Received: 2 February 2019

DOI: 10.1049/els2.12018
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Accepted: 24 February 2020

O R I G I N A L R E S E A R C H PA P E R
Revised: 2 December 2019

- IET Electrical Systems in Transportation

New trends in electric motors and selection for electric vehicle

propulsion systems

Sreedhar Madichetty1 | Sukumar Mishra2 | Malabika Basu3

1
Mahindra Ecole Centrale, Hyderabad, India Abstract
2
IIT Delhi, New Delhi, India The increase in the numbers of electric vehicles (EVs) is seen as an upgrading of the
3
Technological University Dublin, Dublin, Ireland existing vehicles for various reasons. This calls for an in‐depth analysis of the heart of
these vehicles—the motor. A motor in an electric vehicle propulsion system is a crucial
Correspondence component that has the ability to affect the efficiency, weight, cost, reliability, power
Sreedhar Madichetty, Mahindra University‐ Ecole output and performance. Hence a detailed comparative study, that compares the existing
Centrale School of Engineering, Department of
types and topologies of various motors, is the need of the hour. The various motors that
EEE, Survey No 62/1A, Near Tech Mahindra
Campus, Hyderabad, 500043, India. can be used in electric traction, namely DC, induction, switched reluctance, permanent
Email: sreedhar.803@gmail.com magnet brushless AC motors and permanent magnet brushless DC motors, are reviewed
in view of their capabilities with respect to EV propulsion. A detailed review is presented
Funding information of existing motors and the application of power electronic techniques to EVs, and rec-
SERB/NPDF/2017/000568
ommendations for some new designs of brushless DC motors. These include permanent
magnet hybrid motors, permanent magnet spoke motors and permanent magnet inset
motors.

1 | INTRODUCTION lot was made possible in terms of power conversion and motor
control. This lead to the resurgence of electric vehicles in the
The increasing inclination towards electric vehicles has been automotive industry [3]. The low power density and the high
due to a large number of factors. The greatest advantage of cost of batteries caused electric vehicles to lose competition
electric vehicles over fossil fuel‐powered vehicles is the against the IC engine powered vehicles [4]. In the present
increased efficiency from the source of energy to the wheel. scenario electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles are re‐
Some of the other factors that have caused an increase in entering the market with advanced technologies such as
trends towards electric vehicles include better torque–speed high‐density batteries, high power density motors, and more
capabilities, ability to operate without any transmission, low efficient power converter technologies [5].
maintenance, zero emissions and noiseless operation. These The motors that are used in electric vehicles are quite
vehicles can also be described as green vehicles if the source different to the motors used in other applications. These
of electricity is a renewable source such as solar, hydro, wind, motors require certain specifications to be fulfilled and need to
etc. Hence, electric vehicles are seen as the future of be in alignment with the traction effort of the vehicle. Also,
transportation. these motors cannot afford to be heavy as the range of the
There are three main stages in the history of EVs. Electric vehicle depends on the weight. High efficiency, high power
motors during the 1900s had a market penetration equivalent density, efficient regenerative braking, robustness in harsh
to that of the steam and internal combustion (IC) engine‐ conditions, low maintenance and reliability are the main criteria
powered vehicles. At that time, long journeys were infre- sought after in an electric traction motor [5].
quent and so the short range of electric vehicles was not a huge The most common types of electric vehicles are battery
limitation [1,2]. The first hybrid electric vehicle was created by electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles. The commonly
Porsche in the 1989. The intention was to improve the effi- used motors in these vehicles are DC, induction, permanent
ciency of the IC engine by operating it along with an electric magnet AC motors and permanent magnet DC motors
traction motor. With the advancement in power electronics a (brushless DC motors) [6]. There is also mention of switched

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properly cited.
© 2021 The Authors. IET Electrical Systems in Transportation published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Institution of Engineering and Technology.

IET Electr. Syst. Transp. 2021;1–14. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/els2 1

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- MADICHETTY ET AL.

reluctance motors in electric vehicles due to their excellent 3 | MOTOR CHARACTERISTICS

