Parallax - What's A MicroController

What’s a Microcontroller?
Student Guide
VERSION 2.1
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COPYRIGHTS AND TRADEMARKS
This documentation is copyright 2003 by Parallax, Inc. By downloading or obtaining a printed copy of this
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intellectual property laws. Any duplication of this documentation for commercial uses is expressly prohibited by
Parallax, Inc. Duplication for educational use is permitted, subject to the Conditions of Duplication stated in the
Preface.
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use the names BASIC Stamp, Stamps in Class, and/or Board of Education on your web page or in printed material,
you must state that "BASIC Stamp is a registered trademark of Parallax, Inc.," " Stamps in Class is a registered
trademark of Parallax, Inc.," and/or "Board of Education is a registered trademark of Parallax, Inc.," respectively,
upon the first appearance of the trademark name. Other brand and product names are trademarks or registered
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ISBN 1-928982-02-6
DISCLAIMER OF LIABILITY
Parallax, Inc. is not responsible for special, incidental, or consequential damages resulting from any breach of
warranty, or under any legal theory, including lost profits, downtime, goodwill, damage to or replacement of
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Parallax products. Parallax is also not responsible for any personal damage, including that to life and health, resulting
from use of any of our products. You take full responsibility for your BASIC Stamp application, no matter how life-
threatening it may be.
WEB SITE AND DISCUSSION LISTS

The Parallax web site (www.parallax.com) has many downloads, products, customer applications and on-line
ordering for the components used in this text. We also maintain several e-mail discussion lists for people interested in
using Parallax products. These lists are accessible from www.parallax.com via the Support ĺ Discussion Groups
menu. These are the lists that we operate:
BASIC Stamps – With over 2,500 subscribers, this list is widely utilized by engineers, hobbyists and
students who share their BASIC Stamp projects and ask questions.
Stamps in Class – Created for educators and students, this list has 500 subscribers who discuss the use of
the Stamps in Class curriculum in their courses. The list provides an opportunity for both students and
educators to ask questions and get answers.
Parallax Educators –Exclusively for educators and those who contribute to the development of Stamps in
Class. Parallax created this group to obtain feedback on our curricula and to provide a forum for educators
to develop and obtain Teacher’s Guides.
Parallax Translators – Consisting of less than 10 people, the purpose of this list is to provide a conduit
between Parallax and those who translate our documentation to languages other than English. Parallax
provides editable Word documents to our translating partners and attempts to time the translations to
coordinate with our publications.
Toddler Robot – A customer created this discussion list to discuss applications and programming of the
Parallax Toddler robot.
SX Tech – Discussion of programming the SX microcontroller with Parallax assembly language tools and
3rd party BASIC and C compilers. Approximately 600 members.
Javelin Stamp – Discussion of application and design using the Javelin Stamp, a Parallax module that is
programmed using a subset of Sun Microsystems’ Java® programming language. Approximately 250
members.
ERRATA
While great effort is made to assure the accuracy of our texts, errors may still exist. If you find an error, please let us
know by sending an email to editor@parallax.com. We continually strive to improve all of our educational materials
and documentation, and frequently revise our texts. Occasionally, an Errata sheet with a list of known errors and
corrections for a given text will be posted to our web site, www.parallax.com. Please check the individual product
page’s free downloads for an errata file.
Table of Contents · Page i
Table of Contents
Preface.........................................................................................................................v
Audience.........................................................................................................................v
Support and Teacher’s Guide.........................................................................................v
The Stamps in Class Curriculum ...................................................................................vi
Conditions of Duplication ..............................................................................................vii
Foreign Translations .....................................................................................................vii
Special Contributors .....................................................................................................vii
Chapter #1: Getting Started.......................................................................................1
How Many Microcontrollers Did You Use Today? ..........................................................1
The BASIC Stamp 2 - Your New Microcontroller............................................................1
Amazing Inventions with the BASIC Stamp....................................................................2
Hardware and Software ..................................................................................................5
Activity #1: Getting the Software.....................................................................................5
Activity #2: Installing the Software ................................................................................10
Activity #3: Setting Up the Hardware and Testing the System .....................................13
Activity #4: First Program..............................................................................................21
Activity #5: Looking Up Answers ..................................................................................27
Activity #6: When You’re Done .....................................................................................30
SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................33
Chapter #2: Lights on – Lights off ..........................................................................37
Indicator Lights .............................................................................................................37
Making a Light Emitting Diode (LED) Emit Light...........................................................37
Activity #1: Building and Testing the LED Circuit..........................................................38
Activity #2: On/Off Control with the BASIC Stamp........................................................47
Activity #3: Counting and Repeating.............................................................................52
Activity #4: Building and Testing a Second LED Circuit ...............................................56
Activity #5: Using Current Direction to Control a Bi-Color LED ....................................60
SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................66
Chapter #3: Digital Input - Pushbuttons.................................................................71
Found on Calculators, Hand Held Games, and Appliances .........................................71
Receiving vs. Sending High and Low Signals ..............................................................71
Activity #1: Testing a Pushbutton with an LED Circuit..................................................71
Activity #2: Reading a Pushbutton with the BASIC Stamp ...........................................75
Activity #3: Pushbutton Control of an LED Circuit ........................................................80
Activity #4: Two Pushbuttons Controlling Two LED Circuits.........................................83
Activity #5: Reaction Timer Test ...................................................................................88
SUMMARY ...................................................................................................................97
Page ii · What’s a Microcontroller?
Chapter #4: Controlling Motion ............................................................................ 101

Microcontrolled Motion ............................................................................................... 101
On/Off Signals and Motor Motion ............................................................................... 101
Activity #1: Connecting and Testing the Servo........................................................... 101
Activity #2: Controlling Position with Your Computer ................................................. 116
Activity #3: Converting Position to Motion .................................................................. 122
Activity #4: Pushbutton Controlled Servo ................................................................... 125
SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. 131
Chapter #5: Measuring Rotation........................................................................... 135
Adjusting Dials and Monitoring Machines................................................................... 135
The Variable Resistor under the Dial – A Potentiometer............................................ 135
Activity #1: Building and Testing the Potentiometer Circuit ........................................ 137
Activity #2: Measuring Resistance by Measuring Time .............................................. 139
Activity #3: Reading the Dial with the BASIC Stamp .................................................. 145
Activity #4: Controlling a Servo with a Potentiometer................................................. 148
SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. 156
Chapter #6: Digital Display.................................................................................... 161
The Every-Day Digital Display.................................................................................... 161
What’s a 7-Segment Display? .................................................................................... 161
Activity #1: Building and Testing the 7-Segment LED Display ................................... 163
Activity #2: Controlling the 7-Segment LED Display................................................... 167
Activity #3: Displaying Digits....................................................................................... 170
Activity #4: Displaying the Position of a Dial............................................................... 177
SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. 182
Chapter #7: Measuring Light................................................................................. 185
Devices that Contain Light Sensors ........................................................................... 185
Introducing the Photoresistor...................................................................................... 185
Activity #1: Building and Testing the Light Meter........................................................ 186
Activity #2: Graphing Light Measurements................................................................. 189
Activity #3: Tracking Light Events............................................................................... 193
Activity #4: Simple Light Meter ................................................................................... 199
SUMMARY ................................................................................................................. 211
Chapter #8: Frequency and Sound ...................................................................... 215
Your Day and Electronic Beeps.................................................................................. 215
Microcontrollers, Speakers, Beeps and On/Off Signals ............................................. 215
Activity #1: Building and Testing the Speaker ............................................................ 216
Activity #2: Action Sounds .......................................................................................... 218
Activity #3: Musical Notes and Simple Songs ............................................................ 223
Activity #4: Microcontroller Music ............................................................................... 229
Activity #5: Cell Phone RingTones ............................................................................. 241
Table of Contents · Page iii
SUMMARY .................................................................................................................253
Chapter #9: Electronic Building Blocks ...............................................................257
Those Little Black Chips .............................................................................................257
Expand Your Projects with Peripheral Integrated Circuits ..........................................258
Activity #1: Control Current Flow with a Transistor.....................................................259
Activity #2: Introducing the Digital Potentiometer .......................................................261
SUMMARY .................................................................................................................271
Chapter #10: Running the Whole Show ...............................................................273
Subsystem Integration ................................................................................................273
Activity #1: Building and Testing Each Pushbutton Circuit .........................................274
Activity #2: Building and Testing Each RC-Time Circuit .............................................277
Activity #3: Subsystem Integration Example...............................................................279
Activity #4: Developing and Adding a Software Subsystem .......................................283
SUMMARY .................................................................................................................289
Appendix A: USB to Serial Adaptor......................................................................293
Appendix B: Equipment and Parts Lists..............................................................295
Appendix C: BASIC Stamp and Carrier Board Components and Functions....299
Appendix D: Batteries and Power Supplies.........................................................303
Appendix E: Trouble-Shooting..............................................................................307
Appendix F: More About Electricity......................................................................309
Appendix G: RTTTL Format Summary .................................................................317
Index ........................................................................................................................319
Preface · Page v
Preface
This text answers the question “What’s a microcontroller?” by showing students how
they can design their own customized, intelligent inventions using the BASIC Stamp.
The activities in this text incorporate a variety of fun and interesting experiments
designed to appeal to a student’s imagination by using motion, light, sound, and tactile
feedback to introduce new concepts. These activities are designed to introduce students
to a variety of basic principles in the fields of computer programming, electricity and
electronics, mathematics and physics. Many of the activities facilitate hands-on
presentation of design practices used by engineers and technicians in the creation of
modern machines and appliances using inexpensive and easily obtainable parts.
AUDIENCE
This text is organized so that it can be used by the widest possible variety of students as
well as independent learners. Middle school students can try the examples in this text in
a guided tour fashion by simply following the check-marked instructions and instructor
supervision. At the other end of the spectrum, pre-engineering students’ problem-solving
skills are challenged by the last activity in each chapter and assignments in the Projects
section at the end of each chapter. Independent learners can work at their own pace, and
obtain assistance through the Stamps in Class forum cited below.
SUPPORT AND TEACHER’S GUIDE

The following Parallax Yahoo! Discussion Groups are available for those who would like
support in using this text:
Stamps In Class Group: Open to students, educators, and independent learners, this forum
allows members to ask each other questions and share answers as they work through the
activities, exercises and projects in this text.
Parallax Educator’s Group: the Teacher’s Guide for this text is available only to
educators; it may be obtained through this forum after proof of status as an educator has
been verified by Parallax. This moderated forum provides support for educators and
welcomes feedback as we continue to develop our Stamps in Class curriculum.
These groups are accessible from www.parallax.com under Discussion Groups on the
Support menu. If you are having difficulty subscribing to either of these Yahoo! Groups,
Page vi · What’s a Microcontroller?
or have other questions about this text or Stamps in Class, contact the Parallax Stamps in
Class Team directly at stampsinclass@parallax.com.
THE STAMPS IN CLASS CURRICULUM

What’s a Microcontroller? is the gateway text to our Stamps in Class curriculum. After
completing this text, you can continue your studies with any of the Student Guides listed
below. All of the books listed are available for free download from www.parallax.com.
The versions cited below were current at the time of this printing. Please check our web
sites www.parallax.com or www.stampsinclass.com for the latest revisions; we
continually strive to improve our educational program.
Stamps in Class Student Guides:

For a well-rounded introduction to the design practices that go into modern devices and
machinery, working through the activities and projects in the following Student Guides is
highly recommended.
“Applied Sensors”, Student Guide, Version 2.0, Parallax Inc., 2003

“Basic Analog and Digital”, Student Guide, Version 2.0, Parallax Inc., 2003
“Industrial Control”, Student Guide, Version 2.0, Parallax Inc., 2002
“Robotics!”, Student Guide, Version 1.5, Parallax Inc., 2000
More Robotics Kits:

Some enter the Stamps in Class curriculum through the Robotics! Student Guide. After
completing it, you will be ready for either or both of these more advanced robotics texts
and kits:
“Advanced Robotics: with the Toddler”, Student Guide, Version 1.2, Parallax
Inc., 2003
“SumoBot”, Student Guide, Version 1.1, Parallax Inc., 2002
Educational Project Kits:

Elements of Digital Logic and Understanding Signals focus more closely on topics in
electronics, while StampWorks provides a variety of projects that are useful to hobbyists,
inventors and product designers interested in trying a variety of projects.
Preface · Page vii
“Elements of Digital Logic”, Student Guide, Version 1.0, Parallax Inc., 2003
“StampWorks”, Manual, Version 1.2, Parallax Inc., 2001
“Understanding Signals”, Student Guide, Version 1.0, Parallax Inc., 2003
Reference
This book is an essential reference for all Stamps in Class Student Guides. It is packed
with information on the BASIC Stamp microcontrollers, the Board of Education and our
other carrier boards, our BASIC Stamp Editor, and our PBASIC programming language.
“BASIC Stamp Manual”, Users Manual, Version 2.0c, Parallax Inc., 2000
CONDITIONS OF DUPLICATION
Parallax grants the user a conditional right to download, duplicate, and distribute this text
without Parallax's permission. This right is based on the following conditions: the text, or
any portion thereof, may not be duplicated for commercial use; it may be duplicated only
for educational purposes when used solely in conjunction with Parallax products, and the
user may recover from the student only the cost of duplication.
This text is available in printed format from Parallax, Inc. Because we print the text in
volume, the consumer price is often less than typical retail duplication charges.
FOREIGN TRANSLATIONS
Parallax educational texts may be translated to other languages with our permission (e-
mail stampsinclass@parallax.com). If you plan on doing any translations please contact
us so we can provide the correctly-formatted MS Word documents, images, etc. We also
maintain a discussion group for Parallax translators that you may join. It’s called the
Parallax Translators Yahoo-group, and directions for finding it are included on the inside
cover of this text. See section entitled: WEB SITE AND DISCUSSION LISTS after the
Title page.
SPECIAL CONTRIBUTORS
The Parallax team assembled to write this text includes: curriculum design and technical
writing by Andy Lindsay, illustration by Rich Allred, cover design by Jen Jacobs and
Larissa Crittenden, general consulting by Aristides Alvarez and Jeff Martin,
electromechanical consulting by John Barrowman, technical review by Kris Magri,
Page viii · What’s a Microcontroller?
technical editing by Stephanie Lindsay, and committee review by Rich Allred, Gabe
Duran, Stephanie Lindsay, and Kris Magri.
What’s a Microcontroller? Student Guide Version 2.1 was written by Andy Lindsay after
collecting observations and educator feedback while traveling the nation teaching
Parallax Educators Courses. Andy studied Electrical and Electronic Engineering at
California State University, Sacramento, and this is his third Stamps in Class Student
Guide. He is also a contributing author of several papers that address the topic of
microcontrollers in pre-engineering curricula. When he’s not writing educational
material, Andy does product engineering for Parallax.
Parallax wishes to thank StampsInClass Yahoo Group member Robert Ang for his
thorough draft review and detailed input, and veteran engineer and esteemed customer
Sid Weaver for his insightful review. Thanks also to Stamps in Class authors Tracy
Allen (Applied Sensors), and Martin Hebel (Industrial Control) for their review and
recommendations. Andy Lindsay wishes to thank his father Marshall and brother-in-law
Kubilay for their expert musical advice and suggestions. Stamps in Class was founded
by Ken Gracey, and Ken wishes to thank the Parallax staff for the great job they do.
Each and every Parallaxian has made contributions to this and every Stamps in Class text.
Chapter #1: Getting Started · Page 1
Chapter #1: Getting Started

HOW MANY MICROCONTROLLERS DID YOU USE TODAY?
A microcontroller is the kind of miniature computer that you can find in all kinds of
gizmos. Some examples of common, every-day gizmos that have microcontrollers built-
in are shown in Figure 1-1. If it has buttons and a digital display, chances are it also has a
programmable microcontroller brain.
Figure 1-1
Every-Day Examples of
Devices that Contain
Microcontrollers
Try making a list and counting how many devices with microcontrollers you use in a
typical day. Here are some examples: if your clock radio goes off, and you hit the snooze
button a few times in the morning, the first thing you do in your day is interact with a
microcontroller. Heating up some food in the microwave oven or and making a call on a
cell phone also involves operating microcontrollers. That’s just the beginning. Here are
a few more examples: turning on the television with a handheld remote, playing a
handheld game, using a calculator, and checking your digital wristwatch. All those
devices have microcontrollers inside them that interact with you.
THE BASIC STAMP 2 - YOUR NEW MICROCONTROLLER

The BASIC Stamp 2 module shown in Figure 1-2 has a microcontroller built onto it. It’s
the black chip with lettering on it that reads “PIC16C57”. The rest of the components on
the BASIC Stamp are also found in consumer appliances you use every day. All
together, they are called an embedded computer system. This name is almost always
shortened to just “embedded system”. The activities in this text will guide you through
building circuits similar to the ones found in consumer appliances and high-tech gizmos.
You will also write computer programs that the BASIC Stamp will run. These programs
will make the BASIC Stamp monitor and control these circuits so that they perform
useful functions.
Page 2 · What’s a Microcontroller?
Figure 1-2
The BASIC Stamp 2
In this text, BASIC Stamp is used to refer to the BASIC Stamp 2. There are other BASIC
Stamps, some of which are shown in Figure 1-3. Each BASIC Stamp is color coded. The
BASIC Stamp 2 is green. The BASIC Stamp 2e is red. The BASIC Stamp 2 SX is blue, and
the BASIC Stamp 2p is gold. Each variation on the BASIC Stamp 2 is slightly different,
featuring higher speed, more memory, additional functionality, or some combination of these
extra features.
Figure 1-3
BASIC Stamp
Modules
From Left to
Right: BASIC
Stamp 2, 2e,
2SX, and 2p
AMAZING INVENTIONS WITH THE BASIC STAMP

Consumer appliances aren’t the only things that contain microcontrollers. Robots,
machinery, aerospace designs and other high-tech devices are also built with
microcontrollers. Let’s take a look at some examples that were created with BASIC
Stamps.
Robots have been designed to do everything from helping students learn more about
microcontrollers, to mowing the lawn, to solving complex mechanical problems. Figure
1-4 shows two example robots. On each of these robots, students use the BASIC Stamp
to read sensors, control motors, and communicate with other computers. The robot on
the left is called the Boe-Bot. The projects in the Robotics! text can be tackled using the
Boe-Bot after you’ve worked through the activities in this one. The robot on the right
was built by a group of students and entered into a recent First Robotics competition.
The goal of the contest is different each year. In the example shown, the goal was to see
which group’s robot could sort colored hoops the fastest.
Figure 1-4
Educational Robots
Parallax Boe-Bot (left)

First Competition Robot (right)
Other robots solve complex problems, such as the autonomous remote flight robot shown
at the left of Figure 1-5. This robot was built and tested by mechanical engineering
students at the University of California, Irvine. They used a BASIC Stamp to help it
communicate with a satellite global positioning system (GPS) so that the robot could
know its position and altitude. The BASIC Stamp also read level sensors and controlled
the motor settings to keep the robot flying properly. The mechanical millipede robot on
the right was developed by a professor at Nanyang Technical University, Singapore. It
has more than 50 BASIC Stamps, and they all communicate with each other in an
elaborate network that helped control and orchestrate the motion of each set of legs.
Robots like this not only help us better understand designs in nature, but they may
eventually be used to explore remote locations, or even other planets.
Figure 1-5
Examples of Research
Robots that Contain
Microcontrollers
Autonomous flying
robot at UC, Irvine (left)
and Millipede Project at
Nanyang University
(right)
With the help of microcontrollers, robots will also take on day-to-day tasks, such as
mowing the lawn. The BASIC Stamp inside the robotic lawn mower shown in Figure 1-6
helps it stay inside the boundaries of the lawn, and it also reads sensors that detect
obstacles and controls the motors that make it move.
Figure 1-6
Robotic Lawn Mower
Prototype by the Robot

Shop
Microcontrollers are also used in scientific, high technology, and aerospace projects.
The weather station shown on the left of Figure 1-7 is used to collect environmental data
related to coral reef decay. The BASIC Stamp inside it gathers this data from a variety of
sensors and stores it for later retrieval by scientists. The submarine in the center is an
undersea exploration vehicle, and its thrusters, cameras and lights are all controlled by
BASIC Stamps. The rocket shown on the right is one that was part of a competition to
launch a privately owned rocket into space. Nobody won the competition, but this rocket
almost made it because it was launched from a platform raised to high altitudes by
weather balloons. The BASIC Stamp controlled just about every aspect of the launch
sequence by sensing altitude, communicating information to ground based technicians,
and triggering the actual launch.
Figure 1-7
High-tech and Aerospace
Microcontroller Examples
Ecological data collection

by EME Systems (left),
undersea research by
Harbor Branch Institute
(center), and JP Aerospace
test launch (right)
From common household appliances all the way through scientific and aerospace
applications, the microcontroller basics you will need to get started on projects like these
are introduced here. By working through the activities in this book, you will get to
experiment with and learn how to use a variety of building blocks found in all these cool
gizmos. You will build circuits for displays, sensors, and motion controllers. You will
learn how to connect these circuits to the BASIC Stamp, and then write computer
programs that make it control displays, collect data from the sensors, and control motion.
Along the way, you will learn many important electronic and computer programming
concepts and techniques. By the time you’re done, you might find yourself well on the
way to inventing a gizmo of your own design.
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Getting started with the BASIC Stamp is similar to getting started with a brand-new PC
or laptop. The first things that most people have to do when they get a new PC or laptop
is take it out of the box, plug it in, install and test some software, and maybe even write
some software of their own using a programming language. If this is your first time
using the BASIC Stamp, you will be doing all these same activities. If you are in a class,
the BASIC Stamp may already be all set up for you. If this is the case, your teacher may
have other instructions. If not, the activities in this chapter will take you through all the
steps of getting your new BASIC Stamp computer up and running.
ACTIVITY #1: GETTING THE SOFTWARE

The BASIC Stamp Editor (version 2.0 or higher) is the software you will use in most of
the activities and projects in this text. You will use this software to write programs that
the BASIC Stamp will run. You can also use this software to display messages sent by
the BASIC Stamp that help you understand what it senses.
The BASIC Stamp Editor is free software, and the two easiest ways to get it are:
x Download from the Internet: Look for “BASIC Stamp Windows Editor version
2.0…” on the www.parallax.com ĺ Downloads ĺ BASIC Stamp Software page.
x Included on the Parallax CD: Follow the Software link on the Welcome page.
Make sure the date printed on the CD is May 2003 or newer.
In a Hurry? Get your copy of the BASIC Stamp Windows Editor version 2.0 (or higher) and
install it on your PC or laptop. Then, skip to: Activity #3: Setting Up the Hardware and
Testing the System.
If you have questions along the way, Activity #1 can be used as a step-by-step reference
for getting the software, and Activity #2 can be used as a reference for the installation
procedure.
Computer System Requirements

You will need either a PC or laptop computer to run the BASIC Stamp Editor software.
Getting started with the BASIC Stamp is easiest if your PC or laptop has the following
features:
x Windows 95 or newer operating system

x A serial or USB port
x A CD-ROM drive, World Wide Web access, or both
USB Port Adaptor If your computer only has USB ports, you will need a USB to Serial
Adaptor. See Appendix A: USB to Serial Adaptor for details and installation instructions.
Downloading the Software from the Internet

It’s easy to download the BASIC Stamp Editor software from the Parallax web site. The
web page shown in Figure 1-8 may look different from the web page you see when you
visit the site. Nonetheless, the steps for downloading the software should still be similar
to these:
Using a web browser, go to www.parallax.com (shown in Figure 1-8).

Point at the Downloads menu to display the options.
Point at the BASIC Stamp Software link and click to select it.
Figure 1-8
The Parallax Web Site:
www.parallax.com
When you get to the BASIC Stamp Software page, find the most recent version
of the BASIC Stamp Windows Editor download, with a version number of 2.0 or
higher.
Click the Download icon. In Figure 1-9, the download icon looks like a file
folder to the right of the description: “BASIC Stamp Windows Editor version 2.0
Beta 1 (6MB)”.
Figure 1-9
The Parallax Web Site
Downloads Page
When the File Download window shown in Figure 1-10 appears, select: Save
this program to disk.
Click the OK button.
Figure 1-10
File Download Window
Figure 1-11 shows the Save As window that appears next. You can use the Save in field
to browse your computer’s hard drives to find a convenient place to save the file.
After choosing where to save the file you are downloading, click the Save
Button.
Figure 1-11
Save As Window
Selecting a place to
save the file
Wait while the BASIC Stamp Editor installation program downloads (shown in
Figure 1-12). This may take a while if you are using a modem connection.
Figure 1-12
Download Progress
Window
When the download is complete, leave the window shown in Figure 1-13 open
while you skip to the next section - Activity #2: Installing the Software.
Figure 1-13
Download Complete
Go to Activity #2: Installing

the Software.
Other free downloads at the Parallax web site include:

x This text and other Stamps in Class texts
x Robot Videos
x More free software
x Hundreds of applications and experiments you can try
Finding the Software on the Parallax CD

You can also install the BASIC Stamp Editor from the Parallax CD, but it has to be May
2003 or newer so that you can get the version of the BASIC Stamp Editor that is
compatible with the examples in this text. You can find the Parallax CD’s Year and
Month by examining the labeling on the front of the CD.
Place the Parallax CD into your computer’s CD drive. The Parallax CD browser
is called the Welcome application. It’s shown in Figure 1-14 and it should run as
soon as you load the CD into your computer’s CD drive.
If the Welcome application does not automatically run, double-click My
Computer, then double-click your CD drive, then double-click Welcome.
Click the Software link shown in Figure 1-14.
Figure 1-14
The Parallax CD
Browser
Click the + next to the BASIC Stamps folder shown in Figure 1-15.
Click the + next to the Windows folder.
Click the floppy diskette icon labeled “Stamp 2/2e/2sx/2p/2pe (stampw.exe)”.

Move on to Activity #2: Installing the Software.
Figure 1-15
The Parallax CD
Browser
Select the BASIC

Stamp Editor installation
program from the
Software page.
Free downloads at the Parallax web site are included in the Parallax CD, but only up to the
date the CD was created. The date on the front of the CD indicates when it was created. If
the CD is just a few months old, you will probably have the most up-to-date material. If it’s
an older CD, consider requesting a new one from Parallax or downloading the files you need
from the Parallax web site.
ACTIVITY #2: INSTALLING THE SOFTWARE

By now, you have either downloaded the BASIC Stamp Editor Installer from the Parallax
web site or located it on the Parallax CD. Now it’s time to run the BASIC Stamp Editor
Installer.
Installing the Software Step by Step
If you downloaded the BASIC Stamp Editor Installer from the Internet, click the
Open Folder button on the Download Complete window shown in Figure 1-16.
Figure 1-16
Download Complete Window
If you skipped here from the

“Downloading the Software
from the Internet” section, click
the Open button.
If you located the software on the Parallax CD, click the Install button shown in
Figure 1-17.
Figure 1-17
The Parallax CD Browser
Install button located near

bottom of window.
When the BASIC Stamp Editor’s InstallShield Wizard window opens, click the
Next button shown in Figure 1-18.
Figure 1-18
InstallShield Wizard for
the BASIC Stamp Editor
Click Next.
Select Typical for your setup type as shown in Figure 1-19.

Click the Next button.
Figure 1-19
Setup Type
Click Typical, then click

the Next button.
When the InstallShield Wizard tells you it is “Ready to Install the Program”,
click the Install button shown in Figure 1-20.
Figure 1-20
Ready to Install.
Click the Install button.
When the InstallShield Wizard window tells you “InstallShield Wizard

Completed”, as shown in Figure 1-21, click Finish.
Figure 1-21
InstallShield Wizard
Completed:
Click the Finish button.
ACTIVITY #3: SETTING UP THE HARDWARE AND TESTING THE

SYSTEM
The BASIC Stamp needs to be connected to power for it to run. It also needs to be
connected to a PC so it can be programmed. After making these connections, you can
use the BASIC Stamp Editor to test the system. This activity will show you how.
Introducing the BASIC Stamp, Board of Education, and HomeWork Board

The BASIC Stamp 2 and Board of Education are shown in Figure 1-22. As mentioned
earlier, the BASIC Stamp is a very small computer. This very small computer plugs into
the Board of Education, which is called a carrier board. As you will soon see, the Board
of Education makes it easy to connect a power supply and serial cable to the BASIC
Stamp. In later activities, you will also see how the Board of Education makes it easy to
build circuits and connect them to the BASIC Stamp.
Figure 1-22
BASIC Stamp 2
(left) and Board
of Education
(right)
The BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board is shown in Figure 1-23. This board is like a
Board of Education with the BASIC Stamp 2 built-in. You can use either the Board of
Education or the BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board for the activities in this text.
Figure 1-23
BASIC Stamp
HomeWork
Board
Learn more about the features parts and functions of the BASIC Stamp, Board of
Education, and HomeWork Board. See Appendix C: BASIC Stamp and Carrier Board
Components and Functions on page 299.
Required Hardware
(1) BASIC Stamp 2 and (1) Board of Education
- or -
(1) BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board
See Figure 1-24:

(1) 9-V battery
(1) Strip with four adhesive rubber feet
(1) Serial cable
Figure 1-24
9 V Battery,
Rubber Feet,
and Serial
Cable
Start with a new or fully charged 9 V battery. Avoid all the confusion a dead battery can
cause. Start with a new alkaline battery or a rechargeable battery that has recently been
fully recharged.
CAUTION
Before using an AC adaptor, “battery replacer”, or DC supply:
¥ Consult Appendix D: Batteries and Power Supplies on page 303 to make sure the
supply you use is appropriate for the activities in this text.
Connecting the Hardware

Both the Board of Education and the BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board come with a strip
that has four adhesive rubber feet. These rubber feet are shown in Figure 1-25, and they
should be affixed to the underside of your Board of Education or BASIC Stamp
HomeWork Board.
Figure 1-25
Rubber Feet
If you are using the Board of Education, it has circles on its underside that show
where each rubber foot should be attached. Remove each rubber foot from the
adhesive strip and affix it to the underside of the Board of Education as shown in
Figure 1-26.
Figure 1-26
Rubber Foot
Affixed to
Underside of
Board of
Education
If you are using the BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board, remove each rubber foot
from its adhesive strip and affix it to the underside of the HomeWork Board,
next to each a plated hole at each corner of the board as shown in Figure 1-27.
Figure 1-27
Rubber Foot
Affixed to
Underside of
HomeWork
Board
Next, the Board of Education or BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board should be connected to
your PC or laptop by a serial cable.
Connect your serial cable to an available COM port on the back of your
computer as shown in Figure 1-28.
USB Port Adaptor If you are using a USB to Serial adaptor:

¥ Connect the USB end to your PC’s USB port.
¥ Connect the COM port adaptor either directly to your Board of Education or
HomeWork Board, or connect it to the serial cable as shown in Figure 1-28.
Com
Figure 1-28
PC or Laptop COM Port
Plug the serial cable

into an available COM
port on your PC or
laptop.
If you are using the BASIC Stamp 2 and Board of Education:
Set the 3-position switch on the Board of Education to position-0 as shown in

