD2 -Zahr@+ f+r) = 62 _2$)
(aPDz
=20.
b2 -2ac
c
2 Zo' B = a(aB + ad + ay) + B$a + By + Ba)
+y (ya + yB + y6) + 6(6a + 69 + 6y)
=(a+B+y +elaB 64p3 +3(a2 +92 +y2yt6p2
-a(Br + 96 + y6) - p(ay + a5 + yd) +s1az Bz + o2 12 + 92 y2 y+ p1 +zl a2 F 12
-r (aF + ad + B6) - d(ap + a5 + 9r)
=-64p3 -$pzf@+p+yy2 -z1ap+"r *FDl
=lalaf -3ZoBr
=6x8_3x(_4) - xpflaB + ay + g12 - zaBy @ + p + fif
=60
-27(aB)2
Zo' =(I")' -tla2 B - alapd = -luoot + tz p2 1-z p1 + 36 p(p)2 + zt o2l
= e3 - rloo; - e1-l;
= 60. = -(4p3 +Zlq21.
a is aroot ofthe equation, Thus 13 + pJc+q has a double root ifand only if
o4 -6o3 +8a2 +4q-4=o (f-D2(r-a121a-P12 =s
\aa -ala3 +zla2 +ala-4x4=o i.e. ifandonlyif 4p3 +27q2 =g.
=6 x 60 -8 x 20 -4 x 6+16 = 192.
Zon
14 Exactly as example 8
13. (a) Comparing the coefficient from (a) a1 = -st

(x + a 2\x + a r\x + a a)
1\x +a l"
a2=1Gi -s2)
=*4 +(at+az+dj+an)x3 le I I
(b) a, =
-6si +7s1s2 -5s3
+(ata2+ d.ta3 +ala4 *&2d31-o.2a4 +aran)xz
+(a1a2a3 + atd2u dta3d a2a3a 4)x (c) x=1, y=2, z=-L
4+ 4+
*A1d2d344.
15. By given
sl = @l +AZ+d3+A4
t2=laP2 38= p2 *q2 *r2
= (p + s + r;2 - ZTpq + qr + rp)
4 =laP2a3
=36-Z(pq + qr +rp)
s4.= d1d2d3d4
Pq+qr+rP=-l
(b) o, F, ,, are roots,
The equation with p, q and r as roots is
a+P+7 =g
aP+aY+ff=P *' - 1p * q * r)x2 +(pq + qr +rp)x - pqr =o
aQv = -q -r+30=o
*3 -6*2
(i) Then (x+2[x-5)(r-3)=0
@_D2 =(p+D2 _4p/ p=-2,e=5,r=3.
=(-a)2 -tlp-a(f +Dl
16 HKALE 1990 Poper I Question 3
=(-o)2 -alp-a(-a)l
@) o2 + f +a2 = A2 -28,
=4P-3az
az B2 + 92 62 + d2 a2 -- 82 -2AC.
If p > 0 then (B - fi2 < 0 which is true provided
(b) x3 -6x2 +9x-1=0.
F, / tecomplex roots of x3 + px + q.
(ii)From (i), 17.(a) a+p+y =-p (l)

(F-Dz(r -o)2(o- p)z aP+aY +ff =q (2)
= 1-t p - ta2 \4 p - 3pz \4 p - 3r2 ) qfT =-r' (3)

From (1) and (2) (-o)3 - 3a(-a)2 -3a(-a)*c=o

fr -o' = pa+q. (4) shoving that -a is a roots of
Similarly,
x3 +3or2 +3bx +c = o.
rd-p2 = pB+q (5) TaLe B = -a. Then, from (a)
af-yz = pf +q (6) a+B+y i.e. q+T =2P

=3f
(b) using (l), (2), (3) This implies that a, p, y are n AP.
19 - a2 1 + 1ya - B' ) * (oB - r' ) (c) Put , = y2 h y3 *4y2 +2y+k =0

= (pa+q)+(pB+q)+@y +q) y(z)+42+2y +k =0
2^ y(z+2)= -(42+k)
=_p +Jq.
Squaring,
(Fr - o2 )(ro - P2 ) * (Pr - q2 :trdB - 12 )
y2(z+212 =(42+k)2
+1ya- B2yaB-y2)
z(z+2)2 =(42+k)2
= (pa + q\pf + q) + (pa + SXpy + S)
+(pp+q)(py +q) ,3-rzr2 +(4-8k)z-k2 =o
^2 -p
=34
2
4 Hence, the equation has ytz, yzz, ys2 as root is
above equation.
(Fr -o2\ro- B'XnB-r')
By ib) yr2, yz2, y32 trein AP if and only if
= (pa + q\pf + CXpr + q)
=q33-rp 2(4)"
. -3(-4)/a-at\l-k' =0
.-(.3
.,
" )
Hence, the equation with Gy-az), (ya-f2),
k2 +32k+ll2=0
(oB - y2 ) as roots is
lwiftr A > 0l
3 2-3q)x-
x'+(p- ^.2.^2 2. 3 3.
+(3q- - p-q)x+(p'r-q')=Q giving two distinct values of /c.
(") Ifq3 = 4p3, th"n

19. (a) Refer to example 37(b) Chapter 0
(fr - a2 \ra - B\(.oB - r') =o
i.e.By=o2 or yo-82 o, af=f2 (b) (D Let f @)=lc,xi

t=0
this implies that e , p, y of are n GP .
rG)-r@) =_Ll$" -,_$.
x-d x-qlLl ix - Lcid-,.l
18. (a) Book work. Li=O t=0 J I
an
(b) Assume that a, F, f ue inAP, then t-
=;_o:-l"iG'-a')
2F= a+r. i=0
Then by (a)
= f {r'-r + xi-Z a+,.+tdi-z + .,i-t}
",
j=0
B+2P = -3s ( i-t
I I
n
f(r +a)+ar =lt ",1

,'"'-'t)
i=0 Ir=o
or=-Vc
,-r( n
Elimnate a, B,y = II I", *ior-i-r)av

7=oIi=7*t
<^1.
2a3 -3ab+c=0.
(ii) Using logarithmic differentiation.
Conversely, assrune that 3a3 - 3ab + c = O.
(iii)By (ii) and (i)
Then
383
f'@)=f f( x-dkf
x)- (ar) (ii)Since a istherootof .x4 +4bx+c=0 and
as f(ao)=Q 4x3 +4b = 0, so that
t=l
n (n; ,
q4 +4ba +c =o (l)
=I,lI lc,xiafi-r q3 +b =o (2)
e=l [r=oi=j+r
Put (2) in (l) and simplify
,-t( n
c
=r] I"r",-j-, a=_6.
j=0 [i= j+t
n
for p = g,
3. (b) Consider
rvhere s, =24 1,
k=t f (x)=4xa +4x3 -llx2 -6x+9

Onthe otherhand,
= 12x +1121x -t)2
n
but
.f' (x) = *(2",; =\i",*t-r
i=l .f' (*) = l6x3
- l2x2 -22x - 6
n-l =2(x-l\2x+ 3[4r+l).
=lti +t)"r*rti showing that (4r+l) is a factor of /'(x), but
t=o
(4r+l) is not a factor of f (x).
Hence by comparing the coeflicients of xi ,
n
4. (a) Let
g +l)c;+r = I"i",-j-r for 7 =6, 1,2,"',n-L
i=7+t .f(t)=At'*l +Bxn +l
.f' (x) = (n +l) Ax" + nBxn-l
"f(l) = -f '(I) =
By above result, 0. i.e.
A+B+l=0
21. HKALE 1993 Poper I Question l2 (n+1)A+nB =O.
Solving, A = n,B = -(n +l).
(b) Let
a n
g(r) = 1*x*;;*
z!
.x
+-xnl
x2 n-l
x
g'(r) = l+ x+ + .L-
'(n-l)!
,
n
x
g(x) -g'(x) =
EXERCISE 3C -nl
On the contrary, suppose g(x) = 0 has a double
root a, say, i.e. g(a)= g'(a) = 0. But
l. p=-28, q=-l$
n
d
s@)-s'@)=---;to.
2 (b)(D *3 -3*2-3r+k=0 has a repeated, root a, - a contradiction, which shows that g(x) = 0
then
cannot have a double root.
o3 -3o2 -3a+k=o (D
5. (a) Refer to book work
o2 -2o-l=o (2)
a =rtJi. (b) Let f (x) = (x + l)' + (x - l)'

By (l) and (2) Differentiation gives
k =sx4Jt "f
' (x) = n(x +l)n-t + n(x - l)n-l
s84 Answers and Solutions - chapter3
On the contrary, suppose that the equation Elininate P,

f(x)=0 has a common roots a (say), then a is a
( \2
g=-ob 2b2 -6ac
commonroot of f (x) = 0 and f'(x)= 0, then
(a+l)" +(a-l)n =g \zo'-ot) 2oz -6b'
(a+t)n = -(a-l)n (i) i.e. (9c-ab)2 -4(o2 -3b1b2 -3ac)=g.
and (c) The repeated root ofthe given equation is
n(a +l)"-t + n(a +l)"-1
(a+l)"-t =-(a-l)"-1
=g
(2)
p=@
- s(6)-2(t-n611-aa6l
Dividing,
q+l=a-l or 1=-1. =Jt
Her-ce,
which is impossible. This contradiction shows that
f (x) = 0 cannot have a multiple root. x3 +zG - Jl)x2 + 1t - +Ji)x +6
(c) Let .F(r)= g21r;+tt21*1, where g(x),ldx) arc =1t-Ji)e-Jiyx+2)

polynomial without common roots. Differentiation giving the roots are -2, J,, Jt.
gives
F'(x) = 2 g(x) g' (x) + Zh(x)h' (x).
7. (a) Refer to Theorem 3.3
Given that r is a double root of F(x), then, by (a)
F(r)-- F'(r)=5,i.". @) (i) r(r) = f (x)g(x)k
92 1r1+ h2 1r1 =
g = g(r;e-rr(ry
g2(r)=-n',(r) (3) F'(x) = f '(x)g(x)k +k f (x)s@)k-r s'@)

and = c@)k-rlf '(x)g(x)+kf (x)g'(')]
2 g(r) g' (r) + 2h(r)h' (r) = 0
= g1x1k-tg1x1.
s{r)g'(r)= -h(r)h'(r) (4)
where
On division,
P(x)=.f @)s@)
ls?) s' ?)l' - l- n?)n' e\' Q@) = f ' (x) g(x) + V(x)g'(x)
c2Q) -lr',(r) Let r be any root ot f(x), then ;f(r) = 0,
givng g'(r)2 = - h' (r)2 or g'(r)z + h' (r12 = g f '(r) *o
showing that r is also a root of the poll,nomial P(r)= f(r)g(r) =4.
g'(x)2 +h'(x)2. but
Q(r) f (r)s(r) + V (r)g' (r)

= '
6. (b)By(a)tt B isarepeatedroot, = f '(r)g(r)*0.
f3 *ofz +bP +c = o Let s be a root of g(x) then B(s) = 0,

g'(s) * 0 and /(s) * 0. Thus
3Bz +ZaB+b =0
P(s)=/(s)g(s)=0
383 +3a82 +fi|+3c =0 eG) = f ' (s)s(s) + df (s)g'(s)
383 +2a82 +bP=0 f(s)g'(s) + 0.

=
Jherefore P(x) Q@) have no common root.
aBz +2bp+3c =0
+2aB+b=0.
(ii)P(r)=f(x)g(x)
382
QG)-re.P'(x) = f '(x)g(x)+kf (x)g'(x)- kl"f Q)q@)l'

Solving f â f. (r- k)f'(x)g(x).
=
t 2b2 -6ac n-_ 9c-ab
Pn- __
- . 'r'- a The greatest common factor is g(x).
2a'-6b 2a'-6b
8. HKALE 1996 Poper lQuestion I I
(b) t =2,
I *f l{ =JT
I <
s= +3
otherwise
-not an integer. This contradiction shows that t"nr!