torque–speed characteristics that are very much in alignment
with the demands of traction. Permanent‐magnet (PM) The major requirements of an electric vehicle propulsion sys-
motors, which have the highest efficiency, appear to be one of tem, as mentioned in the literature, are summarised as [10,11]:
the best options. However, the market is dominated by asyn-
chronous machines. The explanation for this paradox can be 1. High instant power and high power density.
expressed in terms of the low utilisation factor of the motor in 2. A high torque at low speeds for starting and climbing, as
vehicles and the cost of materials [7]. well as high power at high speed for cruising.
A study is presented herein of the above‐mentioned 3. A very wide speed range, including constant torque and
motors and their new trends that have arisen due to signif- constant power regions.
icant improvements are also discussed. With respect to the 4. A fast torque response.
direction of flux, brushless DC motors can be categorised as 5. A high efficiency over wide speed and torque ranges.
axial and radial flux motors, whereas with respect to the rotor 6. A high efficiency for regenerative braking.
position, the motors can be classified as surface permanent 7. A high reliability and robustness for various vehicle oper-
magnet and interior permanent magnet motors. These ating conditions and
different classifications of the brushless DC motors are 8. A reasonable cost.
discussed. Some new trends in the brushless DC motors,
namely the permanent magnet hybrid motor, permanent Apart from these, the electric propulsion system must be
magnet spoke motor and the permanent magnet inset motor fault tolerant [12,13]. Market acceptance is the final criterion
are described, including their advantages with regards to their based on which the type of motor to be used for electric
use in electric traction. Data for electric motors in the most traction is decided. This acceptance is decided based on the
representative electric cars are also presented. Finally, the comparative availability and the cost of the power converter
trends of electric vehicles around the world are briefly technology [14].
discussed. Figure 1a shows the typical characteristics of the electric
motor used in electric vehicles. As can be observed from the
figure, the motor operates at a constant torque for the entire
2 | MOTOR TOPOLOGIES speed range until the base speed is achieved. After attaining the
base speed, the motor then reduces the torque in a proportion
There are different types of electric motors that can be found of the speed and hence maintains a constant power until the
in modern electric vehicles [8]. There are also a great number maximum speed. Beyond the maximum speed, the constant
of motor topologies possible, with various specifications that power region eventually degrades at higher speeds. In this re-
can be used to power an EV. This results in market segments gion, the torque decreases in proportion to the square of the
having DC motors, induction motors, brushless AC motors speed [14].
(BLAC) and brushless DC (BLDC) motors [9]. The characteristics of the traction effort with respect to
Motors that do not run at a constant speed do not have speed are also similar to those of electric motors. There is a
either nominal speed or nominal power [5]. The design of the short constant torque range for low speeds and a wide constant
motor is done by making trade‐offs between weight and effi- power region for higher speeds. This can be seen in Figure 1b.
ciency. Usually, motors are rated at lower values than their peak This profile is derived from the basic characteristics of the
power capability. The peak power capability of a motor can power source and transmission [14].
vary between a few kilowatts for electric cycles to 200 kW in This means that for any source of electric vehicle propul-
electric cars. Market demands play a key role in deciding the sion the profile of traction effort versus speed must always be a
power of the machine. constant torque region followed with a constant power region
The efficiency rating for a variable‐speed motor can be with respect to speed.
characterised by power–speed or torque–speed efficiency
maps. Electric motors have an optimal working condition
and efficiency decays when the working points are out of 4 | COMPARATIVE STUDY
the optimal region, depending on the type of motor [5]. The
different points that each driving cycle applies to the motor 4.1 | DC motors
decide the efficiency of the traction motor, as the efficiency
depends on the working points. Hence, the performance of The brushed DC motors are known to have high torque at low
a motor for a wide range of speeds and powers is defined speeds and easy control. They also have torque–speed
by the design. The efficiency of a motor also depends on characteristics suitable for the traction environment [15] but
the voltage level at the input. The high‐voltage‐rated ma- not for EVs.
chines are inherently more efficient. When a motor is The main advantages of these type of motors are their low
operated at voltages below the rated voltage, then the effi- cost, well established technology, simple yet robust control and
ciency of the motor is decreased. This mainly happens at reliability. These motors were earlier preferred for use as
low state of charge [5]. traction motors but due to the advancement in power
MADICHETTY ET AL.
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F I G U R E 1 (a) Typical characteristics of

an electric motor. (b) Characteristics of the
traction effort [14]

electronics there has been a shift towards the AC motors, lower than that of permanent magnet motors due to the
namely induction and synchronous motors. This is due to the presence of rotor bars. This means higher rotor copper losses,
fact that the inversion of current that is done using commu- due to which the efficiency of the motor at high‐speed ranges
tators in the DC motors is now being done by highly efficient is low [14]. Some of the newly proposed techniques have
and controllable inverters. attempted to overcome these disadvantages. These are vector
The main disadvantages of these motors have been their control, multiphase pole‐changing IM drive, and use of dual
low power density, requirement of maintenance of the coal inverters. There is also mention of a new type of design of
brush (about every 3000 h), and low efficiency [5]. It is also induction motors known as axial flux induction motors. The
difficult to reduce the size of DC motors, which makes them above‐mentioned techniques and axial flux induction motors
heavy and expensive. Along with this, the maximum motor are discussed subsequently.
speed is also restricted by the friction between brushes and
commutator [15].
4.2.1 | Vector control of induction motors
4.2 | Induction motors To improve the dynamic performance of the induction motor
drive vector control technique is preferred. Vector control of
Induction motors are the most mature technology amongst the IMs is a technique which allows the decoupling of the torque
various commutator‐less motor drives. The squirrel cage type control from field control. This requires coordinate trans-
induction motors are the most acceptable motors for use in formations on the line to provide fast torque control of the
electric propulsion. They have advantages such as reliability, induction motor. A method called direct torque control is
low maintenance, low cost and robustness [14]. The typical employed. [15] Direct torque control consists of three parts:
characteristics of an induction motor are shown in Figure 2a. hysteresis control for controlling torque and flux, an optimal
The critical speed of an induction motor is around twice switching vector look‐up table and a motor model. The motor
the synchronous speed and can be written as [14]: model estimates the developed torque, stator flux and shaft
speed based on the measurements of two stator phase currents
and battery voltage. Torque and flux reference signals are
Nc ¼ 2 * Ns ð1Þ produced by using a torque and flux hysteresis control method.
A switching vector look‐up table gives the optimum selection
where Nc is the critical speed in rpm and Ns is the synchronous of the switching vectors for all the possible stator flux‐linkage
speed of the machine in rpm. space‐vector positions. Speed is controlled using a PI speed
It is this speed at which the motor reaches breakdown controller [14]. The advantages of using the direct control
torque limit. If the motor is attempted to be operated at speeds method are that the system gives a quick response and is a
beyond the critical speed and at maximum current, it will begin simple configuration for control of induction motors. This is
to stall due to the breakdown torque [14]. Hence, the break- capable of working in all four quadrants and includes regen-
down torque of the motor is a limitation to the constant power erative braking. This thereby improves the overall efficiency of
operation. The larger the value of breakdown torque, the wider the system [14].
is the constant power region. From Figure 2a it can be seen Vector control of induction motors is a variable‐frequency
that, on increasing the speed beyond the critical speed, the drive control method, also known as the field‐oriented control.
rotor stalls and this makes the slip unity. In this method, the stator currents of the three‐phase induc-
Apart from this, there are other disadvantages of induction tion motors are split into two orthogonal components. These
motors. These include high losses, low efficiency, low power components are then mathematically manipulated as two vec-
factor, and low inverter usage factor which is dominant at high tors. One of the vectors identifies the magnetic flux of the
speeds [14]. The efficiency of induction motors is inherently motor and the other identifies the torque of the motor [16].
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F I G U R E 2 (a) Typical characteristics of an induction motor [14]. (b) Torque–speed characteristics of a brushless AC (BLAC) motor [6]. (c) Torque–speed
characteristics of a switched reluctance motor [14]. (d) Torque–speed characteristics of a brushless DC (BLDC) motor [14]