Figure 1-29.
Figure 1-29
Reset 3-position Switch
0 1 2
Set to the 0 position to
turn off the power.
Only the Board of Education Rev C has a 3-position switch. To turn off power on a Board
of Education Rev B, simply disconnect the power source by either unplugging the DC supply
or the battery These are shown in Figure 1-30, step 3 or 4.
If your BASIC Stamp is not already plugged into your Board of Education, insert
it into the socket shown in Figure 1-30, step-1. Make sure the pins are lined up
properly with the holes in the socket, then press down firmly.
Plug the serial cable into the Board of Education as shown in step-2.
Plug a DC power supply into the 6-9 VDC jack as shown in step-3, or plug a 9-V
battery into the 9 VDC battery jack as shown in step-4.
Move the 3-position switch from position-0 to position-1.
The green light labeled Pwr on the Board of Education should now be on.
Powercell
Alkaline Battery
3 or 4
Figure 1-30
6-9VDC 15 14 Vdd 13 12
Board of
9 Vdc
Battery Red
Black
Education,
Pwr
X4 X5 BASIC Stamp,
Vdd Vin Vss
STA
Vss Vss X3 Battery and
P0 P1
in MPS
C LA
SS P2
P4
P3
P5
P15
P14
Serial Cable.
P6 P7 P13
TM P12
P8 P9
1 P11
Sout
Sin
Vin
Vss
P10
P12
P11
P13 P10
P9
Connect
P14 P15
ATN
Vss
Rst
Vdd
Vdd
X1
Vin P8
P7 components in
P0
P1
P2
U1
P15
P14
P13
P6
P5 the order
P4
P3
P4
P12
P11 Reset
P3
P2
shown in the
P5
P6
P10
P9
P1
P0 diagram.
P7 P8 X2
0 1 2 Board of Education
2 www.stampsinclass.com © 2000-2003
If you are using the BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board:
Connect the serial cable to the HomeWork Board as shown in Figure 1-31, step-
1.
Connect a 9 V battery to the battery clip as shown in step-2.
Figure 1-31
1 HomeWork Board and
Serial Cable
STA
in MPS
CL A
SS
(916) 624-8333
www.parallaxinc.com Rev A
Plug the serial cable
and 9 V battery into the
www.stampsinclass.com
Vdd Vin Vss
X3
HomeWork Board.
P15
P14
P13
2 P12
P11
P10
P9
P8
P7
P6
P5
P4
Power P3
P2
P1
Alkaline Battery
Powercell
P0
X2
Reset
© 2002
£
BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board
Testing for Communication

The BASIC Stamp Editor has a feature for testing to make sure your PC or laptop can
communicate with your BASIC Stamp.
Double-click the BASIC Stamp Editor shortcut on your desktop. It should look
similar to the one shown in Figure 1-32.
Figure 1-32
BASIC Stamp Editor Shortcut
Look for a shortcut similar to

this one on your computer’s
desktop.
The Windows Start Menu can also be used to run the BASIC Stamp Editor. Click your
Windows Start button, then select Programs ĺ Parallax, Inc. ĺ Stamp Editor 2…, then click
the BASIC Stamp Editor icon.
Your BASIC Stamp Editor window should look similar to the one shown in Figure 1-33.
The first time you run your BASIC Stamp Editor, it may display some messages and a
list of your COM ports found by the software.
To make sure your BASIC Stamp is communicating with your computer, click
the Run menu, then select Identify.
Figure 1-33
BASIC Stamp
Editor
Select Identify
from the Run
menu.
An Identification window similar to the one shown in Figure 1-34 will appear. The
example in the figure shows that a BASIC Stamp 2 has been detected on COM2.
Check the Identification window to make sure a BASIC Stamp 2 has been
detected on one of the COM ports. If the BASIC Stamp 2 has been detected,
then you are ready for Activity #4: First Program.
If the Identification window does not detect a BASIC Stamp 2 on any of the
COM ports, go to Appendix E: Trouble-Shooting.
Figure 1-34
Identification Window
Example: BASIC Stamp

2 found on COM2.
ACTIVITY #4: FIRST PROGRAM

The first program you will write and test will tell the BASIC Stamp to send a message to
your PC or laptop. Figure 1-35 shows how the BASIC Stamp sends a stream of ones and
zeros to communicate the text characters displayed by the PC or laptop. These ones and
zeros are called binary numbers. The BASIC Stamp Editor software has the ability to
detect and display these messages as you will soon see.
10
01
1 0 0 0 01 0 0
100
11 Figure 1-35
Messages from the
00 0
Powercell
0
10
1
10101001
Alkaline Battery
0
BASIC Stamp to Your
Computer
The BASIC Stamp
10
6-9VDC
9 Vdc sends characters to

1
0
00
Battery
10 your PC or laptop by
01 transmitting a stream
0 010
000
1 001 STAM
PS of binary ones and
11
in
CLASS
0 TM
zeros. The BASIC
Stamp Editor can
101
1
Sout Vin
Sin
ATN
Vss
Rst detect and convert
these binary codes to
1
Vss Vdd
0 P0 P15
P1 P14
10 P2
U1
P13
characters and display
P3 P12
P4
P5
P11
P10 them.
P6 P9
P7 P8
www.stampsinclass.com
First Program
The program listings that you will type into the BASIC Stamp Editor and download to
the BASIC Stamp will always be shown with a gray background. Here is an example:
Example Program: FirstProgram.bs2

' What's a Microcontroller - FirstProgram.bs2
' BASIC Stamp sends message to Debug Terminal.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
DEBUG "Hello, it's me, your BASIC Stamp!"
END
Type this program into the BASIC Stamp Editor as shown in Figure 1-36.
Figure 1-36
First Program
Entered into
Editor
Enter your first

program into the
BASIC Stamp
Editor as shown
here.
Save your work by clicking File and selecting Save, (shown in Figure 1-37).
Figure 1-37
Saving the First
Program
Enter the name FirstProgram into the File name field near the bottom of the Save
As window as shown in Figure 1-38.
Click the Save button.
Figure 1-38
Entering the File Name
The next time you save, the BASIC Stamp Editor will automatically save to the same
filename (FirstProgram.bs2) unless you tell it to save to a different filename by clicking File
and selecting Save As (instead of just Save).
Click Run, and select Run from the menu that appears (by clicking it) as shown
in Figure 1-39.
Figure 1-39
Running Your First
Program
A Download Progress window will appear briefly as the program is transmitted from the
PC or laptop to your BASIC Stamp. Figure 1-40 shows the Debug Terminal that should
appear when the download is complete. You can prove to yourself that this is a message
from the BASIC Stamp by pressing and releasing the button labeled Rst (Board of
Education) or Reset (HomeWork Board). This button is called the reset button. Every
time you press and release it, the program will re-run, and you will see another copy of
the message displayed in the Debug Terminal.
Press and release the reset button. Did you see a second “Hello…” message
appear in the Debug Terminal?
Figure 1-40
Debug Terminal
The Debug Terminal

displays messages sent
to the PC/laptop by the
BASIC Stamp.
The BASIC Stamp Editor has shortcuts for most common tasks. For example, to run a
program, you can press the ‘Ctrl’ and ‘R’ keys at the same time. You can also click the Run
button. It’s the blue triangle shown in Figure 1-41 that looks like a CD player’s Play button.
The flyover help (the Run hint) will appear if you point at the Run button with your mouse.
You can get similar hints to find out what the other buttons do by pointing at them too.
Figure 1-41
BASIC Stamp Editor
Shortcut Buttons
How FirstProgram.bs2 Works

The first two lines in the example are called comments. A comment is a line of text that
gets ignored by the BASIC Stamp Editor, because it’s meant for a human reading the
program, not for the BASIC Stamp. In PBASIC, everything to the right of an apostrophe
is normally considered to be a comment by the BASIC Stamp Editor. The first comment
tells which book the example program is from and what the program’s filename is. The
second comment contains a handy, one-line description that explains what the program
does.
' What's a Microcontroller - FirstProgram.bs2
' BASIC Stamp sends message to Debug Terminal.
Although comments are ignored most of the time, the BASIC Stamp Editor does search
through comments for special directives. Every program in this text will use these two
directives:
' {$STAMP BS2}
' {$PBASIC 2.5}
The first directive is called the Stamp Directive, and it tells the BASIC Stamp Editor that
you will be downloading the program to a BASIC Stamp 2. The second directive is
called the PBASIC directive, and it tells the BASIC Stamp Editor that you are using
version 2.5 of the PBASIC programming language.
A command is a word you can use to tell the BASIC Stamp do a certain job. The first of
the two commands in this program is called the DEBUG command:
This is the command that tells the BASIC Stamp to send a message to the PC using the
serial cable.
The second command is called the END command:

END
This command is handy because it puts the BASIC Stamp into low power mode when it’s
done running the program. In low power mode, the BASIC Stamp waits for either the
reset button to be pressed (and released), or for a new program to be loaded into it by the
BASIC Stamp Editor. If the reset button on your board is pressed, the BASIC Stamp will
re-run the program you loaded into it. If a new program is loaded into it, the old one is
erased, and the new program begins to run.
Your Turn – DEBUG Formatters and Control Characters

A DEBUG formatter is a code-word you can use to make the message the BASIC Stamp
sends look a certain way in the Debug Terminal. DEC is an example of a formatter that
makes the Debug Terminal display a decimal value. An example of a control character is
CR, which is used to send a carriage return to the Debug Terminal. The text or numbers
that come after a CR will appear on the line below characters that came before it. You can
modify your program so that it contains more DEBUG commands along with some
formatters and control characters. Here’s an example of how to do it:
First, save the program under a new name by clicking File and selecting Save As.
A good new name for the file would be FirstProgramYourTurn.bs2
Modify the comments at the beginning of the program so that they read:
' What's a Microcontroller - FirstProgramYourTurn.bs2
' BASIC Stamp sends messages to Debug Terminal.
Add these three lines between the first DEBUG command and the END command:
DEBUG CR, "What's 7 X 11?"
DEBUG CR, "The answer is: "
DEBUG DEC 7 * 11
Save the changes you made by clicking File and selecting Save.
Your program should now look like the one shown in Figure 1-42.
Run your modified program. Hint: you will have to either click Run from the
Run menu again, like in Figure 1-39 or click the Run button, like in Figure 1-41.
Figure 1-42
Modified
FirstProgram
Check your work

against the
example
program shown
here.
Where did my Debug Terminal go? Sometimes the Debug Terminal gets hidden behind
the BASIC Stamp Editor window. You can bring it back to the front by using the Run menu
as shown at the left of Figure 1-43, the Debug Terminal 1 shortcut button shown at the right
of the figure, or the F12 key on your keyboard.
Figure 1-43
Debug Terminal 1 to
Foreground
Using the menu (left)
and using the shortcut
button (right).
Your Debug Terminal should now resemble Figure 1-44.
Figure 1-44
Modified
FirstProgram.bs2
Debug Terminal Output
Make sure that when

you re-run your
program, you get the
results you expect.
ACTIVITY #5: LOOKING UP ANSWERS

The example program you just finished introduced two PBASIC commands: DEBUG and
END. You can find out more about these commands and how they are used by looking
them up, either in the BASIC Stamp Editor’s Help or in the BASIC Stamp Manual. This
activity guides you through an example of looking up DEBUG using the BASIC Stamp
Editor’s Help and the BASIC Stamp Manual.
Using the BASIC Stamp Editor’s Help
In the BASIC Stamp Editor, Click Help, then select Index as shown in Figure 1-
45.
Figure 1-45
Selecting Index
from the Help
Menu
Type DEBUG into the field labeled Type in the keyword to find: (shown in
Figure 1-46).
When the word DEBUG appears in the list below where you are typing, click it,
then click the Display button.
Figure 1-46
Looking up
the DEBUG
Command
Using Help.
Your Turn
Use the scrollbar to review the DEBUG command’s write-up. Notice that it has
lots of explanations and example programs you can try.
Click the Contents tab, and find DEBUG there.
Click the Search tab, and run a search for the word DEBUG.
Repeat this process for the END command.
Getting and Using the BASIC Stamp Manual

The BASIC Stamp Manual is available for free download from the Parallax web site, and
it’s also included on the Parallax CD. It can also be purchased as a bound and printed
manual.
Downloading the BASIC Stamp Manual from the Parallax Web Site
Using a web browser, go to www.parallax.com.

Point at the Downloads menu to display the options.
Point at the Documentation link and click to select it.
When you get to the BASIC Stamp Documentation page, find The BASIC Stamp
Users Manual.
Click the Download icon that looks like a file folder to the right of the description:
“BASIC Stamp User’s Manual Version 2.0 (3.2 MB)”.
Viewing the BASIC Stamp Manual on the Parallax CD
Click the Documentation link.

Click the + next to the BASIC Stamps folder.
Click the BASIC Stamp Manual book icon.
Click the View button.
Figure 1-47 shows an excerpt from the BASIC Stamp Manual v2.0 Contents
section. It shows that information on the DEBUG command can be found on page
97.
Figure 1-47
Finding the
DEBUG
Command in
the Table of
Contents
Figure 1-48 shows an excerpt from page 97 in the BASIC Stamp Manual v2.0. The
DEBUG command is explained in detail here along with example programs to demonstrate
how the DEBUG command can be used.
Briefly look over the BASIC Stamp Manual’s explanation of the DEBUG
command.
Count the number of example programs in the DEBUG section. How many are
there?
Figure 1-48
Reviewing
the DEBUG
Command
in the
BASIC
Stamp
Manual
Your Turn
Use the BASIC Stamp Manual’s Index to look up the DEBUG command.
Look up the END command in the BASIC Stamp Manual.
ACTIVITY #6: WHEN YOU’RE DONE

It’s important to disconnect the power from your BASIC Stamp and Board of Education
(or HomeWork Board) for several reasons. First, your batteries will last longer if the
system is not drawing power when you’re not using it. Second, in future experiments,
you will build circuits on the Board of Education’s or HomeWork Board’s prototyping
area.
Circuit prototypes should never be left unattended with a battery or power supply
connected. You never know what kind of accident might occur when you are not there.
Always disconnect the power from your Board of Education or HomeWork Board, even if
you only plan on leaving it alone for a minute or two.
If you are in a classroom, your instructor may have extra instructions, such as
disconnecting the serial cable, storing your Board of Education or HomeWork Board in a
safe place, etc. Aside from those details, the most important step that you should always
follow is disconnecting power when you’re done.
Disconnecting Power
With the Board of Education Rev C, disconnecting power is easy:
If you are using the Board of Education Rev C, move the 3-position switch to
position-0 by pushing it to the left as shown in Figure 1-49.
P10 P11
Sout Vin P12 P13 P10
Sin Vss P14 P15 P9
ATN Rst Vdd Vin P8
Vss Vdd X1 P7
P0 P15 P6
P1
P2
U1 P14
P13
P5
P4
Figure 1-49
P3
P4
P12
P11 Reset
P3
P2
Turning the Power off
P5 P10 P1
P6 P9 P0
P7 P8 X2
0 1 2 Board of Education Board of Education
www.stampsinclass.com © 2000-2003
Rev C
Do not remove the BASIC Stamp From its socket in the Board of Education. Resist
any temptation to store your Board of Education and BASIC Stamp separately. Every time
the BASIC Stamp is removed and re-inserted into the socket on the Board of Education,
mistakes may occur that can damage it. Although the BASIC Stamp is sometimes moved
from one socket to another during a larger project, it will not be necessary during any of the
activities in this text.
Disconnecting the BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board’s power is easy too:
If you are using the BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board, disconnect the battery as
shown in Figure 1-50.
Vdd Vin Vss
X3
P15
P14
P13
P12
P11
P10
P9
P8
Figure 1-50
P7
P6 Disconnecting the
Power
P5
P4
P3
power to the HomeWork
P2
P1
Board
Alkaline Battery
Powercell
P0
X2
Reset
© 2002
BASIC Stamp£ HomeWork Board

The Board of Education Rev B also has to have its power disconnected, either by
removing the battery or by unplugging the DC supply from the jack.
Your Turn
Disconnect the power to your board now.
SUMMARY
This chapter guided you through the following:
x An introduction to some devices that contain microcontrollers

x An introduction to the BASIC Stamp
x A tour of some interesting inventions that were made with BASIC Stamps
x Where to get the free BASIC Stamp Editor software you will use in just about all
of the experiments in this text
x How to install the BASIC Stamp Editor software
x An introduction to the BASIC Stamp, Board of Education, and HomeWork
Board
x How to set up your BASIC Stamp hardware
x How to test your software and hardware
x How to write and run a PBASIC program
x Using the DEBUG and END commands
x Using the CR control character and DEC formatter
x How to use the BASIC Stamp Editor’s Help and the BASIC Stamp Manual
x How to disconnect the power to your Board of Education or HomeWork Board
when you’re done.
Questions
1. What is a microcontroller?
2. Is the BASIC Stamp a microcontroller, or does it contain one?
3. What clues would you look for to figure out whether or not an appliance like a
clock radio or a cell phone contains a microcontroller?
4. What is the purpose of the serial cable?
5. When the BASIC Stamp sends a character to your PC/laptop, what numbers are
used to send the message through the serial cable?
6. What should you do between the time you have entered your program into the
BASIC Stamp Editor and the time you run the program?
7. What is the name of the window that displays messages sent from the BASIC
Stamp to your PC/laptop?
8. What does an apostrophe at the beginning of a line of PBASIC program code
signify?
9. What PBASIC commands did you learn in this chapter?
10. Let’s say you want to take a break from your BASIC Stamp project to go get a
snack, or maybe you want to take a longer break and return to the project in a
couple days. What should you always do before you take your break?
Exercises
1. Explain what you can do with each PBASIC command you learned in this
chapter.
2. Explain what would happen if you took all the CR control characters out of the
DEBUG commands below and write down how it would look in the Debug
Terminal.
DEBUG CR, "What's 7 X 11?"
DEBUG CR, "The answer is: "
3. Explain what the asterisk does in this command:

DEBUG DEC 7 * 11
4. Guess what the Debug Terminal would display if you ran this command:
DEBUG DEC 7 + 11
5. There is a problem with these two commands. When you run the code, the
numbers they display are stuck together so that it looks like one large number
instead of two small ones. Modify these two commands so that the answers
appear on different lines in the Debug Terminal.
DEBUG DEC 7 * 11
DEBUG DEC 7 + 11
Projects
1. Use DEBUG to display the solution to the math problem: 1 + 2 + 3 + 4.
2. Use the Your Turn – DEBUG Formatters section on page 25 as a template for
saving your file under a new name and modifying it. Use the filename
FirstProgramCh01Project02.bs2. Add this line to the program, then run it:
DEBUG 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70
Next, insert the DEC formatter before each of these numbers so that the line
reads:
DEBUG DEC 65, DEC 66, DEC 67, DEC 68, DEC 69, DEC 70
Re-run the program and describe what the DEC formatter does. Most
microcontrollers and PC computers adhere to the American Standard Code for
Information Interchange. You’ll usually see it referred to as ASCII code. The
ASCII code for ‘A’ is 65, ‘B’ is 66, ‘C’ is 67, and so on. The ASCII code for a
space character is 32, and the code for a carriage return (CR) is 13. Try this and
explain in a one paragraph report what each of these lines is doing.
DEBUG "Hello!"
DEBUG 32, 32, 32, 32
DEBUG "Hello again!"
DEBUG 13
DEBUG "Goodbye."
3. Predict what you would expect to see if you removed the DEC formatter from this
command. Use a PBASIC program to test your prediction.
DEBUG DEC 7 * 11
4. Take a second look at Figure 1-35 on page 21. How can you send the number 65
(representing an ‘A’) if you are restricted to zeros and ones? The answer is that
the number 65 can be represented using ones and zeros. You will learn more
about the binary (base-2) number system later. For now, just modify a program
by adding this code segment to it and verify that it does the same thing as your
code segment in Project 2.
' Send the ASCII codes 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, and 70.
' Debug terminal will display "ABCDEF".
DEBUG %01000001, %01000010, %01000011

DEBUG %01000100, %01000101, %01000110
5. Which lines can you delete in FirstProgramYourTurn.bs2 if you place the

command shown below on the line just before the END command in the program?
Test your hypothesis (your prediction of what will happen). Make sure to save
FirstProgramYourTurn.bs2 with a new name, like
FirstProgramCh01Project05.bs2. Then make your modification, save and run
your program.
DEBUG "What's 7 X 11?", CR, "The answer is: ", DEC 7 * 11
Further Investigation
In this chapter, you visited the Software section of either the Parallax web site or the
Parallax CD to get a copy of the BASIC Stamp Editor. You can go to the Documentation
sections of either the Parallax web site or the Parallax CD to get a free copy of this text
and of the BASIC Stamp Manual. Printed copies can also be purchased from Parallax.
You can learn much more about the DEBUG and END commands by looking them
up in the BASIC Stamp Manual. You can find them using the Table of Contents.
The BASIC Stamp Manual has many more examples you can try, along with
lessons similar to those in the Projects section you just completed.
Chapter #2: Lights on – Lights off · Page 37
Chapter #2: Lights on – Lights off

INDICATOR LIGHTS
Indicator lights are so common that most people tend not to give them much thought.
Figure 2-1 shows three indicator lights on a laser printer. Depending on which light is
on, the person using the printer knows if it is running properly or needs attention. Here
are just a few examples of devices with indicator lights: car stereos, televisions, VCRs,
disk drives, printers, and alarm system control panels.
Figure 2-1
Indicator
Lights
Turning an indicator light on and off is a simple matter of connecting and disconnecting
it from a power source. In some cases, the indicator light is connected directly to the
battery or power supply, like the power indicator light on the Board of Education. Other
indicator lights are switched on and off by a microcontroller inside the device. These are
usually status indicator lights that tell you what the device is up to.
MAKING A LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED) EMIT LIGHT

Most of the indicator lights you see on devices are called light emitting diodes. You will
often see a light emitting diode referred to in books and circuit diagrams by the letters
LED. The name is usually pronounced as three letters: “L-E-D”. You can build an LED
circuit and connect power to it, and the LED emits light. You can disconnect the power
from an LED circuit, and the LED stops emitting light.
An LED circuit can be connected to the BASIC Stamp, and the BASIC Stamp can be
programmed to connect and disconnect the LED circuit’s power. This is much easier
than manually changing the circuit’s wiring or connecting and disconnecting the battery.
The BASIC Stamp can also be programmed to do the following:
x Turn an LED circuit on and off at different rates

x Turn an LED circuit on and off a certain number of times
x Control more than one LED circuit
x Control the color of a bi-color (two color) LED circuit
ACTIVITY #1: BUILDING AND TESTING THE LED CIRCUIT

It’s important to test components individually before building them into a larger system.
This activity focuses on building and testing two different LED circuits. The first circuit
is the one that makes the LED emit light. The second circuit is the one that makes it not
emit light. In the activity that comes after this one, you will build the LED circuit into a
larger system by connecting it to the BASIC Stamp. You will then write programs that
make the BASIC Stamp cause the LED to emit light, then not emit light. By first testing
each LED circuit to make sure it works, you can be more confident that it will work when
you connect it to a BASIC Stamp.
Introducing the Resistor

A resistor is a component that ‘resists’ the flow of electricity. This flow of electricity is
called current. Each resistor has a value that tells how strongly it resists current flow.
This resistance value is called the ohm, and the sign for the ohm is the Greek letter omega
- :. The resistor you will be working with in this activity is the 470 : resistor shown in
Figure 2-2. The resistor has two wires (called leads and pronounced “leeds”), one
coming out of each end. There is a ceramic case between the two leads, and it’s the part
that resists current flow. Most circuit diagrams that show resistors use the symbol on the
left with the squiggly lines to tell the person building the circuit that he or she must use a
470 : resistor. This is called a schematic symbol. The drawing on the right is a part
drawing used in some beginner level Stamps in Class texts to help you identify the
resistor in your kit.
Gold Figure 2-2

Silver
or 470 ȍ Resistor Part
Blank Drawing
470 :
Yellow Brown
Violet Schematic symbol (left)
and Part Drawing (right)
Resistors like the ones we are using in this activity have colored stripes that tell you what
their resistance values are. There is a different color combination for each resistance
value. For example, the color code for the 470 ȍ resistor is yellow-violet-brown.
There may be a fourth stripe that indicates the resistor’s tolerance. Tolerance is measured
in percent, and it tells how far off the part’s true resistance might be from the labeled
resistance. The fourth stripe could be gold (5%), silver (10%) or no stripe (20%). For the
activities in this book, a resistor’s tolerance does not matter, but its value does.
Each color bar that tells you the resistor’s value corresponds to a digit, and these
colors/digits are listed in Table 2-1. Figure 2-3 shows how to use each color bar with the
table to determine the value of a resistor.
Table 2-1:
Resistor Color
Code Values
Digit Color
Tolerance
0 Black Code
1 Brown
Figure 2-3
2 Red Resistor Color
3 Orange Codes
First Digit Number of Zeros
4 Yellow
Second Digit
5 Green
6 Blue
7 Violet
8 Gray
9 White
Here is an example that shows how Table 2-1 and Figure 2-3 can be used to figure out a
resistor value by proving that yellow-violet-brown is really 470 ::
x First stripe is yellow, which means leftmost digit is a 4.

x Second stripe is violet, which means next digit is a 7.
x Third stripe is brown. Since brown is 1, it means add one zero to the right of the
first two digits.
Yellow-Violet-Brown = 4-7-0.
Introducing the LED

A diode is a one-way current valve, and a light emitting diode (LED) emits light when
current passes through it. Unlike the color codes on a resistor, the color of the LED
usually just tells you what color it will glow when current passes through it. The
important markings on an LED are contained in its shape. Since an LED is a one-way
current valve, you have to make sure to connect it the right way, or it won’t work as
intended.
Figure 2-4 shows an LED’s schematic symbol and part drawing. An LED has two
terminals. One is called the anode, and the other is called the cathode. In this activity,
you will have to build the LED into a circuit, and you will have to pay attention and make
sure the leads connected to the anode and cathode are connected to the circuit properly.
On the part drawing, the anode lead is labeled with the plus-sign (+). On the schematic
symbol, the anode is the wide part of the triangle. In the part drawing, the cathode lead is
the unlabeled pin, and on the schematic symbol, the cathode is the line across the point of
the triangle.
Figure 2-4
LED Part Drawing
and Schematic
Symbol
Part Drawing (above)

and schematic symbol
(below).
+
The LED’s part
drawings in later
pictures will have a +
next to the anode leg.
LED
When you start building your circuit, make sure to check it against the schematic symbol
and part drawing. For the part drawing, note that the LED’s leads are different lengths.
The longer lead is connected to the LED’s anode, and the shorter lead is connected to its
cathode. Also, if you look closely at the LED’s plastic case, it’s mostly round, but there
is a small flat spot right near the shorter lead that that tells you it’s the cathode. This
really comes in handy if the leads have been clipped to the same length.
LED Test Circuit Parts

(1) LED – Green
(1) Resistor – 470 : (yellow-violet-brown)
Identifying the parts: In addition to the part drawings in Figure 2-2 and Figure 2-4, you can
use the photo on the last page of the book to help identify the parts in the kit needed for this
and all other activities. For more information on the parts in this photo, see Appendix B:
Equipment and Parts Lists.
Building the LED Test Circuit

You will build a circuit by plugging the LED and resistor leads into small holes called
sockets on the prototyping area shown in Figure 2-5. This prototyping area has black
sockets along the top and along the left. The black sockets along the top have labels
above them: Vdd, Vin, and Vss. These are called the power terminals, and they will be
used to supply your circuits with electricity. The black sockets on the left have labels
like P0, P1, up through P15. These are sockets that you can use to connect your circuit to
the BASIC Stamp’s input/output pins. The white board with lots of holes in it is called a
solderless breadboard. You will use this breadboard to connect components to each other
and build circuits.
Vdd Vin Vss
X3
P15
P14
P13 Figure 2-5
P12 Prototyping Area
P11
P10
P9 Power terminals (black
P8 sockets along top), I/O pin
P7
P6 access (black sockets along
P5 the side), and solderless
P4
P3 breadboard (white sockets)
P2
P1
P0
X2
Input/output pins are usually called I/O pins, and after connecting your circuit to one or
more of these I/O pins, you can program your BASIC Stamp to monitor the circuit (input) or
send on or off signals to the circuit (output). You will try this in the activity that follows this
one.
Figure 2-6 shows a couple of circuits built on the prototyping area. The breadboard is
separated into rows of five sockets. Each row of five sockets can be used to connect up
to five leads, or wires, to each other. Examples of part leads and wires that are connected
to each other are circled. Although not circled, you can probably tell that one of the
resistor’s leads is connected to P7 and another is connected to P15. One of the LED’s
leads is connected to Vss, and a wire connected to one of the circuits is also connected to
Vss.
Figure 2-6
X4 X5 Example Circuit on the
+
Vdd Vin Vss Prototyping Area.
X3
P15 DO NOT BUILD THIS
P14 CIRCUIT.
P12
P11 Rows of 5 sockets on
P10
P9 breadboard used to
P8 connect the leads of two
P7
P6 or more parts are
P5 circled. Leads of certain
P4 parts are also
P3
P2 connected to P7, P15,
P1 and Vss.
P0
X2
You are now ready to build the circuit shown in Figure 2-7 (below) by plugging the LED
and resistor leads into sockets on the prototyping area. Follow these steps:
Disconnect power from your Board of Education or HomeWork Board.

Use Figure 2-4 to decide which lead is connected to the LED’s cathode. Look
for the shorter lead and the flat spot on the plastic part of the LED.
Plug the LED’s cathode into one of the black sockets labeled Vss on the
prototyping area.
Plug the LED’s anode (the other, longer lead) into the socket shown on the
breadboard portion of the prototyping area.
Plug one of the resistor’s leads into the same breadboard row as the LED’s
anode. This will connect those two leads together.
Plug the resistor’s other lead into one of the sockets labeled Vdd.
Direction does matter for the LED, but not for the resistor. If you plug the LED in
backward, the LED will not emit light when you connect power. The resistor just resists the
flow of current. There is no backwards or forwards for a resistor.
Reconnect power to your Board of Education or HomeWork Board.

Check to make sure your green LED is emitting light. It should glow green.
Vdd Vin Vss

Vdd X3
+
P15
P14
P13
470 : P12 Figure 2-7
P11
P10
LED On Circuit Wiring
P9 Diagram
P8
LED P7
P6
P5
P4
P3
Vss P2
P1
P0
X2
If your green LED does not emit light when you connect power to the board:
Some LEDs are brightest when viewed from above. Try looking straight down
onto the dome part of the LED’s plastic case from above.
If the room is bright, try turning off some of the lights, or use your hands to cast
a shadow on the LED.
If you still do not see any green glow, try these steps:
Double check to make sure your cathode and anode are connected properly. If
not, simply remove the LED, give it a half-turn, and plug it back in. It will not
hurt the LED if you plug it in backwards, it just doesn’t emit light. When you
have it plugged in the right direction, it should emit light.
Double check to make sure you built your circuit exactly as shown in Figure 2-7.
If you are using a What’s a Microcontroller kit that somebody used before you,
the LED may be damaged, so try a different one.
If you are in a lab class, check with your instructor.
Still stuck? If you don’t have an instructor or friend who can help, you can always check
with the Stamps in Class discussion group. The first pages of this book has Internet Access
information on where to find the Stamps in Class discussion group. If the group is unable to
help you solve the problem, you can contact the Parallax Technical Support department by
following the Support link at www.parallax.com.
How the LED Test Circuit Works

The Vdd and Vss terminals supply electrical pressure in the same way that a battery
would. The Vdd sockets are like the battery’s positive terminal, and the Vss sockets are
like the battery’s negative terminal. Figure 2-8 shows how applying electrical pressure to
a circuit using a battery causes electrons to flow through it. This flow of electrons is
called electric current, or often just current. Electric current is limited by the resistor.
This current is what causes the diode to emit light.
- Figure 2-8
- - LED On Circuit Electron
+ - Flow
N
- -
N N
+++ + + - The minus signs with
+++ = N - - the circles around them
+++
--- - are used to show
- - -N - - electrons flowing from
_
-N - N the battery’s negative
- - terminal to its positive
- terminal.
- - - - -
Chemical reactions inside the battery supply the circuit with current. The battery’s negative
terminal contains a compound that has molecules with extra electrons (shown in Figure 2-8
by minus-signs). The battery’s positive terminal has a chemical compound with molecules
that are missing electrons (shown by plus-signs). When an electron leaves a molecule in
the negative terminal and travels through the wire, it is called a free electron (also shown by
minus-signs). The molecule that lost that extra electron no longer has an extra negative
charge; it is now called neutral (shown by an N). When an electron gets to the positive
terminal, it joins a molecule that was missing an electron, and now that molecule is neutral
too.
Figure 2-9 shows how the flow of electricity through the LED circuit is described using
schematic notation. The electric pressure across the circuit is called voltage. The + and –
signs are used to show the voltage applied to a circuit. The arrow shows the current
flowing through the circuit. This arrow is almost always shown pointing the opposite
direction of the actual flow of electrons. Benjamin Franklin is credited with not having
been aware of electrons when he decided to represent current flow as charge passing from
the positive to negative terminal of a circuit. By the time physicists discovered the true
nature of electric current, the convention was already well established.
Vdd
Voltage + Figure 2-9
LED-On Circuit
Schematic Showing
Resistance Conventional Voltage
and Current Flow
Current
LED The + and – signs show
voltage applied to the
circuit, and the arrow
shows current flow
Voltage - Vss through the circuit.
A schematic drawing (like Figure 2-9) is a picture that explains how one or more circuits
are connected. Schematics are used by students, electronics hobbyists, electricians,
engineers, and just about everybody else who works with circuits.
Appendix F: More About Electricity: This appendix contains some glossary terms and an
activity you can try to get more familiar with measurements of voltage, current and
resistance.
Your Turn – Modifying the LED Test Circuit

In the next activity, you will program the BASIC Stamp to turn the LED on, then off,
then on again. The BASIC Stamp will do this by switching the LED circuit between two
different connections, Vdd and Vss. You just finished working with the circuit where the
resistor is connected to Vdd, and the LED emits light. Make the changes shown in Figure
2-10 to verify that the LED will turn off (not emit light) when the resistor’s lead is
disconnected from Vdd and connected to Vss.