(c) a=t*],
'Jz'rtJ'o=1-L cannot be an integer where s is odd different frol
+1.
9. HKALE 1998 Poper I Question I l.
12. (a) Theorem 3.4
(b) t3 -f,t+;=o (b) Let
(c) c= l=
6J3 f(x)=2*'*2 -5*'*r +2xn -zax3 +(5a+2)x2
, -(2a+5)x+2 (n > l)
= -h-+, Jn--+
(repeated)
Then
.f (2) =2(2)"*' -5(2)'*'+2(2)n -2a(2)3

10. (a) Theorem 3.4.
+ (5a + 2\2)2 - (2a + 5)(2) + 2
(b) The integer factor of I and 2 are respectively
11, and t2, = 8. 2" - 10. 22 +2. 22 - L6a +2oa +8 - 4a - l0 +2
therefore, by (a), the possible rational roots of the =0.
polynomial are +1, t2.
By (a), the possible rational roots are il. f.2. f.!.
'2'
As
By hial,
f (I) = .f (-z) = o,
f(l\=q-2 +o (a+2).
therefore r1
*5 +3r4 -zx3 -7x2 +3x+2
,f(-l) =91(-r)" + a+rl + 0. (a +0, - 2).
= 1x-l)2(x+ 2\x2 +3x+I). f (2)=0

, f(2)*0, f(D=o , f(-t)*o
Therefore, there are only two rational roots, namely,
11. (a) Refer to Section 6.7.1, ComplexNumbers. ,=2-'2!.

(b) Refer to Theorem 3.4 (c) Since
(c)Put e=fi1 nfuj fJl -Jito -ro(Ji -J-D2 +r

n
2n+l . 2k+l
=e-r2J6 $6-8J6 +a)- fie-2J6 +2)+r
E
Ir-rlu 2k
Ian
+l 2n +1
=0
k=O
-=o therefore, J\-Jt is a root of the equation
This implies that tu+"il for n=+t,+2, xa - lOx + I = 0. By (a), the only possible rational
roots are +1, since Jj - JZ * xt. Hence,
are roots of
n
2n+I
dt - J, is an irrational number.
I<-u* 2k +l =0
t=0 13. f (z) = [z - (t - i)]lz- (r + i)l[z - s]lzz - rl
n
2n+l\ 2p
Ir-u* 2k +t)
w =0
k=0 14. P (z) = l" - (z *i)llz - e - 3i>11,2 +' - z]
zn (2n+t\ ,,-,
-r-llx+ (or-X2n + l) =
+ 0. = lz - (2 $i)llz - 1z - ti1)fz + zllz - r)
\zn-t)
On the contrary, suppose a rational root
^"ffiis l1.Let a, a, F $eal)beroots,then
of the equation, then, by (b) it must be an integer. a+a+P=O,aaP=-q.
But, for any odd integers, different from *1.
Elintnate p 17. HKALE 1989 Poper I Question

n1
aa(-a-a)=-q aa(a+a)=q. (1)
(b) (iiD I--:-r
Since, a, Z are roots of x3 + px + q = 0, -d,
r=l
?_?
a'+pa+q=0, a'+pd+q=0.
fo'n-t ='-n'
Adding r=l
a3 +a3 +p(a+a)+2q=0. (2)
Now, 18. HKALE 1997 Poper I Question 4
(2a)3 + p(2a)- q
19. (a) Lemma 3.8
. -.3 +p\d,+a,)-q
=la+d) (b) (i) By the binomial theorem,
1 ^-. -3 + p\a+d,)-q
= a * Jadld+a)+a tali)i k"k-r (dJr,.
= -2q + 3aa(a + a) - q by (2)
1" =
"k
+
5! "k-' @Ji)z
=3{aa(a+a)-q}=o by (l)
r ... +(-D&(al-\k
Therefore 2a = a +d is aroot of x3 + px - q = 0. =S"u *o(oz,D ...1
"o-'{za\*
16. (a) Let -f (x) = ,a -20, -7, then xlr,"ut a * !9:)N:2- -t
<zat > * ...lJi
"o
f'(x)=4xr -20 Let
Ar = *k(k-:l) ...
= qr*
L *l.r]l'*lr3
-{tt[,' \/ \ )]
))
^21 "k
Br = kck-td
"r-r(2itz)+
k(k-rxk-2
/ has only one turning point at , =li 3! "k-312d31+
f (-l) > 0, f (0) < 0, there is only one negative root If c, d
are rational numbers ard k is positive
lyingbetween -l and0. integer, then Ap, By ne rational and
f (2) < 0, > 0, there is one positive root lying At tB*Ji

"f(3) PxdJV)k =
between 2 and3.
(11)If c + dJi is a root of /(x), then
(b) Since Ba -ZOB-T =0 and lpl.t, pa maybe
ao + a{c + d J2S + or1" + d Ji)z
neglected. Hence
7 + ... +ar(c+dJi)" =o
f=-zo By (i) there are rational numbers At, Bt
(c) Since the equation has only 2 real roots, the other (k=1,2, '.., n), suchthat
two roots should be complex which are in conjugate,
as + a1(A1 + BrJi) + a2(A2 + BzJr)
l=6
By the relation between roots and coefficients, +...+ an(A,+n,Jz1 =0.
a+B+y+d=0 or
aByd = -7 (ag +a1Ar+ a2A2 + ... + anAr)

a+p+y+V=0 +(a181+a282+ ...+ anBr)J2 =0.
aQw =-7 Thus, by (a),
a+P+2Rey =Q ao- arAr +ar,4, + ... *a,An =0
arB_+arBr* ". *anBn =0.
a\lrl2 = -t It fc,llows that
xey =-l(a+D. lrl=Jii"p (ag + a1A1+ a2A2 + ... + arAn)
+a282+ ... +a,B)Ji=0
"1"t8t
387
as +ar(Ar- ArJi)+"2(A2 - B2Jr) EXERCISE 4A
+ ... +ao(A,-B,.ll1 =g
Again, by (i),
l. A=l,b=-10,C=25.
as + aic - it Jr| + arlc - it Ji)2
2. Write the equation as
+ ... +ar(c-alryo =o (A + ay)x2 + (by + B)x + (cy + C) = O
Thisshows that c-dJi i"alsoaroot ot f(x).
(c) If l-J2 isaroot of x4+x3-6x2-Sx-l=0,
-_-1ty*4tffi
2(A+dy)
then by (b), I + Jt is also a root, -(by + B)! 2_
+ -4aC -4cA)y+62 -+.eC'1
xa +x'-bx--)r-l
a -) 2(A+ ay)
-O11 x2 +3x +t)

x is a rational fi:nction of y if and only the if
= ['-tt-.8>]['-A expression under the radical sigr is a perfect square, the
= [' - rr -.Er]l' -u. f,l[, - -r*] condition for this is
(2bB - 4aC - 4"A)2 = 4(b2 - 4ac\82 -4 AC)

The roots ofthe equation are =€J, (aC - Ac)2 = (aB - Ab\bC - Bc)
| - J-2. r * Ji. 11-: * J5), +(-3 - Jt)
3. (i) y <-10 or y>2.
(ii) Similarly to (i), write
x2 +).
y=# or x2 -1n+1x-2fl=a
r is real ifand only if
yz -qn-zys>o
yz +8y-M,>0
The inequality holds only if
* -agy-+t"1<o
1"<4
4. Write the equation as
yx2 -3x-(y+k1=0
.r is real if and only if
32 +4y(y+k)>0
^{l'.+)'.1^ I"
If I
kI< 3, the above inequality is true for all real
values of y.
5. (a) Direct calculation,

2^+2ax+b
f (x)-k -x' -o
x2 +l
_(l-k)x2 +2ax+(b-k)
,2 +l
388 Answers and Solution - Chapter 4
is of the form
('4t:B)' only if EXERCISE 48
f(x)-k
D(x2 +1)
(l-k)x2 +2ax+(b-k) is aperfect square, 2. For
+a2 -+1t-ttyb-k)=o
,6 +2r2 -3 (16 -t) +12x2 -21
,4 +t2 +l ,4 +r2 +l
k2 -1t+t1k+(b-a21=s t ^2
2x- -2
+t)2 - = \a - !)T-;--i-
(b - r)2 + 4a2
4(b - a2 7 = 1b (x' - x +l)(x' +.r + l)
>0 as a+0. then, ocpress the proper factor in partial fractions.
Therefore, there are 2 real numbers /r such that
f(x)-k isofthe 1or*(Ax+B)z .

3. (b) Let
D1x2 +11 n
x2 +7 Ar
Since k, satisfies 4a2 -411-kr\b-kr1 =g (1+x)(l+2r) ... (l+ra) l+rc
r=l
(l (b- k,) then
lQ)- k, = a
-x +l n
x2 +t = lA,1t + x1'.. {t + 1r - t;.r}{(l + (r + l){ ... (t + ru-)
(l k,1x + a]2 +(l-k,)(b- k,)-a2
1t-lr{x2 + l) Put x=-1 fo, r=1,2, n
-lQ-*,)'*o]2
(l-/r,\r2 +l)
r
I
2
+
)
Ar (,-:) ('-+)(' +) n
( l-- r
(b) kr, k2
\+k,
are rootsof/c2
= ba1
-(b+l)k+(b-o2)=0, I +r- _t
r 2"r
(+) (i)( :) (+)
k1k2=b-a2. (r-l)! ( l)"-' (n - r)l
-Ar
(l - k r(l - k 2) = I - (4 + k z) + k Lk 2 r n-l
l- (b +l)+b - a2 7-l1n-' 1t + r2 1rn-3
= Ar
., (r -l)t(n-r)l
Heace
For every real
"it"J"r'r, x2 +l 3 (-t)"-'(t +r21rn-t
*rllrtD- kzl
frrn>-
@=',G:l)G-ti?f+'r)
r=l
f{r - t r)t + "f2 ..1{r - *;n * of2
4. (a) Lel
_10 - tdn * le - n r)n * ln Ar