For this reason, vector control is said to decouple torque control system. This control system then calculates the
control from flux control [17]. This can be seen in the required values of current components and the speed is varied
equations below [18]: by changing the flux and the torque. The proportional integral
controller is usually used to control the measured signals
according to the reference values [16].
λr ¼ Lm I s ϕ ð2Þ
Lm
Ir ¼ − Is ð3Þ 4.2.2 | Multiphase pole‐changing IM drive
Lr T
There are mainly two techniques to change the number of
where λr is the rotor flux vector, I r is the rotor current vector,
poles of an induction machine. The first technique requires a
Lm and Lr are the mutual and rotor inductances, respectively,
specially designed induction motor. The coils of windings are
I s ϕ and I s T are the projections of stator current I s onto λr and
rearranged to change the number of poles of the stator. The
jλr . I s ϕ is the component of the stator current I s that identifies
second technique also requires a specially designed machine.
magnetic flux and I s T identifies the toque of the motor.
This machine has two stator windings. For low‐speed opera-
The need for vector control arises due to the limiting
tions, one winding is used and other winding is used for
nature of the breakdown torque which causes stalling of the
high‐speed operations [20]. The main flux of pole changing
motor, when it is operated at speeds higher than the critical
induction motors can be visualised as in Figure 3d.
speed [17]. The vector control of the induction motor makes
The synchronous speed of the induction motor is inversely
the control of the motor similar to that of the separately
proportional to the number of poles of the motor.
excited DC motor. In the separately excited DC motor the field
flux and armature flux linkages are independent of each
other [19]. 120 * f 1
Ns ¼ ⇒ Ns ∝ ð4Þ
This means that the control of torque is possible without P P
changing the field flux. This helps the motor increase the
breakdown torque limit and hence increases the constant where Ns is the speed of the induction motor in rpm, f is the
power region of the motor. In this method, the flux and torque frequency of supply in Hz and P is the number of poles of the
reference values are sent by the drive's speed control to a machine.
MADICHETTY ET AL.
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F I G U R E 3 (a) Flux orientation in axial and radial flux motors [21]. (b) Basic idea showing the dual‐inverter control scheme: Inverter 2 only takes care of the
reactive voltage component [22]. (c) Designs of single‐ and double‐sided axial‐flux induction motors [21]. (d) Main flux of a pole‐changing IM drive [20]: (i) four‐
pole configuration; (ii) twelve‐pole configuration