Unplug the resistor lead that’s plugged into the Vdd socket, and plug it into a
socket labeled Vss as shown in Figure 2-10.
Check to make sure your green LED is not emitting light. It should not glow
green.
Vdd Vin Vss

X3
+
P15
P14
P13 Figure 2-10
P12 LED Off Circuit
P11
P10
P9 Schematic (left) and
P8 wiring diagram (right).
470 : P7
LED P6
P5
P4
P3
Vss Vss P2
P1
P0
X2
ACTIVITY #2: ON/OFF CONTROL WITH THE BASIC STAMP

In Activity #1, two different circuits were built and tested. One circuit made the LED
emit light while the other did not. Figure 2-11 shows how the BASIC Stamp can do the
same thing if you connect an LED circuit to one if its I/O pins. In this activity, you will
connect the LED circuit to the BASIC Stamp and program it to turn the LED on and off.
You will also experiment with programs that make the BASIC Stamp do this at different
speeds.
Figure 2-11
SOUT 1 24 VIN SOUT 1 24 VIN BASIC Stamp
SIN
ATN
2
3
BS2
23
22
VSS
RES
SIN
ATN
2
3
BS2
23
22
VSS
RES
Switching
VSS 4 21 VDD (+5V) VSS 4 21 VDD (+5V)
P0 5 Vdd 20 P15 P0 5 Vdd 20 P15
The BASIC
P1 6 19 P14 P1 6 19 P14
P2 7 Vss 18 P13 P2 7 Vss 18 P13 Stamp can be
P3 8 17 P12 P3 8 17 P12 programmed to
P4 P11 P4 P11
internally
9 16 9 16
P5 10 15 P10 P5 10 15 P10
P6 11 14 P9 P6 11 14 P9 connect the
P7 12 13 P8 P7 12 13 P8
LED circuit’s
BS2-IC BS2-IC input to Vdd or
Vss.
There are two big differences between changing the connection manually and having the
BASIC Stamp do it. First, the BASIC Stamp doesn’t have to cut the power when it
changes the LED circuit’s supply from Vdd to Vss. Second, while a human can make
that change several times a minute, the BASIC Stamp can do it thousands of times per
second!
LED Test Circuit Parts

Same as Activity #1.
Connecting the LED Circuit to the BASIC Stamp

The LED circuit shown in Figure 2-12 is wired almost the same as the circuit in the
previous exercise. The difference is that the resistor’s lead that was manually switched
between Vdd and Vss is now plugged into a BASIC Stamp I/O pin.

Modify the circuit you were working with in Activity #1 so that it matches
Figure 2-12.
Vdd Vin Vss

P14 Figure 2-12
X3
470 : + BASIC Stamp
LED P15 Controlled LED
P14
P13 Circuit
P12
P11
Vss P10
The LED circuit’s
P9 input is now
P8 connected to a
P7
P6 BASIC Stamp I/O
P5 pin instead of Vdd
P4
P3 or Vss.
P2
P1
P0
X2
Resistors are essential. Always remember to use a resistor. Without it, too much current
will flow through the circuit, and it could damage any number of parts in your circuit, BASIC
Stamp, or Board of Education or HomeWork Board.
Turning the LED On/Off with a Program

The example program makes the LED blink on and off one time per second. It
introduces several new programming techniques at once. After running it, you will
experiment with different parts of the program to better understand how it works.
Example Program: LedOnOff.bs2

Enter the LedOnOff.bs2 code into the BASIC Stamp Editor.
Run the program.
Verify that the LED flashes on and off once per second.
Disconnect power when you are done with the program.
' What's a Microcontroller - LedOnOff.bs2

' Turn an LED on and off. Repeat 1 time per second indefinitely.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
DO
HIGH 14
PAUSE 500
LOW 14
PAUSE 500
LOOP
How LedOnOff.bs2 Works

The command HIGH 14 causes the BASIC Stamp to internally connect I/O pin P14 to
Vdd. This turns the LED on.
The command PAUSE 500 causes the BASIC Stamp to do nothing for ½ a second while
the LED stays on. The number 500 tells the PAUSE command to wait for 500/1000 of a
second. The number that follows PAUSE is called an argument. If you look up PAUSE in
the BASIC Stamp Manual, you will discover that it calls this number the Duration
argument. The name duration was chosen for this argument to show that the PAUSE
command pauses for a certain ‘duration’ of time, in milliseconds.
What’s a Millisecond? A millisecond is 1/1000 of a second. It is abbreviated as ms. It

takes 1000 ms to equal one second.
The command LOW 14 causes the BASIC Stamp to internally connect I/O pin P14 to Vss.
This turns the LED off. Since LOW 14 is followed by another PAUSE 500, the LED stays
off for half a second.
The reason the code repeats itself over and over again is because it is nested between the
PBASIC keywords DO and LOOP. Figure 2-13 shows how a DO…LOOP works. By placing
the code segment that turns the LED on and off with pauses between DO and LOOP, it tells
the BASIC Stamp to execute those four commands over and over again. The result is
that the LED flashes on and off, over and over again. It will keep flashing until you
disconnect power, press and hold the reset button, or until the battery runs out.
DO
HIGH 14 Figure 2-13
DO…LOOP
PAUSE 250
LOW 14 The code between the
keywords DO and
PAUSE 250 LOOP get executed
over and over again.
LOOP
Your Turn – Timing and Repetitions

By changing the PAUSE command’s Duration argument you can change the amount of
time the LED stays on and off. For example, by changing both the Duration arguments
to 250, it will cause the LED to flash on and off twice per second. The DO…LOOP in your
program will now look like this:
DO
HIGH 14
PAUSE 250
LOW 14
PAUSE 250
LOOP
Modify the PAUSE command’s Duration arguments so that they are 250, and re-
run the program.
If you want to make the LED blink on and off once every three seconds, with the low
time twice as long as the high time, you can program the PAUSE command after the HIGH
14 command so that it takes one second using PAUSE 1000. The PAUSE command after
the LOW 14 command will have to be PAUSE 2000.
DO
HIGH 14
PAUSE 1000
LOW 14
PAUSE 2000
LOOP
Modify and re-run the program using the code snippet above.
A fun experiment is to see how short you can make the pauses and still see that the LED
is flashing. When the LED is flashing very fast, but it looks like it’s just on, it’s called
persistence of vision. Here is how to test to see what your persistence of vision threshold
is:
Try modifying both of your PAUSE command’s Duration arguments so that they
are 100.
Re-run your program and check for flicker.
Reduce both Duration arguments by 5 and try again.
Keep reducing the Duration arguments until the LED appears to be on all the
time with no flicker. It will be dimmer than normal, but it should not appear to
flicker.
One last thing to try is to create a one-shot LED flasher. When the program runs, the
LED flashes only once. This is a way to look at the functionality of the DO…LOOP. You
can temporarily remove the DO…LOOP from the program by placing an apostrophe to the
left of both the DO and LOOP keywords as shown below.
' DO
HIGH 14
PAUSE 1000
LOW 14
PAUSE 2000
' LOOP
Modify and re-run the program using the code snippet above.
Explain what happened, why did the LED only flash once?
Commenting a line of code: Placing an apostrophe to the left of a command changes it

into a comment. This is a useful tool because you don’t actually have to delete the
command to see what happens if you remove it from the program. It is much easier to add
and remove an apostrophe than it is to delete and re-type the commands.
ACTIVITY #3: COUNTING AND REPEATING

In the previous activity, the LED circuit either flashed on and off all the time, or it
flashed once and then stopped. What if you only want the LED to flash on and off ten
times? Computers (including the BASIC Stamp) are great at keeping running totals of
how many times something happens. Computers can also be programmed to make
decisions based on a variety of conditions. In this activity, you will program the BASIC
Stamp to stop flashing the LED on and off after ten repetitions.
Counting Parts
Same as previous activity
Test Circuit
Use the example circuit shown in Figure 2-12 on page 48.
How Many Times?

There are many ways to make the LED blink on and off ten times. The simplest way is to
use a FOR…NEXT loop. The FOR…NEXT loop is similar to the DO…LOOP. Although either
loop can be used to repeat commands a fixed number of times, FOR…NEXT is easier to use.
The FOR…NEXT loop depends on a variable to track how many times the LED has blinked
on and off. A variable is a word of your choosing that is used to store a value. The next
example program uses the word counter to ‘count’ how many times the LED has been
turned on and off.
Picking words for variable names has several rules:

1. The name cannot be a word that is already used by PBASIC. These words are
called reserved words, and some examples that you should already be familiar with
are: DEBUG, PAUSE, HIGH, LOW, DO, and LOOP.
2. The name cannot contain a space.

3. Even though the name can contain letters, numbers, or underscores, it must begin
with a character.
4. The name must be less than 33 characters long.
Example Program: LedOnOffTenTimes.bs2

The program LedOnOffTenTimes.bs2 demonstrates how to use a FOR…NEXT loop to blink
an LED on and off ten times.
Your test circuit from Activity #2 should be built (or rebuilt) and ready to use.
Enter the LedOnOffTenTimes.bs2 code into the BASIC Stamp Editor.
Connect power to your Board of Education or HomeWork Board.
Run the program.
Verify that the LED flashes on and off ten times.
Run the program a second time, and verify that the value of counter shown in
the Debug Terminal accurately tracks how many times the LED blinked. Hint:
instead of clicking Run a second time, you can press and release the reset button
on your Board of Education or HomeWork Board.
' What's a Microcontroller - LedOnOffTenTimes.bs2

' Turn an LED on and off. Repeat 10 times.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
counter VAR Byte
FOR counter = 1 TO 10
DEBUG ? counter
HIGH 14
PAUSE 500
LOW 14
PAUSE 500
NEXT
DEBUG "All done!"
END
How LedOnOffTenTimes.bs2 Works

This PBASIC statement
counter VAR Byte
tells the BASIC Stamp Editor that your program will use the word counter as a variable
that can store a byte’s worth of information.
What’s a Byte? A byte is enough memory to store a number between 0 and 255. The
BASIC Stamp has four different types of variables, and each can store a different range of
numbers:
Table 2-2: Variable Types and Values They Can Store

Variable type Range of Values
Bit 0 to 1
Nib 0 to 15
Byte 0 to 255
Word 0 to 65535
The question mark formatter before a variable in a DEBUG command tells the Debug
Terminal to display the name of the variable and its value. This is how the command
DEBUG ? counter
displays both the name and the value of the counter variable in the Debug Terminal.
The FOR…NEXT loop and all the commands inside it are shown below. The statement FOR
counter = 1 to 10 tells the BASIC Stamp that it will have to set the counter variable
to 1, then keep executing commands until it gets to the NEXT statement. When the
BASIC Stamp gets to the NEXT statement, it jumps back to the FOR statement. The FOR
statement adds one to the value of counter. Then, it checks to see if counter is greater
than ten yet. If not, it repeats the process. When the value of counter finally reaches
eleven, the program skips the commands between the FOR and NEXT statements and
moves on to the command that comes after the NEXT statement.
FOR counter = 1 to 10
DEBUG ? counter, CR
HIGH 14
PAUSE 500
LOW 14
PAUSE 500
NEXT
The command that comes after the NEXT statement is:

DEBUG "All done!"
This command is included just to show what the program does after ten times through the
FOR…NEXT loop. It moves on to the command that comes after the NEXT statement.
Your Turn – Other Ways to Count

Replace the statement
with the statement

in LedOnOffTenTimes.bs2 and re-run the program. What did the program do

differently, and was this expected?
Try a second modification to the FOR statement. This time, change it to

FOR counter = 20 to 120 STEP 10
How many times did the LED flash? What values displayed in the Debug
Terminal?
ACTIVITY #4: BUILDING AND TESTING A SECOND LED CIRCUIT

Indicator LEDs can be used to tell the machine’s user many things. Many devices need
two, three, or more LEDs to tell the user if the machine is ready or not, if there is a
malfunction, if it’s done with a task, and so on.
In this activity, you will repeat the LED circuit test in Activity #1 for a second LED
circuit. Then you will adjust the example program from Activity #2 to make sure the
LED circuit is properly connected to the BASIC Stamp. After that, you will modify the
example program from Activity #2 to make the LEDs operate in tandem.
Extra Parts
In addition to the parts you used in Activities 1 and 2, you will need these parts:
(1) LED - yellow

Building and Testing the Second LED Circuit

In Activity #1, you manually tested the first LED circuit to make sure it worked before
connecting it to the BASIC Stamp. Before connecting the second LED circuit to the
BASIC Stamp, it’s important to test it too.

Construct the second LED circuit as shown in Figure 2-14.
Did the LED circuit you just added turn on? If yes, then continue. If no,
Activity #1 has some trouble-shooting suggestions that you can repeat for this
circuit.
Vdd Vin Vss

X3 +
+
Vdd P15
P14
P13 Figure 2-14
P12
P11 Manual Test
470 : P10 Circuit for
P9
P8 Second LED
P14 P7
P6
470 : P5
P4
LED P3
LED P2
P1
P0
Vss Vss X2
Disconnect power to your Board of Education or HomeWork Board.

Modify the second LED circuit you just tested by connecting the LED circuit’s
resistor lead (input) to P15 as shown in Figure 2-15.
Vdd Vin Vss Figure 2-15

X3 + Connecting
+
P15
the Second
P14 LED to the
P15 P13 BASIC
470 : P12
P11 Stamp
P14 P10
470 : P9
P8 Schematic
P7 (left) and
P6
LED LED P5
wiring
P4 diagram
Vss Vss P3 (right).
P2
P1
P0
X2
Using a Program to Test the Second LED Circuit

In Activity #2, you used an example program and the HIGH and LOW commands to control
the LED circuit connected to P14. These commands will have to be modified to control
the LED circuit connected to P15. Instead of using HIGH 14 and LOW 14, you will use
HIGH 15 and LOW 15.
Example Program: TestSecondLed.bs2

Enter TestSecondLed.bs2 into the BASIC Stamp Editor.
Run TestSecondLED.bs2.
Make sure the LED circuit connected to P15 is flashing. If the LED connected
to P15 flashes, move on to the next example (Controlling Both LEDs). If the
LED circuit connected to P15 is not flashing, check your circuit for wiring errors
and your program for typing errors and try again.
' What's a Microcontroller - TestSecondLed.bs2

' Turn LED connected to P15 on and off.
' Repeat 1 time per second indefinitely.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
DO
HIGH 15
PAUSE 500
LOW 15
PAUSE 500
LOOP
Controlling Both LEDs

Yes, you can flash both LEDs at once. One way you can do this is to use two HIGH
commands before the first PAUSE command. One HIGH command sets P14 high, and the
next HIGH command sets P15 high. You will also need two LOW commands to turn both
LEDs off. It’s true that both LEDs will not turn on and off at exactly the same time
because one is turned on or off after the other. However, there is no more than a
millisecond’s difference between the two changes, and the human eye will not detect it.
Example Program: FlashBothLeds.bs2

Enter the FlashBothLeds.bs2 code into the BASIC Stamp Editor.
Run the program.
Verify that both LEDs appear to flash on and off at the same time.
' What's a Microcontroller - FlashBothLeds.bs2

' Turn LEDs connected to P14 and P15 on and off.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
DO
HIGH 14
HIGH 15
PAUSE 500
LOW 14
LOW 15
PAUSE 500
LOOP
Your Turn – Alternate LEDs

You can cause the LEDs to alternate by swapping the HIGH and LOW commands that
control one of the I/O pins. This means that while one LED is on, the other will be off.
Modify FlashBothLeds.bs2 so that the commands between the DO and LOOP

keywords look like this:
HIGH 14
LOW 15
PAUSE 500
LOW 14
HIGH 15
PAUSE 500
Run the modified version of FlashBothLeds.bs2 and verify that the LEDs flash
alternately on and off.
ACTIVITY #5: USING CURRENT DIRECTION TO CONTROL A BI-COLOR

LED
The device shown in Figure 2-16 is a security monitor for electronic keys. When an
electronic key with the right code is used, the LED changes color, and a door opens. This
kind of LED is called a bi-color LED. This activity answers two questions:
1. How does the LED change color?

2. How can you run one with the BASIC Stamp?
Figure 2-16
Bi-color LED in a
Security Device
When the door is

locked, this bi-color
LED glows red.
When the door is
unlocked by an
electronic key with
the right code, the
LED turns green.
Introducing the Bi-Color LED

The bi-color LED’s schematic symbol and part drawing are shown in Figure 2-17.
Figure 2-17
LED- Bi-color LED
Red Green bicolor
1 2 Schematic symbol (left)
and part drawing (right).
2
The bi-color LED is really just two LEDs in one package. Figure 2-18 shows how you
can apply voltage in one direction and the LED will glow red. By disconnecting the LED
and plugging it back in reversed, the LED will then glow green. As with the other LEDs,
if you connect both terminals of the circuit to Vss, the LED will not emit light.
Vdd Vdd
Figure 2-18
: :
Bi-color LED
and Applied
1 2 Voltage
: 1
Red (left),
green (center)
LED- LED- and no light
Red 2 1 Green
2 (right)
Vss Vss Vss Vss
Bi-Color LED Circuit Parts

(1) LED – bi-color
(1) Resistor 470 : (yellow-violet-brown)
(1) Jumper wire
Building and Testing the Bi-Color LED Circuit

Figure 2-19 shows the manual test for the bi-color LED.

Build the circuit shown on the left side of Figure 2-19.
Reconnect power and verify that the bi-color LED is emitting red light.
Disconnect power again.
Modify your circuit so that it matches the right side of Figure 2-19.
Reconnect power.
Verify that the bi-color LED is now emitting green light.
Disconnect power.
Vdd
1 Vin 2 Vss Vdd
2 Vin 1 Vss
X3 X3 Figure 2-19
P15 P15 Manual bi-
P14 P14 color LED
P13 P13
P12 P12
Test
P11 P11
P10 P10 Bi-color
P9 P9
P8 P8 LED red
P7 P7 (left) and
P6 P6
P5 P5 green
P4 P4 (right).
P3 P3
P2 P2
P1 P1
P0 P0
X2 X2
Controlling a bi-color LED with the BASIC Stamp requires two I/O pins. After you have
manually verified that the bi-color LED works using the manual test, you can connect the
circuit to the BASIC Stamp as shown in Figure 2-20.
Connect the bi-color LED circuit to the BASIC Stamp as shown in Figure 2-20.
1 2
Vdd Vin Vss
X3
P15
P14
P13
P15 P12 Figure 2-20
1 P11 Bi-color LED Connected
P10
P9 to BASIC Stamp
P8
P7
P6
2 P5
P14 P4
: P3
P2
P1
P0
X2
BASIC Stamp Bi-Color LED Control

Figure 2-21 shows how you can use P15 and P14 to control the current flow in the bi-
color LED circuit. The upper schematic shows how current flows through the red LED
when P15 is set to Vdd and P14 is set to Vss. This is because the red LED will let current
flow through it when electrical pressure is applied as shown, but the green LED acts like
a closed valve and does not let current through it. The bi-color LED glows red.
The lower schematic shows what happens when P15 is set to Vss and P14 is set to Vdd.
The electrical pressure is now reversed. The red LED shuts off and does not allow
current through. Meanwhile, the green LED turns on, and current passes through the
circuit in the opposite direction.
HIGH = Vdd P15

1
Current
2 Figure 2-21
LOW = Vss P14
Manual bi-color
:
LED Test
Current through
Red LED (above)
LOW = Vss P15 and Green LED
1 (below).
Current
2
HIGH = Vdd P14
:
Figure 2-21 also shows the key to programming the BASIC Stamp to make the bi-color
LED glow two different colors. The upper schematic shows how to make the bi-color
LED red using HIGH 15 and LOW 14. The lower schematic shows how to make the bi-
color LED glow green by using LOW 15 and HIGH 14. To turn the LED off, send low
signals to both P14 and P15 using LOW 15 and LOW 14. In other words, use LOW on both
pins.
The bi-color LED will also turn off if you send high signals to both P14 and P15. Why?
Because the electrical pressure is the same at P14 and P15 regardless of whether you set
both I/O pins high or low.
Example Program: TestBiColorLED.bs2

Reconnect power.
Enter the TestBiColorLed.bs2 code into the BASIC Stamp Editor.
Run the program.
Verify that the LED cycles through the red, green, and off states.
' What's a Microcontroller - TestBiColorLed.bs2

' Turn bi-color LED red, then green, then off in a loop.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
DO
HIGH 15 ' Red

LOW 14
PAUSE 500
LOW 15 ' Green

HIGH 14
PAUSE 500
LOW 15 ' Off

LOW 14
PAUSE 500
LOOP
Your Turn – Lights Display

In Activity #3, a variable named counter was used to control how many times the LED
blinked. What happens if you use the value counter to control the PAUSE command’s
Duration argument?
Save TestBiColorLed.bs2 under a new name, such as

TestBiColorLedYourTurn.bs2.
Add a counter variable declaration before the DO statement:
counter VAR BYTE
Nest the FOR…NEXT loop below within the DO…LOOP.
HIGH 15
LOW 14
PAUSE counter
LOW 15
HIGH 14
PAUSE counter
NEXT
When you are done, your code should look like this:
counter VAR BYTE
DO
HIGH 15
LOW 14
PAUSE counter
LOW 15
HIGH 14
PAUSE counter
NEXT
LOOP
At the beginning of each pass through the FOR…NEXT loop, the PAUSE value (Duration
argument) is only one millisecond. Each time through the FOR…NEXT loop, the pause gets
longer by one millisecond at a time until it gets to 50 milliseconds. The DO…LOOP causes
the FOR…NEXT loop to execute over and over again.
Run the modified program and observe the effect.

SUMMARY
The BASIC Stamp can be programmed to switch a circuit with a light emitting diode
(LED) indicator light on and off. LED indicators are useful in a variety of places
including many computer monitors, disk drives, and other devices. The LED was
introduced along with a technique to identify its anode and cathode terminals. An LED
circuit must have a resistor to limit the current passing through it. Resistors were
introduced along with one of the more common coding schemes you can use to figure out
a resistor’s value.
The BASIC Stamp switches an LED circuit on and off by internally connecting an I/O
pin to either Vdd or Vss. The HIGH command can be used to make the BASIC Stamp
internally connect one of its I/O pins to Vdd, and the LOW command can be used to
internally connect an I/O pin to Vss. The PAUSE command is used to cause the BASIC
Stamp to not execute commands for an amount of time. This was used to make LEDs
stay on and/or off for certain amounts of time. This amount of time is determined by the
number used in the PAUSE command’s Duration argument.
The DO…LOOP can be used to create an infinite loop. The commands between the DO and
LOOP keywords will execute over and over again. Even though this is called an infinite
loop, the program can still be re-started by disconnecting and reconnecting power or
pressing and releasing the reset button. A new program can also be downloaded to the
BASIC Stamp, and this will erase the program with the infinite loop.
Current direction and voltage polarity were introduced using a bi-color LED. If voltage
is applied across the LED circuit, current will pass through it in one direction, and it
glows a particular color. If the voltage polarity is reversed, current travels through the
circuit in the opposite direction and it glows a different color.
Questions
1. What is the name of this Greek letter: :?
2. What measurement does : refer to?
3. How do you tell an anode from a cathode on an LED?

4. Which resistor would allow more current through the circuit, a 470 : resistor or
a 1000 : resistor?
5. What stripes would you look for on a resistor if you were looking for a value of
2000 ȍ?
6. If the resistor has a color code of brown-black-green, what is the measurement in

ȍ?
7. How do you connect two wires using a breadboard? Can you use a breadboard
to connect four wires together?
8. What component limits current?
9. When current is flowing through an LED circuit, are the electrons flowing out of
Vdd or Vss?
10. What do you always have to do before modifying a circuit that you built on a
breadboard?
11. How long does PAUSE 500 last?
12. How long would PAUSE 10000 last?
13. How would you cause the BASIC Stamp to do nothing for an entire minute?
14. If you place three commands between a DO…LOOP loop, how many times will
these commands be executed?
15. What command can you use to control the number of times a group of
commands get executed?
16. What are the different types of variables?
17. Can a byte hold the value 500?
18. What is the smallest variable you can use to count to 10?
19. What does the question-mark do in a DEBUG command?
20. What will the command HIGH 7 do?
21. Is the command LOW 30 reasonable? If yes, why? If no, what’s wrong with it?
22. If a bi-color LED circuit is connected to P5 and P9, what commands do you need
to turn it on? What commands would you use to make it switch color? What
commands would you use to turn it off?
Exercises
1. Draw the schematic of an LED circuit like the one you worked with in Activity
#2, but connect the circuit to P13 instead of P14.
2. Explain how you would modify LedOnOff.bs2 on Page 49 so that it will make
your LED circuit in Exercise 1 flash on and off four times per second.
3. Explain how to modify LedOnOffTenTimes.bs2 so that it makes the LED circuit

flash on and off 5000 times before it stops. Hint: you will need to modify just
two lines of code.
Projects
1. Make a 10-second countdown using one yellow LED and one bi-color LED.
Make the bi-color LED start out red for 3 seconds. After 3 seconds, change the
bi-color LED to green. When the bi-color LED changes to green, flash the
yellow LED on and off once every second for ten seconds. When the yellow
LED is done flashing, the bi-color LED should switch back to red and stay that
way.
2. Create your own bar graph using four individual LEDs.
Use 1000 : resistors for this project. The color code for a 1000 :
resistor is brown-black-red. Do not make a bar graph with more than 8
LEDs using 1000 : resistors. If you want to make a bar graph with
more than 8 LEDs, use 2000 : resistors. The color code for 2000 :
resistors is red black red.
Write a program that starts with all the LEDs off, then the LEDs start to light up,
one at a time with a one second delay between each LED. The LEDs should
light up either from left to right or bottom to top depending on how you have it
wired. Save the program under a different name and make the LEDs in the bar
graph light up 20-times as fast.
3. Make an automatic streetlight timer. Assume that drivers from both north and
south can see the lights made by the green, yellow, and red LED circuits to P13,
P14, and P15. Make another bank of LEDs connected to P3, P4, and P5 that
control east-west traffic.
Write a program that gives the north-south traffic 30 seconds, then a 10 second
yellow, followed by a 40 second red. When the north-south traffic is red, the
east-west traffic should be green for 30 seconds and yellow for ten seconds, then
red for 40 seconds.
Keep in mind that if this is a real traffic controller, you would be responsible for
traffic problems if both red lights stay on for any length of time. If both green
lights are on at the same time, you could cause a car accident!
The resources listed here are available for free download from the Parallax web site and
are also included on the Parallax CD.
The BASIC Stamp Manual has more examples you can try and information that
further explains the following commands: HIGH, LOW, PAUSE, the DEBUG ?
formatter, and FOR…NEXT.
Basic Analog and Digital uses LEDs to describe counting in binary, describes
analog conditions, and it introduces new ways to adjust an LED’s brightness.
“BASIC Stamp Editor Help File”, PBASIC 2.5 Version 2.0 Parallax Inc., 2003
The PBASIC 2.5 Help File has information on DO…LOOP, which is new to
PBASIC 2.5 and not included in the BASIC Stamp Manual. You can find this
information by clicking the book icon on your BASIC Stamp Editor task bar,
then selecting PBASIC Reference from the menu in the left sidebar window.
This will open the PBASIC Command Reference alphabetical listing in the main
window. Detailed information can be found by clicking on each command.
Chapter #3: Digital Input - Pushbuttons · Page 71
Chapter #3: Digital Input - Pushbuttons

FOUND ON CALCULATORS, HAND HELD GAMES, AND APPLIANCES
How many devices with pushbuttons do you use on a daily basis? Here are a few
examples that might appear in your list: computer, mouse, calculator, microwave oven,
handheld remote, handheld games, and VCR. In each device, there is a microcontroller
scanning the pushbuttons and waiting for the circuit to change. When the circuit changes,
the microcontroller detects the change and takes action. By the end of this chapter, you
will have experience with designing pushbutton circuits and programming the BASIC
Stamp to monitor them and take action when changes occur.
RECEIVING VS. SENDING HIGH AND LOW SIGNALS

In Chapter #2, you programmed the BASIC Stamp to send high and low signals, and you
used LED circuits to display these signals. Sending high and low signals means you used
a BASIC Stamp I/O pin as an output. In this chapter, you will use a BASIC Stamp I/O
pin as an input. As an input, an I/O pin listens for high/low signals instead of sending
them. You will send these signals to the BASIC Stamp using a pushbutton circuit, and
you will program the BASIC Stamp to recognize whether the pushbutton is pressed or not
pressed.
Other terms that mean send, high/low, and receive: Sending high/low signals is
described in different ways. You may see sending referred to as transmitting, controlling, or
switching. Instead of high/low, you might see it referred to as binary, TTL, CMOS, or
Boolean signals. Another term for receiving is sensing.
ACTIVITY #1: TESTING A PUSHBUTTON WITH AN LED CIRCUIT

If you can use a pushbutton to send a high or low signal to the BASIC Stamp, can you
also control an LED with a pushbutton? The answer is yes, and you will use it to test a
pushbutton in this activity.
Introducing the Pushbutton

Figure 3-1 shows the schematic symbol and the part drawing of a normally open
pushbutton. Two of the pushbutton’s pins are connected to each terminal. This means
that connecting a wire or part lead to pin 1 of the pushbutton is the same as connecting it
to pin 4. The same rule applies with pins 2 and 3. The reason the pushbutton doesn’t just
have two pins is because it needs stability. If the pushbutton only had two pins, those
pins would eventually bend and break from all the pressure that the pushbutton receives
when people press it.
Figure 3-1
Normally Open
1, 4
1 4 Pushbutton
2, 3 2 3
Schematic symbol (left)
and part drawing (right)
The left side of Figure 3-2 shows how a normally open pushbutton looks when it’s not
pressed. When the button is not pressed, there is a gap between the 1,4 and 2,3 terminals.
This gap makes it so that the 1,4 terminal can not conduct current to the 2,3 terminal.
This is called an open circuit. The name “normally open” means that the pushbutton’s
normal state (not pressed) forms an open circuit. When the button is pressed, the gap
between the 1,4 and 2,3 terminals is bridged by a conductive metal. This is called closed,
and current can flow through the pushbutton.
Figure 3-2
Normally Open
1, 4 1, 4
Pushbutton
2, 3 2, 3
Not pressed (left) and
pressed (right)
Test Parts for the Pushbutton

(1) LED – pick a color
(1) Resistor - 470 : (yellow-violet-brown)
(1) Pushbutton - normally open
(1) Jumper wire
Building the Pushbutton Test Circuit

Figure 3-3 shows a circuit you can build to manually test the pushbutton.
Always disconnect power from your Board of Education or BASIC Stamp HomeWork
Board before making any changes to your test circuit. From here onward, the instructions
will no longer say “Disconnect power…” between each circuit modification. It is up to you to
remember to do this.
Always reconnect power to your Board of Education or BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board
before downloading a program to the BASIC Stamp.
Build the circuit shown in Figure 3-3.
Vdd
Vdd Vin Vss +

X3
1, 4
P15
2, 3 P14
P13
P12
P11 Figure 3-3
470 :
P10 Pushbutton Test Circuit
P9
P8
P7
P6
P5
LED P4
P3
P2
P1
P0
Vss X2
Testing the Pushbutton

When the pushbutton is not pressed, the LED will be off. If the wiring is correct, when
the pushbutton is pressed, the LED should be on (emitting light).
Warning signs: If the Pwr LED on the Board of Education flickers, goes dim, or goes out
completely when you plug the power supply back in, it means you have a short circuit. If
this happens to you, disconnect power immediately and find and correct the mistake in your
circuit.
The Power LED on the HomeWork Board is different. It glows only while a program is
running. If a program ends (using the END command), the Power LED will also turn off.
Verify that the LED in your test circuit is off.