"f' "]' L, l-
(1--\l-2r) "' (1-".) r=1 rx
-a21h2 +l;2
<0 n
Therefore. for every real number /r, h <f (h) < kz t =lt,1t-x) ... [l-(r-l)r]x[l-(r+l).r] ... (l-n')
r=l
Put r=1,
r ,o. r=1, 2, n
l= Ar( t--r
I
) ('-+) (1_-r r+1
r
=4,
n-l - 1)l(-l)"-'
(r (n - r)l
r
Hetce A-
( -l\n-' rn-l and the result follows.
' (r -I)l(n-r)r.
(b) Let
o, =#?u,-4,=eDr c:
(x-
x(x + l)
1) (x-n)
... (x+n) - t
r=0
Ar
x+r Hence
2" 1nt1 3 t-r)"cI
then (y+l{y+3) ... (y+2n+I) L y+2r +l
(x-l) '.. (x-z)
=ll,x(x+t) ... {x+(r-l)}{r+(r+l)} ... (x+n)
"' (x-n)
6. (a) Let @-t)(x-2) Ou
-' L x+k
r=0 (.r+l[x+2) '.' (x+n)=r**
Irut .X=-f fot r =0, I,2, ... ,n
n
(-r-l)...(-r-n)
... {-r+(r-l)}{-r+(r+l)} ... (-r+r)
(x - t\x -2) .
" (, - n)= fl{x+e)
= \(-r)(-r+l) k=l
(-l)u (n +r)! +lAo(x +t) ..' (x +k* l{x+/c +l) ... (x +n)
A.(_l), rl(n_r)t
= '-r\
rl k=l
, (-l)o-'(n+ry. put x =
-k for k =\ 2, ..., n. then.
"t rlrl(n- r)l (-k-IX-k-z) ... (-k-n)= Ar?k+t) ... (-k+k-t)
Hence (-k +k +r) ... (-k +n)
(x-1) ... (r-n) $(-l)'-'(z+r;l I
;Glit::Ir+',) = 4- ,;6=a1-,-, ^ --(-l)"-k*l@+k)l
^k -Ettrk _t)tln_
k)t
Hence, the result.
a, (b)Putx=0in(a)
y+r
n
512
nt=}o,y(y+l) ... (y+r-l)(y+r+l) ...(y+n). 7 (a) (i) .r + ro- _ r,.
aL1.. fi #
r=0
3(., - a)
Put y=-7, (ii)Let
n+l
nl = arGr)(-r+l) ... (-r+r+1) (-r +n)
= arGl)r rl(n -r)l
G=X;y 'G7;=@+D+ilL'
r=l
nl ,"+r =1x+h)l(x-l\x-2) ... (*-"))
a, = (-l)t
vw-fr. (-l)'c: = n
+1e,1* - tyt - 2) ... (x - r +lNx- r- l) (x-n)
Hence
r=l
nl S(-r)'cl Put X-:f for r= 1,2,... ,n.
vo+t)' (y +")
r=0 rn*l A,(r-lXr-2) ... (r-r+l\r-r-l) (r-n)
=
n
2n 1nt1 Al = A,(r - l)!(-l)'-'(z - r)l
(y+2n+t) -\-
(b) Let
(y+l)(y+3) "' -.L (y +2r +l)
, -,n-r n+l
r=0 (-I) r
Ar=
2'nl (r- l) l(n - r)l
n
= | A,1y + t)1y + 3) ... (y + 2r - l)(y + 2r + 3) ... (y + 2n + l). Comparing the coeflicient of xn .
r=0 0=h+(-l-2- ... -n)

Put y--(2r+l), that h=l+2+ ... +n=|n@+l).
2" nl = A,(-2r - | + l)(-2r -l + 3) -.- (-2r - | + 2r - l) We have the partial fractions.
(-2r -l+2r +3) ... (-2, -l+2n+l) (b) Put x = 0 in (a)(ii), the result is deduced.
= Ar(-l)'2n rl(n-r)t
390 Answers and Solution - Chapter 4
I r[ L t r['$1-rlkaol
8.
=].
|
9
ll
,- t
2r +l
21,
x' (x+l)- r=lr +112
,i n2 +2n
n2 +2n+l
(n+2)l
=T.tx+t) .- 1r*"*2') bv (b)
13. HKAL= 1985 Poper I Queslion 3

4r +3 5
I
10.
(2r -l\2r +l) 2(2r -l) 2(2r +l) 60
14. (a) Tlreorern 4.3

11. HKALE l99l Poper I Question 2
(b) Take
_f_
tl
x-l' 2-x' P(x) - x"-r
I (x-a1\(x-a2) (r- en)
ot, =V*l-L, e@) =
0 k=0 e,@)=Z@_a).. (x - a,-1\x - d r+r) -.. (* - a r)

bt= rl
l-2k-r k =1,2,3,
p(,a,) - o rn
t2. (a) Let Q'(ar)=(dr-dr)... (a, - a r1)(a, - d r+t) ... (a - a n)

n+2
By(a),
7t+x1"*2 =lb,x'
r=0 tn-l
(x-ay) --- (x-an)
1l + x1"*2 = (l + 2x + x2 )Lo,*' n
a *7
r=0 =t (a, - z1\ . -. (a, - a,4)(a, - a 14) -.. (a, - a r\x - a r)
Comparing the coefficient of ,'+2 .
That is
br+2 =a, +2ar*rldr+z.
(b) Usual method.
(c) Partial fractions,
2 - r'l
:!l_l__x+k+l- 15. (a) Theorem4.3
@:Zlx+E- r+k+z) (b) Theorem 4.3
So that,
(c) Take
n
I (x+k)(x+k+l)(x+k+2)
k=o
(-r)k or,
A(x) = YP ,
A(x) = (r+l)(x +2) .-- (x+n)
I Jg r-rlo"* _"$ (-t)&o*, $ (-r)eoo I
) 1L x+k 'L x+k+l' L x+k+2[ A(-r) = (-r)P
[*=o k=o k=o )
B' 1-r1 =1-t;'-r 1r - t; t (n - r)l
!-!:1.+
xx+|2
eDklot -z+2a1,-1+a1r]
x+k
By (b),
2
k=2 xP
=
+ (-t)'-11-4r
L6-t14"-ry1r*4
1-17"*112 +n1 Gl)"*2 (-r+l{,r+2) ...(x+n)
1-
x+n+l 'x+n+2
(-t)"-l"P
(-l)oDo . (-l)rbr . 3t-r)ra* . (-l)n*rbn*t =r-rrp$
''' L_r(r -l)l(n - r)l(x +r)'
I r - r+l -L x+k -'--+n+l
k=2
2 By setting r = 0, the result follows.
er)"*2
x+n+2
Answers and Solutions - ChaPter 4
39r
16. (a) Differentiation gives 18. (i) When q, b, c, d are all unequal.
f' (o r) = (a, - ar) -.. (o, - or-r)(a, - ayal) "' (a, - an) (x- a\x -b\x- c\x - d)
(x+a\x+b\x+c\x+d)
(b) (D If g(x) is a real polynomial of degree less than
n, then, by simple partial fraction theorem, there
-t + 2a(a+b\a+c\a+d)- 2b(a+b\b+c\b+d)
At,A2,...,.4,
=
Tb -&=&=&; +6 G: bk=m= bxx + b)
are unique real mrmbers such
2c(a+c\b+c\c+d) 2d(a+d\b+d\c+d)
that I
' (a-c\b-c\d -c{r+c) ' (a-d\b -d\c-d\x+d)
g(x)
.f (x)
+o,
.L/ X-A-
(ii) Use binomial theorem,
A
r=l (x- a) (x+ a)-2a
n
A,f (*) (x+ a)a (.x + a)
e(r)=I x-4, 1x+a1a -41x+a13 12a1 + 61x + a'12 12a12 - 4(x + a)(2a)3 + (2a)a
r=l
(x+ a)a
=in,{*-or) "' (x-a,-1)(*-a,*t) "' (,-on). -l--1

8a 24az 32a3
*
16a4
r=l x+a (x+a)z (x+a)3 ,r*.f

(ii)From (i), for r = I, 2, "', n.
g(ar) = Ar(a, - a1) "' (o, - or-t)(a, - ar*1)"'(a, - ar) f9. (a) By long division,
A,f (a,)
= x6 +3xa -7 =-(*' +l\xa +2x2 -2)-5
g(ar) = 1x2 +t{(r2 +l)(r'?+t)-3]-
s
,
'-r
a=-
.f '(o,)
= (x2 + l)3 - 3(-r2 + l) - 5.
Hence
r@) =i#(r - a1)"' (x - a,-1)(x - a r+r1"' (x - a n)

$)rrffi=*.ffi,^^
x8 +x7 +6x6 +3xs +l2xa +4xz -7x-13
=l* g2lrn-r
t'<',>
+terms rn-2,'n-3'.. et". :7a2 +l)a +(x+2)g(x)
lt'. 1 so that
It follows that, if g(x) is a polynomial of degree *8 +*7 +6"6 +3x5 +L2x4 +4r2 -'lx-13 1r2 +l)a
c@)= x+2 x12
less than z - l, then
t7 +216 +3x5 +6*4 -7x-14
$ g(",) _n x+2
,L "'
JI't^\*r \-
) 6 ^4
r=l =x +3X -t.
(iii) Let g(x) = x^, ffi<n-2 and Harce by (a)
f (x) =(x- lf,x- 2) "' (*-r)- P(") I ,6 +3r4 -7

then by (ii) Q@) x+ 2 (x2 +l)a
n_$ g(",) I (x2 +l)3 -3(r2 +l)-5

- t_,7, tuhere a, = r ---L x+2'
r=l
@ri (x2 +l)a
1135
t (r-1)...(r-r+ l)(r-r-l) "'(r-n)
n
r=l
rm - x+2- x2 +l
1x2 +l)3 (x2 +l)a
n
(-7)n-"^ "
(r -l)l(n - r
20. (a) A(x) = (r - x1) .
1x - xr)
r=l Logarithmic differentiation gives
(c) Lagrange interPolation: lnl(x) = ln(x-xr)+ "' +ln(x-xr)
,@=iT!;:P") A'(x)
A(x)
= t
n
j=l
I
x xi
where /(r) = (x - a)(x - a2) (x - ar) and differentiate again.

392 Answers and solutions - Chapter 5
A(x)A"(x)- A'(x)2 _{ -l EXERCISE 5A

--- -= !__;-*
^@f 1. If 0 <r<1,0 <y <1, rhen
rb) 2t-l==2x-2+:l= 2 - 1 (l-.r[1-y)>0
(x-l)" (x-l)' (x-l) (r-l)t l-y-x+ry>0
(c) If B(r) = *o - l0x2 + l. Using (a) and (b) xty-ry <l
,',-t-=i t *$ r
i3G,-r)' Next, x+y-rry = x+lr(l -x) >0
ft{,'-D'!1, -G =
=-ri t *$ ' 2. For arry fl, D > 0, we have
f,i0-x) Ae-*,)' 1a-b)2 >-o

_ _"la'(r)l ,
---LB
n,1tyz - ng1n"g1 (a +b)2 > 4ab
)J-- Byf a+b ab
where 4 -a+b
B(x)= ya -10x2 +1, similarly, for a, b, c> O.
B'(x)= 4x3 -20x b +c bc c+a ca

B"(x)=12x2 -20 4 -b+c' 4 -c+a'
Adding above 3 results,
a(l) = -3, B'(l) = -16, B"(l) = _8.
l. bc ca ab
Thus
7@+b+c)> b+c+ c+a*,*t
4
I
i=l
2x,
(xi
-l
)
-2 (#). (-16)2(-8)2
-(-sx-8 )
3. If a, b> tt, m,z eN, then
- -1. a^bo +a'b^ *a-*'-b^*'=7a" -b"11b^ -a^7

<0
as 1a' - bn7, @^ - b^) have same sign.
The equality holds if and only if a, -bn =O or

o^ - b- = 0 i.e. if and only if a = b.
4. (oi + b3 - 1a2 b + ab2 1 = 1a2 - t2 ya - n1

1
= (a+b)(a - b)2
>0
Thus,
o3 +b3 > o2b+ob2

and similarty,
b3 + > b2c +b"2

"3
*o3 u
"t "2o*"o2
Adding, the result follows.
5. (a) Because
**!=',,J; -E)' .rO

>2Ji'
therefore, take x =n, I =gl
answers and Solutions - Chapter 5 393
8l
n +-> 18 l. (a) (p2 +r2}.q2 +s2)-(pq+rs)2
n
tt2 = 1ps - rq)2
(b) x(a-.t) =-1.-;) .? s-dIt 4 >0.
Using the inequality (b) (pa +q4)-(p3q+ pq3)
r(n-r)<|n' n r=1,2,. ,(z-l). =(p-q)(p3 -q3)

we have =(p-q)2(p2 *pq+q2)
n-l >0.
n
flr(z -r) <
2 (c) (pa +q4 +r4 +sa)- pqrs
rl
2(n-t) =(p' -q')' +7rz -1212 +2p2q2 +2r212 -4pqrs
n
{("-r)r}'< , +7rz -1212 +2(pq-rs)2
=(p' -q')'
>0.
"rrr(;)
8 o2 +b2 +"2 -1ob+bc+ca)
6. In fact,
= jlr" - tl' + @ - c)2 + 1" - off
112 +m2 +n2yx2 *yz *r21-1k+my+n212
>0
= I2r2 +12y2 +12"2 +^2*2 +.2y2 *^2"2 The given equation is equivalent to.
22 +ny
+nx 22 +nz
22
3x2 - 2(a +b + c)x +(ab + bc + ac) = g.
- (12 12 + -2 y2 + n2 - 211^ry + lnn + mryz) t