Increasing the synchronous speed will lead to an increase in 4.2.3 | Dual inverters
the critical speed, which is around twice the synchronous
speed. The breakdown torque, which is dependent on the The reactive voltage and the back electromotive force (emf) of
critical speed, also increases now and hence the constant power an induction motor increase with an increase in electric angular
region of the motor is increased. This means that reducing the speed. This is shown by the following equations [18]:
number of poles using multiphase pole‐changing drives, at high
speeds, will widen the constant power region. A six‐phase
pole‐changing squirrel cage induction motor is presented in Lm
V s ¼ Rs I s þ jωe σLs I s þ jωe λ ð5Þ
[16]. The research proposes a new sinusoidal pulse width Lr r
modulation (PWM) strategy in a way that the two carriers of
V r ¼ jωe σLs I s ð6Þ
the six‐phase inverter are out of phase during four‐pole
operation and are in phase during two‐pole operation. With Lm
e ¼ jωe λ ð7Þ
the use of double Fourier series, it is possible to eliminate the Lr r
dc‐link harmonics centred on the odd multiples of the carrier
frequency. The use of this new PWM strategy can significantly where V s is the source voltage, Vr is the reactive voltage, e
reduce the DC‐link harmonic currents, which can improve the is the back emf, Rs is the stator resistance, ωe is the
battery lifetime also. Figure 3 shows the main flux of a pole‐ electric angular frequency, σ is the total leakage coefficient,
changing IM drive. The multiphase pole‐changing IM drive is Ls, Lm and Lr are the stator, mutual and rotor inductances,
able to extend the constant power region without oversizing respectively, I s is the stator current, and λr is the rotor
the motor to solve the problem of breakdown torque [13]. flux.
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Thus, the reactive component of voltage for an induction The radial length from the stator inner radius to the outer
motor becomes high during high‐speed operation. This leads radius is the active part of the motor which produces torque in
to a poor power factor of the motor. If two inverters are used the axial motors. The axial length is dependent on the proper
instead of one to supply power to the motor, the decrease in yoke design of the stator and rotor. As the number of poles
power factor can be compensated. This can be done using a increases, the active radial part of the machine remains un-
floating DC‐link capacitor bank to supply the required reactive changed and the axial length depends on the flux density in the
power. The advantages of this system are that it provides stator yokes [25]. The flux path in a radial flux machine is
reactive voltage support for the main DC‐link that is con- relatively long compared to the axial flux equivalent. The larger
nected to the battery and also allows voltage boosting to the flux path the greater is the requirement for magnetising
enhance the motor terminal voltage [18]. At high speeds when current and hence the power factor drops. A large fraction of
the requirement for reactive power increases, the secondary the length of a radial flux machine is in the end turn region of
inverter connected to the capacitor bank compensates for the the windings. This makes the axial flux motors have a shorter
reactive power requirement. This helps to maintain the unity profile in terms of length of the rotor [21].
power factor of the main DC‐link connected to the source. As The axial flux machines are not used very commonly
the floating DC‐link capacitor bank only supplies reactive because of the large attraction forces that exist between the
power to the induction motor, no power source is required to stator and the rotor. This causes difficulties in manufacturing.
be connected to it. When the power factor is maintained at The difficulty in maintaining the air gap uniform along with the
unity, it is possible to extend the constant power region of the high cost of the manufacturing for the laminated stator core is
motor. This is because the floating DC‐link is actually sup- another hurdle in their adoption [21].
plying voltage boost to the motor [18]. Figure 3b shows the
basic idea of such a dual converter scheme.
4.3 | Permanent magnet synchronous
(PMS) motors (or brushless AC)
4.2.4 | Axial flux induction motors
The brushless AC motor is another type of AC motor used in
Axial flux machines are more common in the brushless per- electric vehicle propulsion. There have been many car manu-
manent magnet types of motors. Axial flux induction motors facturers using this technology to power their vehicles.
could play a role in the electric propulsion as the rare Earth These motors are fed sinusoidal AC current which pro-
magnets are limited. The work in [23,24] proposed that light duces a sinusoidal field. The interaction between the sinusoidal
construction, excellent mechanical and dynamical performance field and sinusoidal current produces a constant and a smooth
are properties that make the axial flux induction machine well torque. This is the inherent property of BLAC motors that
adaptable to medium‐speed operations in the range of differentiates them from BLDC motors. In contrast, brushless
3000–15,000 rpm. DC motors are fed rectangular currents, which produces a
The axial flux induction motor can have better cooling due rectangular field. Though the torque produced by the inter-
to a greater diameter‐to‐length ratio. These motors also allow action of rectangular field and rectangular current is higher
inner diameter to be much larger than the shaft diameter. This than that produced by the sinusoidal field and current, the
is a great advantage in cases such as the in‐wheel motors where torque is not smooth and has ripples [26].
the diameter‐to‐length ratio is high, as the axial flux IM can BLAC motors have advantages such as better efficiency,
significantly increase the torque density where the length of the higher power density and better heat dissipation to the envi-
machine is a limiting design constraint [24]. The different to- ronment [6]. Better heat dissipation make these motors suitable
pologies in which axial flux induction motors can exist are: for operation in harsh environments. The disadvantage of
these motors is that they have a narrow constant power region.
(i) Single‐sided machines The constant power region must be wide enough to accom-
(ii) Double‐sided machines. modate higher speeds. Thus, this calls for a need of power
converters that can widen the speed range above the base
Single‐sided rotor axial flux induction motor speed. These converters control the conduction angle at higher
This type of machine contains one stator and one rotor, and speeds and help in improving the efficiency of these motors.
the stator can be slotted or slot‐less. The flux in these machines Figure 2b shows the torque–speed characteristics of the
flows in the circumferential direction. This means that the flux brushless AC motor [6].
enters and leaves the stator and rotor on the same side.

Double‐sided rotor axial flux induction motor 4.4 | Switched reluctance motor
Double‐sided axial flux motors can have two configurations. In
one configuration it can have one rotor and two stators on The switched reluctance motors have emerged as a new
each side. In the other configuration, it can have one stator in competitor to the existing types of motors used in electric
the centre and two rotors on two of its sides. This can be seen traction. This has mainly been due to the rising concern about
in Figure 3c. the magnetic material [27]. The use of rotor salient poles is the
MADICHETTY ET AL.
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main characteristic feature of this motor. The difference be- the sinusoidal flux and sinusoidal current motors in BLAC
tween the direct axis and quadrature axis synchronous reluc- motors. The recent trends in electric vehicles have shown the
tance is the cause for the torque production in these motors, as use of direct‐drive motors and in‐wheel motors. The perma-
there is no excitation field in the rotor [5]. The rotor is cheap, nent magnet brushless DC motors are well suited for these
robust and insensitive to temperature [28,29]. The peak effi- type of applications also [5,14].
ciency of the reluctance motor is comparable to the induction The main disadvantage of these motors is that the constant
motor but the efficiency remains high for a large range of power region is narrow due to the limited field weakening
speed. The efficiency of the hybrid switched reluctance motors capabilities which come from the presence of permanent
can go as high as 95% [30]. magnets [10]. This is because, at high speeds, there is a risk of
The advantages of this type of motor are its simple yet permanent demagnetisation of the PMs [11]. Figure 2d shows
rugged construction, ability to tolerate faults, simple control, the typical torque–speed characteristics of a brushless DC
and outstanding torque–speed characteristics. The switched motor [14].
reluctance motor's greatest advantage lies in the large constant There exist various topologies in which PM brushless
power region. This is usually inherently small in the other motors can be configured. If the position of the magnets is
motors and power electronics or other means are used to considered, they can be classified as surface permanent magnet
extend this region [14]. Apart from these advantages, the high (SPM) and interior permanent magnet (IPM) brushless DC
rotor inductance ratio makes the sensorless control easier to motors. If the direction of flux is considered, they can be
implement [30,31]. Switched reluctance motors are also easy to classified as axial flux and radial flux motors. Figure 4 shows
cool when compared to the other types of motors. This is one of the many possible arrangements of magnets in the
again advantageous, as it can be used in harsh ambient con- surface and interior permanent magnet motor designs. A type
ditions [15]. of hybrid permanent magnet brushless motors are known to
However, even after these advantages the switched reluc- exist in which the air gap field that is provided by the per-
tance motor is not extensively used in electric vehicles due to manent magnets is weakened by the DC field excitation during
certain disadvantages [31,32]. These disadvantages include high high‐speed operation. The direction and magnitude of this DC
acoustic noise that is due to the high torque ripple, need of field excitation determine the strengthening or weakening of
special converter topology, excessive bus current ripple, and the PM magnetic field. Another type of hybrid motor uses
electromagnetic interference noise generation. However, all SPM and IPM magnet arrangements in its rotor sections. The
these disadvantages and advantages are crucial for EV appli- PM inset motor is one type of BLDC motor that has charac-
cations. Figure 2c shows the typical torque–speed characteris- teristics of both BLDC motors and multi‐phase reluctance
tics of the switched reluctance motor [14]. motors. A novel design of BLDC motors, known as the spoke
motor, is also present in the recent trends due to its high
torque and power density. These types of BLDC motors are
4.5 | Brushless DC motor discussed subsequently.