Press and hold the pushbutton, and verify that the LED emits light while you are
holding the pushbutton down.
How the Pushbutton Circuit Works

The left side of Figure 3-4 shows what happens when the pushbutton is not pressed. The
LED circuit is not connected to Vdd. It is an open circuit that cannot conduct current.
By pressing the pushbutton, you close the connection between the terminals with
conductive metal making a pathway for electrons to flow through the circuit.
Vdd Vdd
1, 4 1, 4
Figure 3-4
2, 3 2, 3 Pushbutton Not
Pressed, and
Pressed
No 470 : 470 :
Current Current
Pushbutton circuit
open (left) and
LED LED closed (right)
Vss Vss
Your Turn – A Short-Circuit

Figure 3-5 shows a different circuit that will cause the LED to behave differently. When
the button is not pressed, the LED stays on. When the button is pressed, the LED turns
off. The reason the LED turns off when the pushbutton is pressed is because current
always follows the path of least resistance. When the pushbutton is pressed, terminals
1,4 and 2,3, have almost no resistance between them, so all the current passes through the
pushbutton (short circuit) instead of the LED.

Repeat the tests you performed on the first pushbutton circuit you built with this
new circuit.
Vdd Vdd Vin Vss

X3
P15
1, 4 P14
P13
P12
P11 + Figure 3-5
LED P10 LED that Gets
P9
P8 Shorted by
2, 3
P7 Pushbutton
P6
P5
470 : P4
P3
P2
P1
P0
Vss X2
Can you really do that with the LED? Up until now, the LED’s cathode has always been
connected to Vss. Now, the LED is in a different place in the circuit, with its anode
connected to Vdd. People often ask if this breaks any circuit rules, and the answer is no.
The electrical pressure supplied by Vdd and Vss is 5 volts. The diode will always use 1.6
volts, and the resistor will always use 3.4 volts, regardless of their order.
ACTIVITY #2: READING A PUSHBUTTON WITH THE BASIC STAMP

In this activity, you will connect a pushbutton circuit to the BASIC Stamp and display
whether or not the pushbutton is pressed. You will do this by writing a PBASIC program
that checks the state of the pushbutton and displays it in the Debug Terminal.
Parts for a Pushbutton Circuit

(1) Pushbutton - normally open
(1) Resistor – 220 : (red-red-brown)
(1) Resistor – 10 k: (brown-black-orange)
(2) Jumper wires
Building a Pushbutton Circuit for the BASIC Stamp

Figure 3-6 shows a pushbutton circuit that is connected to BASIC Stamp I/O pin P3.

Vdd Vin Vss Figure 3-6

X3 Pushbutton Circuit
P15
Connected to I/O Pin
Vdd P14 P3
P13
P12
P11 On the wiring
P10 diagram, the 220 :
P9
P8 resistor is on the left
P3
P7 side connecting the
P6
P5
pushbutton to P3
220 : P4 while the 10 k:
10 k: P3
P2
resistor is on the
P1 right, connecting the
P0 pushbutton circuit to
Vss X2
Vss.
Figure 3-7 shows what the BASIC Stamp sees when the button is pressed, and when it’s
not pressed. When the pushbutton is pressed, the BASIC Stamp senses that Vdd is
connected to P3. Inside the BASIC Stamp, this causes it to place the number 1 in a part
of its memory that stores information about its I/O pins. When the pushbutton is not
pressed, the BASIC Stamp cannot sense Vdd, but it can sense Vss through the 10 k: and
220 : resistors. This causes it to store the number 0 in that same memory location that
stored a 1 when the pushbutton was pressed.
Vdd SOUT 1 24 VIN

SIN 2 23 VSS
ATN 3
BS2 22 RES
VSS 4 21 VDD (+5V)
P0 5 20 P15
P1 6 19 P14
P2 7 1 18 P13
P3 8 17 P12
P4 9 0 16 P11
220 : P5 10 15 P10 Figure 3-7
10 k: P6 11 14 P9 BASIC Stamp Reading
P7 12 13 P8
a Pushbutton
BS2-IC
Vss When the pushbutton is

pressed, the BASIC
Stamp reads a 1
Vdd SOUT 1 24 VIN (above). When the
SIN 2
BS2
23 VSS pushbutton is not
ATN RES
pressed, the BASIC
3 22
VSS 4 21 VDD (+5V)

P0 5 20 P15 Stamp reads a 0
P1
P2
6
7 1
19
18
P14
P13
(below).
P3 8 17 P12
P4 9 0 16 P11
220 : P5 10 15 P10
10 k: P6 11 14 P9
P7 12 13 P8
BS2-IC
Vss
Binary and Circuits: The base-2 number system uses only the digits 1 and 0 to make
numbers, and these binary values can be transmitted from one device to another. The
BASIC Stamp interprets Vdd (5 V) as binary-1 and Vss (0 V) as binary-0. Likewise, when
the BASIC Stamp sets an I/O pin to Vdd using HIGH, it sends a binary-1. When it sets an
I/O pin to Vss using LOW, it sends a binary-0. This is a very common way of communicating
binary numbers used by many computer chips and other devices.
Programming the BASIC Stamp to Monitor the Pushbutton

The BASIC Stamp stores the one or zero it senses at I/O pin P3 in a memory location
called IN3. Here is an example program that shows how this works:
Example Program: ReadPushbuttonState.bs2

This program makes the BASIC Stamp check the pushbutton every ¼ second and send
the value of IN3 to the Debug Terminal. Figure 3-8 shows the Debug Terminal while
the program is running. When the pushbutton is pressed, the Debug Terminal displays
the number 1, and when the pushbutton is not pressed, the Debug Terminal displays the
number 0.
Figure 3-8
Debug Terminal
Displaying
Pushbutton States
The Debug Terminal

displays 1 when the
pushbutton is pressed
and 0 when it is not
pressed.
Enter the ReadPushbuttonState.bs2 program into the BASIC Stamp Editor.

Run the program.
Verify that the Debug Terminal displays the value 0 when the pushbutton is not
pressed.
Verify that the Debug Terminal displays the value 1 when the pushbutton is
pressed and held.
' What's a Microcontroller - ReadPushbuttonState.bs2

' Check and send pushbutton state to Debug Terminal every 1/4 second.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
DO
DEBUG ? IN3
PAUSE 250
LOOP
How ReadPushbuttonState.bs2 Works

The DO…LOOP in the program repeats every ¼ second because of the command PAUSE
250. Each time through the DO…LOOP, the command DEBUG ? IN3 sends the value of
IN3 to the Debug Terminal. The value of IN3 is the state that I/O pin P3 senses at the
instant the DEBUG command is executed.
Your Turn – A Pushbutton with a Pull-up Resistor

The circuit you just finished working with has a resistor connected to Vss. This resistor
is called a pull-down resistor because it pulls the voltage at P3 down to Vss (0 volts)
when the button is not pressed. Figure 3-9 shows a pushbutton circuit that uses a pull-up
resistor. This resistor pulls the voltage up to Vdd (5 volts) when the button is not
pressed. The rules are now reversed. When the button is not pressed, IN3 stores the
number 1, and when the button is pressed, IN3 stores the number 0.
The 220 : resistor is used in the pushbutton example circuits to protect the BASIC Stamp
I/O pin. Although it’s a good practice for prototyping, in most products, this resistor is
replaced with a wire (since wires cost less than resistors).
Modify your circuit as shown in Figure 3-9.

Re-run ReadPushbuttonState.bs2.
Using the Debug Terminal, verify that IN3 is 1 when the button is not pressed
and 0 when the button is pressed.
Vdd Vin Vss
X3
Vdd
P15
P14
P13
10 k: P12
P11
P3
P10 Figure 3-9
P9
P8 Modified Pushbutton
220 : P7 Circuit
P6
P5
P4
P3
P2
Vss P1
P0
X2
Active-low vs. Active-high: This pushbutton Figure 3-9 is called active-low because it
sends the BASIC Stamp a low signal (Vss) when the button is active (pressed). The
pushbutton circuit in Figure 3-6 the main activity is active-high because it sends a high
signal (Vdd) when the button is active (pressed).
ACTIVITY #3: PUSHBUTTON CONTROL OF AN LED CIRCUIT

Figure 3-10 shows a zoomed in view of a pushbutton and LED used to adjust the settings
on a computer monitor. This is just one of many devices that have a pushbutton that you
can press to adjust the device and an LED to show you the device’s status.
Figure 3-10
Button and LED on
a Computer Monitor
The BASIC Stamp can be programmed to make decisions based on what it senses. For
example, it can be programmed to decide to flash the LED on/off ten times per second
when the button is pressed.
Pushbutton and LED Circuit Parts

(1) Pushbutton – normally open
(1) Resistor - 10 k: (brown-black-orange)
(1) LED – any color
(2) Jumper wires
Building the Pushbutton and LED Circuits

Figure 3-11 shows the pushbutton circuit used in the activity you just finished along with
the LED circuit used in Chapter #2, Activity #2.
P14
470 :
LED Vdd Vin Vss
X3
+
Vss P15
P14
P13
Vdd P12 Figure 3-11
P11
P10 Pushbutton and
P9 LED Circuit
P8
P7
P3 P6
P5
220 : P4
10 k: P3
P2
P1
P0
Vss X2
Programming Pushbutton Control

The BASIC Stamp can be programmed to make decisions using an IF…THEN…ELSE
statement. The example program you are about to run will flash the LED on and off
when the pushbutton is pressed using an IF…THEN…ELSE statement. Each time through
the DO…LOOP, the IF…THEN…ELSE statement checks the state of the pushbutton and
decides whether or not to flash the LED.
Example Program: PushbuttonControlledLed.bs2

Enter PushbuttonControlledLed.bs2 into the BASIC Stamp Editor and run it.
Verify that the LED flashes on and off while the pushbutton is pressed and held
down.
Verify that the LED does not flash when the pushbutton is not pressed down.
' What's a Microcontroller - PushbuttonControlledLed.bs2

' Check pushbutton state 10 times per second and blink LED when pressed.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
DO
DEBUG ? IN3
IF (IN3 = 1) THEN
HIGH 14
PAUSE 50
LOW 14
PAUSE 50
ELSE
PAUSE 100
ENDIF
LOOP
How PushbuttonControlledLed.bs2 Works

This program is a modified version of ReadPushbuttonState.bs2 from the previous
activity. The DO…LOOP and DEBUG ? IN3 commands are the same. The PAUSE 250 was
replaced with an IF…THEN…ELSE statement. When the condition after the IF is true (IN3
= 1), the commands that come after the THEN statement are executed. They will be
executed until the ELSE statement is reached, at which point the program skips to the
ENDIF and moves on. When the condition after the IF is not true (IN3 = 0), the
commands after the ELSE statement are executed until the ENDIF is reached.
You can make a detailed list of what a program should do, to either help you plan the
program or to describe what it does. This kind of list is called pseudo code, and the
example below uses pseudo code to describe how PushbuttonControlledLed.bs2 works.
x Do the commands between here and the Loop statement over and over again
o Display the value of IN3 in the Debug Terminal
o If the value of IN3 is 1, Then
Turn the LED on
Wait for 1/20 of a second
Turn the LED off
Wait for 1/20 of a second
o Else, (if the value of IN3 is 0)
do nothing, but wait for the same amount of time it would have
taken to briefly flash the LED (1/10 of a second).
x Loop
Your Turn – Faster/Slower

Save the example program under a different name.
Modify the program so that the LED flashes twice as fast when you press and
hold the pushbutton.
Modify the program so that the LED flashes half as fast when you press and hold
the pushbutton.
ACTIVITY #4: TWO PUSHBUTTONS CONTROLLING TWO LED CIRCUITS

Let’s add a second pushbutton into the project and see how it works. To make things a
little more interesting, let’s also add a second LED circuit and use the second pushbutton
to control it.
Pushbutton and LED Circuit Parts

(2) Pushbuttons – normally open
(2) Resistors - 10 k: (brown-black-orange)
(2) Resistors – 470 : (yellow-violet-brown)
(2) Resistors – 220 : (red-red-brown)
(2) LEDs – any color
Adding a Pushbutton and LED Circuit

Figure 3-12 shows a second LED and pushbutton circuit added to the circuit you tested in
the previous activity.
Build the circuit shown in Figure 3-12. If you need help building the circuit
shown in the schematic, use the wiring diagram in Figure 3-13 as a guide.
Modify ReadPushbuttonState.bs2 so that it reads IN4 instead of IN3, and use it
to test your second pushbutton circuit.
P15
470 :
P14
470 :
LED LED
Vss Vss
Figure 3-12
Vdd Vdd
Schematic: Two
Pushbuttons and
LEDs
P4
220 :
P3
220 :
10 k: 10 k:
Vss Vss
Connecting wires with dots: There are three places where wires intersect in Figure 3-12,
but only two dots. Wires only connect if there is a dot at the intersection. The wire that
connects the P4 pushbutton to the 10 k: resistor does not connect to the P3 pushbutton
circuit because there is no dot.
Vdd Vin Vss

X3 ++
P15
P14
P13 Figure 3-13
P12
P11 Wiring Diagram:
P10 Two Pushbuttons
P9
P8
and LEDs
P7
P6
P5
P4
P3
P2
P1
P0
X2
Programming Pushbutton Control

In the previous activity, you experimented with making decisions using an
IF…THEN…ELSE statement. There is also such a thing as an IF…ELSEIF…ELSE statement.
It works great for deciding which LED to flash on and off. The next example program
shows how it works.
Example Program: PushbuttonControlOfTwoLeds.bs2

Enter PushbuttonControlOfTwoLeds.bs2 into the BASIC Stamp Editor and run
it.
Verify that the LED in the circuit connected to P14 flashes on and off while the
pushbutton in the circuit connected to P3 is held down.
Also check to make sure the LED in the circuit connected to P15 flashes while
the pushbutton in the circuit connected to P4 is held down
' What's a Microcontroller - PushbuttonControlOfTwoLeds.bs2

' Blink P14 LED if P3 pushbutton is pressed, and blink P15 LED if
' P4 pushbutton is pressed.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
DO
DEBUG HOME
DEBUG ? IN4
DEBUG ? IN3
IF (IN3 = 1) THEN
HIGH 14
PAUSE 50
ELSEIF (IN4 = 1) THEN

HIGH 15
PAUSE 50
ELSE
PAUSE 50
ENDIF
LOW 14
LOW 15
PAUSE 50
LOOP
How PushbuttonControlOfTwoLeds.bs2 Works

If the display of IN3 and IN4 scrolled down the Debug Terminal as they did in the
previous example, it would be difficult to read. One way to fix this is to always send the
cursor to the top-left position in the Debug Terminal using the HOME formatter:
DEBUG HOME
By sending the cursor to the home position each time through the DO…LOOP, the
commands:
DEBUG ? IN4
DEBUG ? IN3
display the values of IN4 and IN3 in the same part of the Debug Terminal each time.
The DO keyword begins the loop in this program:

DO
These commands in the IF statement are the same as the ones in the example program
from the previous activity:
IF (IN3 = 1) THEN
HIGH 14
PAUSE 50
This is where the ELSEIF keyword helps. If IN3 is not 1, but IN4 is 1, we want to turn
the LED connected to P15 on instead of the one connected to P14.
HIGH 15
PAUSE 50
If neither statement is true, we still want to pause for 50 ms without changing the state of
any LED circuits.
ELSE
PAUSE 50
When you’re finished with all the decisions, don’t forget the ENDIF.
ENDIF
It’s time to turn the LEDs off and pause again. You could try to decide which LED you
turned on and turn it back off. PBASIC commands execute pretty quickly, so why not
just turn them both off and forget about more decision making?
LOW 14
LOW 15
PAUSE 50
The LOOP statement sends the program back up to the DO statement, and the process of
checking the pushbuttons and changing the states of the LEDs starts all over again.
LOOP
Your Turn – What about Pressing Both Pushbuttons?

The example program has a flaw. Try pressing both pushbuttons at once, and you’ll see
the flaw. You would expect both LEDs to flash on and off, but they don’t because only
one code block in an IF...ELSEIF…ELSE statement gets executed before it skips to the
ENDIF.
Here is how you can fix this problem:
Save PushbuttonControlOfTwoLeds.bs2 under a new name.

Replace this IF statement and code block:
IF (IN3 = 1) THEN
HIGH 14
PAUSE 50
with this IF...ELSEIF statement:

IF (IN3 = 1) AND (IN4 = 1) THEN
HIGH 14
HIGH 15
PAUSE 50

HIGH 14
PAUSE 50
A code block is a group of commands. The IF statement above has a code block with
three commands (HIGH, HIGH, and PAUSE). The ELSEIF statement has a code block
with two commands (HIGH, PAUSE).
Run your modified program and see if it handles both pushbutton and LED
circuits as you would expect.
The AND keyword can be used in an IF…THEN statement to check if more than one
condition is true. All conditions with AND have to be true for the IF statement to be true.
The OR keyword can also be used to check if at least one of the conditions are true.
You can also modify the program so that the LED that’s flashing stays on for different
amounts of time. For example, you can reduce the Duration of the PAUSE for both
pushbuttons to 10, increase the PAUSE for the P14 LED to 100, and increase the PAUSE
for the P15 LED to 200.
Modify the PAUSE commands in the IF and the two ELSEIF statements as
discussed.
Run the modified program.
Observe the difference in the behavior of each light.
ACTIVITY #5: REACTION TIMER TEST

You are the embedded systems engineer at a video game company. The marketing
department recommends that a circuit to test the player’s reaction time be added to the
next hand held game controller. Your next task is to develop a proof of concept for the
reaction timer test.
The solution you will build and test in this activity is an example of how to solve this
problem, but it’s definitely not the only solution. Before continuing, take a moment to
think about how you would design this reaction timer.
Reaction Timer Game Parts

(1) LED – bi-color
(1) Pushbutton – normally open

(2) Jumper wires
Building the Reaction Timer Circuit

Figure 3-14 shows a schematic and wiring diagram for a circuit that can be used with the
BASIC Stamp to make a reaction timer game.

Run TestBiColorLED.bs2 from Chapter #2, Activity #5 to test the bi-color LED
circuit and make sure your wiring is correct.
If you re-built the pushbutton circuit for this activity, run
ReadPushbuttonState.bs2 from Activity #2 in this chapter to make sure your
pushbutton is working properly.
P15
1
1 2
Vdd Vin Vss
X3
2
P14 P15
: P14
P13
P12 Figure 3-14
Vdd P11 Reaction
P10
P9 Timer Circuit
P8
P7
P6
P3 P5
P4
220 : P3
10 k: P2
P1
P0
X2
Vss
Programming the Reaction Timer

This next example program will leave the bi-color LED off until the game player presses
and holds the pushbutton. When the pushbutton is held down, the LED will turn red for a
short period of time. When it turns green, the player has to let go of the pushbutton as
fast as he or she can. The time between when the LED turns green and when the
pushbutton is tracked by the program is used as a measure of reaction time.
The example program also demonstrates how polling and counting work. Polling is the
process of checking something over and over again very quickly to see if it has changed.
Counting is the process of adding a number to a variable each time something does (or
does not) happen. In this program, the BASIC Stamp will poll from the time the bi-color
LED turns green until the pushbutton is released. It will wait 1/1000 of a second by using
the command PAUSE 1. Each time it polls and the pushbutton is not yet released, it will
add 1 to the counting variable named timeCounter. When the pushbutton is released,
the program stops polling and sends a message to the Debug Terminal that displays the
value of the timeCounter variable.
Example Program: ReactionTimer.bs2

Enter and run ReactionTimer.bs2.
Follow the prompts on the Debug Terminal (see Figure 3-15).
Figure 3-15
Debug Terminal
Reaction Timer Game
Instructions
' What's a Microcontroller - ReactionTimer.bs2

' Test reaction time with a pushbutton and a bi-color LED.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
timeCounter VAR Word ' Declare variable to store time.
DEBUG "Press and hold pushbutton.", CR, ' Display reaction instructions.
"to make light turn red.", CR, CR,
"When light turns green, let", CR,
"go as fast as you can.", CR, CR
DO ' Begin main loop.
DO ' Nested loop repeats...

LOOP UNTIL IN3 = 1 ' until pushbutton press.
LOW 14 ' Bi-color LED red.

HIGH 15
PAUSE 1000 ' Delay 1 second.
HIGH 14 ' Bi-color LED green.

LOW 15
timeCounter = 0 ' Set timeCounter to zero.

DO ' Nested loop, count time...
PAUSE 1
timeCounter = timeCounter + 1
LOOP UNTIL IN3 = 0 ' until pushbutton is released.
LOW 14 ' Bi-color LED off.
DEBUG "Your time was ", DEC timeCounter, ' Display time measurement.
" ms.", CR, CR,
"To play again, hold the ", CR, ' Play again instructions.
"button down again.", CR, CR
LOOP ' Back to "Begin main loop".
How ReactionTimer.bs2 Works

Since the program will have to keep track of the number of times the pushbutton was
polled, a variable called timeCounter is declared.
timeCounter VAR Word ' Declare variable to store time.
Variables initialize to zero: When a variable is declared in PBASIC, its value is

automatically zero until a command sets it to a new value.
The DEBUG commands contain instructions for the player of the game.
DEBUG "Press and hold pushbutton.", CR,
"to make light turn red.", CR, CR,
"When light turns green, let", CR,
"go as fast as you can.", CR, CR
DO…LOOP statements can be nested. In other words, you can put one DO…LOOP inside
another.
DO ' Begin main loop.

' Rest of program was here.
LOOP ' Back to "Begin main loop".

The inner DO…LOOP deserves a closer look. A DO…LOOP can use a condition to decide
whether or not to break out of the loop and move on to more commands that come
afterwards. This DO…LOOP will repeat itself as long as the button is not pressed (IN3 =
0). The DO…LOOP will execute over and over again, until IN3 = 1. Then, the program
moves on to the next command after the LOOP UNTIL statement. This is an example of
polling. The DO…LOOP UNTIL polls until the pushbutton is pressed.
The commands that come immediately after the LOOP UNTIL statement turn the bi-color
LED red, delay for one second, then turn it green.
LOW 14 ' Bi-color LED red.
HIGH 15
PAUSE 1000 ' Delay 1 second.
HIGH 14 ' Bi-color LED green.

LOW 15
As soon as the bi-color LED turns green, it’s time to start counting to track how long
until the player releases the button. The timeCounter variable is set to zero, then
another DO…LOOP with an UNTIL condition starts repeating itself. It repeats itself until the
player releases the button (IN3 = 0). Each time through the loop, the BASIC Stamp
delays for 1 ms using PAUSE 1, and it also adds 1 to the value of the timeCounter
variable.
timeCounter = 0 ' Set timeCounter to zero.
DO ' Nested loop, count time...
PAUSE 1
LOOP UNTIL IN3 = 0 ' until pushbutton is released.
The bi-color LED is turned off.

LOW 14
The results are displayed in the Debug Terminal.

DEBUG "Your time was ", DEC timeCounter,
" ms.", CR, CR,
"To play again, hold the ", CR,
"button down again.", CR, CR
The last statement in the program is LOOP, which sends the program back to the very first
DO statement.
Your Turn – Revising the Design

The marketing department gave your prototype to some game testers. When the game
testers were done, the marketing department came back to you with an itemized list of
three problems that have to be fixed before your prototype can be built into the game
controller.
Save ReactionTimer.bs2 under a new name (like ReactionTimerYourTurn.bs2).
The “itemized list” of problems and their solutions are discussed below.
Item-1
When a player holds the button for 30 seconds, his score is actually 14000 ms, a
measurement of 14 seconds. This has to be fixed!
It turns out that executing the loop itself along with adding one to the timeCounter
variable takes about 1 ms without the PAUSE 1 command. This is called code overhead,
and it’s the amount of time it takes for the BASIC Stamp to execute the commands. A
quick fix that will improve the accuracy is to simply comment out the PAUSE 1 command
by deleting it or adding an apostrophe to the left of it.
' PAUSE 1
Try commenting PAUSE 1 and test to see how accurate the program is.
Instead of commenting the delay, another way you can fix the program is to multiply
your result by two. For example, just before the DEBUG command that displays the
number of ms, you can insert a command that multiplies the result by two:
timeCounter = timeCounter * 2 ' <- Add this
DEBUG "Your time was ", DEC timeCounter, " ms.", CR, CR
Uncomment the PAUSE command by deleting the apostrophe, and try the
multiply by two solution instead.
For precision, you can use the */ operator to multiply by a value with a fraction to make
your answer more precise. The */ operator is not hard to use; here’s how:
1) Place the value or variable you want to multiply by a fractional value before the */
operator.
2) Take the fractional value that you want to use and multiply it by 256.
3) Round off to get rid of anything to the right of the decimal point.
4) Place that value after the */ operator.
Example: Let’s say you want to multiply the timeCounter variable by 3.69.
1) Start by placing timeCounter to the left of the */ operator:
timeCounter = timeCounter */
2) Multiply your fractional value by 256: 3.69 X 256 = 944.64.
3) Round off: 944.64 § 945.
4) Place that value to the right of the */ operator:
timeCounter = timeCounter */ 945
Item-2
Players soon figure out that the delay from red to green is 1 second. After playing it
several times, they get better at predicting when to let go, and their score no longer
reflects their true reaction time.
The BASIC Stamp has a RANDOM command. Here is how to modify your code for a
random number:
At the beginning of your code, add a declaration for a new variable called value,
and set it to 23. The value 23 is called the seed because it starts the pseudo
random number sequence.
timeCounter VAR WORD
value VAR BYTE ' <- Add this
value = 23 ' <- Add this
Just before the pause command, use the RANDOM command to give value a new
“random” value from the pseudo random sequence that started with 23.
RANDOM value ' <- Add this.
DEBUG "Delay time ", ? 1000 + value, CR ' <- Add this.
Modify the PAUSE command so that the random value is added to 1000 (for one
second) in the PAUSE command’s Duration argument.
PAUSE 1000 + value ' <- Modify this.
What’s an algorithm? An algorithm is a sequence of mathematical operations.

What’s pseudo random? Pseudo random means that it seems random, but it isn’t really.
Each time you start the program over again, you will get the same sequence of values.
What’s a seed? A seed is a value that is used to start the pseudo random sequence. If you
use a different value (change value from 23 to some other number), you will get a different
pseudo random sequence.
Item-3
A player that lets go of the button before the light turns green gets an unreasonably
good score (1 ms). Your microcontroller needs to figure out if a player is cheating.
Pseudo code was introduced near the end of Activity #3 in this chapter. Here is some
pseudo code to help you apply an IF…THEN…ELSE statement to solve the problem.
x If the value of timeCounter equals 1

o Display a message telling the player he or she has to wait until after the
light turns green to let go of the button.
x Else, (if the value of timeCounter is greater than 1)
o Display the value of timeCounter (just like in ReactionTimer.bs2) time
in ms.
Modify your program by implementing this pseudo code in PBASIC to fix the
cheating player problem.
SUMMARY
This chapter introduced the pushbutton and common pushbutton circuits. This chapter
also introduced how to build and test a pushbutton circuit and how to use the BASIC
Stamp to read the state of one or more pushbuttons. The BASIC Stamp was programmed
to make decisions based on the state(s) of the pushbutton(s) and this information was
used to control LED(s). A reaction timer game was built using these concepts. In
addition to controlling LEDs, the BASIC Stamp was programmed to poll a pushbutton
and take time measurements.
Reading individual pushbutton circuits using the special I/O variables built into the
BASIC Stamp (IN3, IN4, etc.) was introduced. Making decisions based on these values
using IF…THEN…ELSE statements, IF…ELSEIF…ELSE statements, and code blocks were
also introduced. For evaluating more than one condition, the AND and OR operators were
introduced. Adding a condition to a DO…LOOP using the UNTIL keyword was introduced
along with nesting DO…LOOP code blocks.
Questions
1. What is the difference between sending and receiving HIGH and LOW signals
using the BASIC Stamp?
2. What does normally open mean?
3. What are the warning signs that indicate you might have made a serious mistake
while wiring your circuit?
4. What happens between the terminals of a normally open pushbutton when you
press it?
5. What two states can a pushbutton circuit be in? What numbers does the BASIC
Stamp use for each of these states?
6. What does a BASIC Stamp I/O pin that is set to input see when a normally open
pushbutton circuit that uses a pull-down resistor is pressed? What does it see
when the pushbutton is not pressed?
7. When does current flow through a pushbutton circuit with a normally open
pushbutton?
8. What is the value of IN3 when a pushbutton connects it to Vdd? What is the
value of IN3 when a pushbutton connects it to Vss?
9. What does the command DEBUG ? IN3 do?
10. What is the difference between a pull-up and pull-down resistor?
11. If you modify a pushbutton circuit that used to have a pull-down resistor so that
it has a pull-up resistor, do you expect to see changes in the values at the I/O
pin?
12. What is the difference between active-low and active-high?
13. What kind of code blocks can be used for making decisions based on the value
of one or more pushbuttons?
14. What does nesting mean?
15. What does the HOME formatter do in the statement DEBUG HOME?
16. What does polling mean?
17. What does code overhead mean?
Exercises
1. Draw a circuit schematic with a normally open pushbutton circuit with a pull-
down resistor connected to P5.
2. Draw a circuit schematic with a normally open pushbutton circuit with a pull-up
resistor connected to P5.
3. Explain how to modify ReadPushbuttonState.bs2 on page 77 so that it reads the
pushbutton every second instead of every ¼ second.
4. Explain how to modify ReadPushbuttonState.bs2 so that it reads a normally open
pushbutton circuit with a pull-up resistor connected to I/O pin P6.
5. Explain how to use a FOR…NEXT loop in PushbuttonControlledLed.bs2 on page
81 so that it flashes the LED fifteen times before checking to see if the button is
pressed again.
6. Explain how to modify PushbuttonControlledLed.bs2 so that the LED stays on
(instead of flashing) when you press and hold the pushbutton.
7. Modify the “Your Turn” version of PushbuttonControlOfTwoLeds.bs2 so that
both LEDs flash when none of the pushbuttons are pressed, and no LEDs flash
when both pushbuttons are pressed and held.
8. Explain how to modify ReactionTimer.bs2 on page 90 so that it uses DO WHILE
instead of LOOP UNTIL. Write down examples of the code blocks you must
change to make it work. Hint: LOOP UNTIL makes its decision using a condition
that causes the program to break out of the loop. DO WHILE makes its decision
based on a condition that keeps the loop repeating.
Projects
1. Test your answer to Exercise 8 by making ReactionTimer.bs2 work with DO
WHILE instead of LOOP UNTIL.
2. Refer to the streetlight project in the previous chapter’s Projects section. Some
streetlight controllers do not work on just a timer; they have sensors under the
pavement that detect whether or not a car is waiting at a red light. Modify the
streetlight controller so that the north-south street gets a green light all the time,
but a press on the pushbutton will initialize the east-west sequence to let a car
through.
3. Modify ReactionTimer.bs2 so that it is a two player game. Add a second button
wired to P4 for the second player. HINTS: Use the AND operator in your
DO…LOOP UNTIL loop. Declare two different timeCounter variables,
timeCounterA and timeCounterB. Use IF…THEN reasoning in the DO…LOOP
that increments the counters. You can also borrow some decision making code
from PushbuttonControlOfTwoLeds.bs2 for help making decisions on whether
or not to increment one of the counters.
The resources listed here are available for free download from the Parallax web site and
are also included on the Parallax CD.
The BASIC Stamp Manual has more examples you can try and information that
further explains the following: The DEBUG HOME and CLS formatters, input pin
variables such IN3, IN4, and the RANDOM command.
Basic Analog and Digital explains binary counting using pushbuttons. It also
uses pushbuttons to introduce a technique for transmitting numbers from one
system to another called synchronous serial communication.
“BASIC Stamp Editor Help File”, PBASIC 2.5 Version 2.0 Parallax Inc., 2003
The PBASIC 2.5 Help File has information on the WHILE and UNTIL conditions
used with DO…LOOP, and information on nesting and IF…THEN…ELSE code blocks,
which is new to PBASIC 2.5 and not included in the BASIC Stamp Manual.
You can find this information by clicking the book icon on your BASIC Stamp
Editor task bar, then selecting PBASIC Reference from the menu in the left
sidebar window. This will open the PBASIC Command Reference alphabetical
listing in the main window. Detailed information can be found by clicking on
each command.
Chapter #4: Controlling Motion · Page 101
Chapter #4: Controlling Motion