"2
1
=l+{" +b + c)2 - aQ\ab + bc + ac)l
=l,22
y +m22
x +m22
z +n22
x +n22
y
= 4l@2 + b2 + 1 - 1ob + bc + ac)f
-2(lmxy+lnxz +mryz) "2
>0.
= 1mz - ny)2 + (nx - lz)z + (ly - mx)z
The roots ofthe equation are real.
[This is known aslagrange identityl
(l) 3(a2 +b2 +"21-7o+b+"12 9. (a) aa -2(b2 +c2)a2 +1b2 -"212

= (a - b)2 + (b - c)2 + (c - a)2 = (a + b + c)(a - b - c)(a - b+ c)(a + b - c).
>0 if a,b,c areunequal. (b) Given a + b + c > 0, a - b - c < o, a - b+c > O,
a+b -c> 0.
(ii) (a+b+c)[;.;.:)-, Bv (a),
oa -21b2 +"2)o2 +1b2 -"212 <o

= {(r, +(ri)2.,6,,}{(+i .[+l .(+l] *"4 .0.
o4 -zo2b2 -2o2"2 +ba -2b2"2
a4+b
.4+c4 <zlab 22 +bc
^.2,2 +ac ,22.
).
-
{,r,[#).
roftJ.,r,[+)]' Since a, b,c>0 and
={ni-ri)' .{ri-*+l' di *Ji>z +b)+2Jrir

= (a
>a+b
.{ni-'il' i.. Ji +JE > Ji.

>c.
etc.
>0 therefore,
Alternative By Cauchy's Inequality. o2 +b2 +c2 <21ab+ac+bc).

10. For = (k +l)'r2J1a a1J16 - 1+(k - 1)
rs-lrs+l =
a(s - l) +b(k- s+l) a(s + l) +b(/c -s - l)
kk =zk+2Jnz
as +b(k - s) - (a -b) as +b(k - s) +(a - b) <2k +2k
^
k k _ aL.
Al.
2
-
_[as+b(k-s)\' _("-u therefore, by (a)
I r J [r ,[1ra1a,[1r-1a2,t1t
(x"2 (J k + t + JA)(J w r - J-t'- r) . zJE (J r' + t - J k - t)
r'r-l Js
2<2JE(Jr+t-Jhl)
Hence,
xs ' rs+l
L.(Jr'*t
\ -f:T) '/
11. HKALE l?98 Poper I Question l2 '!t
(c) For any positive integer n
12. HKALE 1989 Poper lQuestion 2.
13.
->"+'>('tm-a--l
lll I =J"+r*Ji-t.
'3
f' 23' 33' n
r rf(r r\ /r r\ ... ll 15. (a) From the identity
'r* * tll.r2 - n)-ln- t+) + +
8 (n2\b\-p-\n
4qb =(a+b)2 -(o-b)2
t t(t
=r+s+t[t- _t
r\ Ifa+5
(n-t)n ) is constant, aD increases as a -b decreases
<1+g+
I I ll (b) (i) Consider the positive numbers a and D whose
n= 5. sr,m is (2n +2). By (a), we have
Similarly,
(n + l)2 > (l)(2rz + l) = (l\Zn + l)
ll
-
,a (r-3\r-2\r-l)r (n+r)2 > (2)(2n)> (t)(2n+t)
I (n+1)z > (3\2n-t)> (l)(2n+l)
3 (r -3\r -2\r -l) (r -2\r -l)r
llll ... * (n +t)2 > (2n + 1[l) = (1)(2n + t)
T*V*V* =
.r*V*V*i Z lll t rl Ailding,
2n+l
(rl[rl[r)- (r -2)(r -t)r l (2n + r)(n + Dz > >k{(2n + 1) - (k - t)} > (2n + t)z
I I ll I k=l
=t*V*?*Zl r.2.3 (n-2)(n-t)n n 2Er k{2n+2-k}
lll1465 (n+I)', L#>2n+t
<l+*+rr+ls=12% k=l
(ii) sinilarly, using (a)
14. (a) If a, D are both positive, n-l=n
o2 .o (n-l).2>l-n
-b2
(n-2).3>l.n
(a +b)(a -b) <0
a-b<0
a 0. (n-l)> l-n
l.n = n.
(b) Because
multiplying, we get
(Jk +r+Jr' -4'z (nl)2 >n".
16. (a) For (b) It follows from (a) that, if x> l,
7n+l1P*r -re*r xt*l -l x- -l
p+l m*l m
(x -l)z x*1lm+(m-l)+ ... +2+l]
(n +r; -z][12 +l)P +(z +l)P-t n + ... + npf
ndn+l)
P+l
(n +l)P +(n +l)P + . -. +(n +l)P _(x-r)2x*t.t@+t)
m(m+l)
P+l
(p+t\n+l)P =!**r(t
2' -l\2
P+l Hence
n-lf
= (n+l)P rt*t -l *h
t
-l .1rr-l)2 Ir&-r
n-l
pl
.
(n+l1P*r k+l- k 'LJ

-rr*r k=m
P+l That is
(n+l)P +(n+l)P-rn+ ... + nP x'-l x^-l l- -."*l

p+l nm2"r=^
nP +nP +.-- +nP .|{,-.\, -r)',*'
P+l
=nP. 18. HKALE 1994 Poper I Question 4
(b) Hence
n-l ' n-l- 19. HKALE 1995 Poper I Question 5
. * io-' - k o*'l
2o' #!-[to 20. HKALE l98Z Poper Question 5 I
I
=P+ltlrr*t -t] J
o+l
n' 22. HKALE 1995 Poper I Question l3
p+l
n n-l 23. (a) (i) tf h =tk , qr =|ek - t), then
Ztro = lir +r;P
pt +Qr+t=3k +j{:r -t)+t
k=l k=0
I =|xtk +|
p+l I[,r*ro.t -k*tl
k=O
txtk -|xtk +|
nPtl
p+l =3u*, _i(30*, _r)
= Pk+t - Ik+t
17. (a) We have (ii)As p, q are positive integers with p > q,
ftl-m-
-r-lx-I I I
2p .2p 2
n+l- - 2 =-
P-q- P+q= ez -t'
mx-*l -m-1m+ lxrt - l) I 2p -2p 2
m(m+ l)
pnn p+q-l p' -(q-t)' - p' P
+ ... x+D-_@+t\x*r +x*r + ... +t)f
_@-ttn({+x*r
ll
_a_-
2o 2p2
(x-l)(nu- -x*1 -**2 - --- -l)
p-l p+l p'-l pzp
t{n+l) Adding ->
1x-l121nx*r +(m-l)x*z + --. +2x+r)

n{n+l)
tl I
+-p-l 2a.@) + ...+ t"-t)dt
p-q p-q+l 111a1+P
-+-+ ll =l *t*
I
+-nI
+-+I
p+l
+-+-> p+q-l p+q
2q
p
I
+
1l (b) G.P.
p-q p-q+l p-l p l+(l-.x)+(l- r)z + ...+(l-r)'-l
-+-+
I
+-+ ll -+- 2q.l
+-+->
p+l p+q-l p+q PP l-il-r)u
_2q+l
I -(l -;)
p
(b) Denote the statement
=+['-'-i':r-.)']
n
t+1+ ... *!r, where m=]6,-t',
2m2' =lci1-t1'*r r'-r
by P(n). r=l
Forz = 2, m=+Q2
By substitution x = l- t,
-D=4,
...+r'-t)dt
1*l*l*l=4'r2. fi<r*r*
234 t2
P(2) is true. = Jo[r*tr-'t+ "' +1t-'Y'-']1 -dx)
Suppose that P(k) is true, i.e. r+1
= lri":t-u xr-t &
t+l+... +Lr* where m=f,ro-1 r=l
2m2'
_ $ (-l)'*r
Consider
I
/1
r=l
r -r ",
l+1+ . * *
rrrt' -ry ] {r&*t - r) (c) Refer to theorem 5.7
')
"*[tt7 -t- +
(d) n =22N0
, k*(---]- +1;ar n-
-"J
I
n
I
l{-:)'*' r): I
Let p=3k, q=l(3k -l). then t=l i=l
2000
p - q = 3k - !<tk -t1 = 4(3e -1) +l >l+-;->1000
p + q =3k ++(3e -l) = +(3t*t -l). For arry M,there is n =22M ,
By (a[ii),
t: ./.\r
ll a_ )r-rl'-'[, Ji' u
j(3"-t;+t +(3r*t -t)
--+-+ ll lll I
p-q p-q+l p-l p p+l p+q 25. (a) For
-!...
2o +l o'*l -onb-ob" +b"*l
p
-k = o'(o -b)-bn (o -t)
=1=lJ =1a-b\an -b")
Hence, >0
ll as both a, b arc distinct and positive. Hence
t+!*
, +- + 'r(31+r-l)
*(l' - t) |(3i-t;+t' a"t -anb > abn - b'tl
> k+1.
By principle of mathematical induction, P(z) is
true for all positive integers z.
@)Forz=1
at
[(r+r)o -a] - at*t = 2ab - b2 - o2
{x eR: ..-+}
= -(a -b)z
<0. 31.0 < x <2
Suppose the result is tue for n = k.
tkll* + t)a - kb]. o**t 32. HKALE 1993 Poper I Question 7
then lx =l where t > 5

bk*tl(k+2)a-(e +l)rl I, =t*3
= bk*\ l(k + t)o - kbl+ bk*l a - bk*l b
<bak*t +(otk*r -bo*')

[, =, where -3<t<-l
ly=r+s
<bak*r *(oo*' -oo*tb) bv(a)
k+2 =t
=A where t < -3
The result is also true for n = k +I. {; =-t-3
(c) Take o=t+J-, b=t+! in (b), the result 33. HKALE 1992 Poper I Question l0
follows
26. HKALE l99l Poper I Question 6
27.1<x<3 or 4<x<6
28. Let f (x) =lz'-tl +l+-{

-(2x-r)+(4 - x) for ,*.+
(x) (2x-t)+(4-x) for i.*.4
{ (2r-l)+(x-4) for x> 4
l-t*+s for *.+