The brushless DC motors are one of the largest competitors to

all the existing types of motors used in electric vehicle pro- 4.5.1 | Axial flux and radial flux motors
pulsion. They can be imagined as a reversal of the stator and
rotor in the permanent magnet DC motors. Also, the inversion When compared to radial flux motors, axial flux motors are
from DC to AC is done with the use of power electronic well suited for applications where the axial length is limited and
converters instead of a mechanical commutator. In contrast to a very flat profile is required. Figure 3a shows the direction of
brushless AC motors, these are not fed sinusoidal current
waves. Instead, they are fed rectangular waves due to the
sequential commutation of winding currents. This is one
reason why they are called brushless DC motors [33–35].
There are quite a few advantages to these motors, these
include high power density, which means that the weight and
volume are reduced for the same amount of output power;
higher efficiency intrinsically, which is due to the use of per-
manent magnets that eliminate the rotor excitation currents
which account for half of the losses in the form of Joule losses
for non‐self‐excited synchronous motors; efficient and reduced
dissipation of heat to the surroundings, which means that the
temperature increase does not handicap the performance of
the motor [14]; reduced maintenance, as there is no need for
replacement of brushes; and high torque due to the interaction
between the rectangular flux and the rectangular current. This F I G U R E 4 Rotors of radial flux motors with surface‐mounted and
torque is higher than the torque due to the interaction between interior permanent magnet designs [5]
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- MADICHETTY ET AL.

flux in the axial as well as radial flux motors. Also, in appli- dual‐gap and the radial flux machines due to the high attractive
cations where rapid acceleration or deceleration is required, forces between the rotor and the stator. A low speed of
axial flux motors are preferred over the radial flux motors [36]. operation can lead to windage losses [36].
There are various configurations in which the axial flux An important indicator of the acceleration of the rotor is
motors can exist. Based on the type of the stator these motors the torque per unit moment of inertia. The radial flux motor
can be classified as slotted or slotless (Figure 5). Based on the has the lowest torque for a given moment of inertia. This is due
number of air gaps they can be classified as single gap or to the longest rotor for any power rating. The dual‐gap slotless
double gap. According to these criteria, the axial flux motors axial motor has the largest value for the torque per unit
can be classified as: moment of inertia. In this case, the slotted motors come be-
tween radial and slotless motors [36].
1. Single‐gap slotted axial machine Active weight in the motor is the weight of the copper and
2. Dual‐gap slotted axial machine the iron that is required by the magnetic circuit. Active volume
3. Single‐gap slotless axial machine is the volume of the active weights. The power per unit active
4. Dual‐gap slotless axial machine weight of axial and radial motors are similar except at higher
power levels, when it is less for the radial flux motors. The
The radial flux motors occupy a volume larger than any of power per unit active volume of the radial flux motors is
the axial flux motors. The diameter of slotless motors is significantly low for all power levels [36].
greater when compared to the slotted type of motors, but the
length in the axial direction is the smallest for the slotless
motors. This leads to the flattest profile amongst all the types. 4.5.2 | Surface permanent magnet (SPM) and
The radial field motor has the maximum moment of inertia interior permanent magnet (IPM) motors
when compared to any axial motor at all power levels. All the
axial flux motors have almost the same moment of inertia, When performances of the SPM and IPM motors are
with the dual‐gap slotless motor having the least. This is compared, it is observed that the IPM can have a higher
because the dual‐gap slotless motor does not contain any steel loading capacity, both at low and high speeds (Figure 6). This is
in the rotor and the density of the magnetic material is slightly not true in the case of SPM motors. This overload capacity of
lower than that of steel. Both axial flux slotless machines IPM motors is much higher in the case of higher saliency
require the maximum magnet volume. This increases the motors. The saliency ratio (ɛ) defined as below [38]:
weight of these motors. Slotted axial flux motors require less
magnetic material than radial flux motors, for all power
Lq
ratings [36]. ε¼ ð8Þ
In terms of copper losses in these machines, the radial Ld
motors and the slotted axial flux motors require a lower
number of turns per coil for the same generated back emf, is the ratio between the quadrature axis inductance (Lq) and the
when compared to the slotless motors. Hence the copper direct axis inductance (Ld). A high saliency ratio value means
losses are lower in radial and slotted axial motors. All the high anisotropy of the machine.
machines, axial or radial, slotted or slotless, have similar iron The SPM motor is not able to go beyond the continuous
losses. At high power levels the axial single‐gap slotless has the power rating, independent of the current load that is applied.
least amount of iron losses due to the least weight of steel used. The important fact to be considered is that the IPM motor has
If sufficient cooling is available then the single‐gap slotless a superior overloading capacity when compared to the SPM,
axial motor can be used when minimum weight is required for only for the designs where rotor anisotropy is maximum [38].
a given power rating. Both the iron and copper losses can be For enhancing the overload capacity of the IPM motor at high
reduced by increasing the amount of iron and copper, but this speeds a higher value of PM flux can be set according to the
will increase the package size and the weight of the motor. following equation [38]:
When the sums of copper and iron losses are compared, the
radial flux and the dual‐gap axial motors have similar values. 1
λm ¼ Ld : :ði1 þ i0 Þ ð9Þ
Also, the friction and the preload losses will be lower in the 2