MICROCONTROLLED MOTION
Microcontrollers make sure things move to the right place all around you every day. If
you have an inkjet printer, the print head that goes back and forth across the page as it
prints is moved by a stepper motor that is controlled by a microcontroller. The automatic
grocery store doors that you walk through are controlled by microcontrollers, and the
automatic eject feature in your VCR or DVD player is also controlled by a
microcontroller.
ON/OFF SIGNALS AND MOTOR MOTION

Just about all microcontrolled motors receive sequences of high and low signals similar
to the ones you’ve been sending to LEDs. The difference is that the microcontroller has
to send these signals at rates that are usually faster than the eye can detect. The timing
and number of separate high/low signals differ from one motor to the next, but they can
all be controlled by microcontrollers capable of delivering the high/low signals.
Some of these motors require lots of circuitry to help the microcontroller make them
work. Other motors require extra mechanical parts to make them work right in machines.
Of all the different types of motors to start with, the hobby servo that you will experiment
with in this chapter is probably the simplest. As you will soon see, it is easy to control
with the BASIC Stamp, requires little or no additional circuitry, and has a mechanical
output that is easy to connect to things to make them move.
ACTIVITY #1: CONNECTING AND TESTING THE SERVO

In this activity, you will connect a servo to a power supply and the BASIC Stamp. You
will then verify that the servo is functioning properly by programming the BASIC Stamp
to send signals to the servo that will control the servo’s position.
Introducing the Servo

Figure 4-1 shows a drawing of a common hobby servo. The plug (1) is used to connect
the servo to a power source (Vdd and Vss) and a signal source (a BASIC Stamp I/O pin).
The cable (2) conducts Vdd, Vss and the signal line from the plug into the servo. The
horn (3) is the part of the servo that looks like a four-pointed star. When the servo is
running, the horn is the moving part that the BASIC Stamp controls. The case (4)
contains the servo’s control circuits, a DC motor, and gears. These parts work together to
take high/low signals from the BASIC Stamp and convert them into positions held by the
servo horn.
Figure 4-1
1 Servo
3
(1) Plug
(2) Cable
(3) Horn
(4) Case
standard servo
www.parallax.com
Servo and LED Circuit Parts

An LED circuit can be used to monitor the control signal the BASIC Stamp sends to the
servo. Keep in mind that the LED circuit is not required to help the servo operate. It is
just there to help see what’s going on with the control signals.
(1) Servo
Building the Servo and LED Circuits

It’s really important to be careful when connecting a servo to your BASIC Stamp. How
you connect your servo depends on whether you are using the Board of Education Rev B,
Rev C, or the HomeWork Board. If you are using the Board of Education, but you’re not
sure which Rev it is, Figure 4-2 shows an example of the Rev label on the Board of
Education Rev B.
15 14 13 12
Figure 4-2
Red Board of
Black
Education
X4 X5 Rev B Rev Label
Vdd Vin Vss
X3
Examine the labeling on your carrier board and figure out whether you have a
HomeWork Board or a Board of Education Rev B, or Rev C.
Skip to instructions for connecting the servo to the BASIC Stamp on your carrier
board:
x Page 103 – Board of Education Rev C

x Page 105 – BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board
x Page 108 – Board of Education Rev B
Board of Education Rev C

Figure 4-3 shows the schematic of the circuit you will build on the Board of Education
Rev C.
P14
470 :
LED
Vss Figure 4-3

Vdd Servo and LED
Indicator
Schematic for
P14 White Board of Education
Red Rev C
Servo
Black
Vss
Turn off the power as shown in Figure 4-4.
Reset Figure 4-4

Disconnect
Power
0 1 2
Figure 4-5 shows the servo header on the Board of Education Rev C. This is where you
will plug in your servo. This board features a jumper that you can use to connect the
servo’s power supply to either Vin or Vdd. The jumper is the removable black
rectangular piece right between the two servo headers.
Set the jumper to Vdd as shown in Figure 4-5. This involves lifting the
rectangular jumper up off of the pins it is currently on, and replacing it on the
two pins closest to the Vdd label.
15 14 Vdd 13 12 Figure 4-5

Servo
Red Header
Black Jumper
X4 X5 Set to Vdd
Vin
The jumper allows you to choose the servo’s power supply (Vin or Vdd). If you are
using a 9 V battery, either setting will work with a single Parallax Standard Servo. Use Vin if
you are using a 6 V battery pack. Use Vdd if you are using a DC supply that plugs into an
AC outlet with output. Before you try to use a DC supply, make sure to check the
specifications for acceptable DC supplies listed in Appendix D: Batteries and Power
Supplies.

Make sure you did not plug the servo in upside-down. The white, red and black
wires should line up as shown in the figure.
15 14 Vdd 13 12
White
Red Red
Black Black
X4 X5
Vdd Vin Vss
X3
+
P15
Figure 4-6
P14 Servo and LED
P13 Indicator on Board
P12
P11 of Education Rev C
P10
P9
P8
P7
P6
P5
standard servo
P4
P3 www.parallax.com
P2
P1
P0
X2
Up until now, you have been using the 3-position switch in the 1 position. Now, you will
move it to the 2 position to turn on the power to the servo header.
Supply power to the servo header by adjusting the 3-position switch as shown in
Figure 4-7. Your servo may move a bit when you connect the power.
Reset
Figure 4-7
Power turned on to
Board of Education
0 1 2 and Servo Header
Move on to Programming Servo Control on page 110.

If you are connecting your servo to a HomeWork Board, you will need these extra parts:
(1) 3-pin male/male header (shown in Figure 4-8).

(4) Jumper wires
Figure 4-8
HomeWork Board or Board of
Education – Extra Parts
(1) 3-pin male/male header (top)
Figure 4-9 shows the schematic of the servo and LED circuits on the HomeWork Board.
The instructions that come after this figure will show you how to safely build this circuit.
WARNING
Use only a 9 V battery when a servo is connected to the BASIC Stamp HomeWork
Board. Do not use any kind of DC supply or “battery replacer” that plugs into an AC
outlet. Improper use of these devices can cause the activity not to work, or even
permanently damage the servo.
For best results, make sure your battery is new. If you are using a rechargeable battery,
make sure it is freshly recharged. It should also be rated for 100 mAh (milliamp hours) or
more. See Appendix D: Batteries and Power Supplies for more information.
P14
470 :
LED
Vss
Vin Figure 4-9

Schematic for Servo and LED Indicator on
HomeWork Board
P14 White
Red
Servo
Black
Vss
Disconnect your 9 V battery from your HomeWork Board.

Build the LED indicator and servo header circuit shown in Figure 4-10.
Vdd Vin Vss

X3
+ Figure 4-10
P15 LED Indicator
P14 and Servo
P13
P12 Header Circuits
P11 on HomeWork
P10
P9
Board
P8
P7
P6 standard servo
P5
www.parallax.com
P4
P3
P2
P1
P0
X2
Connect the servo to the servo header as shown in Figure 4-11.

Make sure that the colors on the servo’s cable align properly with the colors
labeled in the picture.
Double check your wiring.
Reconnect your 9 V battery to your HomeWork Board. The servo may move a
bit when you make the connection.
Vdd Vin Vss

X3
+
P15
P14
P13
P12
P11 White Figure 4-11
P10 Red Connecting Servo to
P9 Black
P8 Servo Header on a
P7 HomeWork Board
P6
P5
P4
P3
P2 standard servo
P1 www.parallax.com
P0
X2
Move on to Programming Servo Control on page 110.
Board of Education Rev B

Figure 4-12 shows the schematic for the servo and LED circuits on the Board of
Education Rev B. The instructions that come after this figure will show you how to
safely build this circuit on your Board of Education Rev B.
WARNING
Use only a 9 V battery when a servo is connected to the Board of Education Rev B.
Do not use any kind of DC supply or “battery replacer” that plugs into an AC outlet.
Improper use of these devices can cause the activity not to work, or even
permanently damage the servo.
For best results, make sure your battery is new. If you are using a rechargeable battery,
make sure it is freshly recharged. It should also be rated for 100 mAh (milliamp hours) or
more. See Appendix D: Batteries and Power Supplies for more information.
P14
470 :
LED
Vss
Figure 4-12
Vin Schematic for Servo
and LED Indicator on
Board of Education
P14 White Rev B
Red
Servo
Black
Vss
Disconnect your battery or any other power supply from your board.
Build the LED circuit shown in Figure 4-12.
Connect the servo to the servo header as shown in Figure 4-13.
15 14 13 12
White
Red Red
Black Black
X4 X5
Vdd Vin Vss
X3
+ Figure 4-13
P15 Connecting Servo to
P14
P13 Servo Header on the
P12 Board of Education
P11
P10
Rev B.
P9
P8
P7
P6
P5 standard servo
P4
P3 www.parallax.com
P2
P1
P0
X2
Make sure that the colors on the servo’s cable align properly with the colors
labeled in the picture.
Connect a 9 V battery to Board of Education Rev B. The servo may move a
little bit when you make the connection.
Programming Servo Control

A servo is controlled by very brief high signals. These high signals are sent over and
over again every 20 ms. The high signals last anywhere between 1 and 2 ms. The
PULSOUT command can be used to send a pulse (a very brief high signal) using a BASIC
Stamp I/O pin. Here is the command syntax for the PULSOUT command:
PULSOUT Pin, Duration
As with HIGH and LOW, the Pin argument is a number that tells the BASIC Stamp which
I/O pin the signal is sent on. The Duration argument is not milliseconds, like it is in the
PAUSE command. For the BASIC Stamp 2, the Duration is the number of 2-millionth-
of-a-second (Ps) time durations that you want the high signal to last.
A millionth of a second is called a microsecond. The Greek letter P is used in place of the
word micro and the letter s is used in place of second. This is handy for writing and taking
notes, because instead of writing 2 microseconds, you can write 2 Ps.
Reminder: one thousandth of a second is called a millisecond, and is abbreviated ms.
Fact: 1 ms = 1000 Ps. In other words, you can fit one thousand millionths of a second into
one thousandth of a second.
The next example program will use the PULSOUT command to deliver pulses that instruct
the servo on where to position its horn. FOR…NEXT loops are used to deliver a certain
number of pulses, which cause the servo to hold a position for a certain amount of time.
Example Program: ServoTest.bs2

ServoTest.bs2 will make the servo’s horn start at somewhere in the neighborhood of 10
o’clock and hold that position for about three seconds. Then, the program will move the
servo horn clockwise, to about the 2 o’clock position for about three seconds. After that,
the servo will hold its “center position”, which is about 12 o’clock, for about three
seconds.
Figure 4-14
Servo Horn Motion
10 o’clock (left)
standard servo
www.parallax.com
standard servo
www.parallax.com
standard servo
www.parallax.com
2 o’clock (middle)
12 o’clock (right)
What if my servo is different? There are lots of different servos, and many will respond
differently to the signals that TestServo.bs2 sends. Your servo might only rotate to 11
o’clock then 1 o’clock, or maybe to 9 o’clock and then 3 o’clock. It might even rotate the
opposite direction and start in the clockwise direction before it goes counterclockwise. As
long as the motion is easy to observe and consistent, it will work fine for these activities.
You can always modify the example programs to get the servo to behave the way you want.
Load ServoTest.bs2 into the BASIC Stamp Editor.

Run the program.
Observe the servo turns at each of the three steps in the program, and record
where the horn is really pointing.
Re-run the program and verify that the LED flickers dimly. It should be
brightest when the BASIC Stamp sends the 10 o’clock signal and dimmest when
the BASIC Stamp sends the 2 o’clock signal. This is because the LED circuit is
only on for half as long (1 out of 21 ms instead of 2 out of 22 ms).
' What's a Microcontroller - ServoTest.bs2

' Test the servo at three different position signals.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
counter VAR Word
DEBUG "Counterclockwise 10 o'clock", CR

PULSOUT 14, 1000
PAUSE 20
NEXT
DEBUG "Clockwise 2 o'clock", CR

PULSOUT 14, 500
PAUSE 20
NEXT
DEBUG "Center 12 o'clock", CR

PULSOUT 14, 750
PAUSE 20
NEXT
DEBUG "All done."
END
How ServoTest.bs2 Works

The first FOR…NEXT loop delivers 150 pulses, each of which lasts 2.0 ms. These pulses
instruct the servo to go to a position that is roughly 10 o’clock if you think about it in
terms of a clock face.
PULSOUT 14, 1000
PAUSE 20
NEXT
PULSOUT 14, 1000 sends a pulse that lasts 1000 × 2 Ps. That’s 2000 Ps or 2 ms.
Figure 4-15 is called a timing diagram. It shows a picture of the high and low signals and
how long they last. The timing diagram does not show how many pulses are delivered,
but it does give you information about how long the high and low signals last. Each
pulse (high signal) lasts for 2.0 ms. Each pulse is separated by a 20 ms delay while the
signal is low.
Figure 4-15
2.0 ms 2.0 ms Timing Diagram for
Vdd (5 V) 2.0 ms Pulses Every
standard servo
www.parallax.com 20 ms
Servo horn in 10
Vss (0 V) o’clock position.
20 ms
The second FOR…NEXT loop delivers 150 pulses, but this time, each pulse only lasts 1.0
ms. This instructs the servo to turn to the 2 o’clock position for about 3.15 seconds.
FOR COUNTER = 1 TO 150
PULSOUT 14, 500
PAUSE 20
NEXT
PULSOUT 14, 500 sends a pulse that lasts 500 × 2 Ps. That’s 1000 Ps or 1 ms.
Figure 4-15 shows the timing diagram for this pulse train. The pauses between pulses
still last 20 ms.
1.0 ms 1.0 ms Figure 4-16

Timing Diagram for 1.0
Vdd (5 V) ms Pulses Every 20 ms
standard servo
www.parallax.com
Servo horn in 2 o’clock

Vss (0 V) position.
20 ms
The last FOR…NEXT loop delivers 150 pulses, each of which lasts 1.5 ms. This instructs
the servo to go to its center position (12 o’clock) for about 3.23 seconds.
PULSOUT 14, 750
PAUSE 20
NEXT
PULSOUT 14, 750 sends a pulse that lasts 750 × 2 Ps. That’s 1500 Ps or 1.5 ms.
Figure 4-17 shows the timing diagram for these pulses. While the low time is still 20
ms, the pulse now lasts for 1.5 ms.
Figure 4-17
1.5 ms 1.5 ms
Timing Diagram for
1.5 ms Pulses Every
Vdd (5 V) standard servo
www.parallax.com
20 ms
Servo horn is in 12
Vss (0 V) o’clock position.
20 ms
Do the Math
If you want to convert time from milliseconds to a Duration you can use for PULSOUT,
use this equation.
Duration number of ms u 500
For example, if you didn’t already know that the PULSOUT argument for 1.5 ms is 750,
here is how you could calculate it.
Duration 1.5 u 500
750
You can also figure out the Duration of a mystery PULSOUT command using this
equation.
Duration
number of ms ms
500
For example, if you see the command PULSOUT 14, 850, how long does that pulse
really last?
850
number of ms ms
500
1.7 ms
Your Turn – Adjusting Position and Hold Time

The number of times each FOR…NEXT loop repeats is what controls how long the servo
stays in a given position. The value of the PULSOUT command’s Duration argument
controls where the servo turns to. It’s important to experiment with changing these
values to be sure how they work before moving on to the next experiment.
Save ServoTest.bs2 as ServoTestYourTurn.bs2.

Modify all the FOR...NEXT loops so that they execute half as many times as the
original program:
Run the modified program and verify that the servo holds each position for half
as long.
Modify all the FOR...NEXT loops so that they execute twice as many times as
the original program:
Run the modified program and verify that the servo holds each position for twice
as long.
Modify the PULSOUT command in the first loop so that it reads:
PULSOUT 14,850
Modify the PULSOUT command in the second loop so that it reads:

PULSOUT 14,650
Run the modified program, and explain the differences in the positions the servo
turns to and holds.
ACTIVITY #2: CONTROLLING POSITION WITH YOUR COMPUTER

Factory automation often involves microcontrollers communicating with larger
computers. The microcontrollers read sensors and transmit that data to the main
computer. The main computer interprets and analyzes the sensor data, then sends position
information back to the microcontroller. The microcontroller might then update a
conveyer belt’s speed, or a sorter’s position, or some other mechanical, motor controlled
task.
You can use the Debug Terminal to send messages from your computer to the BASIC
Stamp as shown in Figure 4-18. The BASIC Stamp has to be programmed to listen for
the messages you send using the Debug Terminal, and it also has to store the data you
send in one or more variables.
Figure 4-18
Sending Messages to
the BASIC Stamp
Click the white field

above the message
display pane and type
your message. A copy
of the message you
entered appears in the
lower windowpane. This
copy is called an echo.
In this activity, you will program the BASIC Stamp to receive two values from the Debug
Terminal:
1. The number of pulses to send to the servo

2. The Duration value used by the PULSOUT command
You will also program the BASIC Stamp to use these values to control the servo.
Parts and Circuit

Same as Activity #1
Programming the BASIC Stamp to Receive Messages from Debug

Programming the BASIC Stamp to send messages to the Debug Terminal is done using
the DEBUG command. Programming the BASIC Stamp to receive messages from the
Debug Terminal is done using the DEBUGIN command. When using this command, you
also have to declare one or more variables for the BASIC Stamp to store the information
it receives. Here is an example of a variable you can declare for the BASIC Stamp to
store a value:
pulses VAR Word
Later in the program, you can use this value to store a number received by the DEBUGIN
command:
DEBUGIN DEC pulses
When the BASIC Stamp receives a numeric value from the Debug Terminal, it will store
it in the pulses variable. The DEC formatter tells the DEBUGIN command that the
characters you are sending will be digits that form a decimal number. As soon as you hit
the carriage return, the BASIC Stamp will store the digits it received in the pulses
variable as a decimal number, then move on.
Although it is not included in the example program, you can add a line to verify that the
message was processed by the BASIC Stamp.
DEBUG CR, "You sent the value: ", DEC pulses
Example Program: ServoControlWithDebug.bs2

Figure 4-19 shows a close-up view of the Transmit Windowpane in the Debug Terminal.
Your Transmit Windowpane may be smaller. You can click and drag the separator
between the two panes downward to make the Transmit Windowpane larger. You can
type characters into the Transmit Windowpane to send them to the BASIC Stamp. In this
example, somebody typed in 100, then hit the carriage return, then typed in 850. The
Receive Windowpane displays the “Enter number of pulses:” message sent by the BASIC
Stamp. It also displays an echo of the characters 100 that were typed into the Transmit
Windowpane.
Figure 4-19
Debug Terminal’s Windowpanes:
ĸ Transmit Windowpane
ĸ Receive Windowpane
Echo is when you send a message, and a copy of that message appears in your Receive
Windowpane. You can click the Echo Off checkbox (shown below) to make a checkmark
appear in it. This will make the Debug Terminal stop displaying these echoes.
Enter ServoControlWithDebug.bs2 into the BASIC Stamp Editor and run it.
If the Transmit Windowpane is too small, resize it using your mouse to click,
hold, and drag the separator downward. The separator is shown just above the
text message: “Enter number of pulses:” in Figure 4-19.
Click the upper, Transmit Windowpane to place your cursor there for typing
messages.
When the Debug Terminal prompts you to, “Enter number of pulses:”, type the
number 100, then press enter.
When the Debug Terminal prompts you to “Enter PULSOUT duration:” type the
number 850, then press enter.
The PULSOUT Duration should be a number between 500 and 1000. If you enter
numbers outside that range, the servo may try to rotate to a position beyond its own
mechanical limits. Although it will not break the servo, it could shorten the device’s lifespan.
The BASIC Stamp will display the message “Servo is running…” while it is sending
pulses to the servo. When it is done sending pulses to the servo, it will display the
message “Done” for one second. Then, it will prompt you to enter the number of pulses
again. Have fun with it, but make sure to follow the directive in the caution box about
staying between 500 and 1000 for your PULSOUT value.
Experiment with entering other values between 500 and 1000 for the PULSOUT
Duration and values between 1 and 65534 for the number of pulses.
It takes between 40 and 45 pulses to make the servo hold a position for 1 second.
' What's a Microcontroller - ServoControlWithDebug.bs2

' Send messages to the BASIC Stamp to control a servo using
' the Debug Terminal.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
counter Var Word

pulses Var Word
duration Var Word
DO
DEBUG CLS, "Enter number of pulses:", CR

DEBUGIN DEC pulses
DEBUG "Enter PULSOUT duration:", CR

DEBUGIN DEC duration
DEBUG "Servo is running...", CR
FOR counter = 1 TO pulses

PULSOUT 14, duration
PAUSE 20
NEXT
DEBUG "DONE"
PAUSE 1000
LOOP
How ServoControlWithDebug.bs2 Works

Three Word variables are declared in this program:
counter Var WORD

pulses Var WORD
duration Var WORD
The counter variable is declared for use by a FOR…NEXT loop. See Chapter #2, Activity
#3 for details. The pulses and duration variables are used a couple of different ways.
They are both used to receive and store values sent from the Debug Terminal. The
pulses variable is also used to set the number of repetitions in the FOR…NEXT loop that
delivers pulses to the servo, and the duration variable is used to set the duration for the
PULSOUT command.
The rest of the program is nested inside a DO…LOOP without a WHILE or UNTIL argument
so that the commands execute over and over again.
DO
' Rest of program not shown.
LOOP
The DEBUG command is used to send you (the “user” of the software) a message to enter
the number of pulses. Then, the DEBUGIN command waits for you to enter digits that
make up the number and press the Enter key on your keyboard. The digits that you enter
are converted to a value that is stored in the pulses variable. This process is repeated
with a second DEBUG and DEBUGIN command that loads a value into the duration
variable too.
DEBUG CLS, "Enter number of pulses:", CR
DEBUGIN DEC pulses
DEBUG "Enter PULSOUT duration:", CR

After you enter the second value, it’s useful to display a message while the servo is
running so that you don’t try to enter a second value:
DEBUG "Servo is running...", CR
While the servo is running, you can gently try to move the servo horn away from the
position it is holding. The servo resists light pressure applied to the horn.
FOR Counter = StartValue TO EndValue {STEP StepValue}…NEXT

This is the FOR…NEXT loop syntax from the BASIC Stamp Manual. It shows that you need
a Counter, StartValue and EndValue to control how many times the loop repeats
itself. There is also an optional StepValue if you want to add a number other than 1 to
the value of Counter each time through the loop.
As in previous examples, the counter variable is used as an index for the FOR…NEXT
loop. Up until this example, all the FOR…NEXT loops have used constants such as 10 or
150 for EndValue. In this FOR…NEXT loop, the value of the pulses variable is used to
control the EndValue of the FOR…NEXT loop. This, in turn, controls how many pulses are
delivered to the servo. The end result is that the pulses variable controls how long the
servo holds a given position. Up until now, constant values such as 500, 750, and 1000
were also used for the PULSOUT command’s Duration argument. Look carefully at this
FOR…NEXT loop to see where and how these variables are used:
FOR counter = 1 to pulses
PAUSE 20
NEXT
Take some time to understand this FOR…NEXT loop. It is one of the first examples of the
amazing things you can do with variables in PBASIC command arguments, and it also
highlights how useful a programmable microcontroller like the BASIC Stamp can be.
Your Turn – Setting Limits in Software

The example program doesn’t stop you or anybody else from entering a PULSOUT
duration such as 1500, which is not good for the servo. This is a problem that needs to
be fixed if you are designing this system into a product.
Let’s imagine that this computer servo control system is one that has been developed for
remote-controlling a door. Perhaps a security guard will use this to open a shipping door
that he or she watches on a remote camera. Maybe a college student will use it to control
doors in a maze that mice navigate in search of food. Maybe a military gunner will use it
to point the cannon at a particular target. If you are designing the product for somebody
else to use, the last thing you want is to give the user (security guard, college student,
military gunner) the ability to enter the wrong number and damage the equipment.
To fix this problem, try this:
Save the example program ServoControlWithDebug.bs2 under the new name

ServoControlWithDebugYourTurn.bs2.
Replace these two commands:
DEBUG "Enter pulsout duration:", CR
with this code block:

DO
DEBUG "Enter pulsout duration:", CR
IF duration < 500 THEN
DEBUG "Value of duration must be above 499", CR
PAUSE 1000
ENDIF
IF duration > 1000 THEN
DEBUG "Value of duration must be below 1001", CR
PAUSE 1000
ENDIF
LOOP UNTIL duration > 499 AND duration < 1001
Save the program.

Run the program and verify that it rejects values outside the appropriate range
for the servo.
ACTIVITY #3: CONVERTING POSITION TO MOTION

In this activity, you will program the servo to change position at different rates. By
changing position at different rates, you will cause your servo horn to rotate at different
speeds. You can use this technique to make the servo control motion instead of position.
Programming a Rate of Change for Position

You can use a FOR…NEXT loop to make a servo sweep through its range of motion like
this:
PULSOUT 14, counter
PAUSE 20
NEXT
The FOR…NEXT loop causes the servo’s horn to start at around 2 o’clock and then rotate
slowly counterclockwise until it gets to 10 o’clock. Because counter is the index of the
FOR…NEXT loop, it increases by one each time through. The value of counter is also used
in the PULSOUT command’s Duration argument, which means the duration of each
pulse gets a little longer each time through the loop. Since the duration changes, so
does the position of the servo’s horn.
FOR…NEXT loops have an optional STEP argument. The STEP argument can be used to
make the servo rotate faster. For example, you can use the STEP argument to add 8 to
counter each time through the loop (instead of 1) by modifying the FOR statement like
this:
FOR counter = 500 TO 1000 STEP 8
You can also make the servo turn the opposite direction by counting down instead of
counting up. In PBASIC, FOR…NEXT loops will also count backwards if the StartValue
argument is larger than the EndValue argument. Here is an example of how to make a
FOR…NEXT loop count from 1000 to 500:
You can combine counting down with a STEP argument to get the servo to rotate more
quickly in the clockwise direction like this:
The trick to getting the servo to turn at different rates is to use these FOR…NEXT loops to
count up and down with different step sizes. The next example program uses these
techniques to make the servo’s horn rotate back and forth at different rates.
Example Program: ServoVelocities.bs2

Load and run the program.
As the program runs, watch how the value of counter changes in the Debug
Terminal.
Also, watch how the servo behaves differently through the two different
FOR…NEXT loops. Both the servo’s direction and speed change.
' What's a Microcontroller - ServoVelocities.bs2

' Rotate the servo counterclockwise slowly, then clockwise rapidly.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
counter VAR Word
DO
DEBUG "Pulse width increment by 8", CR

PULSOUT 14, counter
PAUSE 7
DEBUG DEC5 counter, CR, CRSRUP
NEXT
DEBUG CR, "Pulse width decrement by 20", CR

PULSOUT 14, counter
PAUSE 7
NEXT
DEBUG CR, "Repeat", CR
LOOP
How ServoVelocities.bs2 Works

The first FOR…NEXT loop counts upwards from 500 to 1000 in steps of 8. Since the
counter variable is used as the PULSOUT command’s Duration argument, the servo
horn’s position rotates counterclockwise by steps that are eight times the smallest possible
step.
PULSOUT 14, counter
PAUSE 7
NEXT
Why PAUSE 7 instead of PAUSE 20? The command DEBUG DEC5 counter,
CR, CRSRUP takes about 8 ms to execute. This means that PAUSE 12 would maintain
the 20 ms delay between pulses. A few trial and error experiments showed that PAUSE 7
gave the servo the smoothest motion. Your servo may be different.
More DEBUG formatters and control characters are featured in the DEBUG command
that displays the value of the counter variable. This value is printed using the 5-digit
decimal format (DEC5). After the value is printed, there is a carriage return (CR). After the
carriage return, the formatter CRSRUP (cursor up) sends the cursor back up to the previous
line. This causes the new value of counter to be printed over the old value each time
through the loop.
The second FOR…NEXT loop counts downwards from 1000 back to 500 in steps of 20. The
counter variable is also used as an argument for the PULSOUT command in this example,
so the servo horn rotates clockwise.
PULSOUT 14, counter
PAUSE 7
NEXT
Your Turn – Adjusting the Velocities

Try different STEP values to make the servo turn at different rates.
Re-run the program after each modification.
Observe the effect of each new STEP value on how fast the servo horn turns.
Experiment with different PAUSE command Duration values (between 3 and 12)
to find the value that gives the servo the smoothest motion for each new STEP
value.
ACTIVITY #4: PUSHBUTTON CONTROLLED SERVO

In this chapter, you have written programs that make the servo go through a pre-recorded
set of motions, and you have controlled the servo using the Debug Terminal. You can
also program the BASIC Stamp to control the servo based on pushbutton inputs. In this
activity you will:
x Build a circuit for a pushbutton controlled servo.

x Program the BASIC Stamp to control the servo based on the pushbutton inputs.
When you are done, you will be able to push one button to get the BASIC Stamp to rotate
the servo in one direction, and another button to get the servo to rotate in the other
direction. When no buttons are pressed, the servo will hold whatever position it moved
to.
Extra Parts for Pushbutton Servo Control

The same parts from the previous activities in this chapter are still used. You will need to
gather the following parts for the pushbutton circuits:

(2) Resistors – 10 k: (brown-black-orange)
(3) Jumper wires
Adding the Pushbutton Control Circuit

Figure 4-20 shows the pushbutton circuits that you will use to control the servo.
Vdd Vdd
P4
220 : Figure 4-20
Pushbutton
P3
Circuits for
220 : Servo Control
10 k: 10 k:
Vss Vss
Add this circuit to the servo+LED circuit that you have been using up to this
point. When you are done your circuit should resemble:
x Figure 4-21 if you are using the Board of Education Rev C

x Figure 4-22 if you are using the HomeWork Board
x Figure 4-23 if you are using the Board of Education Rev B
15 14 Vdd 13 12
White
Red Red
Black Black
X4 X5
Vdd Vin Vss
X3 Figure 4-21
+
P15
Board of Education
P14 Rev C Servo
P13 Circuit with
P12
P11 Pushbutton Circuits
P10 Added
P9
P8
P7
P6
P5
standard servo
P4
P3 www.parallax.com
P2
P1
P0
X2
Vdd Vin Vss

X3
+
P15
P14
P13
P12
White Figure 4-22
P11
P10 Red HomeWork Board
P9 Black Servo Circuit with
P8
P7
Pushbutton Circuits
P6 Added
P5
P4
P3
P2
standard servo
P1
P0 www.parallax.com
X2
15 14 13 12
White
Red Red
Black Black
X4 X5
Vdd Vin Vss
X3 Figure 4-23
+
P15
Board of Education
P14 Rev B Servo
P13 Circuit with
P12
P11 Pushbutton Circuits
P10 Added
P9
P8
P7
P6
P5
standard servo
P4
P3 www.parallax.com
P2
P1
P0
X2
Test the pushbutton connected to P3 using the original version of

ReadPushbuttonState.bs2. The section that has this program and the instructions
on how to use it begins on page 77.
Modify the program so that it reads P4.
Run the modified program to test the pushbutton connected to P4.
Programming Pushbutton Servo Control

Pushbutton servo control is not much different from pushbutton LED control. IF…THEN
code blocks are used to check the pushbutton states and either add or subtract from a
variable called duration. This variable is used in the PULSOUT command’s Duration
argument. If one of the pushbuttons is pressed, the value of duration increases. If the
other pushbutton is pressed, the value of duration decreases. A nested IF…THEN
statement is used to decide if the duration variable is too large (greater than 1000) or
too small (smaller than 500).
Example Program: ServoControlWithPushbuttons.bs2

This example program makes the servo’s horn rotate counterclockwise when the
pushbutton connected to P4 is pressed. The servo’s horn will keep rotating so long as the
pushbutton is held down and the value of duration is smaller than 1000. When the
pushbutton connected to P3 is pressed, the servo horn rotates clockwise. The servo also
is limited in its clockwise motion because the duration variable is not allowed to go
below 500. The Debug Terminal displays the value of duration while the program is
running.
Enter the ServoControlWithPushbuttons.bs2 program into the BASIC Stamp

Editor and run it.
Verify that the servo turns counterclockwise when you press and hold the
pushbutton connected to P4.
Verify that as soon as the limit of duration > 1000 is reached or exceeded that
the servo stops turning any further in the counterclockwise direction.
Verify that the servo turns clockwise when you press and hold the pushbutton
connected to P3.
Verify that as soon as the limit of duration < 500 is reached or exceeded that
the servo stops turning any further in the clockwise direction.
' What's a Microcontroller - ServoControlWithPushbuttons.bs2

' Press and hold P4 pushbutton to rotate the servo counterclockwise,
' or press the pushbutton connected to P3 to rotate the servo clockwise.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
duration VAR Word
duration = 750
DO
IF IN3 = 1 THEN
IF duration > 500 THEN
duration = duration - 25
ENDIF
ENDIF
IF IN4 = 1 THEN
IF duration < 1000 THEN
duration = duration + 25
ENDIF
ENDIF

PAUSE 10
DEBUG HOME, DEC4 duration, " = duration"
LOOP
Your Turn – Software Stoppers

Servos have a built in mechanical stopper that prevents them from turning too far. If you
try to send a command like PULSOUT 14, 2000, the servo will not turn to a position that
corresponds to a Duration argument of 2000. This is because servos have built-in
mechanical stoppers that limit the range of motion. By gently turning the horn, you can
feel when the servo’s internal gears run into this mechanical stopper. You can modify the
example program in this activity so that the BASIC Stamp limits the servo’s motion to a
range that is narrower than the limits imposed by the mechanical stoppers.
Save ServoControlWithPushbuttons.bs2 under a new name.