=.l '*r for i.*.4
l.,"-, for x>4
v v =.f (x)
=5
I
J
3 5
x<0 or x>2
29. -3 <x <3
EXERCISE 58 3. (a) By the relation between roots and coeflicients,

a-p+y =zp (l)
1. Infact, if u+v+l=I afy = r. (2)
I I I (b) Usrrg AIvI>AL

--l --l w
)( v )( --l
u
,=[
t
, ( a+ F+y\3
J
= *{rt-,xt-vf,l-u)}
uvw - >afu=r'
I
= --:-{l-(a
uvw -
+ v+w)+(uv *vw+wu)-uvw}
4. (a) Forpositiverealnumbers a, b if a*b=I, thenby
= 'tww the theorem of the means,
t'
-L--!un*r.+wu)-uvw| l=a+ b
| [vur-r3-r,,r]
, uvwl' >2JA
)
I
1 Iletce ab<4
-__1
-l
(ur*)3
(b)If )< x<y<1,
t- 3
-t y+- I I
!(u+v+w) ('.+)-( 'v =(x-y ,( l-- ry
=8. >0
1l
2. (a) Using AA[>A'{ theretore
x-yy+-
x+->
abc
_f _f,- I
b+c- c+a- a+b Put x = ab, '4
y= , in above inequality and using
d+b+c a+b+c a+b+c _J (a)
-_T-T b+c c+a - "+b
3(a +b + c) oo+L>!+q
_J ab4
[(b + c)(c +a)(a +bfi! 17
3(a +b + c) 4
)--J
!(2a +2b +2c) (c) (i) In fact
3 a b o2 +b2 (a-b\2 +2ab 2ab
2 b'a- -
-:- ab - ab - ab-'
(b) Similarly and
,L-!o Olo + b) + b c (b + c) + ca (c + a)f (".:)' *l,, *f)'

aDc' \b)
a+b b+c c+a l'\
- ca
-+-+
abbc
b
ca
I
(".:) -(,4))'.,( a+-a I b+
i)
= -*-*-*-
ccaa
*E* u .r(,.i\o.i)
..i/(r(:)(*)(r(t(t (ii)Bv (i)
. (, .
=6. (' .
:)' *)',,('. :)(' . +)
(c) Again,
a+b>2Jab b+c>2Jbc c+a>2Ji ='{(*.*).(;. *))
multiplying,
>214
(n+2)=T
) zs
(a +b\b + c\c +a)> 8J"b Jb"J;
= 8abc.
5. By AM>GluI.
l+x+ ... * *2'r(zn+l)ll.x.x, ... *rrl# k=0

i (n\n-t) .--
kl
(n-k+t)( s
n
k
nk n n-7 n-k+7
= 1zn +t;[xl+z*
..' *zr1# -s
-LH; n n
k=o
= (2n+t)lx'(z'*rt1-*; .I;nk
k=0
= (2n+l)xn
Hence rn . I t =+ft r\
l+x+ ... *t'n - 2"+I ro.(a)$ n
avT+t= al7-7n)
r=l r=l'
n+l
(b)By AM>GluI.
6. From t-2,[ao+a2=(t-J")' >0 wehave
n,!-l \_
(l+a1)>Z,tao for k =1,2,.-- , n. n +l L r(r +l)
r=l
Hence
q
(l + a1)(l+ a2) (t+ a,) > (2.,lqX2J
=2" $ta2 -4
... eJ %)
"[g*]-
Hence the result.
-an
I
(c) +n
7n(n+l)=l+2+
7
Ilt. .7.?l.l( al
a2
(",-r)o,
| ", )o, > n(nl)"
n
I
grvmg n+l
nl<
a,l.z, a^ . dn-l d, 2
-l---t- )n.
az a3 a, al
11. Applying the theorem of the means to the positive
8. Using AM>Cd,[ . 234
numbers
n+l
wehave
I
1,r,1,
l+2+4+'-. +2n-7
... .2"-t)i l(2 3 4 n+l) (ztq I
;fT*z*T*"'* " )'[r'z'r ' " )

n
> (1.2-4- r+l\
SimpliSing, the result follows.
*('.+).('.+).('.+). .('.*))>(z+r)*
9. UsingAI[>A'I
(1+a)(l+a2)...(l+a,) !g+r)>(z+t;*.
(l+at) +(1+a) + ...+(l+a,) n
n
Similarly, applying the theorem,"
t' 1.1.
1. 3'4'... ' n+r'
n+(ar+ar+ ... +ar) n
l(2 3 4
"'* r+l\ (ztq z+l \"
.-L
n ;[T*Z*T* ") '[r'z.r ")

_ -l
=
{'.;}" *{('-+).('-+). . t'#)) '[#)'
Using the binomial theorem,
(l+ar)(1+a) ...(l+an)
j{r,+r)-",*,}'[#)*
t
nn k n I
=[t* ;) =I ,x( G+r)-il<@+t)"

k--0
12. HKHLE 1988 Question Z. Take
13. HKALE 1997 ?oper I Question 9 o,=-L for r=1,2,..-,k

Ith "' cr'
then ara., ... d, =l andbY hYPothesis,

14. (b) (i) Guuoo*r< Aooou*,
= AkkfAk +@e*1- A))
=**'l'.(T-')l 2',=ffi,"
By (b) we r,uu" [ot. r = --jr.r--l
= Ark*r (l + *). I V"' "'"r )
t ["1+ .-- *ck
(ii) Suppose Gp < Ae then ck+t I - I ck*t l+
Go*to*t =ardz
^k
= ukak*l
" akak+l
-k+\m-ffi1'IffiJ ...
< lf;*l1t+11
#to + ...
+co*rj'{"0*,}#{", "e}+-ii+D
#t,+ ... +"0*,]t{", ... "n"o*r}#

=,ef.t(r+0,*r) #)
z rk+l
16. (a) See problem 23 (a)
< 4.tlr*fir) bv (a)
(b)For any y2, .. , y,, let
Hence
h,
/ x\
Gt *r t l*ll+ 1r +1) '
f
4lvtz "' vn
then we see that trx2 ... r, = l. Hence, by
=or{'.*(+')i xl+ x2 + "' *xn ) tt, we have
-.
, .ak+t
=nk* k+r-Tff,
Ak
ft+lz* ... +ln _ _-
:4n
atr*, vlyryz ... y,

_ kAk +
k+l yr+y2+...+yn
n
>rttilz "' ln
= Ak*'t
The result follows by principle of induction.
17. (b) Theorem 5.10
15. (a) (1+x)' > I+rro, > -1. (UseM.L) (c) Let a1> G(q -.. ar) > a* andlet
The equality holds only when z = I or x = 0 a't=G(at "'ar)
(b) Given that a, . .' ak = 1, a1* . . * ap > k a' Z= 42,
...,d' n-l= /n-l
( ar+ ..- +ak +x'1t*l _1fr+r',k*1 a' n
olon
= G(a1 ...an)
I r+t ) '\rc+r )
/ r - l\r*l then
=[t*;-nJ G(a't " a',)=l!a'1a'r "'a'n
1r-l\
>r+(fr*t)l.**,J ( oron )
=4", a1 -.- ar)a2 a*\G(ar "'
e )
=x. '4n-l4n
= 4lo(z
(c) Forpositivenumbers c1, c2, or)
= G(ar .
{Jn - J"r}'> o i.e.

a?, J;* but
I
Suppose that !(q+ ... +c,) rd; ...
",
401
A(a't, ..- ,o' n) - A(ay ... ,an) (ii) For x > l, we have
ll ... * _ ,k >*k-', xk-2,..., x
= -(a, r+a, 2+ d,
n) a, + + ar)
;(a1+
Then
alan
G(ay... ,an)+a2+ ... +an_r+ bk =xk +rk + ...+tk
n G(a1,...,an)
I >xk-t +xk-2 + ... +r+l
-;(a1+ar+ + or)
The inequality becomes equality if and only if
1r alan x =1.
=;L G+ G - alan
Thus, when x < 1, by (i), we have
_l (G-ar\G-a,) h*1r -l;> 1xe-l + xk-2 + ... +.r+lxx-l)

nG k.
=x -I
<0 and when x> l, by (ii)
asG-ar<0,G-an>0,G>0.
bk 1x -11> 1xk-t + xk-z + ... +x+lN.r- l)
Thus A(o't,...,a' ) < A(a1,...,an).
=rt-l
(d) For any given positive numbers, a1, . . . , a replace
n,
The inequality becomes equality if and only if
the greatest a, (saV) and the least an (say) by G and
x=1.
Hence, for all positive number x, we have
resnectively, then by (c)
ff tc-klx-t1>rk -l
A(ar...a)2 ,q(c.o., ",an-,,ry) bk*r +l>(k +l)xk
\- The inequality becomes equality if and only if
By (a) the equality holds if and only if x=1.
al=" =ar=G (b) Putting
Again, replace the greatest and the least of
G,o2,...,o,-'T by G and
T (say) so xtxz ... xk
=l
that,
'=[ k
xk+l )'-
A(at -.'a)2 A(a'1'..o'o)> A(o"t...o" r) we have
where a"l =G,a"r=ry kxr*r + I = 1r(

*rr, ." ' *r\l *,
This augment may be repeated until each of the n [ 'f.' )
given numbers has been replaced by G, at most I
(z - l) repetition, being required. k(xrx" ,ti + xk*7

xkrl
So that
A(ar... a)> A(GG ...G) and
where l(G ... G) = = G(ar ... a,). (k+t)xk=tr.,{1;i)F

Thus
I
A(at... ar) 2 G(ap2 ... a,) (k+l\xrx" .'. x4,*t)kn
The equality holds ifand only if c, - ...- an xk'l
Applymg the inequality in (a)
18. (a) (i) For r < l, we have I
k(xp2 ... xolE +
*k a*k-1, xk-2,..., x
xo*,
,(k+l)(x{z '.. xt xu)A
x k+l xk*l
,k k k
=x +.r + ... +x
lc
kx
<r
k-t +xk-2 + ..' +r+l k(xp2 ... x1)E + x1r*1>(k +l\xrx, ...,t *t *t)H
The inequality becomes equality if and only if The equality holds ifand only if
x=1.
I 20. HKALE 1985 Poper I Question 5

t=( t"'' -"' 'r)m =,
[ 'f*' ) 21. HKHLE 1990 Question l.
rt.xz.....xr
xk*l rk*7 xk+l
=l 22. HKALE 1989 Poper I Question 10.
(c) Assume that the result holds for n= k, and the 23. (a) \lhen n = I
equality holds if and only if xt = x2= "'=xk, rt=l<l'
then, by (b)
Suppose the statement is true for n= k,
t,, I xk*l
(x:l'z x*x**r)k*t xr)h + then for x1, x2, ..., xk, ;r,p.*1 > 0, with
=ft1{rr*,
,^(-'#). k+1
Jt*l
k+1
x--xZ "'xk*L=1-
\f,hen xt =x2= "' =xk =xk+t=1,
x1+x2+ *Jr.r the statement is naturally true.
k-l If x's are not all equal to 1, there exists xi>|,
The equality holds ifand only if x_,. < 1, where I<i, i < k+1.
xl= xZ xk = xk+l
Without loss of generality, let x1 < l, x y*1 > I
By principle of mathematical induction, the result is denote y = rlrr+1. Then, by inductive hypothesis,
true for all positive integers n.
y+x2+ ... +xp> k.
19. (a) Differentiation Therefore
xL+)c2+...*xp*xp*1
(b) carring *=!, g-;1=f , th"n
+.+=, =(y+x2+,r3+ '.. + xp)+xt*xp*1-x1xp*l +l-l
> k+l+(l-xrXrr*r -l)
'=( t)"',
put
> (/r + l).
(c) Suppose it is true that Gr 3 An, thert Thus the statement is true for all positive integers.
I
Gn+t = (\,xz "' xrxnql)"| (b) Let (opz .'. o,1+ =G, then
. ,l xx x ta
=l{c,)" r,*rl'.' a-42 "' 4, G
therefore
__L I
= (Gn)"*, (r,*r ) "*t

o, )'
_!_ I
G) =1
<(A,)'*' (t *r)"*t [+)"(+]'
Thus, by (a)
In (b), calhng An ds ct, xr*1 as b, p=+,
trl\I al a,
-rrn;-n E) + )n
a=n+1, then
'pqn+ln+l -+-=-*-= l. G )'. G
--4-- I A, . _4r*xn*t ...