F I G U R E 5 a) A slotted machine rotor and (b) a

slotless machine rotor [37]
MADICHETTY ET AL.
- 9

where λm is the PM flux linkage, Ld is the direct axis induc- an interior permanent magnet motor. The superiority of this
tance, i1 is the rated current and i0 is the overload current. motor is due to the higher saliency ratio, which concentrates
When the motors are supplied by the same current and the magnetic flux generated. This concentration of flux is the
maximum voltage, the two motors have very similar power reason for higher torque density per unit volume [39]. The
outputs. Saturation, in both the motors, has the ability to affect spoke BLDC motor is inherently an IPM motor, where the
the rated torque. Overload torques, however, are different magnets are arranged at both sides of the rotor pole, as shown
because of saturation and cross‐saturation effects. These ef- in Figure 6a. This is the reason for flux concentration [39].
fects are more pronounced in the case of the SPM motor. Due The spoke BLDC motor has an average back emf that is
to this, the SPM motor has a lower overload torque at low about 34% higher than the SPM motor [39]. This back emf has
speed [38]. severe harmonics in its spatial distribution, when compared to
When compared with SPM motors, the IPM motors tend SPM motors. The inductances in an SPM motor are constant
to have higher copper losses and lower iron losses. At base on positions of rotor and otherwise. However, in the case of
speed, the SPM motor tends to have lower overall losses, but the spoke motor, the inductances are highly variable with
at higher speed there exist losses due to permanent magnets. respect to rotor position. The variation of inductances in
The PM losses in the SPM motor can be reduced by axial spatial distribution leads to the generation of the reluctance
segmentation. Increasing the number of poles is advanta- torque. These inductances have a value that is larger than that
geous to the SPM motor as it helps to improve continuous in the SPM motors. The reduction in the reluctance in the case
power density. However, even after the addition of poles, the of the spoke motor is the reason for the larger value of
IPM motor tends to have a greater overload capacity than the inductances [39].
SPM motors. The IPM motors, on the other hand, are also In a brushless DC motor there is always an incoming phase
more susceptible to the losses due to harmonics. Hence, it is and an outgoing phase. Due to the phase inductance there is a
required to have a calculated number of stator slots and rotor commutation torque ripple that is generated in the motor. The
segments in this motor. The SPM motor is more subject to spatial distribution of harmonics in the back emf and varying
PM losses [38]. inductances in the spoke motor have a direct consequence on
The SPM and IPM motors both give the same continuous the phase current and the instantaneous torque. The phase
power for the same size of inverter and active parts. When current ripple is the cause for commutation torque. The
manufacturing is considered, the SPM motor is easier to reluctance torque hardly contributes in the effective torque.
manufacture than the IPM motor [38]. When the phase current has an advanced phase angle, then the
phase current increases, due to constructive addition of two
consecutive peaks. The increase in current then leads to an
4.5.3 | Spoke motor increase in the electromagnetic torque and also the reluctance
torque. This reluctance torque is now able to contribute to the
Recent trends in electric motor design have shown a drift to- output torque [39].
wards the spoke brushless DC motor. These motors are known The leakage flux is generated between the magnets because
for their high power density. The design of a spoke motor is of the magnets are inside the rotor. This leakage flux leads to a

F I G U R E 6 (a) The rotor design of

SPM and spoke motor [39]. (b) Air hole and
flux barrier design of the spoke motor [39]
10
- MADICHETTY ET AL.