Adjust the software limits imposed on the servo’s motion so that they are 650
and 850 instead of 500 and 1000.
Adjust the software imposed rate so that the duration variable is incremented
or decremented by 10 instead of 25.
Decide what differences you expect to see in the way the servo behaves when
you press the pushbutton.
Run the program and compare the actual results with your expected results.
SUMMARY
This chapter introduced microcontrolled motion using a servo. A servo is a device that
moves to and holds a particular position based on electronic signals it receives. These
signals take the form of pulses that last anywhere between 1 and 2 ms, and they have to
be delivered every 20 ms for the servo to maintain its position.
A programmer can use the PULSOUT command to make the BASIC Stamp send these
signals. Since pulses have to be delivered every 20 ms for the servo to hold its position,
the PULSOUT and PAUSE commands are usually placed in some kind of loop. Variables
can be used to store the value used in the PULSOUT command’s Duration argument.
This causes the servo’s horn to rotate in steps.
In this chapter, a variety of ways to get the values into the variables were presented. The
variable can receive the value from your Debug Terminal using the DEBUGIN command.
The value of the variable can pass through a sequence of values if the same variable is
used as the index for a FOR…NEXT loop. This technique can be used to cause the servo to
make sweeping motions. IF…THEN statements can be used to monitor pushbuttons and
add or subtract from the variable used in the PULSOUT command’s Duration argument
based on whether or not a certain button is pressed. This allows both position control and
sweeping motions depending on how the program is constructed and how the pushbuttons
are operated.
Questions
1. What appliances or tools have you relied on in the last week that might contain a
microcontroller that controls motion?
2. What are the four external parts on a servo? What are they used for?
3. Is an LED circuit required to make a servo work?
4. What command controls the low time in the signal sent to a servo? What
command controls the high time?
5. What programming element can you use to control the amount of time that a
servo holds a particular position?
6. What command really controls the position of the servo? What is the name of
the argument in the command that, if changed, will cause the servo’s position to
change?
7. When a servo is under BASIC Stamp control, what does the LED’s brightness
tell you about the signal it is sending to the servo?
8. How do you use the Debug Terminal to send messages to the BASIC Stamp?
What programming command is used to make the BASIC Stamp receive
messages from the Debug Terminal?
9. If the user is sending messages that tell the servo what position to turn to, what
kind of code block is helpful to make sure that he/she does not enter a number
that is too large or too small?
10. What’s the name of the argument used to make a FOR…NEXT loop add or subtract
a value greater than 1 each time through the loop? How do you make a
FOR…NEXT loop count backwards?
11. What does the servo do if you use the index of a FOR…NEXT loop as the argument
for the PULSOUT command’s Duration argument?
12. What type of code block can you write to limit the servo’s range of motion?
Exercises
1. The command PULSOUT 14, 750 delivers a 1.5 ms pulse on I/O pin P14.
Calculate how long the pulse would last if the Duration argument of 750 is
changed to 600. Repeat this calculation for these values: (a) 650, (b) 50000, (c)
1, (d) 2, (e) 2000.
2. Write the command required to deliver a 5.25 ms pulse on I/O pin P15.
3. Write a loop that delivers a 10.125 ms pulse on I/O pin P15 every 50 ms: (a)
indefinitely, (b) for 10 repetitions, (c) indefinitely, so long as the pushbutton
connected to P3 sends a low signal, (d) for ten seconds after a press to the
pushbutton connected to P4 is detected.
4. Write a code block that sweeps the value of the PULSOUT command controlling a
servo from a duration of 700 to 800, then back to 700 again, in increments of (a)
1, (b) 2, (c) 3, (d) 4.
5. Add a nested FOR…NEXT loop to your answer to exercise 4 (d) so that it delivers
ten pulses before incrementing the PULSOUT command’s Duration argument by
4.
Projects
1. Modify ServoControlWithDebug.bs2 so that it monitors a kill switch. When the
kill switch (the pushbutton connected to P3) is being pressed by the user, the
Debug Terminal should not accept any commands. It should display the
message: “Press Start switch to start machinery”. When the start switch (the
pushbutton connected to P4) is pressed, the program will function normally, like
it does when you run the example program. If power is disconnected and
reconnected, the program should behave as though the kill switch has been
pressed. OPTIONAL: Add a bi-color LED circuit connected to P12 and P13.
The bi-color LED should be red after the kill switch has been pressed and green
after the start switch has been pressed.
2. Design a prototype for a button-controlled windshield wiper. The windshield

wiper should have six speeds. Stopped and intermittent (once every 10 seconds),
are two of these speeds. The other four cause the windshield wiper to go back
and forth at approximately the following speeds: once every three seconds, once
every two seconds, once per second, and twice per second. The user should be
able to press the pushbutton connected to P4 to make the windshield wiper go
faster, and he/she should be able to press the pushbutton connected to P3 to
make it go slower.
The servo, and using sensors to control servos, can be investigated in detail in a variety of
Stamps in Class texts.
“Advanced Robotics: with the Toddler”, Student Guide, Version 1.2, Parallax Inc.,
2003
Advanced Robotics: with the Toddler uses servos to control the motions of the
Parallax Toddler robot’s legs. Although we take walking for granted,
programming a machine to walk, maneuver, and keep its balance can be very
challenging. This walking robot is recommended for advanced students who
have already mastered the concepts in What’s a Microcontroller? and either
Robotics! or SumoBot.
“Robotics!”, Student Workbook, Version 1.5, Parallax Inc., 2000

Robotics! makes use of the same servo control principles you just learned with a
twist; servos can also be modified and used as rolling robot motors. Using the
BASIC Stamp, Board of Education, and Robotics! kit, this text starts with the
basics of robot navigation, then guides you through navigation with sensors. It
also introduces some more in-depth topics such as solving problems with
artificial intelligence and navigation using elementary control systems.
“SumoBot”, Student Workbook, Version 1.1, Parallax Inc., 2002

Robot Sumo is a very exciting competition that is fun for observers and
participants. SumoBot is a guided tour through building, testing, and competing
with your own autonomous Mini-Sumo class robot. This textbook offers a
condensed presentation of the Robotics! text material applied towards the goal of
winning a robotic sumo wrestling contest.
Chapter #5: Measuring Rotation · Page 135
Chapter #5: Measuring Rotation

ADJUSTING DIALS AND MONITORING MACHINES
Many households have dials to control the lighting in a room. Twist the dial one
direction, and the light gets brighter; twist the dial in the other direction, and the light gets
dimmer. Model trains use dials to control motor speed and direction. Many machines
have dials or cranks used to fine tune the position of cutting blades and guiding surfaces.
Dials can also be found in audio equipment, where they are used to adjust how music and
voices sound. Figure 5-1 shows a simple example of a dial with a knob that is turned to
adjust the speaker’s volume. By turning the knob, a circuit inside the speaker changes,
and the volume of the music the speaker plays changes. Similar circuits can also be
found inside joysticks, and even inside the servo used in Chapter #4: Controlling Motion.
Figure 5-1
Volume
Adjustment
on a Speaker
THE VARIABLE RESISTOR UNDER THE DIAL – A POTENTIOMETER

The device inside sound system dials, joysticks and servos is called a potentiometer,
often abbreviated as a “pot”. Figure 5-2 shows a picture of some common
potentiometers. Notice that they all have three pins.
Figure 5-2
A Few
Potentiometer
Examples
Figure 5-3 shows the schematic symbol and part drawing of the potentiometer you will
use in this chapter. Terminals A and B are connected to a 10 k: resistive element.
Terminal W is called the wiper terminal, and it is connected to a wire that touches the
resistive element somewhere between its ends.
A Figure 5-3
Potentiometer
10 k: Schematic Symbol
Pot W and Part Drawing
B
Figure 5-4 shows how the wiper on a potentiometer works. As you adjust the knob on
top of the potentiometer, the wiper terminal contacts the resistive element at different
places. As you turn the knob clockwise, the wiper gets closer to the A terminal, and as
you turn the knob counterclockwise, the wiper gets closer to the B terminal.
A
+
Figure 5-4
+ 10 k: Adjusting the
Pot W
A Potentiometer’s Wiper
W Terminal
B
B
ACTIVITY #1: BUILDING AND TESTING THE POTENTIOMETER CIRCUIT

Placing different size resistors in series with an LED causes different amounts of current
to flow through the circuit. Large resistance in the LED circuit causes small amounts of
current to flow through the circuit, and the LED glows dimly. Small resistances in the
LED circuit causes more current to flow through the circuit, and the LED glows more
brightly. By connecting the W and A terminals of the potentiometer, in series with an
LED circuit, you can use it to adjust the resistance in the circuit. This in turn adjusts the
brightness of the LED. In this activity, you will use the potentiometer as a variable
resistor and use it to change the brightness of the LED.
Dial Circuit Parts

(1) Potentiometer – 10 k:
(1) Jumper wire
Building the Potentiometer Test Circuit

Figure 5-5 shows a circuit that can be used for adjusting the LED’s brightness with a
potentiometer.
Tip: Use a needle-nose pliers to straighten the kinks out of the potentiometer’s legs before
plugging the device into the breadboard. When the potentiometer’s legs are straight, they
maintain better contact with the breadboard sockets.
Vdd
Vdd Vin Vss
X3
P15 +
220 : P14
P13
P12 Figure 5-5
P11
P10
Potentiometer-LED
Pot P9 Test Circuit
10 k: P8
P7
P6
LED P5
nc
X
P4
P3
P2
Vss P1
P0
X2
Testing the Potentiometer Circuit

Turn the potentiometer clockwise until it reaches its mechanical limit shown in
Figure 5-6.
Handle with care: If your potentiometer will not turn this far, do not try to force it. Just turn
it until it reaches its mechanical limit; otherwise, it might break.
Gradually rotate the potentiometer counterclockwise to the positions shown in

Figure 5-6 (b), (c), (d), (e), and (f) noting the how brightly the LED glows at
each position.
Figure 5-6
Potentiometer Input Shaft
(a) (c) (e)
(a) through (f) show the
(b) (d) (f) potentiometer’s wiper
terminal set to different
positions.
How the Potentiometer Circuit Works

The total resistance in your test circuit is 220 : plus the resistance between the A and W
terminals of the potentiometer. This value could be anywhere from 0 to 10 k:. As you
turn the potentiometer’s input shaft, the resistance between the A and W terminals
changes. This in turn changes the current flow through the LED circuit.
ACTIVITY #2: MEASURING RESISTANCE BY MEASURING TIME

This activity introduces a new part called a capacitor. A capacitor behaves like a
rechargeable battery that only holds its charge for short durations of time. This activity
also introduces RC-time, which is an abbreviation for resistor-capacitor time. RC-time is
a measurement of how long it takes for a capacitor to lose a certain amount of its stored
charge as it supplies current to a resistor. By measuring the time it takes for the capacitor
to discharge with different size resistors and capacitors, you will become more familiar
with RC-time. In this activity, you will program the BASIC Stamp to charge a capacitor
and then measure the time it takes the capacitor to discharge through a resistor.
Introducing the Capacitor

Figure 5-7 shows the schematic symbol and part drawing for the type of capacitor used in
this activity. Capacitance value is measured in microfarads (PF), and the measurement is
typically printed on the capacitors. The cylindrical case of the capacitor is called a
canister.
This capacitor has a positive (+) and a negative (-) terminal. The negative terminal is
the lead that comes out of the metal canister closest to the stripe with a negative (–) sign.
Always make sure to connect these terminals as shown in the circuit diagrams. Connecting
one of these capacitors incorrectly can damage it. In some circuits, connecting this type of
capacitor incorrectly and then connecting power can cause it to rupture or even explode.
Figure 5-7
3300 µ
3300 PF Capacitor
Schematic Symbol
3300 µF and Part Drawing
F
Pay careful attention

to the leads and how
+ - they connect to the
Positive and
Negative Terminals.
Resistance and Time Parts

(1) Capacitor – 3300 PF
(1) Capacitor – 1000 PF
(1) Resistor – 1 k: (brown-black-red)
(1) Resistor – 2 k: (red-black-red)
Recommended Equipment: Safety goggles or safety glasses.
Building and Testing the Resistance Capacitance (RC) Time Circuit

Figure 5-8 shows the circuit schematic and Figure 5-9 shows the wiring diagram for this
activity. You will be taking time measurements using different resistor values in place of
the resistor labeled Ri.
SAFETY
Always observe polarity when connecting the 3300 PF capacitor. Remember, the
negative terminal is the lead that comes out of the metal canister closest to the stripe with a
negative (–) sign. Use Figure 5-7 to identify the (+) and (-) terminals.
Your 3300 PF capacitor will work fine in this experiment so long as you make sure that the
positive (+) and negative (-) terminals are connected EXACTLY as shown in Figure 5-8 and
Figure 5-9.
Never reverse the supply polarity on the 3300 PF or any other polar capacitor. The
voltage at the capacitor’s (+) terminal must always be higher than the voltage at its (-)
terminal. Vss is the lowest voltage (0 V) on the Board of Education and BASIC Stamp
HomeWork Board. By connecting the capacitor’s negative terminal to Vss, you ensure that
the polarity across the capacitor’s terminals will always be correct.
Wear safety goggles or safety glasses during this activity.
Always disconnect power before you build or modify circuits.
Keep your hands and face away from this capacitor when power is connected.
With power disconnected, build the circuit as shown starting with a 470 :
resistor in place of the resistor labeled Ri.
Figure 5-8
P7 Schematic for Viewing
220 : RC-time Voltage Decay
R1 = 470 :
3300 µF Ri R2 = 1 k:
Four different resistors
R3 = 2 k: will be used as Ri
R4 = 10 k: shown in the schematic.
First, the schematic will
be built and tested with
Ri = 470 :, then Ri = 1
Vss
k:, etc.
R4 R3 R2 R1
Figure 5-9
F
Vdd Vin Vss
- 00
µ Wiring Diagram for
X3
33 Figure 5-8
+
P15
P14
Make sure that the
+
P13
P12 negative lead of the
P11 capacitor is connected
P10
P9 on your board the same
P8 way it is shown in this
P7
P6 figure, with the negative
P5 lead connected to Vss.
P4
P3
P2
P1
P0
X2
Polling the RC-Time Circuit with the BASIC Stamp

Although a stopwatch can be used to record how long it takes the capacitor’s charge to
drop to a certain level, the BASIC Stamp can also be programmed to monitor the circuit
and give you a more reliable time measurement.
Example Program: PolledRcTimer.bs2

Enter and run PolledRcTimer.bs2.
Observe how the BASIC Stamp charges the capacitor and then measures the
discharge time.
Record the measured time (the capacitor’s discharge time) in the 470 : row of
Table 5-1.
Disconnect power from your Board of Education or BASIC Stamp HomeWork
Board.
Remove the 470 : resistor labeled Ri in Figure 5-8 and Figure 5-9 on page 141,
and replace it with the 1 k: resistor.
Reconnect power to your board.
Record your next time measurement (for the 1 k: resistor).
Repeat these steps for each resistor value in Table 5-1.
Table 5-1: Resistance and RC-time for C = 3300 PF

Resistance (:) Measured Time (s)
470
1k
2k
10 k
' What's a Microcontroller - PolledRcTimer.bs2

' Reaction timer program modified to track an RC-time voltage decay.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
timeCounter VAR Word

counter VAR Nib
DEBUG CLS
HIGH 7
DEBUG "Capacitor Charging...", CR
PAUSE 1000
NEXT
DEBUG CR, CR, "Measure decay time now!", CR, CR

INPUT 7
DO
PAUSE 100
DEBUG ? IN7
DEBUG DEC5 timeCounter, CR, CRSRUP, CRSRUP
LOOP UNTIL IN7 = 0
DEBUG CR, CR, CR, "The RC decay time was ",

DEC timeCounter, CR,
"tenths of a second.", CR, CR
END
How PolledRcTimer.bs2 Works

Two variables are declared. The timeCounter variable is used to track how long it takes
the capacitor to discharge through Ri. The counter variable is used to count down
while the capacitor is charging.
timeCounter VAR Word
counter VAR Nib
The command DEBUG CLS clears the Debug Terminal so that it doesn’t get cluttered with
successive measurements. HIGH 7 sets P7 high and starts charging the capacitor, then a
“Capacitor charging…” message is displayed. After that, a FOR…NEXT loop counts
down while the capacitor is charging. As the capacitor charges, the voltage across its
terminals increases toward anywhere between 2.5 and 4.9 V (depending on the value of
Ri).
DEBUG CLS
HIGH 7
DEBUG "Capacitor Charging...", CR
PAUSE 1000
NEXT
A message announces when the decay starts getting polled.

DEBUG CR, CR, "Measure decay time now!", CR, CR
In order to let the capacitor discharge itself through the Ri resistor, the I/O pin is changed
from HIGH to INPUT. As an input, the I/O pin, has no effect on the circuit, but it can
sense high or low signals. As soon as the I/O pin releases the circuit, the capacitor
discharges as it feeds current through the resistor. As the capacitor discharges, the
voltage across its terminals gets lower and lower (decays).
INPUT 7
Back in the pushbutton chapter, you used the BASIC Stamp to detect a high or low signal
using the variables IN3 and IN4. At that time, a high signal was considered Vdd, and a
low signal was considered Vss. It turns out that a high signal is any voltage above 1.4 V.
Of course, it could be up to 5 V. Likewise, a low signal is anything between 1.4 V and 0
V. This DO…LOOP checks P7 every 100 ms until the value of IN7 changes from 1 to 0,
which indicates that the capacitor voltage decayed below 1.4 V.
DO
PAUSE 100
DEBUG ? IN7
DEBUG DEC5 timeCounter, CR, CRSRUP, CRSRUP
LOOP UNTIL IN7 = 0
The result is then displayed and the program ends.

DEBUG CR, CR, CR, "The RC decay time was ",
DEC timeCounter, CR,

"tenths of a second.", CR, CR
END
Your Turn – A Faster Circuit

By using a capacitor that has roughly 1/3 the capacity to hold charge, the time
measurement for each resistor value that is used in the circuit will be reduced by 1/3. In
Activity #3, you will use a capacitor that is 10,000 times smaller, and the BASIC Stamp
will still take the time measurements for you using a command called RCTIME.
Disconnect power to your Board of Education or HomeWork Board.

Replace the 3300 PF capacitor with a 1000 PF capacitor.
Confirm that the polarity of your capacitor is correct. The negative terminal
should be connected to Vss.
Reconnect power.
Repeat the steps in the Example Program: PolledRcTimer.bs2 section, and

record your time measurements in Table 5-2.
Compare your time measurements to the ones you took earlier in Table 5-1.
How close are they to 1/3 the value of the measurements taken with the 3300 PF
capacitor?
Table 5-2: Resistance and RC-time for C = 1000 PF

Resistance (:) Measured Time (s)
470
1k
2k
10 k
ACTIVITY #3: READING THE DIAL WITH THE BASIC STAMP

In Activity #1, a potentiometer was used as a variable resistor. The resistance in the
circuit varied depending on the position of the potentiometer’s adjusting knob. In
Activity #2, an RC-time circuit was used to measure different resistances. In this
activity, you will build an RC-time circuit to read the potentiometer, and use the BASIC
Stamp to take the time measurements. The capacitor you use will be very small, and the
time measurements will only take a few milliseconds. Even though the measurements
take very short durations of time, the BASIC Stamp will give you an excellent indication
of the resistance between the potentiometer’s A and W terminals.
Parts for Reading RC-Time with the BASIC Stamp

(2) Jumper wires
(1) Capacitor – 0.1 PF shown in Figure 5-10
(1) Capacitor – 0.01 PF, also shown in Figure 5-10
(2) Jumper wires
These capacitors do not have + and – terminals. You can safely connect these
capacitors to a circuit without worrying about positive and negative terminals.
104
Figure 5-10
0.1 µF Ceramic Capacitors
The 0.1 PF capacitor (above)

and the 0.01 PF capacitor
103 (below) are both non-polar.
0.01 µF You will not have to worry
about positive and negative
leads with these two parts.
Building an RC Time Circuit for the BASIC Stamp

Figure 5-11 shows a schematic for the fast RC-time circuit, and Figure 5-12 shows the
wiring diagram. This is the circuit that you will use to monitor the position of the
potentiometer’s input shaft with the help of the BASIC Stamp and a PBASIC program.
P7
nc
220 :
X
Pot
0.1 µF Figure 5-11
10 k:
BASIC Stamp
RCTIME Circuit
with Potentiometer
Vss
Vin Vss
X3
P15
P14
P13
P12
P11
P10 Figure 5-12
P9
P8 Wiring Diagram for
P7 Figure 5-11
P6
P5
P4
P3
P2
P1
P0
X2
Programming RC-Time Measurements

The BASIC Stamp program to measure the potentiometer’s resistance will do essentially
the same thing that you did by hand in Activity #2. The equivalent of pressing and
holding the pushbutton is a HIGH command followed by a PAUSE. The RCTIME command
is the BASIC Stamp’s way of letting go of the pushbutton and polling until the
capacitor’s voltage gets low enough to pass the threshold voltage of IN7 (1.4 V).
Example Program: ReadPotWithRcTime.bs2

Enter and run ReadPotWithRcTime.bs2
Try rotating the potentiometer’s input shaft while monitoring the value of the
time variable using the Debug Terminal.
' What's a Microcontroller - ReadPotWithRcTime.bs2

' Read potentiometer in RC-time circuit using RCTIME command.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
time VAR Word
DO
HIGH 7
PAUSE 100
RCTIME 7, 1, time
DEBUG HOME, "time = ", DEC5 time
LOOP
How ReadPotWithRcTime.bs2 Works

Here are the pseudo-code steps the program goes through to take the RC-time
measurement.
x Declare the variable time to store a time measurement.

x Code block within DO…LOOP:
o Set I/O pin P7 to HIGH.
o Wait for 100 ms (20 ms to make sure the capacitor is charged up and 80
more ms to keep the Debug Terminal display steady).
o Execute the RCTIME command.
o Store the time measurement in the time variable.
o Display the value time in the Debug Terminal.
Before the RCTIME command is executed, the capacitor is fully charged. As soon as the
RCTIME command executes, the BASIC Stamp changes the I/O pin from an output to an
input. As an input, the I/O pin looks about the same to the circuit as when the pushbutton
was released (open circuit) in Activity #2. The RCTIME command is a high speed version
of the polling that was used in Activity #2, and it measures the amount of time it takes for
the capacitor to lose its charge and fall below the I/O pin’s 1.4 V input threshold. Instead
of counting in 100 ms increments, the RCTIME command counts in 2 Ps increments.
Your Turn – Changing Time by Changing the Capacitor

Replace the 0.1 PF capacitor with a 0.01 PF capacitor.
Try the same positions on the potentiometer that you did in the main activity and
compare the value displayed in the Debug Terminal with the values obtained for
the 0.1 PF capacitor. Are the RCTIME measurements one tenth the value?
Go back to the 0.1 PF capacitor.
With the 0.1 PF capacitor back in the circuit and the 0.01 PF capacitor removed,
make a note of the highest and lowest values for the next activity.
ACTIVITY #4: CONTROLLING A SERVO WITH A POTENTIOMETER

Potentiometers together with servos can be used to make lots of fun things. This is the
foundation for model airplanes, cars and boats. This activity shows how the BASIC
Stamp can be used to monitor a potentiometer circuit and control the position of a servo.
An example of a model airplane and its radio controller are shown in Figure 5-13. The
model airplane has servos to control all its flaps and the gas engine’s throttle settings.
These servos are controlled using the radio control (RC) unit in front of the plane. This
RC unit has potentiometers under a pair of joysticks that are used to control the servos
that in turn control the plane’s elevator and rudder flaps.
Figure 5-13
Model Airplane and
Radio Controller
How the RC Unit Controls the Airplane: The potentiometers under the joysticks are
monitored by a circuit that converts the position of the joystick into control pulses for the
servo. These control pulses are then converted to radio signals and transmitted by the
handheld controller to a radio receiver in the model airplane. The radio receiver converts
these signals back to control pulses which then position the servos.
Potentiometer Controlled Servo Parts

(1) Capacitor – 0.1 PF
(1) Servo
(2) Jumper wires
HomeWork Board users will also need:
(1) 3-pin male-male header

(4) Jumper wires
Building the Dial and Servo Circuits

This activity will use two circuits that you have already built individually: the
potentiometer circuit from the activity you just finished and the servo circuit from the
previous chapter.
Leave your potentiometer RC-time circuit from Activity #3 on your prototyping

area. If you need to rebuild it, use Figure 5-11 on page 146 and Figure 5-12 on
page 147. Make sure to use the 0.1 PF capacitor, not the 0.01 PF capacitor.
Add your servo circuit from Chapter #4, Activity #1 to the project. Remember
that your servo circuit will be different depending on your carrier board. Below
are the pages for the sections that you will need to jump to:
x Page 103 – Board of Education Rev C

x Page 108 – Board of Education Rev B
x Page 105 – BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board
Programming Potentiometer Control of the Servo

You will need the smallest and largest value of the time variable that you recorded from
your RC-time circuit while using a 0.1 PF capacitor.
If you have not already completed the Your Turn section of the previous activity,
go back and complete it now.
For this next example, here are the time values that were measured by a Parallax
technician; your values will probably be slightly different:
x All the way clockwise: 1

x All the way counterclockwise: 691
So how can these input values be adjusted so that they map to the values of 500 and 1000
that are needed to control the servo with the PULSOUT command? The answer is by using
multiplication and addition. First, multiply the input values by something to make the
difference between the clockwise (minimum) and counterclockwise (maximum) values
500 instead of almost 700. Then, add a constant value to the result so that its range is
from 500 to 1000 instead of 1 to 500. In electronics, these operations are called scaling
and offset.
Here’s how the math works for the multiplication (scaling):
500
time(maximum) 691u 691u 0.724 500
691
500
time(minimum) 1u 0.724
691
After the values are scaled, here is the addition (offset) step.
time(maximum) 500 500 1000

time(minimum) 0.724 500 500
The */ operator that was introduced on page 95 is built into PBASIC for scaling by
fractional values, like 0.724. Here again are the steps for using */ applied to 0.724:
1. Place the value or variable you want to multiply by a fractional value before the
*/ operator.
time = time */
2. Take the fractional value that you want to use and multiply it by 256.
new fractional value 0.724 u 256 185.344
3. Round off to get rid of anything to the right of the decimal point.
new fractional value 185
4. Place that value after the */ operator.

time = time */ 185
That takes care of the scaling, now all we need to do is add the offset of 500. This can be
done with a second command that adds 500 to time:
time = time */ 185
time = time + 500
Now, time is ready to be recycled into the PULSOUT command’s Duration argument.
time = time */ 185 ' Scale by 0.724.
time = time + 500 ' Offset by 500.
PULSOUT 14, time ' Send pulse to servo.
Example Program: ControlServoWithPot.bs2

Enter and run this program, then twist the potentiometer’s input shaft and make
sure that the servo’s movements echo the potentiometer’s movements.
' What's a Microcontroller - ControlServoWithPot.bs2

' Scale time by 0.724 and offset by 500 for the servo.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
time VAR Word
DO
HIGH 7
PAUSE 10
RCTIME 7, 1, time
time = time */ 185 ' Scale by 0.724 (X 256 for */).
time = time + 500 ' Offset by 500.
PULSOUT 14, time ' Send pulse to servo.
LOOP
Your Turn – Scaling the Servo’s Relationship to the Dial

Your potentiometer and capacitor will probably give you time values that are somewhat
different from the ones discussed in this activity. These are the values you gathered in
the Your Turn section of the previous activity.
Repeat the math discussed in the Programming Potentiometer Control of the

Servo section on page 150 using your maximum and minimum values.
Substitute your scale and offset values in ControlServoWithPot.bs2.
Add this line of code between the PULSOUT and LOOP commands so that you can
view your results.
DEBUG HOME, DEC5 time ' Display adjusted time value.
Run the modified program and check your work. Because the values were
rounded off, the limits may not be exactly 500 and 1000, but they should be
pretty close.
Using Constants in Programs

In larger programs, you may end up using the PULSOUT command and the value of the
scale factor (which was 185) and the offset (which was 500) many times in the program.
You can use alias names for these values with the CON directive like this:
scaleFactor CON 185
offset CON 500
These alias names are just about always declared near the beginning of the program so
that they are easy to find.
Now, anywhere in your program that you want to use one of these values, you can use the
words offset or scaleFactor instead. For example,
time = time */ scaleFactor ' Scale by 0.724.
time = time + offset ' Offset by 500.
You can also apply the same technique with the I/O pins. For example, you can declare a
constant for I/O pin P7.
rcPin CON 7
There are two places in the previous example program where the number 7 is used to
refer to I/O pin P7. The first can now be written as:
HIGH rcPin
The second can be written as:

RCTIME rcPin, 1, time
If you change your circuit later, all you have to do is change the value in your constant
declaration, and both the HIGH and RCTIME commands will be automatically updated.
Likewise, if you have to recalibrate your scale factor or offset, you can also just change
the CON directives at the beginning of the program.
Assigning an alias is what you do when you give a variable, constant or I/O pin a name
using VAR, CON, or PIN.
Example Program: ControlServoWithPotUsingConstants.bs2

This program makes use of aliases in place of almost all numbers.
Enter and run ControlServoWithPotUsingConstants.bs2.

Observe how the servo responds to the potentiometer and verify that it’s the
same as the previous example program (ControlServoWithPot.bs2).
' What's a Microcontroller - ControlServoWithPotUsingConstants.bs2

' Apply scale factor and offset, then send value to servo.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
scaleFactor CON 185

offset CON 500
rcPin CON 7
delay CON 10
servoPin CON 14
time VAR Word
DO
HIGH rcPin
PAUSE delay
RCTIME rcPin, 1, time
time = time */ scaleFactor ' Scale scaleFactor.
time = time + offset ' Offset by offset.
PULSOUT servoPin, time ' Send pulse to servo.
DEBUG HOME, DEC5 time ' Display adjusted time value.
LOOP
Your Turn – Using Constants for Calibration and Easy Updating

As mentioned earlier, if you change the I/O pin used by the HIGH and RCTIME command,
you can simply change the value of the rcPin constant declaration.
Save the example program under a new name.