o, aI +al+ +aX ,o,
(Ar)'*'(xr*1)n*' s-orL *xr*l
,*7 n+' n
n
14. If r<0, then
Hence
I
_!_ I xxx
Gr+t < (An)"" (xr*l)n*t al +a2 + -.- +an I
<6=(ap2 ... o,)"
n
qiln I xr*l
- n+l 2o. Similarly,
1. + "' +:, ; + x,*, ]
=
;;[trt + x2 +"1 + ... +oYn
"{ >6t
Ar*l' n
=
Ify>0,
403
I
aI +al + ..- v I
3. By Cauchy-Schwarz's inequality
+aY,
n
2G - (ara2 a,)"
n
7a, -cr)2 + \{", -b,)2

(c) Take x = -1, y = l, in (b), we have j=r j=r
'=[r",]*= (:i", =Z@i

n
-cr)2 +2
n
(ci bi )2
f{o, -"r)2
[*I""] \ i=r
j=r
n
j=r j=L
24. HKHLE 1989 Question 6

+l{r, -br)2
j=r
25. (a) Differentiation. ,f@, -rr)2 +zl,ta, -cr\ci -t;+f{", -tr)2

j=I j=r j=r
(b) Put ,, =2 in (a) and adding.
n-
(c) The weighted means.
=f[at -c,)+(c, -Df'
j=r
Refer to Theorem 5.19. n_
=11o, -b)z
j=r
26. HKALE l98l Poper lQuestion Z.
27. HKALE 1980 Poper I Question 3. 4. (a) Suppose that
xrk-l +.., +x_

k-r
,kxl
n
s + ,.. *x,k
then, by Cauchy-Schwarz inequality
l1+ul'=[i.= +|
'[:'t' It:"1
\' , k-r
=[i't' lr\-r,
lnL n
) r=t
EXERCISE 5C n
Z*!.'
r=l )+2.,
1. Put r=l in
(l+x)" =C( +Cix+ ...+ Clx" f:,:
r=l
=f,!.'
r=l
z" =t+Cf +Ci+ ... +CX (b) For any givan positive numbers l, let
c{ +ci + ...+Ci =2' -r yr
*r -
we have ,j-I+y,
then
f x, = l. By (a)
{:'e}'.{i.'}{i,"} :i(*-)r =i(;1:.,.)r.'
=n(zn -t).
2. HKALE 1993 Poper lQuestion I

i.vf *v*!"'*vI=\;ff
5. (b) (i) The firstpart is the Cauchy-Schwarz'inequality 9. (a) As theorem 5.23
n
4 (b) (i) Usine (aXii).
la,b,cd, (ii)
t=l aA+bB+cC
a+b+c
n
l@ibiXcidi) =--!-.q+-!_n+--!-c
alb*c a+b+c a+b+c
i=I )')' ab c
<-11-
a+d b+b =
B+-c
c+c
+c)
=[i",,,,'J'(in,,,r)' = |{l+ n
_l-
-t,o
=(L"=',)'(L",'=)'
10. (a) Theoran 5.23
(b) Induction on z.
=
2',) (c) Let Q'1 , ctt 2 , "' , Qt n be an rearr-angement of
[]",' J[:'- J[i"" J[
aya2, "',dn such that dtlla'2t "' <atn.
(ii) Letd, = (arbrcr)1 for r = 1,2, ..' , n. By (i) Then
(n
lla,b,c,1a,b,c)i
[,=r
,)o
)
I
i
i=l
o'i
n
=Loi
i=\
and fa'
j=l
m
n
Lo,^
i=l
so that by (b),
*' -- j (t,,u,",,+) I =G2,,)-

=
[i.' [: ][i ]
n
2",)^
i.e.
ll 4
,)io"'
t=l
\{o,b,",)z n
r=l 1 2", m
(" n
t=l
.JI
l>"
It=r i")[:",-J[>",',",'u] 11. HKALE 1982 Poper I Question I
J [i'''][i','J[i", ']
Poper lQuestion 12.
(2,n,",,* 12. HKALE 1990
4
Put r, = oil , yi = b,1uod zi = ci 5in about
inequality, the result follows
(L',, o,)' =
[:',' ) [i,,' ) [l',' )
6. HKHLE 1986 Question 3.
7.. HKALE l99l Poper I Question 8
8. HKALE 1999 Poper ll Quesiion l2

405
EXERCISE 6A (zr - zz)@rz + zrz, + zr21 = 0
i.e. zr3 = zr3

.12+il-t79
! Z+-=-I-=-r_.'
z l-i 2+i l0 l0'
8. (b) By (a) (i)
2. *2 +y2 =ll+rl2n =2" {l " + ul+l z - "l}2 - {l' +n

l+l' -' l}2
= {l * ul2 +l - rl2 + zl z + ull' -
22+zl " " "l}
s. rrom f= , wehave
ztzz -{l' *,12 +1
"
- nl2 +2l z +vll r-, l}
zrz2
'-- 21* 1t+tiY]+]t1
z2 1t++i1+1]+]t1
=2{l'l'+luf +lz2 -"21}
-5+35t 5
= lt+13,' = r(8+9i) -z{l'l' *l'l' *1"' -,'l}
= z{l,l' *l, l' *l z{l"l' *l'l' .1,' l}
4. HKALE 1995 Poper lQuestion Z
"l}-
-0.
(b) z=tlu$v
9. (a) Let a - z1-zv I = zz-zz,y = \-zy
5. (a) By definition, then la l,lBl,lr I are the 3 sides of the 6iangle and
lrt l= t, argzr=t. a + p +y = (2, - z2) + (22 - 4) +Q3 - z) = 0.
l"rl=t,argzz =i. also
a+P+f =0 (l)
(b) zr+zz=#.['.#)' Ifthe triangle is equilateral, then
Ir*-L) lal=lFl=lrl
arg(21+ zt) = *-'l+ l=
t""-'(.E*r). aa=fV=fy=fr (say)
lEl a=L,d=X,, =f Q)
but
tt E 3tt
+zz)=
arg(2,
a* S = g Put (2) in (1)
.'. tan
3z
= 42 +1.
kkk
B -*-*-
d (tr = 0.
6. HKALE 1997 Poper

aB+aY + ff =O
I Question I
(21- z2\22 - zr) + (2, - z2\4 - z1)
+ (2, - zr\2, - zt) = 0
7. (a)If l"l=l"rl=14+"21=1, then
222
+22 +23 = zF2+zF3+2223.
z1z1 = z2V2 = Q1+ z2)(ir+r) = 1
4
(b)If 21, z2,e Teroots
(zr+ z, )(
ll
zr zz )=u,.rr(;.A)
-+- 21*22*4 = 4P
(*)
(zt+zr\Vr+2r) zqz + z(3 + z2za =3q
=
=l Since zyz2,4 are 3 vertices of the equilateral
triangle. By (a)
(b) It follows from (a)
222 * 23
21 -t 22
(2, + z2) @2 I z1) = zF2 + zF3 + z2z3
= z2z1
(2, + z, + zr12 - 21zrz, + zrz, + zrzr)
i.e. 212 *zpr+zr2 =o
= zF2 + 274 + z2z3
Hence
(zt + z, + 4)2 = 3(zrz, + zr4 + zrzr)
By (*), we have
(-3p)2 - 3(3q) =zk{lruo\2 *1oor,>l'}

or P2 =q =zk{l,l'*l,l'}
10. HKALE 1982 Poper I Question 8 =zk {t+t} =zk*r
It follows that
ll. z4 +z = -2 <2k*t and leo{,)l' <zk*'
z =l"o *
"l f:rnf
<lzla +l"l lp,e)l<z* â ler<r>l<z*.
Suppose l"l<t, ttren
(c) Observe that
PoU)= QoQ)= t
l'la +lzl<t+t=2.
Contradiction. Therefore lzl < t. Prit) = Po11'y * 1'o QoG) = t + r(t) = t + t2
qU)= Po()- fo qog'1= t - t(t)= 1- 72
'
12. Refer to example 9.
wlich are polynomials of degree I and2 respectively.
Suppose that
13. HKALE l98l Poper IQuestion 4
^t ^t,-'+ "'
Pn(t)=4o1' +art"
QrG)=bot* + "'
rs. rr+i>[cos TLen
t-," t)=]<r*.61* ]o-J1>,.
Pr*, (t) = Po1tl+ tzk go1t1
16. (a) Example 6 ={oot" *ort'r-' * ..}*r'r{uort'* ..}
(b) Ifz = cosd +i sind, then by the definition of ^t+ I
+ "'
PkG), QkG)' =dtot"
Ps(z)=QtQ)= z anJ
al
Pea@)= P1,Q)* Q**rQ)= PrG)-f Qr(t)
"'211'1 I z' 2r-t
ep*1e) = fi"(z) - "rr ere) = laot' +art' '+
Adding and subtracting t, \-," {ur'r
t 1k+l
Pr*r(z) + Qo*t(z) = 2Pr,Q) =bof + "'
4,*r@) - Q**r(4 = 2"r Qr,G) By principle of mathematical induction, both Pr(f)
Hence, by (a) anJ QeQ) are polynomials of degree 2k nt
2l po zl e 1, *1 e)12
*, 1z)12 +
=l Pr,*rQ) + Qr,*tQ)|z +l ro*r121- Qt *r@)12

18. (a) (i) From the firstprinciples,
e o s1l2 * tl,,
o -z = -r(cos4 -isin4)
= al e * e)12
l' I
= rlcos(o - r)+isin(o- fll
=tl4,G)12 ++lQt {412. -- rfcos(O - r + 2 kr) + i sin(0 - z +2kx)l
Using this relation we have where /r is an integer such that
0< 0- r+2kn<2n
lpoe)l' *lee{,)l'
Thus
= z{l e*r<"> 1' * lo o - r<ol' } Arg(-z)= 0- n+2kn
= Argz - n+2ktr
= z2 {let -z Q)lt * lo o -rr'>l' } for some integer /r.
(ii)If lzl=l-l=L tet arga=aryl-@+B)f
z = aos4 t+i sind1, w = cos02 + isrn92 =2lare@+ B)- n+2k2nl
then =2ar9(a + f)-2r +4k2r
2 I y = (cos 01 + cos d, ) + {sin Q + sin dr) = arEa + argB +2kyr - 2n + 4k2n
so that = arga + argB +2k4rr.
sin 4 +sin d, for some rnteger ko.

Arg (z +u) = 1an-t
cosQ+cosd, Hence, by comparing above two results,
_l 2sinj(Q + ?r)cos|(1r- 0r) ugb=Zuga+2kn
=tan '
zcos l(4 + 1r)cos l(Q - 0z) for some integer ft.
=lern-t{tar.+@t+o)}
=!{q+e;+ut te' (a) 2r= a
(*'f -;'r',f,).
for some integer /c such that
o<+(q+or)+kr< r 22 *,?(*,i*i,iî)2
Hence
zt +22 "?
2Arg(z +w)= Arg z + Argw +2kn zlz2 ( o .. o)
zlzl +r srnaJ
for some integer ft. lcosz
(iii) For =Jr.
z= \(cos9r+i singl), - zr= {r1
w = rz(coset+i sing2)
(b) z2 -'r)("o, t. t
"^ t)
then
=i(4-z).
Squaring, the result follows
l, + n l2 = (r, cosdl + 12 cosl r)2 + (r, sin d' + rr stn0 r)2
=f +2ryr2(cosdrcosd, +sing, snl)+$ 20. HKALE l99l Poper I Question 5.