reduction in the torque and output power density. Reducing the Hence, the hybrid motor that combines the designs of
leakage flux can increase the torque further [39]. SPM and IPM motors, will have properties that are almost an
When irreversible demagnetisation analysis is performed average of the two motors. This helps to reduce disadvantages
on the SPM and spoke motor, it is observed that the SPM of one type and add advantages of another type in properties
motors are only partially demagnetised, whereas the spoke such as the back emf, torque, etc. [40].
motors are completely demagnetised by external fields. This Figure 7b shows that the torque–speed characteristics of
shows that the spoke motor has weak resistance to the external the hybrid BLDC motor are an average of that of the SPM and
demagnetising field [39]. IPM motors, thus extending the constant power region of the
In order to reduce the effect of the demagnetisation in SPM motor [40].
spoke motors, two designs, namely the air hole type and flux
barrier type rotor designs, are proposed [39]. These are shown
in Figure 7(b). If the reference model is considered to have a 4.5.5 | Permanent magnet inset motor
rotor without any air hole or flux barrier design, then it can be
said that the air hole and the flux barrier type rotors perform The PM inset motor utilises the advantages of the high power
better than the reference model. Both the air hole and the flux density and efficiency of the brushless DC motor and advan-
barrier type designs have better torque characteristics, but the tages of high starting torque and wide constant power range of
flux barrier type design has more torque when compared to the DC series motor. The originality of this motor is that the
air hole type design. In terms of back emf, it can be seen that generation of the PM excitation is both by PM and by the
the flux barrier type rotor exhibits better resistance to external specially controlled stator currents (two particular phases), that
demagnetising fields. The back emf reduction is about 18% in are under the same stator pole. This causes torque of the motor
the case of the air hole design and it is about 5.3% in the flux to be generated in two parts. By the interaction between the PM
barrier type design. This shows that the flux barrier type spoke excitation and the two phase stator currents, one part of torque
BLDC motor is more robust to the external demagnetising is generated. The other part is the electromagnetic torque that is
fields [39]. generated due to the interaction between the magnetic field
generated by the two stator currents and the stator currents of
the other phases. This second part of the torque is proportional
4.5.4 | Permanent magnet hybrid motor to the square of the phase currents, which is the characteristic
of the DC series motor [41].
The permanent magnet hybrid motor is composed of segments The design of the inset motor draws inspiration from the
of the surface and interior permanent magnet arrangements on multiphase reluctance motor. An inverter‐fed multiphase
a stepped skewed rotor shaft. Placement of the rotor segments reluctance motor operates similarly to the DC motor with the
is done in such a way that the average output torque is maxi- only difference being that both the field and the armature
mised [40]. This arrangement is shown in Figure 7a. windings are inside the stator. The armature reaction field (Fa)
When compared to the SPM motors of the similar torque is produced by the stator currents of the phases that are under
density, the hybrid PM motor has a wider constant power re- the rotor pole faces. These currents act as armature currents
gion. This motor also has 21.9% reduced magnet weight (ia). The field excitation (Ff) is produced by the stator currents
compared to conventional SPM motors [40]. that flow in the phases that are in the interpole region. These
When compared to the IPM, the SPM has greater currents act as field currents (if). The use of a multiphase
maximum torque, maximum back emf and also maximum inverter allows control of each phase current of the multiphase
cogging torque. Although it is preferred to have high values motor. This makes it possible to control the field and the
of back emf and torque, a high value of cogging torque is armature currents independently. This is the characteristic
not preferred. The greatest advantage of the IPM motor feature of the separately DC motor. The rectangular distribu-
that is added to this hybrid motor is the wide constant tion of field and current gives high power density to the
power region [40]. multiphase reluctance motor [41].

F I G U R E 7 a) Arrangement of
(i) conventional stepped skew of SPM
motor and (ii) unconventional stepped skew
of permanent magnet hybrid motor [40].
(b) Torque–speed characteristics of SPM,
IPM and permanent magnet hybrid motor
[40]
MADICHETTY ET AL.
- 11

There are two types of torques that can be produced by Figure 8 shows the different torques, stator poles and the
this motor. One of the torques, Ta is a positive torque that is excitations in the permanent magnet inset motor during
produced due to the interaction of Ff and ia. The other torque clockwise and anticlockwise rotation of the motor [41].
is undesirable and is called the negative torque Tf. This torque The PM inset motor has two specialties. Firstly, these are
is generated by the interaction between Fa and if [41]. fed by multiphase rectangular waves to give high power density.
The PM inset motor is designed by placing the permanent Secondly, the rotor has PM magnet width that is less than one‐
magnets in sunken spaces in a specific way such that the rotor half of the pole pitch, giving it the ability to perform field
has a PM magnet width less than half the pole pitch. Such an regulation for constant power operations at high speeds. Also,
arrangement produces two positive torques. This means that the salient rotor pole surfaces are eccentric, thereby reducing
the stator field current is now used to create two positive the armature reaction [41].
torques, instead of a positive and negative torque. One of the Thus the PM inset motor has the powerful torque of the
positive torques is the reluctance torque that equals the PM brushless motor and controllable reluctance torque, which
difference between Ta and Tf. The other positive torque is the is proportional to the square of the phase current. Hence, this
PM torque, Tm. This torque is produced by the interaction of if motor is able to offer high power density, high starting torque
and permanent magnet field Fm. and high efficiency [41].
The torque of the PM inset motor is given by the equation
below [41]:
4.5.6 | Trends of motors used in electric vehicles
�
d
T ¼ ½i�T ½L�½i� þ ½e�T ½i� ω ð10Þ Table 1 shows the recent trends in the electric motors used in
dθ some of the most representative electric vehicles in the market
[5]. It can be seen that induction motors and permanent
Here, T is the motor torque, [i] represents the matrix of magnet motors are the most commonly used type of motors in
phase currents, [L] represents the matrix of phase inductances, recent times. DC motors were more prevalent during earlier
where Lii is the self‐inductance of phase i, and Lij is the mutual times when the electric vehicle technology was evolving. There
inductance between phases i and j, θ is the angle between rotor are numerous electric vehicles coming into the market. The
axis and stator winding axis, [e] represents the rotational back electric vehicle market includes electric cars, hybrid electric
emf due to the PM material and ω represents the angular speed. cars, electric scooters and motorcycles, electric cycles and also
The first term in the above equation represents the reluc- electric pickup trucks and three wheelers. Table 2 shows the
tance torque component and the second term represents the different electric vehicles, specifying the type and power of
PM torque component of the inset motor. their motors.