Change the scaleFactor and offset values to the unique values for your RC
circuit that you determined in the previous Your Turn section.
Run the modified program and verify that it works correctly.
Modify your circuit by moving the RC-time circuit from I/O pin P7 to I/O pin
P8.
Modify the rcPin declaration so that it reads:
rcPin CON 8
Add this command before the DO…LOOP so that you can see that the rcPin
constant really is just a way of saying the number eight:
DEBUG ? rcPin
Re-run the program and verify that the HIGH and RCTIME commands are still
functioning properly on the different I/O pin with just one change to the rcPin
CON directive.
SUMMARY
This chapter introduced the potentiometer, a part often found under various knobs and
dials. The potentiometer has a resistive element that typically connects its outer two
terminals and a wiper terminal that contacts a variable point on the resistive element. The
potentiometer can be used as a variable resistor if the wiper terminal and one of the two
outer terminals is used in a circuit.
The capacitor was also introduced in this chapter. A capacitor can be used to store and
release charge. The amount of charge a capacitor can store is related to its value, which
is measured in Farads, (F). The P is engineering notation for micro, and it means one-
millionth. The capacitors used in this chapter’s activities ranged from 0.01 to 3300 PF.
A resistor and a capacitor can be connected together in a circuit that takes a certain
amount of time to charge and discharge. This circuit is commonly referred to as an RC-
time circuit. The R and C in RC-time stand for resistor and capacitor. When one value
(C in this chapter’s activities) is held constant, the change in the time it takes for the
circuit to discharge is related to the value of R. When the value of R changes, the value
of the time it takes for the circuit to charge and discharge also changes. The overall time
it takes the RC-time circuit to discharge can be scaled by using a capacitor of a different
size.
Polling was used to monitor the discharge time of a capacitor in an RC circuit where the
value of C was very large. Several different resistors were used to show how the
discharge time changes as the value of the resistor in the circuit changes. The RCTIME
command was then used to monitor a potentiometer (a variable resistor) in an RC-time
circuit with smaller value capacitors. Although these capacitors cause the discharge
times to range from roughly 2 to 1500 Ps (millionths of a second), the BASIC Stamp has
no problem tracking these time measurements with the RCTIME command. The I/O pin
must be set HIGH, and then the capacitor in the RC-time circuit must be allowed to charge
by using PAUSE before the RCTIME command can be used.
PBASIC programming can be used to measure a resistive sensor such as a potentiometer

and scale its value so that it is useful to another device, such as a servo. This involves
performing mathematical operations on the measured RC discharge time, which the
RCTIME command stores in a variable. This variable can be adjusted by adding a constant
value to it, which comes in handy for controlling a servo. In the Projects section, you
may find yourself using multiplication and division as well. The CON directive can be
used at the beginning of a program to substitute a name for a number. As with naming
variables, naming constants is also called creating an alias. After an alias is created, the
name can be used in place of the number throughout the program. This can come in
handy, especially if you need to use the same number in 2, 3, or even 100 different places
in the program. You can change the number in the CON directive, and all 2, 3, or even
100 different instances of that number are automatically updated next time you run the
program.
Questions
1. What are five examples of devices that use dials and knobs?
2. When you turn the dial or knob on a sound system, what component are you
most likely adjusting?
3. In a typical potentiometer, is the resistance between the two outer terminals
adjustable?
4. When the input shaft on a potentiometer is turned, what happens to the resistance
at each of its three terminals? What relationships exist between the different
possible pairs of the three terminals? What effect does this have on an LED
circuit connected to the potentiometer’s A and W terminals?
5. How is a capacitor like a rechargeable battery? How is it different?
6. What can you do with an RC-time circuit to give you an indication of the value
of a variable resistor?
7. Let’s say you have a voltage source that varies connected to P8. What happens
to IN8 as the voltage at that I/O pin goes from above 1.4 V to below 1.4 V?
What do you think will happen if the voltage increases from below to above 1.4
V?
8. What happens to the RC discharge time as the value of R (the resistor) gets
larger or smaller?
9. If you want to scale the timer measurements on an RC time circuit so that it takes
100 times as long, what part would you replace? How is the new part different
from the old part?
10. What are the names of the three arguments the RCTIME command uses? What is
the function of each argument? HINT: you will have to look up the answer to
this question in the BASIC Stamp Manual.
11. If the values that come from the RCTIME measurement are not the correct values
for the PULSOUT command, you can do one of two things. The first option (not
recommended) is to change and tune the circuit until it gives you just the right
time measurements. What is the other (recommended) option to fix this

problem?
12. What does the CON directive do? Explain this in terms of a name and a number.
Exercises
1. Let’s say that you have a 0.5 PF capacitor in an RC timer circuit, and you want
the measurement to take 10-times as long. Calculate the value of the new
capacitor.
2. Given a variable called measurement, and an RC-time circuit connected to I/O
pin P6, write a command that measures the circuit’s discharge time and stores it
in the variable.
3. Rewrite your answer for the previous exercise so that no numbers are used in the
commands, only aliases for constant value and variables.
Projects
1. Add a bi-color LED circuit to Activity #4. Modify the example program so that
the bi-color LED is red when the servo is rotating counterclockwise, green when
the servo is rotating clockwise, and off when the servo holding its position.
2. Add on/off pushbuttons to the example in Activity #4. Modify the example
program so that it runs after you press and release the ‘on’ button and does not
run after you press and release the ‘off’ button. If you press and release the ‘on’
button after pressing and releasing the ‘off’ button, the program should resume
potentiometer control of the servo.
3. Build a circuit that controls the speed an LED flashes based on the position of a
potentiometer RC-time circuit. When the potentiometer is all the way clockwise,
the LED should flash on and off rapidly, around 10 times per second. When the
potentiometer is all the way counterclockwise, the LED should flash on and off
slowly, once every 5 to 10 seconds.
4. Use IF…THEN to modify the example program from Activity #4 so that the servo
only rotates between PULSOUT values of 650 and 850.
5. Program the BASIC Stamp to scale the value measured by the RCTIME command
so that the full range of the time measurements that result from the
potentiometer’s motion maps to a range of servo PULSOUT values between 650
and 850. HINTS: You will need to multiply using the * operator and divide
using the / operator to scale your time measurement to a range of 200. For
example, if it turns out that you need to scale it to 2/5 of the value, multiply time
by 2 first, and then divide that result by 5. After that, you will still need to go
through the process of adding an offset as shown in Activity #4.
Several different electronic components, concepts and techniques were incorporated in
this chapter. Some of the more notable examples are:
x Using a potentiometer as an input device

x Measuring the resistance/capacitance of a device using RCTIME
x Performing math on an input value and recycling it into an output
x Controlling a motor based on a measured value
“Advanced Robotics: with the Toddler”, Student Workbook, Version 1.2, Parallax
Inc., 2003
“Robotics!”, Student Workbook, Version 1.5, Parallax Inc., 2000
“SumoBot”, Student Workbook, Version 1.1, Parallax Inc., 2002
Every Stamps in Class robotics text uses RCTIME to measure resistive sensors to
detect a variety of conditions. Each condition leads to math and decisions, and
the end result is robot movement.
Basic Analog and Digital uses the potentiometer to create a variable voltage,
called a voltage divider, which is analyzed by an analog to digital converter. A
potentiometer is also used as an input device to set the frequency of a 555 timer.
This text takes a closer look at the math involved in RC voltage decay.

RCTIME is used extensively in this book to collect data from a variety of sensors.

This book introduces techniques used extensively in industry for controlling
machines based on sensor input. The techniques fall under the general category
of control systems.
Chapter #6: Digital Display · Page 161
Chapter #6: Digital Display

THE EVERY-DAY DIGITAL DISPLAY
Figure 6-1 shows a display on the front of an oven door. When the oven is not in use, it
displays the time. When the oven is in use, it displays the oven’s timer, cooking settings,
and it flashes on and off at the same time an alarm sounds to let you know the food is
done. A microcontroller inside the oven door monitors the pushbuttons and updates the
display. It also monitors sensors inside the oven and switches devices that turn the
heating elements on and off.
Figure 6-1
Digital Clock 7-Segment
Display on Oven Door
Each of the three digits in Figure 6-1 is called a 7-segment display. In this chapter, you
will program the BASIC Stamp to display numbers and letters on a 7-segment display.
WHAT’S A 7-SEGMENT DISPLAY?

A 7-segment display is rectangular block of 7 lines of equal length that can be lit
selectively to display digits and some letters. A very common form is the 7-segment LED
display, a package with a rectangular block of 7 LEDs. Figure 6-2 shows a part drawing
of the 7-segment LED display you will use in this chapter’s activities. It has one
additional LED, a dot that can be used as a decimal point. Each of the segments (A
through G) and the dot contains a separate LED, which can be controlled individually.
Most of the pins have a number along with a label that corresponds with one of the LED
segments. Pin 5 is labeled DP, which stands for decimal point. Pins 3 and 8 are labeled
“common cathode”, and they will be explained when the schematic for this part is
introduced.
Common
Cathode
10 9 8 7 6
G F A B
A
Figure 6-2
F B
7-Segment
G LED Display
E C Part Drawing
D
and Pin Map
E D C DP
1 2 3 4 5
Common
Cathode
Pin Map: Figure 6-2 is an example of a pin map. A pin map contains useful information that
helps you connect a part to other circuits. Pin maps usually show a number for each pin, a
name for each pin, and a reference. Take a look at Figure 6-2. Each pin is numbered, and
the name for each pin is the segment letter next to the pin. The reference for this part is its
overall appearance. You know by looking at the top of the display that pin 1 is closest to the
lower-left corner of the display. Other parts have more subtle references, such as the flat
spot on a regular LED’s case.
Figure 6-3 shows a schematic of the LEDs inside the 7-segment LED display. Each LED
anode is connected to an individual pin. All the cathodes are connected together by wire
inside the part. Because all the cathodes share a common connection, the 7-segment LED
display can be called a “common cathode” display. By connecting either pin 3 or pin 8 of
the part to Vss, you will connect all the LED cathodes to Vss.
1 4 6 7 9 10 5
E C B A F G DP
Figure 6-3
LED’s 7-Segment
Schematic
3 8
ACTIVITY #1: BUILDING AND TESTING THE 7-SEGMENT LED DISPLAY

In this activity, you will manually build circuits to test each segment in the display.
7-Segment LED Display Test Parts

(1) 7-segment LED display
(5) Resistors – 1 k: (brown-black-red)
(5) Jumper wires
7-Segment LED Display Test Circuits

With power disconnected from your Board of Education or HomeWork Board,
build the circuit shown in Figure 6-4 and Figure 6-5.
Reconnect power and verify that the A segment emits light.
What’s the x with the nc above it in the schematic? The nc stands for not connected or
no-connect. It indicates that a particular pin on the 7-segment LED display is not connected
to anything. The x at the end of the pin also means not connected. Schematics sometimes
use just the x or just the nc.
Vdd
1 k:
nc
X nc nc nc nc nc nc
X
Figure 6-4
1 4 6 7 9 10 5 Test Circuit
Schematic for
E C B A F G DP
the ‘A’
Segment LED
Display.
LED’s
3 8
X
nc
Vss
P0
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
P13
P14
P15
X2
X3
Vdd
Figure 6-5
Test Circuit
Wiring Diagram
Vin
for the ‘A’

Segment LED
Vss
Display
Disconnect power, and modify the circuit by connecting the resistor to the B
LED input as shown in Figure 6-6 and Figure 6-7.
Vdd
1 k:
nc nc nc nc nc nc nc
X
1 4 6 7 9 10 5 Figure 6-6
Test Circuit
E C B A F G DP Schematic for
the ‘B’ Segment
LED Display.
LED’s
3 8
X
nc
Vss
P0
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
P13
P14
P15
X2
X3
Vdd
Figure 6-7
Test Circuit
Wiring Diagram
Vin
for the ‘B’

Segment LED
Vss
Display
Reconnect power and verify that the B segment emits light.

Using the pin map from Figure 6-2 as a guide, repeat these steps for segments C
through G.
Your Turn – The Letter A and the Number Two

Figure 6-8 and Figure 6-9 show the digit ‘3’ hardwired into the 7-segment LED display.
Vdd Vdd Vdd Vdd Vdd
1 k:all)
Figure 6-8
nc nc nc
Hardwired Digit ‘3’
X
X
1 4 6 7 9 10 5
The digit “3” is
E C B A F G DP shown on the 7-
segment LED
display using the
LED’s
circuit shown in this
schematic.
3 8
X
nc
Vss
P0
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
P13
P14
P15
X2
X3
Vdd
Figure 6-9
Vin
Wiring Diagram for

Figure 6-8
Vss
Build and test the circuit shown in Figure 6-8 and Figure 6-9, and verify that it
displays the number three.
Draw a schematic for the number two.
Build and test the circuit to make sure it works. Trouble-shoot if necessary.
Repeat for the letter ‘A’.
ACTIVITY #2: CONTROLLING THE 7-SEGMENT LED DISPLAY

In this activity, you will connect the 7-segment LED display to the BASIC Stamp, and
then run a simple program to test and make sure each LED is properly connected.
7-Segment LED Display Parts

(5) Jumper wires
Connecting the 7-Segment LED Display to the BASIC Stamp

Figure 6-10 shows the schematic and Figure 6-11 shows the wiring diagram for this
BASIC Stamp controlled 7-segment LED display example.
Build the circuit shown in Figure 6-10 and Figure 6-11.
Schematic and pin map: If you are trying to build the circuit from the schematic in Figure 6-
10 without relying on Figure 6-11, make sure to consult the 7-segment LED display’s pin
map (Figure 6-2, page 162).
1 k:
(All)
P15
P14
P13
P12
P11 Figure 6-10
P10 BASIC Stamp
Controlled 7-
P9
Segment LED
P8 Display
E C DP G F A B Schematic
LED’s
common
Vss
Be careful with the resistors connected to P13 and P14. Look carefully at the resistors
connected to P13 and P14 in Figure 6-11. There is gap between these two resistors. The
gap is shown because pin 8 on the 7-segment LED display is left unconnected. A resistor
connects I/O pin P13 to 7-segment LED display pin 9. Another resistor connects P14 to 7-
segment LED display pin 7.
DP
EDC GFAB
P0
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
P13
P14
P15
X2
Figure 6-11
X3
Wiring Diagram for
Figure 6-10
Vdd
Use the segment
Vin
letters above this
diagram as a
reference.
Vss
Parallel Device: The 7-segment LED display is called a parallel device because you have
to use more than one I/O line at a time to send data (high and low information) to the device.
In the case of this 7-segment LED display, it takes 8 I/O pins to instruct the device what to
do.
Parallel Bus: The wires that transmit the HIGH/LOW signals from the BASIC Stamp to the
7-segment LED display are called a parallel bus. Note that these wires are drawn as
parallel lines in Figure 6-10. The term parallel kind of makes sense given the geometry of
the schematic.
Programming the 7-Segment LED Display Test

The HIGH and LOW commands will accept a variable as a pin argument. To test each
segment, one at a time, simply place the HIGH and LOW commands in a FOR…NEXT loop,
and use the index to set the I/O pin, high, then low again.
Enter and run SegmentTestWithHighLow.bs2.

Verify that every segment in the 7-segement LED display lights briefly, turning
on and then off again.
Record a list of which segment each I/O pin controls.
Example Program: SegmentTestWithHighLow.bs2

' What's a Microcontroller - SegmentTestWithHighLow.bs2
' Individually test each segment in a 7-Segment LED display.
'{$STAMP BS2}
'{$PBASIC 2.5}
pinCounter VAR Nib
DEBUG "I/O Pin", CR,

"-------", CR
FOR pinCounter = 8 TO 15
DEBUG DEC2 pinCounter, CR

HIGH pinCounter
PAUSE 1000
LOW pinCounter
NEXT
Your Turn – A Different Pattern

Removing the command LOW pinCounter will have an interesting effect:
Comment the LOW pinCounter command by adding an apostrophe to the left of

it.
Run the modified program and observe the effect.
ACTIVITY #3: DISPLAYING DIGITS

If you include the decimal point there are eight different BASIC Stamp I/O pins that send
high/low signals to the 7-segment LED display. That’s eight different HIGH or LOW
commands just to display one number. If you want to count from zero to nine, that would
be a huge amount of programming. Fortunately, there are special variables you can use
to set the high and low values for groups of I/O pins.
In this activity, you will use 8-digit binary numbers instead of HIGH and LOW commands
to control the high/low signals sent by BASIC Stamp I/O pins. By setting special
variables called DIRH and OUTH equal to the binary numbers, you will be able to control
the high/low signals sent by all the I/O pins connected to the 7-segment LED display
circuit with a single PBASIC command.
8 bits: A binary number that has 8 digits is said to have 8 bits. Each bit is a slot where you
can store either a 1 or a 0.
A byte is a variable that contains 8 bits. There are 256 different combinations of zeros and
ones that you can use to count from 0 to 255 using 8 bits. This is why a byte variable can
store a number between 0 and 255.
Parts and Circuit for Displaying Digits

Same as previous activity
Programming On/Off Patterns Using Binary Numbers

In this activity, you will experiment with the variables DIRH and OUTH. DIRH is a variable
that controls the direction (input or output) of I/O pins P8 through P15. OUTH controls the
high or low signals that each I/O pin sends. As you will soon see, OUTH is especially
useful because you can use it to set the high/low signals at eight different I/O pins at once
with just one command. Here is an example program that shows how these two variables
can be used to count from 0 to 9 on the 7-segment LED display without using HIGH and
LOW commands:
Example Program: DisplayDigits.bs2

This example program will cycle the 7-Segment LED display through the digits 0
through 9.
Enter and run DisplayDigits.bs2.

Verify that the digits 0 through 9 are displayed.
' What's a Microcontroller - DisplayDigits.bs2

' Display the digits 0 through 9 on a 7-segment LED display.
'{$STAMP BS2}
'{$PBASIC 2.5}
OUTH = %00000000 ' OUTH initialized to low.

DIRH = %11111111 ' Set P8-P15 to all output-low.
' Digit:
' BAFG.CDE
OUTH = %11100111 ' 0
PAUSE 1000
OUTH = %10000100 ' 1
PAUSE 1000
OUTH = %11010011 ' 2
PAUSE 1000
OUTH = %11010110 ' 3
PAUSE 1000
OUTH = %10110100 ' 4
PAUSE 1000
OUTH = %01110110 ' 5
PAUSE 1000
OUTH = %01110111 ' 6
PAUSE 1000
OUTH = %11000100 ' 7
PAUSE 1000
OUTH = %11110111 ' 8
PAUSE 1000
OUTH = %11110110 ' 9
PAUSE 1000
DIRH = %00000000 ' I/O pins to input,

' segments off.
END
How DisplayDigits.bs2 Works

Figure 6-12 shows how you can use the DIRH and OUTH variables to control the direction
and state (high/low) of I/O pins P8 through P15.
Vss
Vin
Figure 6-12
Using DIRH
and OUTH to
Vdd
set all I/O Pins

to Output-Low
X3
X2
P15
P14
P13
P12
P10
P11
P9
P8
P7
P6
P5
P4
P3
P2
P1
P0
OUTH = %00000000
DIRH = %11111111
The first command:

OUTH = %00000000
gets all the I/O pins (P8 through P15) ready to send the low signals. If they all send low
signals, it will turn all the LEDs in the 7-segment LED display off. If you wanted all the
I/O pins to send the high signal, you could use OUTH = %11111111 instead.
What does % do? The % is used to tell the BASIC Stamp Editor that the number is a binary
number. For example, the binary number %00001100 is the same as the decimal number
12. As you will see in this activity, binary numbers can make many programming tasks
much easier.
The low signals will not actually be sent by the I/O pins until you use the DIRH variable
to change all the I/O pins from input to output. The command:
DIRH = %11111111
sets all I/O pins P8 through P15 to output. As soon as this command is executed, P8
through P15 all start sending the low signal. This is because the command OUTH =
%00000000 was executed just before this DIRH command. As soon as the DIRH command
set all the I/O pins to output, they started sending their low signals. You can also use
DIRH = %00000000 to change all the I/O pins back to inputs.
Before I/O pins become outputs: Up until the I/O pins are changed from input to output,
they just listen for signals and update the INH variable. This is the variable that contains
IN8, IN9, up through IN15. These variables can be used the same way that IN3 and
IN4 were used for reading pushbuttons in Chapter #3.
All BASIC Stamp I/O pins start out as inputs. This is called a “default”. You have to tell a
BASIC Stamp I/O pin to become an output before it starts sending a high or low signal. Both
the HIGH and LOW commands automatically change a BASIC Stamp I/O pin’s direction to
output. Placing a 1 in the DIRH variable also makes one of the I/O pins an output.
Figure 6-13 shows how to use the OUTH variable to selectively send high and low signals
to P8 through P15. A binary-1 is used to send a high signal, and a binary-0 is used to
send a low signal. This example displays the number three on the 7-segment LED
display:
' BAFG.CDE
OUTH = %11010110
Vss
Vin
Figure 6-13
Using OUTH to
Control the
Vdd
High/Low Signals
of P8 – P15.
X3
X2
P15
P14
P13
P12
P10
P11
P9
P8
P7
P6
P5
P4
P3
P2
P1
P0
‘ BAFG.CDE
OUTH = %11010110
The display is turned so that the three on the display is upside-down because it more
clearly shows how the values in OUTH line up with the I/O pins. The command OUTH =
%11010110 uses binary zeros to set I/O pins P8, P11, and P13 low, and it uses binary
ones to set P9, P10, P12, P14 and P15 high. The line just before the command is a
comment that shows the segment labels line up with the binary value that turns that
segment on/off. The next example program shows how to set OUTH to binary numbers to
make the 7-segment LED display count from zero to nine.
Inside the HIGH and LOW commands: The command HIGH 15 is really the same as
OUT15 = 1 followed by DIR15 = 1. Likewise, the command LOW 15 is the same as
OUT15 = 1 followed by DIR15 = 1. If you want to change P15 back to an input, use
DIR15 = 0. You can then use IN15 to detect (instead of send) high/low signals.
Your Turn – Displaying A through F

Figure out what bit patterns (combinations of zeros and ones) you will need to
display the letters A, b, C, d, E, and F.
Modify SevenSegment0to9 so that it displays A, b, C, d, E, F.
Decimal vs. Hexadecimal The basic digits in the decimal (base-10) number system are: 0,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9. In the hexadecimal (base-16) number system the basic digits
are: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, b, C, d, E, F. Base-16 is used extensively in both computer
and microcontroller programming. Once you figure out how to display the characters A
through F, you can further modify your program to count in hexadecimal from 0 to F.
Keeping Lists of On/Off Patterns

The LOOKUP command makes writing code for 7-segment LED display patterns much
easier. The LOOKUP command lets you “look up” elements in a list. Here is a code
example that uses the LOOKUP command:
LOOKUP index, [7, 85, 19, 167, 28], value
There are two variables used in this command, index and value. If the index is 0,
value stores the 7. If index is 1, the value stores 85. Since index is 2, in this
example, the LOOKUP command places 19 into value, and that’s what the Debug
Terminal displays.
Example Program: SimpleLookup.bs2

Load and run SimpleLookup.bs2.
Run the program as-is, with the index variable set equal to 2.
Try setting the index variable equal to numbers between 0 and 4.
Re-run the program after each change to the index variable and note which
value from the list gets placed in the value variable.
Optional: Modify the program by placing the LOOKUP command in a FOR…NEXT
loop that counts from 0 to 4.
' What's a Microcontroller - SimpleLookup.bs2

' Debug a value using an index and a lookup table.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
value VAR Byte

index VAR Nib
index = 2
DEBUG ? index
LOOKUP index, [7, 85, 19, 167, 28], value

DEBUG ? value, CR
DEBUG "Change the index variable to a ", CR,

"different number(between 0 and 4).", CR, CR,
"Run the modified program and ", CR,

"check to see what number the", CR,
"LOOKUP command places in the", CR,
"value variable."
END
Example Program: DisplayDigitsWithLookup.bs2

This example program shows how the LOOKUP command can come in really handy for
storing the bit patterns used in the OUTH variable. Again, the index is used to choose
which binary value is placed into the OUTH variable. This example program counts from
0 to 9 again. The difference between this program and DisplayDigits.bs2 is that this
program is much more versatile. It is much quicker and easier to adjust for different
number sequences using lookup tables.
Load and run DisplayDigitsWithLookup.bs2.

Verify that it does the same thing as the previous program (with much less
work).
Take a look at the Debug Terminal while the program runs. It shows how the
value of index is used by the LOOKUP command to load the correct binary value
from the list into OUTH.
' What's a Microcontroller - DisplayDigitsWithLookup.bs2

' Use a lookup table to store and display digits with a 7-segment LED display.
'{$STAMP BS2}
'{$PBASIC 2.5}
index VAR Nib
OUTH = %00000000
DIRH = %11111111
DEBUG "index OUTH ", CR,

"----- --------", CR
FOR index = 0 TO 9
LOOKUP index, [ %11100111, %10000100, %11010011,

%11010110, %10110100, %01110110,
%01110111, %11000100, %11110111, %11110110 ], OUTH
DEBUG " ", DEC2 index, " ", BIN8 OUTH, CR
PAUSE 1000
NEXT
DIRH = %00000000
END
Your Turn – Displaying 0 through F Again

Modify DisplayDigitsWithLookup.bs2 so that it counts from 0 through F in
hexadecimal. Don’t forget to update the FOR…NEXT loop’s start and end
values.
ACTIVITY #4: DISPLAYING THE POSITION OF A DIAL

In Chapter #5, Activity #4 you used the potentiometer to control the position of a servo.
In this activity, you will display the position of the potentiometer using the 7-segment
LED display.
Dial and Display Parts

(7) Jumper wires
Building the Dial and Display Circuits

Figure 6-14 shows a schematic of the potentiometer circuit that should be added to the
project. Figure 6-15 shows a wiring diagram of the circuit from Figure 6-14 combined
with the circuit from Figure 6-10 on Page 168.
Add the potentiometer circuit to the 7-segment LED display circuit as shown in
Figure 6-15.
P5
220 :
Pot Figure 6-14
10 k: 0.1 µF
Schematic of
Potentiometer
X
nc Circuit Added to
the Project
Vss
P0
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
P13
P14
P15
X2
X3
Vdd
Figure 6-15
Vin
Project Wiring
Diagram
Vss
Programming the Dial and Display
There is a useful command called the LOOKDOWN, and yes, it is the reverse of the LOOKUP
command. While the LOOKUP command gives you a number based on an index, the
LOOKDOWN command gives you an index based on a number.
Example Program: SimpleLookdown.bs2

This example program demonstrates how the LOOKDOWN command works.
Load and run SimpleLookdown.bs2.

Run the program as-is, with the value variable set equal to 167, and use the
Debug Terminal to observe the value of index.
Try setting the value variable equal to each of the other numbers listed by the
LOOKDOWN command: 7, 85, 19, 28.
Re-run the program after each change to the value variable and note which
value from the list gets placed in the index variable.
Unless you tell it to make a different kind of comparison, the LOOKDOWN command checks
to see if a value is equal to an entry in the list. You can also check to see if a value is
greater than, less than or equal to, etc. For example, to search for an entry that is less
than or equal to the value variable, use the <= operator just before the first bracket that
starts the list.
Modify SimpleLookdown.bs2 by substituting this value and LOOKDOWN

statement:
value = 35
LOOKDOWN value, <= [ 7, 19, 28, 85, 167 ], index
Experiment with different values and see if the index variable displays what you
would expect.
Trick question: What happens if your value is greater than 167? This little twist in the
LOOKDOWN command can cause problems because the LOOKDOWN command doesn’t
make any changes to the index.
' What's a Microcontroller - SimpleLookdown.bs2

' Debug an index using a value and a lookup table.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
value VAR Byte

index VAR Nib
value = 167
DEBUG ? value
LOOKDOWN value, [7, 85, 19, 167, 28], index
DEBUG ? index, CR
DEBUG "Change the value variable to a ", CR,

"different number in this list:", CR,
"7, 85, 19, 167, or 28.", CR, CR,
"Run the modified program and ", CR,

"check to see what number the ", CR,
"LOOKDOWN command places in the ", CR,

"index variable."
END
Example Program: DialDisplay.bs2

This example program mirrors the position of the potentiometer’s knob by lighting
segments around the outside of the 7-segment LED display as shown in Figure 6-16.
Figure 6-16
Displaying the
Potentiometer’s
Position with the
7-Segment LED
Display
Load and run DialDisplay.bs2.

Twist the potentiometer’s input shaft and make sure it works.
When you run the example program, it may not be as precise as shown in Figure
6-16. Adjust the values in the lookdown table so that that the digital display
more accurately depicts the position of the potentiometer.
' What's a Microcontroller - DialDisplay.bs2

' Display POT position using 7-segment LED display.
'{$STAMP BS2}
'{$PBASIC 2.5}
index VAR Nib

time VAR Word
OUTH = %00000000
DIRH = %11111111
DO
HIGH 5
PAUSE 100
RCTIME 5, 1, time
LOOKDOWN time, <= [40, 150, 275, 400, 550, 800], index
LOOKUP index, [ %11100101, %11100001, %01100001,

%00100001, %00000001, %00000000 ], OUTH
LOOP
How DialDisplay.bs2 Works

This example program takes an RCTIME measurement of the potentiometer and stores it in
a variable named time.
HIGH 5
PAUSE 100
RCTIME 5, 1, time
The time variable is then used in a LOOKDOWN table. The LOOKDOWN table decides which
number in the list time is smaller than, then loads the entry number (0 to 5 in this case)
into the index variable.
LOOKDOWN time, <= [40, 150, 275, 400, 550, 800], index
Then, the index variable is used in a LOOKUP table to choose the binary value to load into
the OUTH variable.
LOOKUP index, [ %11100101, %11100001, %01100001,
%00100001, %00000001, %00000000 ], OUTH
Your Turn – Adding a Segment

DialDisplay.bs2 only makes five of the six segments turn on when you turn the dial. The
sequence for turning the LEDs on in DialDisplay.bs2 is E, F, A, B, C, but not D.
Save DialDisplay.bs2 under the name DialDisplayYourTurn.bs2.