=f +2rrr2co{Ir-g)+S ar$u-ar$v =f
<f +zry2+$
) 21. HKALE 1994 Poper I Question 5.
=\rl+12)
Lrf
=("1+l."l)2 -2
Therefore
22. HKHLE l99l Queslion 5.
lz+-l<lzl+1'"1.
of z2+az+b=0, 23. HKHLE 1988 Question 8.
(b) o, f areroots then
(b) (ii) ca = xu3 +a(u2 -u31*b1u-u'7
Ia+ P= -o
| "F=u 24. HKALE 1993 Poper I Question I l.
so that
l'l=l- d-pl<lal+lnl=z
Itl=l"pl=lallnl=r
and
argb = arg(aB)
= argd +atgB +2k(f
for some integer (. By (a) (i), (ii)
EXERCISE 6B
6. Let z - x+iy, the given equation is
*2 * y2 +(l -i{x +ry) + (2 +2i)(x -tl) +(-l + 3t) = 0
1. (r-l)2 +y2 =22 (*' * y' +3x +3y -l)+ i(x - Y +3) = 0
2. (a)Let z=x+iY, ,t *y' +3x+3y-1=0

lz -tl= zlz +rl x-!*3=0
(z -t)(z -t) -- 4(z +t)(v +t) Solving,
zV -z-V +l = 4(zV +z+z +1) +- I
x= -3t --F,l=
3E +5(z +V)+3 = 0 .t2 Jz
31x2 +yz1+lox+3=0
7. HKALE 1993 PoPer lQuestion.4.
(b)
@) .=+ ra> l+]t+-+,
S. HKATE 1983 PoPer I Question 3.
1t
4
x
9. HKALE 1986 PoPer lQueslion 7'
10. HKALE 1995 PoPer I Question I l.
3 HKALE 1998 PoPer I Question 4. 11. HKALE 1996 Poper I Question 12.
(a) The locus of z is a circle ofradius 2 cenlred n 3i
(b) zo =i - 12.Since lrl =f,t"t x=cos?+isind and w:u+iv
4. (a) 2y+x+2=0. u*iv =2(cos0+isind) +
cosdhnd
= 2(cos0 +i sind) +(cosd-isind)
S. @) lz - al=lt - A represents the perpendicular = 3cosd+lsind
bisector of the line segment joining the point
representing d and P. fu =3cos0
|v: sind
Let z=x+iy, then
Hen:e, the locus of u is
l{" +,r; - 1: + ri)l = l(x +i) - Q +i)l 1"1
("-3)3 +(y-3)2 =(x-l)2 +(y'l)2 gu'+v' =l
x+Y-4
f3 HKALE 1980 Poper I Question 7
@1lz - al+lz - A= + represents the ellipse with foci
dafiP. 14 HKA.LE 1984 PoPer I Question 5
l(x + iD -(3 + 3i)l +l(x +D/)- (l +t)l = 4
15. HKA.LE 1999 Poper I Question 13.
{t"-:)t +(y-3) ' =+-rl{r-t)z +6t-t)2
*2 *y' -6x-6y+18= ro-sr/1x- l)2 +(y-l)2
*12 *y2 -2x-2y+2
x+y=zr!*2 +yz -2x-2y+2
Squaring again and simpli$,
3x2 -2ry+3y2-8x-8y+8=o
EXERCISE 6C
4. (a) Using De Moiwe's theorem,
1. (b) By De Moiwe's theorem /t_tt+i tana\
n
cosd +i sind
4m+L
n
Ir-itlrne ) cosA{'sinA )'
I +i tan --6- "| cosn? +isinn0
= cos"0
4m+l 4m+l )' -isin"e
cos-6-1f+t"^ 4, "l
l+itmrn0
4m+l
cos
n
4n
l-itmn9
Solving for ilannQ,
=s*,4m+l f ( z) ..( E
* 7t1.o1."*a)+rsmlnrz+a )) ( l+itng\n
itannl = Ut't"ne/
-'r
(f#g)'*'
=
"*" T 4(\^ cosft+ i(-l)' sin;)
(l+itan?)n
(-l\' -(t-itlrr'qn
4m+l
=--sec" - 4n r(t+t1 (l + t tan 0)' + (l - t tan?)n
(cotq+i)n -(oot?-i)n
2. (a) Equation ofcircle: (eot?+i)n +(cnt?-i)n

x=l+cosd, !=sin9 Further, using binomial theorem,
i tann9
therefore z = I + cosd+f sing.
n
ft)l= I 1 cot'-' o-Zci<-,>'

-'z =
1+ cosg +i sin? r-i 1tanlo
1
Lcit>' cot'-' o
r=0 r=0
which is a strangle line parallel to the imaginary axis
I
n n
and through the point (j, 0). ciQ)' cotn-' o+Zci<-r)' cotn-' o
r=0 r=0
Since I zf = r/1t+cosa)2 +sin2 a =zcosil
cotn-r e-c! e- ...}
cot'-3 e+ci cotn-s
*' *-'(#) *-'(*i

= = e)=
ie
_zi{cf
z{C( cot' l-Cl cotn'2 o+Cf, cot"-a 0- ...}
therefore
glvmg
(l+cosd+i sind)'= (, *'] r)' (.",] a *,,i,,] a)' r^_--n

l^nhH-
Cl cot"-t 0-Q
L
cot"-3 0+Ci cot"-s g- ...
C{ cot" 0-Ci cot"-2 0+Ci cot"-A 0- ...
=2"
"o,")e(*r!*,r !) (1)
(b)Let g=4k-l a
4n
@ =t, z, ..., n),
(c) Let @ = cosd+isind, by binomial theorem, tTten tann9 = all n = l, 2, . . .. By (a)
-1 for
Ci cot'-t (ff o) - ci .otn ($| n) + c( cot*t (E o)-...
(t+a)n=20" ,_
or
= o+is".ro) (2)
C( cot' (!*=L n) + ci cot"-t (tt=t o1
i.[:)n"'"
Comparing the real part of (l) and (2), the result -c! cot'-2
")
- ci cot'-3 (4I;t n)
(t L-t
follows
+Cf, cot'-a (qL--r r)+ Ci cot'-s (tL=r ,)- '. . =o
3. HKALE 1998 Poper I Queslion 13. This implies cotff4 k=1,2,..., n are roots of
r+cosd+isind the equation
(a)
' l+/cosd-irsrna C(x" +Clx"-r -Clr"-'-c!*"-t +cf,x"-a +c(x"-s - ...-0
(d) No solution. By the relation between roots and coeflicients,
3> cot_1f
4k-r
= sum ofroots
10. (a) By De Moiwe's theorern, we can frnd
/-J 4n li e"ino-35cos4 asin3 Bl
k=l sin70 = I "o"u I
L,
3 ---!- = -n l*zt.or' esins o-sin7 o l
ct sin7 0
cos6 0-35cos4 dsin2 o+2lcosz esin4 e-sin6 e.
.i.t A =7
(sum of roots 12 -21sum of roots taken 2 at time)
2"")' - zs(! -
a
i*t'9)o= * e)' - ";"'
k=l = r(' ('
zrz -
)
= n2 -21-cly = n.
( t+cos2l\( l- cos20\2 ( I - cos20\3
*r\- , )l---z-) -[---z-)
n-l = (2 cos20)3 + (2 cos20)2 - 2(2 cos20) -|
@) $) lzw = n if n is divisible bY n
(b)rake 0=+,k=1,2,3,
r=0
n-l ( ztcr\
$llzm' = 0 if zr is not divisible bY r. (r*"T)'.(r*"+ )'- zlzcos , ) -l=0
r=0
2z 4tr 6tr
This shows that 2 cos
7 ,2cos , ,2cos-T
are
6. HKALE 1990 Poper lQuestion 5 roots ofthe equation
y3 +y2 -2y-l=0.
7. put o=#, Thus, by the relation between roots and coefficient.
|-2ltar? f 2n 4n+cosfcosf
alcosfcosf 21 6tt+cos4ncos 611
fr*otarra ft-2stn6 ft+r^rt #=o , , J=-2.
8. For (c)Put u-y2,sothat
3I
sin40-sin30 (4cos3 dsind-4cos 0sin3 01 (u)2 +u-2(u)2 -l=0
sind sind
ut -5u' +6a-l=o
= 8cos3 o - 4cos2 o - 4coso +r This is the equation having roots which are square of
or the roots of the equation y3 *y2 -2y-l=0. The
2cosl!snl roots are
#= [z cosd]3 - (z cosz)z - 2(2 cosz) + t.
,2n ) 4r ,62
4cos'
, ,4 cos 7' 4cos'-T
^'
e =l(t".i)'"above idenitY'
Therefore
\-i z2r z 4tr 6 3
""{+)"]' -1, *{u:t)")' -,1, *{+)"]., =, /cos Tcot 7=7=E
[,
for t = 0, 1,2. The result follows.
11. (a) By De Moivre's theorem
cosn9 +i sinn9
9. If sn70=7srn9,
= (cosd+i sind)'
7 stng =7sind- 56sin3 a* l12tio5 0 - 64 sn7 0
8sin3 al8sina o -14 stn2 o +7) = o =!t-t)' (:,) "o"n-2'osin2'e

.-'a[Gir,' o-+)'.*]= o
n
giving
*rI tr"I
2r +l
.orr-(2r+l) os;n2'*l e
r
sin3 a = o, Comparing the imaginary parts,
there is only one solution 0 =nzr.
1
"o -z*"ufl"'-z*"-l
,'""a = a.i"e - o sin3 o
[i)*,*' [1)".*-' 2
I
.[r)**-' osins o- "' 2 1"6
+ray-z7za +z-a1-7zz +zay+4
= cos60 -2cos40 - cos20 +2
=,'"'r{fl"",'-' ,-$" ot'-3 e
13. HKALE 1982 Question 2.
.[;;*'^"- I
] 14. (b) Put z =
= in (a).
2
ret e=ft1for k=1,2, rfr' (c) Dividing the numerator and denominator by z.
Let z = cosd +i sind then by De Moiwe's theorem
"in'^.'(#)r-(*o#)=, n
Z.''-'
leading to
n
r^(*cffi)=0. = )r[cosg+i sin d]'-t
n
This implies that -!!-,k
=0,1,2, ,m
cotz ate = | r[cos(r - l)9+ i sin(r - t;d]
roots of the polynomial equation p^(x) = O. . .,n-l
z-l -\n+ t)z +nz
h
(b) By the relation between the roots and coefficients, -a

m
kn (cosd+ i sin d)-1 - (z + l)(cos d+i sin 0)'-r +n(cosl+isin2)"
f cot2
2*+l = swn of roots
(cosd+i sin d)-l + (cosd+ i sin g)
k=t - 2
cos9-(z+ l) cos(n-l)0+ ncosn9
=(:^.')l(:-.') 2cos9-2
9-(n+l) sin(n-l)0+nsinn9
+i -
sin
m(2m-l) e-2
J Comparing the real part, we have
and ft
(n - 1) cos(n - 1)0 - ncosn9 - cos4
f rcos(r - l)d =
n 1_ l^ tr1, r=l @
o?*'o
#,=12-rrr"l
-2[sumofrootstakentwoatatime] 15' HKHLE 1983 Question 6'
2m+l (b) (i) Put a=0, 0=t

--a
=L---]-ll' -
I m(2m-1) 5
2m+
(ii) Differentiate the second result in (a) and pu
s=Q, B=L.
1
_m(2m-l\4m2 +l0m-9)
45
-nn-n
12. Using sinng='
;i ,cosnl=t-+-
o rl+)^
25 sina cos2 o=
l+l'
=
*1, - r'l' l, *,-'l' l, -,-'l'
EXERCISE 6D I +sinf, +icosf,

I +sinf, -f cosf;
J-
r. z3 =& = 8{co{2ka +$)+istn{2tu+$)}
The three roots are
= {*"i<i - i) +rsin+(f - f,)}+ [ry ol]
(na\ + +i sntQkn + L), k = 0, l, 2, 3
zo = 2[cos +tsin
=
"o"i(zk, f)
U 6J, = t(0.980 +0.195,), I (0.195 - 0.98U)
I 5n 5El
zr =2[cos +tsin
U 6 J, 4. (a) For a5 =cos2z+istn2r=l
(
3n 3zr\ therefore @ isarootsof
zz=2lcos "t +tsin , I
-l=O "5
and
(a-lXaa *r3 *12 +al+l)=o