FIGURE 8 (a) Clockwise and (b) anticlockwise rotation of the inset motor [41]
12
- MADICHETTY ET AL.

T A B L E 1 Types of motors used in the

Sl. No. Name Year Power (in kW) Motor type
most representative models in the market
1 Audi e‐tron Quattro 2019 300 IMa

2 Mercedes‐Benz EQC (N293) 2019 300 IMa

3 Hyundai Kona 2018 150 PMb

4 Mahindra eVerito 2017 31 IMa

5 MW Motors Luka EV 2016 50 IMa

6 Tesla Model X 2015 245 IMa

7 Kia Soul EV 2014 81.4 PMb

8 Volkswagen e‐Up 2013 60 PMb

9 Tesla Model S 2012 215 IMa

10 Hyundai Blue ON 2012 212 PMb

11 Ford Focus Electric 2011 110 IMa

12 Volvo C30 DRIVe 2011 89 PMb

13 Tata Indica Vista EV 2011 55 PMb

14 Ford Turneo Connect EV 2011 50 IMa

15 REVA NXR 2011 13 IMa

16 BYD F3M 2010 125 PMb

17 Fiat Doblo 2011 43 IMa

18 Peugeot iOn 2011 35 PMb

19 Nissan Leaf 2010 80 PMb

20 Ford Transit Connect EV 2010 50 IMa

21 BYD e6 2009 115 PMb

22 Mitsubishi i MiEV 2009 47 PMb

23 Tesla Roadster 2008 215 IMa

24 REVAi 2008 13 IMa

25 AC Propulsion eBox 2007 150 IMa

26 Ford Ranger EV 1999 67 IMa

27 Peugeot Partner 1999 28 DCc

28 Toyota RAV4 EV 1998 50 PMb

29 GM S‐10 1997 85 IMa

30 Nissan Altra 1997 62 PMb

31 Honda EV Plus 1997 49 DCc

32 GM EV‐1 1996 102 IMa

33 Ford Ecostar 1992 56 IMa

34 Bertone Blitz 1992 52 DCc

35 City EI 1987 4 DCc

36 Lucas Chloride 1977 40 DCc

37 Citicar 1974 6 DCc

38 Enfield 8000 1969 10 DCc

a
Induction motor.
b
Permanent magnet motor.
c
DC motor.
MADICHETTY ET AL.
- 13

T A B L E 2 Types of motors used in the most representative electric constant power region and have the most suitable character-
vehicles in India istics for an electric vehicle. However, these motors suffer
Vehicle type Model name Power (in kW) Motor type from torque ripple that causes acoustic noise. In addition, they
have excessive current ripple.
Car e2o Plus‐2016 19 IMa
The brushless DC motors have been in recent trends due
Car e‐Verito‐2017 30.5 IMa to the high power density and high torque capabilities. These
Car Tigor‐2017 30 IMa motors have undergone and are still undergoing a lot of
research. This has led to the development of various types of
Car Tiago‐2017 85 IMa
brushless DC motors. Although a very suitable choice, this
Car Prius (Hybrid)‐2018 55 PMSMb motor does also lack the wide constant power region due to its
Car Camry (flex‐fuel Hybrid) 105 PMSMb limited flux‐weakening capabilities.
Axial flux BLDC motors can be used in designs where the
Motorcycle T6X‐2019 6 BLDCc
length of the rotor is a constraint. The radial flux motors have
Scooter S340‐2018 4.5 BLDCc the lowest copper losses when compared to the axial flux
Scooter High Speed‐2019 0.6 In‐hub BLDCc motors. With increasing output power, the radial flux motor
has overall losses close to those of the single air gap slotted
Scooter Economy‐2019 0.25 In‐hub BLDCc
type axial motor, which has the least overall losses. The main
Scooter Flow‐2019 2.1 BLDCc advantage of axial flux motors is their significantly high power
Scooter V48‐2017 0.25 BLDCc per unit active volume for all power levels.
If the mounting of permanent magnets is considered, the
Bus K7 2 � 90‐2017 PMSMb
interior permanent magnet motors have a higher overload
Bus K9 2 � 100‐2019 PMSMb capacity when compared to the surface permanent magnet
a
Induction motor.
motors. Spoke motors have recently come into the picture, in
b
Permanent magnet synchronous motor. which the permanent magnets are arranged as spokes of a
c
Brushless DC motor. wheel. These motors pack a high power per unit active volume
and have greater values of back emf and torque than con-
ventional SPM motors. The flux barrier type rotor design of
5 | CONCLUSION these motors is superior in resisting demagnetisation due to
external fields. Another new type of permanent magnet motor
The DC motors appear to be one of the best choices according that is a hybrid of SPM and IPM motors has been designed.
to the traction profile of an electric vehicle. They have excellent This motor exhibits the advantages of both SPM and IPM
torque speed characteristics and are simple and robust in their motors and has fewer disadvantages when compared to SPM
construction. However, these motors require maintenance and motors. The permanent magnet inset motor is a new design of
have low power density. The induction motors have easy control the BLDC motor that has PM magnets sunk into the rotor
due to the flux‐weakening capabilities, are robust and require surface. This motor has the advantage of using both the PM
low maintenance. These motors are restricted in their constant torque and the reluctance torque additively.
power region by their breakdown torque. They have low effi-
ciencies and operate at poor power factors at high speeds. The
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