2. By De Moiwe's theorem,
_ll so that o4 +r3 *r2 +a+l=o
(t + Jri)r (Jr + i)3
(b) (a + roa ) + (o2 + co3 7 = -1
. 4,.2 +(D-)=-l
=,ul+.+')*{+.4* (a+a-\a' 3
The equation is .r2 +.r -I=0

E.rf
=2i{"""+*,,t";}*{ cos6 +rsm6
)*
6-r = a) +(o 4
, =-T-
=zZ|'.*,+*,,*f}* =(*'f .".f) .Icos: 8n

5
8z
+i sin '-=-
)
z( 4k+t 4k+t I =f cosJ.
2n
= 2'tcos O r+isn U rj ,k =0,1,2.
(")4="i"?= = I 2
BC sin* n^^^2o
) zcos
l+ sind+i cosd 5 "(-f
3. (a)
1+sind-icosd (d) (i) a straight line,
(1 + sind+icosd{l + sind+i cosd) (ii) a circular arc.
(l +sind)2 *"o"2 0
2sind(l + sin +2icosd(l + sind) S. (a) (i) For any n, let n = 3m Ik, k = O, l, 2.
2(l + sind) ,, 3m+k 3m.@k k
A) =A) -@ -a)
= sind+i cosd
I if k=0
(b)Put 6=! n(a) @ if k=l
l+sinf +lcosf -l-a if k =2
= lsinf +icosf)5
l+sinf -icosf I
.5. - Sm?) -,5
GD or*= o[cosf +;sin T)*b
=, (coST-t
a
____;______w___a_-_________._
b-a
=j(cosa-isina)
d -ab+D a -ab+b
--i
Hence, the result. (b) Let P(z)= ao2n *afn-t *a2zn-2 +'.. +an, a, eZ
P(o)= ago' +a1o'-l *o2t'-2 + "' +an.

"
,.r(Jz *r*i)+ :('.i.fr (a[i)
[Jz*t-;J [.'.#-f By
I, ro, -7-
@n , @n-r , o)n-z
ar, therefore
,... ,@ ure one of the form
413
P(o) = aoro' + aro'-t + oran-2 + +an--aat+b
a7r = cos--t-7t
2j-l +t
..2i-l
$n-n-/t
for some integers a ar.ldb.
If P(ot) r 0, then by (a) (ii) =lcos(2 j -t)r +i sin(2 j -t),tl* = 1-9* * 1
ll i t
F6= a@,+6=Aro+B o,, =l"or2J:J, *i ol'
"in2 E
utrere .4 = a, -o. B=
a-b
--;-; =fcos(2j -t)n+isin(2j -t)ltli = <-Ui * t
a -ab+b.Z=, a -aD+b
t
4
dj = (-l)2 * I
6. HKHLE 1987 Question 5
oj' *
7. HKHLE 1990 Question 3 i.e. for any divisor m of 16 with lcz<16,
a, +7. By definition, a j are the 8 primitive l6th
8. HKALE 1988 Poper lQuestion 8 roots of l.
For
d j8 = cos(2j - l)n +i sin(2j -l)r = -I
10. The given equation is equivalent to therefore dpa2,... ,ds are roots of the equation
( t- z\" 8-
r = -l
| | = l= cos2kn +isin2ktt
\,- ) +l
8
l-z 2ktt..2kn
18 = f[{r-ar)
znn= cos- +t stn_ j=r
- I by comparing the coeflicients,
-7=- *11 i"or2kn At=AZ-...-A7=0, AB=1.
nn
"o"2kr
llkn
=r-ittu n, 13. (a) Example 36
The roots lie on the line r,-2

= -! (b) Ihe given equation is equivalent to
l+r 2n
=-l
z+l 6 I -.r
z-l --l
11
= cos(2k +I)tr+isn(2k +l)ft
Then, by De Moiwe's theorem,
z+1 2r+l 2r+l
;:T = cos-a+isutl- tt, r = l, 2, 3, 6. l+.r 2k+ltt*tStI7-
.. 2k+l E
"-w = COS-
:-
l-r 2n 2n
__ l+cos$ n+isinL{r l, 2, .,.,2n-7.
fr = 0.
Solving x from the equation,

= -icot2ttl tt r =1,2,3,... S.
,_cos#r+isin#n-l
cosffr+isinSr+l
12. (b) From (a) +l
= ilan2k n bv ( u\
7
4n
l5
x +x t4 + *x+1 = (r+l)fl(r2 - zrcos! +t) k =0, l,2, .'., 2n-1.
b=l Hence
Put x = I and simpliff, the result follows. (l +r) 2" *1r- *72'
(c) Consider n-l
(2j-1)tt .. (2i-Dtt = 2ll _,,^,?!:J
"w_J,
_,,^,+
cri = cos---i-+tsin--i- j =1,2,... ,8. k=0 {, 4
then a1, d2,... , dg are roots of the equation n-l
=2n
"16-l=o *d k=0 {,-,,^!:}"}{,.,^#"\
414 Answers and Sohtions - Chapter 6
'\-Ft
n-l ncosn7 cosr -sind
=2lI ,2 *t*, 22k+l
4n "\ srnn? - sn4'
k=0 f,lrcos?-cosLL
(c) Put x = 0, I in the identity in (b), Therefore
ncotno}
z:zfitu'2?;r,
k=0
iit;*g=fr{'o"-
n-I +l
22" =2fI l+tan22k4n 15. HKH -E I 986 Question 2
k=0
-1f
n-l 16. (a) kt zp be the root
=zli"oz2-!!!o.
k=o (zp +l)n = A(zt -I)^
Dividing, the result follows
l:p +rl =1t]*l"o-rl
f4. (a) [Refer to Example 36] The roots of ,2' -l= 0 are l" .Letzp = xk +t!* and )' * l, then
z =coskn +i"n4, k =0,1,2, ... ,2n-1. I ix1, + t) + it 1,1 = I

tl+ | @1, - t) + tv o I
zn1 z2
Hence, #r*".ri*"-, (l - 1' )(xi + yi) +Q+ 2.1')xo + (l - 1') = 0.
of(*)
,2, _ t = r,' _ rfip' _ r,"o,4 *r\ In this case zp lies on a circle. i.e. the roots
concyclic.
are
2'.In particular, A. : l.
o, * -;:(. ;)ij{ ".}-,*"*l l:p +t | =lzp -tl
Using In this case, zp lies on a straight line.
zn +z-'=2cosn?"
17. (b) Let d denote the distance ofthe point (c,0) from the
zn - ,-n = 2i stnn2. point (acosa, Dsina) then
we have aa11
c{ -\acosa-c) +D sn d.
2i sinno = 2i siêfi{z e - z Lzt a=u+v,b=u-n,r=;tk' +rv), then
"o, "o"4}
the result follows. ct -lacosd-c) +b $n d
(b) (i) From(a) =7a2 -b21cos2 a-2accosq+c2 +bz
t-l
+-l-- zcos-
kr fl } (k2 + w) cosa
,n-l *rn-3 I ... :r7-@-l) - il
k=t
z
zn
=l{u + u)2 - 1u - u;2
] "os2
a - 2(u + -
Taking limit as z -+ l. in1')'+(u-v)z

kz\ -2uk cosa + k2 ynz -2uk + k2
"=fr('-'""'+) =0"-'il,-'( T;I
=
i@' "osa
1
Itrence, multiplyng and using (a),

J;
rhererore
fr, (*) =7a j{: *4,. +) - "l' * *'^(o. *)}
(ii) Using logarithmic differentiation,
=\;rtr-zurccos(Q+!)*o'll"'-z,tco\o+ff)+r2l
sjnno=2n-1sin r-"
fr(*r '"+) =il"'" -2u'k'cosnfi+t2'lfu2" -zu"t " cosn|+*l
kn
lnsinzrd = ln2'-l+ f,rsinA + 9J
L)t cos6l - cos-
n
k=1
A Comgehensive Course in
PURE MATHEMATICS C.S. Lee g.sc., oip ra.
The stan&rd of this sed,es is to rW the mds of tfuose wh take Pure lv{athernaties at Adr€nced
IgEI Examimtkn in llong Komg; It aclear aqd eterneffiIry acosrnt sf tk fundamental
,i&s"
ISBN 962-7915-07-6
9 ililtilililililffiil11

A Comprehensive Course in Pure Mathematics - Alegra I-C.S. Lee

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I

Copyright C.S. Lee 1996

All right resenred, No part of this publication may be

Prinled in Hong Kong by

Algebro I begins with an introduction, to the language of mathematics -

O Introductlon to Pure ftathematlcs T

o.l STATEMENT CAICUIUS 2

o.2 SET NNGUAGE l5

o.t MATHEMATICAI PROOF 36

o.4 SUM AND PRODUCT 62

2.2 Division Algorithm |2

2.' The Remoinder ond Foctor Theorem 127

I rheor"t of EquaGlon trf

,.1 Multiple Roots 162

+ Rafional Functlons lao

4.2 Portiol Froctions 185

5 Algebralc lncquallclcs toa

5.4 The lnequolity of the Meons 237

5 Gompler llumber.s ,ta

6.8 Roots of o Complex Number - Binomiol Equotion ,n = o 334

Answerc and Suggested Soluflons t55

The course contains a systematic development of algebra, co-ordinate geometry, and

To achieve the above objectives, the treatment of this chapter is deliberately

0.1 Statement Calculus _a brief introduction to the language of togic as used in

0.4 Sum and Product _ an account of mathematical manipulation as used in

A sentence of which it is meaningful to say, whether it is true or false, is called a statement or

Each of the following sentences is a statement:

2. None of the following sentences is a statement:

O.1.2 Truth Value of a Statement

0.1 .3 Composite Statements

Som-b statements are composite, that is, composed of substatements

DEtlNlTloN Theconjunctionoftwostatements p and q,denotedby pnq,

I llustrotion Consider the following statements:

I : If p is true and q is true, then pnq is true; otherwise pnq isfalse

Figure 0.1 Truth table for p nq

SOLUTION Asastatementofarithmetic, p and q aretnrc(O but r isfalse(Fl Bv Ti,

DEFINITION Thedisjunctionoftwostaternents p and q, denotedby puq lread p or qlis

I llustrotion Consider the following statements:

p:Lee is intelligent q'.Lee is industrious

Tr If p is true or q is true or both p and q are true, then pvq is true;

Tabfe 0.2 Truth table for Pv q

SOLUTION Itisknownthat p and r arefalse(F), q istrue(O. By (T2),

Tr: If p istrue, then -p isfalse; rf p isfatse, then -p istrue.

Table 0.3 Truth table for -p

If "A isa right angle," then ,, AB2 + AC2 - BC2"

DEFIN|IION Condilional is a statement obtained by combining two statements p and q by

The conditional p -+ q can also be read:

To : The conditionql p -+ q is true unless p is true and q is false'

Table 0.4 Truth table lot p -+ q

Under what conditions would we consider Frank's statement incorrect or untruthfirl?

Cose (i) When p q

Cose (iii) When p

(e) Bicondilionol Two statements may be connected by ' if and only if ,

A triangle is equilateral if and onty f it is equiangular.

This single statement contains two conditionals; namely

If atiangle is equilateral, then it is equiangular.

DEFIN|TION A bicondilional is a statement by combining two statements

Tt:If p and q havethesametruthvalue,then p<+q istrue;{p and q have

Table 0.5 Truth table tot p + q