Modify DialDisplayYourTurn.bs2 so that it causes all six outer LEDs to turn on
in sequence as the potentiometer is turned. The sequence should be: E, F, A, B,
C, and D.
SUMMARY
This chapter introduced the 7-segment LED display, and how to read a pin map. This
chapter also introduced some techniques for devices and circuits that have parallel inputs.
The DIRH and OUTH variables were introduced as a means of controlling the values of
BASIC Stamp I/O pins P8 through P15. The LOOKUP and LOOKDOWN commands were
introduced as a means for referencing the lists of values used to display letters and
numbers.
Questions
1. In a 7-segment LED display, what is the active ingredient that makes the display
readable when a microcontroller sends a high or low signal?
2. What is the difference between a schematic symbol and a pin map? How are the
two related?
3. What does common cathode mean? What do you think common anode means?
4. What is the group of wires that conduct signals to and from a parallel device
called?
5. How do the DIRH and OUTH variables work?
6. What are the names of the commands in this chapter that are used to handle lists
of values?
7. What character do you have to type before entering a binary number into the
BASIC Stamp Editor?
8. How do you make the “less than or equal to” comparison?
Exercises
1. Write an OUTH command to set P8, P10, P12 high and P9, P11, P13 low.
Assuming all your I/O pins started as inputs, write the DIRH command that will
cause the I/O pins to send high/low signals while leaving P14, P15 configured as
inputs.
2. Modify one line in SegmentTestWithHighLow.bs2 from Activity #2 so that it
tests a 7-segment LED display connected to P0 through P7. Draw the schematic
of your revised design.
3. Assume that you moved your entire 7-segment LED display circuit so that
instead of being connected to P8 through P15, it is now connected to P0 through
P7. The variable that addresses these I/O pins is OUTL. The L is for low byte
while the H in OUTH is for high byte. Rewrite the LOOKUP command in
DisplayDigitsWithLookup.bs2 so that it addresses the OUTL variable. Rewrite
the other five commands in the program that need to be changed to

accommodate moving the 7-segment LED display circuit from the upper byte of
BASIC Stamp I/O pins to the lower byte.
4. Modify the LOOKDOWN command in SimpleLookdown.bs2 so that it works with
the >= operator. This operator stands for greater than or equal to. Hint: you will
need to rearrange the order of the values in the list for this to work properly.
5. Write the values of OUTH required to make the letters: a, C, d, F, H, I, n, P, S.
Projects
1. Spell “FISH CHIPS And dIP” over and over again with your 7-segment LED
display. Make each letter last for 400 ms.
2. Modify DialDisplay.bs2 from Activity #4 so that it causes the 7-segment LED
display to behave as shown in Figure 6-17. The image on the left shows how the
7-segment LED display should look when the potentiometer is centered, with
only segment G emitting light. The middle image in Figure 6-17 shows
segments E and D on. As the potentiometer is turned counterclockwise,
segments E, D, and C turn on in sequence. The rightmost image in Figure 6-17
shows the potentiometer’s knob rotated clockwise of center with segments F and
A on. When the potentiometer’s knob is turned clockwise (from center),
segments F, A, and B should turn on in sequence.
Figure 6-17
Displaying the
Potentiometer’s
Offset from Center
Potentiometer’s knob
in the center position
(left image), rotated
counterclockwise
(middle image), and
rotated clockwise
(right image).
3. Design a 59-second countdown timer that can be loaded by pushbuttons. This

timer can be loaded with a value in seconds (between 1 and 59). Use two
pushbuttons for loading the number of seconds. One pushbutton should scroll
through the values 0 through 9 with each press and release of the pushbutton.
The other pushbutton should be used to select the value currently displayed on
the 7-segment LED display. After entering the two values, press and hold both
buttons briefly to start the timer. The display should show each digit in the time
remaining for ½ second every two seconds. The dot on the display should flash
on and off once per second to let the user know the timer is counting down.
When the timer is done, all LED segments should flash on and off rapidly for 5
seconds.
As with all texts cited in this section, this one is available for free download from
www.parallax.com.
“StampWorks”, Workbook, Version 1.2, Parallax Inc., 2001

StampWorks is written by Nuts & Volts author Jon Williams, and features a wide
variety of experiments. This text is a collection of 32 experiments including
several that use 7-segment LED displays and other types of displays. This text
makes use of the INEX 1000 board, which has many of the components you
have used in this text built into it.
Chapter #7: Measuring Light · Page 185
Chapter #7: Measuring Light

DEVICES THAT CONTAIN LIGHT SENSORS
You have already worked with two different kinds of sensors. The pushbutton can be
thought of as a simple pressure sensor, and the potentiometer is a position/rotation sensor.
There are many kinds of sensors built into appliances and machines that are not as
obvious as a button or a knob. Other common sensors measure things like temperature,
smoke, vibration, tilt, and light. Although each of these different kinds of sensors can be
found in one or more devices that most people use on a daily basis, light sensors are
probably the most common.
One example of an every-day device that contains a light sensor is probably your
television. If it can be controlled by a handheld remote, it has a built-in detector for a
type of light called infrared that cannot be seen by the human eye. The handheld remote
uses infrared light to transmit information about the channel, volume, and other keys that
you might press to control the TV. Another common example is a digital camera. A
camera’s light sensors help it adjust for various lighting conditions so that the picture
looks clear regardless of whether it’s a sunny or cloudy day.
INTRODUCING THE PHOTORESISTOR

Light sensors have many different functions, and they come in different shapes, sizes, and
with different price tags. Some sensors are designed to sense a particular color of light,
such as blue, green, red, or infrared. Some sensors don’t care what color the light is
because they react to how bright the light is. Other sensors look for only special kinds of
light given off by certain chemical reactions. Light sensors also have a variety of ways to
tell a microcontroller what they see. Some sensors send a voltage, some send a sequence
of binary values, and others react to different kinds of light or light levels by changing
resistance.
Of the light sensors that react to light by changing their resistance, the photoresistor
shown in Figure 7-1 is probably the most common, least expensive and easiest to use. Its
active ingredient is a chemical compound called cadmium sulfide (CdS). This compound
changes resistance depending on how bright the light is that shines on its collecting
surface. Bright light causes low resistance values between the two leads while dim light
causes higher resistance values.
Figure 7-1
Photoresistor Schematic and
Part Drawing.
The photoresistor’s cadmium

sulfide coated light collecting
surface is shown at the top of
the part’s drawing.
As with a potentiometer, you can use a photoresistor in an RC-time circuit. The program
to read the photoresistor is also about the same as the one used to read the potentiometer.
Even though the programming is the same, light is very different from rotation or
position. The activities in this chapter focus on applications that use light (instead of
position) to give the microcontroller information. Along the way, some PBASIC
programming techniques will be introduced that will help you with long term data
storage, and with making your programs more manageable and readable.
ACTIVITY #1: BUILDING AND TESTING THE LIGHT METER

In this activity, you will build and test an RC-time circuit that reads the value of a
photoresistor. The RC-time measurement will give you an idea of the light levels sensed
by the photoresistor’s light collecting surface. As with the potentiometer test, the time
values measured by the RCTIME command will be displayed in the Debug Terminal.
Light Detector Test Parts

(1) Photoresistor
(1) Jumper wire
Although there are two capacitors in the list of parts, you will only use one capacitor in
the circuit at any given time.
Building the RC Time Circuit with a Photoresistor

Figure 7-2 shows a schematic of the RC-time circuit you will use in this chapter, and
Figure 7-3 shows the wiring diagram. This circuit is different from the potentiometer
circuit from Chapter #5, Activity #3 in two ways. First, the I/O pin used to measure the
decay time is different (P2). Second, the variable resistor is now a photoresistor instead
of a potentiometer.
P2
220 :
0.01 µF
Figure 7-2
Photoresistor RC-time
Circuit Schematic
Vss
Vdd Vin Vss

X3
P15
P14
P13
P12
P11
P10 Figure 7-3
P9
P8 Wiring Diagram for
P7 Figure 7-2
P6
P5
P4
P3
P2
P1
P0
X2
Programming the Photoresistor Test

The first example program (TestPhotoresistor.bs2) is really just a slightly revised version
of ReadPotWithRcTime.bs2 from Chapter #5, Activity #3. The potentiometer circuit
from Chapter #5 was connected to I/O pin P7. The circuit in this activity is connected to
P2. Because of this difference, the example program has to have two commands updated
to make it work. The command that was HIGH 7, since the potentiometer circuit was
connected to P7, is now HIGH 2 since the photoresistor circuit is connected to P2. For
the same reason, the command that was RCTIME 7, 1, time is now RCTIME 2, 1,
time.
Example Program: TestPhotoresistor.bs2

Instead of twisting the potentiometer’s knob, the circuit is tested by exposing the light
collecting surface of the photoresistor to different light levels. When the example
program is running, the Debug Terminal should display small values for bright light
conditions and large values for low light conditions.
Load and run TestPhotoresistor.bs2.

While watching the value of the time variable on the Debug Terminal note the
value under normal lighting conditions.
Turn the lights in the room off or cast a shadow over the circuit with your hand
and check the time variable again. It should be a significantly larger number.
If you face the photoresistor’s light collecting surface toward direct sunlight, the
time variable should be fairly small.
' What's a Microcontroller - TestPhotoresistor.bs2

' Read photoresistor in RC-time circuit using RCTIME command.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
time VAR Word
DO
HIGH 2
PAUSE 100
RCTIME 2, 1, time
DEBUG HOME, "time = ", DEC5 time
LOOP
Your Turn – Using a Different Capacitor for Different Light Conditions

Replacing the 0.01 PF capacitor with a 0.1 PF capacitor can be useful for more brightly
lit rooms or outdoors. The time measurements with the 0.1 PF capacitor will take ten
times as long, which means the value of the time variable displayed by the Debug
Terminal should be ten times as large.
Modify the circuit by replacing the 0.01 PF capacitor with a 0.1 PF capacitor.
Re-run TestPhotoresistor.bs2 and verify that the RC-time measurements are
roughly ten times their former values.
Before you move on to the next activity, return the circuit to the original one
shown in Figure 7-2 by removing the 0.1 PF capacitor and replacing it with the
0.01 PF capacitor.
ACTIVITY #2: GRAPHING LIGHT MEASUREMENTS

Factories often have to monitor many sensor inputs to make sure the products they make
turn out right. From light levels in a greenhouse to fluid levels in an oil refinery to
temperature levels in a nuclear reactor, the people responsible for controlling these levels
often rely on graphs of the sensor measurements to get the information they need.
Introducing Stamp Plot Lite

Figure 7-4 shows Stamp Plot Lite software graphing RC-time measurements sent by the
BASIC Stamp. The line shown in Figure 7-4 is much easier to understand than the 250
RC-time measurements that were used to plot that line. Viewing the graph from left to
right, the RC-time measurements gradually get larger and then suddenly drop off. Since
RC-time measurements get larger when the light levels decrease and smaller when they
increase, the graph tells a story. It looks like the light level being measured declined
gradually, and then it suddenly increased again.
Figure 7-4
Stamp Plot Lite
Graphing
Measured Light
Levels
This graph could depict any number of scenarios to the technician reading it. Perhaps a
microcontroller in a greenhouse switched on the artificial lights after the sunlight dropped
below a certain level. Perhaps a system of motors and gears that maintains a solar
panel’s position for maximum sunlight exposure just readjusted the panel’s position after
detecting a decrease in light exposure. Regardless of the scenario, if you are familiar
with the measurement being graphed, tools like Stamp Plot Lite can really help make
sense out of data. It does this by converting lists of measurements into a graph.
Stamp Plot Lite is free for educational use courtesy of SelmaWare Solutions and can be
installed from the Parallax CD or downloaded from the Parallax web site or directly from
http://www.selmaware.com/.
Downloading and Installing Stamp Plot Lite

Before installing Stamp Plot Lite, you must have WinZip installed on your PC or laptop.
WinZip can be installed from the Parallax CD or downloaded from www.winzip.com.
Below are instructions for downloading and installing Stamp Plot Lite from the Parallax
web site:
Go to the Downloads area at www.parallax.com.

Select BASIC Stamp Software.
Download the file labeled “Stamp Plot Lite graphing utility…”
Save StampPlot.zip to your disk.
Open StampPlot.zip by double-clicking it.
If you are using the WinZip wizard, follow the screen prompts, and it will run
the installation program. If you are using WinZip classic, you will have to
double-click Setup.exe to start the installation.
Follow the Stamp Plot Lite installation program’s prompts to install the software.
Programming to Send Measurements to Stamp Plot Lite

Sending values you want to graph in Stamp Plot Lite is almost the same as sending
numbers to the Debug Terminal, but there are a few rules. First, values are sent using
only the DEC formatter and the CR control character. We want to plot the value of the
time variable, so all that should be sent to the Debug Terminal is the decimal value
followed by a carriage return.
DEBUG DEC time, CR
You can also send display settings to Stamp Plot Lite by sending special messages in
quotes. These messages are called control codes. Control codes are sent to Stamp Plot
Lite at the beginning of a PBASIC program. Although you can click and adjust all the
settings on the software itself, it is usually easier to program the BASIC Stamp to tell
Stamp Plot Lite those settings for you. Here is an example of some configuration settings
from the next example program that will make your RC-time measurements easier to read
without any adjustments to Stamp Plot Lite’s display settings.
DEBUG "!AMAX 1250", CR,
"!TMAX 25", CR,
"!TMIN 0", CR,
"!SHFT ON", CR,
"!RSET",CR
For more information on how to send values and control codes to Stamp Plot Lite, run
Stamp Pot Lite’s Help file. Click Start, select programs, select Stamp Plot, then click Stamp
Plot Help.
Example Program: PlotPhotoresistor.bs2

Follow these steps to plot the photoresistor data:
Use the BASIC Stamp Editor to load and run PlotPhotoresistor.bs2.

Verify that there is a single column of values scrolling down the Debug
Terminal. Figure 7-5 shows an example.
Figure 7-5
Example of Scrolling
Values in the Debug
Terminal.
Make a note of the COM number in the COM Port field in the upper left hand
corner of the Debug Terminal.
Use the Windows Start Menu to run Stamp Plot Lite. Click Start, then select
Programs ĺ Stamp Plot ĺ Stamp Plot Lite.
Set the COM Port field in Stamp Plot Lite to that same value. Figure 7-6 shows
an example where the value is COM1 in the Debug Terminal, so Stamp Plot is
also set to COM1. Your COM port value may be a different number. Just check
to see what the number is in the Debug Terminal, then set Stamp Plot Lite to that
number.
Close the Debug Terminal (click the X button on the top-right or click the Close
button near the bottom of the window).
In the Stamp Plot Lite window, click Connect, then click Plot Data.
Checkmarks should appear in each box after you click it.
Figure 7-6
COM Port Settings
Debug Terminal (left)

and Stamp Plot Lite
(right).
Press and release the Reset button on your Board of Education or HomeWork
Board. This starts the BASIC Stamp’s program over from the beginning, which
sends the DEBUG commands that configure Stamp Plot Lite.
The data will start graphing as soon as you click Plot Data. Hold you hand over
the photoresistor at different distances to simulate different lighting conditions.
Remember, the darker the shadow you cast, the higher the value in the graph; the
brighter the light, the smaller the value.
IMPORTANT: Only one program can use a COM port at one time.
Before attempting to run a different program using the BASIC Stamp Editor, you must
uncheck the Connect and Plot Data checkboxes in Stamp Plot Lite.
Before reconnecting Stamp Plot Lite (by clicking the Connect and Plot Data checkboxes),
you must close the Debug Terminal.
' What's a Microcontroller - PlotPhotoresistor.bs2

' Graph light levels using Stamp Plot Lite.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
time VAR Word
DEBUG "!AMAX 1250", CR,

"!TMAX 25", CR,
"!TMIN 0", CR,
"!SHFT ON", CR,
"!RSET",CR
DO
HIGH 2
PAUSE 100
RCTIME 2, 1, time
DEBUG DEC time, CR
LOOP
Your Turn – Adjusting the Display

Span and Time Span have + and – buttons that you can click to increase or decrease the
vertical and horizontal scales. Span is to the left of the area that displays the graph, and
you can use it to adjust the maximum and minimum values displayed on the graph. Time
Span is below the graph, and you can use it to change how many seconds worth of values
plotted in the window.
Experiment with increasing and decreasing these values and note their effects on
the how the graph appears.
If you have difficulty finding your plot, you can always press and release the Reset button
on your Board of Education or BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board to restore the default
settings.
ACTIVITY #3: TRACKING LIGHT EVENTS

One of the more useful features of the BASIC Stamp’s program memory is that you can
disconnect the power, but the program is not lost. As soon as you reconnect power, the
program starts running again from the beginning. Any portion of the program memory
that is not used for the program can be used to store data. This memory is especially
good for storing data that you do not want the BASIC Stamp to forget, even if power is
disconnected and reconnected.
The chip on the BASIC Stamp that stores program memory and data is shown in Figure
7-7. This chip is called an EEPROM. EEPROM stands for electrically erasable
programmable read-only memory. That’s quite a mouthful, and pronouncing each of the
first letters in EEPROM isn’t much better. When people talk about an EEPROM, it is
usually pronounced “E-E-Prom”.
Figure 7-7
EEPROM Chip
on BASIC Stamp
Figure 7-8 shows a window called Memory Map. You can view this window by clicking
Run and selecting Memory Map. The Memory Map uses different colors to show how
both the BASIC Stamp’s RAM (variables) and EEPROM (program memory) are being
used. The Condensed EEPROM Map at the bottom shows that only a small fraction of
the program memory is used to store the photoresistor program from Activity #2. By
scrolling to the bottom of the Detailed EEPROM Map and counting the bytes highlighted
in red, you will find that only 109 bytes out of the 2048 byte EEPROM are used for the
program. The remaining 1939 bytes are free to store data.
Figure 7-8
Memory Map
To view this window,

click Run, and select
Memory Map.
2048 bytes = 2 KB. You can use 2048 bytes to store 2048 different numbers, each of
which can store a value between 0 and 255.
The upper-case ‘B’ stands for bytes. A lower-case ‘b’ stands for bits. This can make a big
difference because 2048 Kb means that 2048 different numbers, but each number is limited
to a value of either 0 or 1.
Although both the upper case ‘K’ and the lower-case ‘k’ are called kilo, they are slightly
10
different. The upper-case ‘K’ is used to indicate a binary kilobyte, which is 1 × 2 = 1024.
When referring to exactly 2000 bytes, you can use the lower-case k, which stands for kilo (1
3
X 10 = 1000) in the metric system.
Using the EEPROM for data storage can be very useful for remote applications. One
example of a remote application would be a temperature monitor placed in a truck that
hauls frozen food. A second example is a weather monitoring station. One of the pieces
of data a weather station might store for later retrieval is light levels.
Since we are using a photoresistor to measure light levels, this activity introduces a
technique for storing measured light levels to, and retrieving them back from the
EEPROM. In this activity, you will run one PBASIC example program that stores a
series of light measurements in the BASIC Stamp’s EEPROM. After that program is
finished, you will run a second program that retrieves the values from EEPROM and
displays them in the Debug Terminal.
Programming Long Term Data Storage

The WRITE command is used to store values in the EEPROM, and the READ command is
used to retrieve those values.
The syntax for the WRITE command is:

WRITE Location, {WORD} Data Item
For example, if you want to write the value 195 to address 7 in the EEPROM, you could
use the command:
WRITE 7, 195
Word values can be anywhere between 0 and 65565 while byte values can only contain
numbers between 0 and 255. A word value takes the space of two bytes. If you want to
write a word size value to EEPROM, you have to use the optional Word parameter. Be
careful though. Since a word takes two bytes, you have to skip one of the byte size
addresses in EEPROM before you can write another word. Let’s say you need to save
two word values to EEPROM: 659 and 50012. You could start at address 8, but you will
have to write the second value to address 10.
WRITE 8, Word 659
WRITE 10, Word 50012
Is it possible to write over the program? Yes, and if you do, the program is likely to either
start behaving strangely or stop running altogether. Since the PBASIC program tokens
reside in the highest addresses in the EEPROM, it’s best to use the lowest Address values
for storing numbers with the WRITE command.
How do I know if the Address I’m using is too large? You can use the memory map to
figure out the highest value not used by your PBASIC program. The numbers on the left
side of the Detailed Memory Map shown in Figure 7-8 on page 194 are hexadecimal
numbers, and 792 is the highest value not occupied by a program token. Hexadecimal
means base-16, so 792 is really:
2 1 0
7u16 + 9u16 + 2u16
= 7u256 + 9u16 + 2u1
= 1938.
You can also program the BASIC Stamp to make this conversion for you using the DEBUG
command’s DEC formatter and the $ hexadecimal operator like this:
DEBUG DEC $792
Example Program: StoreLightMeasurementsInEeprom.bs2

This example program demonstrates how to use the WRITE command by taking light
measurements every 5 seconds for 2 ½ minutes and storing them in EEPROM.
Load and run StoreLightMeasurementsToEeprom.bs2 .

Record the measurements displayed on the Debug Terminal so that you can
verify the measurements read back from the EEPROM.
Gradually increase the shade over the photoresistor during the 2 ½ minute test period for
meaningful data.
' What's a Microcontroller - StoreLightMeasurementsInEeprom.bs2

' Write light measurements to EEPROM.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
time VAR Word

eepromAddress VAR Byte
DEBUG "Starting measurements...", CR, CR,

"Measurement Value", CR,
"----------- -----", CR
PAUSE 1000
FOR eepromAddress = 0 TO 58 STEP 2

HIGH 2
PAUSE 5000
RCTIME 2, 1, time
DEBUG DEC2 eepromAddress,
" ", DEC time, CR
WRITE eepromAddress, Word time
NEXT
DEBUG "All done. Now, run:", CR,

"ReadLightMeasurementsFromEeprom.bs2"
END
How StoreLightMeasurementsInEeprom.bs2 Works

The FOR…NEXT loop that measures the RC-time values and stores them to EEPROM has
to count in steps of 2 because word values are written into the EEPROM.
FOR eepromAddress = 0 to 58 STEP 2
The RCTIME command loads the time measurement into the word size time variable.
RCTIME 2, 1, time
The time variable is stored at the address given by the current value of the
eepromAddress variable each time through the loop. Remember, the eepromAddress
variable is incremented by two each time through the loop because a Word variable takes
up two bytes. The address for a WRITE command is always in terms of bytes.
WRITE eepromAddress, Word time
NEXT
Programming Data Retrieval

To retrieve these values from EEPROM, you can use the READ command. The syntax for
the READ command is:
READ Location, {WORD} Data Item
While the WRITE command can use either a constant or a variable, the READ command’s
DataItem argument must be a variable, because it has to store the value fetched from the
EEPROM by the READ command.
Let’s say that the variable eepromValueA and eepromValueB are Word variables, and
littleEE is a byte variable. Here are some commands to retrieve the values you stored
using the write command.
READ 7, littleEE
READ 8, Word eepromValueA
READ 10, Word eepromValueB
Example Program: ReadLightMeasurementsFromEeprom.bs2

This example program demonstrates how to use the READ command to retrieve the light
measurements that were stored in EEPROM by StoreLightMeasurementsInEeprom.bs2.
After StoreLightMeasurementsToEeprom.bs2 has completed, disconnect and

reconnect the BASIC Stamp’s power supply to prove that the data is not erased
from the BASIC Stamp’s EEPROM when the power is disconnected. Also,
close and re-open the BASIC Stamp Editor.
Leave the BASIC Stamp’s power disconnected until you are ready to run
ReadLightMeasurementsFromEeprom.bs2; otherwise, it will start taking
measurements again.
Load and run ReadLightMeasurementsFromEeprom.bs2.
Compare the table that is displayed by this program with the one displayed by
StoreLightMeasurementsInEeprom.bs2, and verify that the values are the same.
' What's a Microcontroller - ReadLightMeasurementsFromEeprom.bs2

' Read light measurements from EEPROM.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
time VAR Word

eepromAddress VAR Byte
DEBUG "Retrieving measurements", CR, CR,

"Measurement Value", CR,
"---------- -----", CR
FOR eepromAddress = 0 TO 58 STEP 2

READ eepromAddress, Word time

DEBUG DEC2 eepromAddress, " ", DEC time, CR
NEXT
END
How ReadLightMeasurementsFromEeprom.bs2 Works

As with the WRITE command, the READ command uses byte-size addresses. Since words
are being read from the EEPROM, the eepromAddress variable has to have 2 added to it
each time through the FOR…NEXT loop.
FOR eepromAddress = 0 to 58 STEP 2
The READ command gets the word size value at eepromAddress. This value is loaded
into the time variable.
READ eepromAddress, Word time
The value of the time and eepromAddress variables are displayed as columns in a table
in the Debug Terminal.
DEBUG DEC2 eepromAddress, " ", DEC time, CR
NEXT
Your Turn – Plotting the Stored Data

Modify ReadLightMeasurementsFromEeprom.bs2 so that it displays the data to
Stamp Plot Lite. Remember, the DEBUG statement must only display the value
and a carriage return.
ACTIVITY #4: SIMPLE LIGHT METER

Light sensor information can be communicated in a variety of ways. The light meter you
will work with in this chapter changes the rate that the display flickers depending on the
light intensity it detects.
Light Meter Parts

(1) Photoresistor

(6) Jumper wires
Building the Light Meter Circuit

Figure 7-9 shows the 7-segment LED display and photoresistor circuit schematics that
will be used to make the light meter, and Figure 7-10 shows a wiring diagram of the
circuit. The photoresistor circuit is the same one you have been using in the last two
activities, and the 7-segment LED display circuit is the one that was controlled by the
BASIC Stamp in Chapter #6.

Test the 7-segment LED display to make sure it is connected properly using
SegmentTestWithHighLow.bs2 from Chapter #6, Activity #2.
1 k:
P15
P14
P13
P12
P11
P10
P9
P8
E C DP G F A B
LED’s Figure 7-9

Light Meter
Circuit
Schematic.
common
Vss
P2
220 :
0.01 µF
Vss
P0
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5
P6
P7
P8
P9
P10
P11
P12
P13
P14
P15
X2
X3
Vdd
Figure 7-10
Vin
Wiring Diagram
for Figure 7-9
Vss
Using Subroutines
Most of the programs you have written so far operate inside a DO…LOOP. Since all the
main activity happens inside the DO…LOOP, it is usually called the main routine. As you
add more circuits and more useful functions to your program, it can get kind of difficult
to keep track of all the code in the main routine. Your programs will be much easier to
work with if you organize them into smaller segments of code that do certain jobs.
PBASIC has some commands that you can use to make the program jump out of the main
routine, do a job, and then return right back to the same spot in the main routine. This
will allow you to keep each segment of code that does a particular job somewhere other
than your main routine. Each time you need the program to do one of those jobs, you can
write a command inside the main routine that tells the program to jump to that job, do it,
and come back when the job is done. This process is called executing a subroutine.
Figure 7-11 shows an example of a subroutine and how it’s used. The command GOSUB
Subroutine_Name causes the program to jump to the Subroutine_Name: label. When
the program gets to that label, it keeps running and executing commands until it gets to a
RETURN statement. Then, the program goes back to command that comes after the GOSUB
command. In the case of the example in Figure 7-11, the next command is: DEBUG
"Next command".
DO
GOSUB Subroutine_Name
DEBUG "Next command"
LOOP
Figure 7-11
How
Subroutines
Subroutine_Name: Work
DEBUG "This is a subroutine..."
PAUSE 3000
RETURN
What’s a label? A label is a name that can be used as a placeholder in your program.
GOSUB is one of the commands you can use to jump to a label. Some others are GOTO,
ON GOTO, and ON GOSUB. You can use these commands to jump to labels. A label must
end with a colon, and for the sake of style, separate words with the underscore character.
When picking a name for a label, make sure not to use a reserved word. The rest of the
rules for a label name are the same as the ones for naming variables listed in the
information box on page 53.
Example Program: SimpleSubroutines.bs2

This example program shows how subroutines work by sending messages to the Debug
Terminal.
Examine SimpleSubroutines.bs2 and try to guess the order in which the DEBUG
commands will be executed.
Enter and run the program.
Compare the program’s actual behavior with your predictions.
' What's a Microcontroller - SimpleSubroutines.bs2

' Demonstrate how subroutines work.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
DO
DEBUG CLS, "Start main routine.", CR

PAUSE 2000
GOSUB First_Subroutine
DEBUG "Back in main.", CR
PAUSE 2000
GOSUB Second_Subroutine
DEBUG "Repeat main...", CR
PAUSE 2000
LOOP
First_Subroutine:
DEBUG " Executing first "

DEBUG "subroutine.", CR
PAUSE 3000
RETURN
Second_Subroutine:
DEBUG " Executing second "

PAUSE 3000
RETURN
How SimpleSubroutines.bs2 Works

Figure 7-12 shows how the First_Subroutine call in the main routine (the DO…LOOP)
works. The command GOSUB First_Subroutine sends the program to the
First_Subroutine: label. The three commands inside that subroutine are executed.
When the program gets to the RETURN statement, it jumps back to the command that
comes right after the GOSUB command, which is DEBUG "Back in Main.", CR.
What’s a subroutine call? When you use the GOSUB command to make the program jump
to a subroutine, it is called a subroutine call.
PAUSE 2000
GOSUB First_Subroutine
DEBUG "Back in main.", CR
Figure 7-12
First_Subroutine: First Subroutine
DEBUG " Executing first " Call
PAUSE 3000
RETURN
Figure 7-13 shows a second example of the same process with the second subroutine call
(GOSUB Second_Subroutine).
PAUSE 2000
GOSUB Second_Subroutine
DEBUG "Repeat main...", CR
Second_Subroutine: Figure 7-13

Second Subroutine
DEBUG " Executing second " Call
DEBUG "subroutine", CR
PAUSE 3000
RETURN
Your Turn – Adding and Nesting Subroutines

You can add subroutines after the two that are in the program and call them from within
the main routine.
Add the subroutine example in the Figure 7-11 on page 203 to

SimpleSubroutines.bs2.
Make any necessary adjustments to the DEBUG commands so that the display
looks right with all three subroutines.
You can also call one subroutine from within another. This is called nesting subroutines.
Try moving the GOSUB that calls Subroutine_Name into one of the other
subroutines, and see how it works.
When nesting subroutines the rule is no more than four deep. See the BASIC Stamp
Manual for more details. Look up GOSUB and RETURN.
Light Meter Using Subroutines

The segments on the display cycle in a circular pattern that gets faster when the light on
the photoresistor gets brighter. When the light gets dimmer, the circular pattern
displayed by the 7-segment LED display goes slower.
The program that runs the light meter will deal with three different operations:
1. Read the photoresistor.

2. Calculate how long to wait before updating the 7-segment LED display.
3. Update the 7-segment LED display.
Each operation is contained within its own subroutine, and the main DO…LOOP routine will
cycle and call each one in sequence, over and over again.
Example Program: LightMeter.bs2
Controlled lighting conditions make a big difference. For best results, conduct this test in
a room lit by fluorescent lights with no direct sunlight (close the blinds). For information on
how to calibrate this meter to other lighting conditions, see the Your Turn section.
Load and run LightMeter.bs2.

Verify that the circular pattern displayed by the 7-segment LED display is
controlled by the lighting conditions the photoresistor is sensing. Do this by
casting a shadow over it with your hand or a piece of paper.
' What's a Microcontroller - LightMeter.bs2

' Indicate light level using 7-segment display.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
index VAR Nib ' Variable declarations.

time VAR Word
OUTH = %00000000 ' Initialize 7-segment display.

DIRH = %11111111
DO ' Main routine.
GOSUB Get_Rc_Time
GOSUB Delay
GOSUB Update_Display
LOOP
' Subroutines
Get_Rc_Time: ' RC-time subroutine
HIGH 2
PAUSE 3
RCTIME 2, 1, time
RETURN
Delay: ' Delay subroutine.
PAUSE time
RETURN
Update_Display: ' Display updating subroutine.
IF index = 6 THEN index = 0

' BAFG.CDE
LOOKUP index, [ %01000000,
%10000000,
%00000100,
%00000010,
%00000001,
%00100000 ], OUTH
index = index + 1
RETURN
How LightMeter.bs2 Works

The first two lines of the program declare variables. It doesn’t matter whether these
variables are used in subroutines or the main routine, it’s always best to declare variables
(and constants) at the beginning of your program. Since this is such a common practice,
this section of code has a name, variable declarations. This name is shown in the
comment to the right of the first variable declaration.
index VAR Nib ' Variable declarations.
time VAR Word
Many programs also have things that need to get done once at the beginning of the
program. Setting all the 7-segment I/O pins low and then making them outputs is an
example. This section of a PBASIC program also has a name, initialization.
OUTH = %00000000 ' Initialize 7-segment display.

DIRH = %11111111
This next segment of code is called the main routine. The main routine calls the
Get_Rc_Time subroutine first. Then, it calls the Delay subroutine, and after that, it calls
the Update_Display subroutine. Keep in mind that the program goes through the three
subroutines as fast as it can, over and over again.
DO ' Main routine.
GOSUB Get_Rc_Time
GOSUB Delay
GOSUB Update_Display
LOOP
All subroutines are usually placed after the main routine. The first subroutine’s name is
Get_Rc_Time:, and it takes the RC-time measurement on the photoresistor circuit. This
subroutine has a PAUSE command that charges up the capacitor. The Duration of this
command is small because it only needs to pause long enough to make sure the capacitor
is charged. Note that the RCTIME command sets the value of the time variable. This
variable will be used by the second subroutine.
' Subroutines
Get_Rc_Time: ' RC-time subroutine
HIGH 2
PAUSE 3
RCTIME 2, 1, time
RETURN
The second subroutine’s name is Delay, and all it contains is a PAUSE command. If you
want to do some extra math on the value of the time variable before using it in the PAUSE
command, it would be appropriate to do that in this subroutine.
Delay:
PAUSE time
RETURN
The third subroutine is named Update_Display. The LOOKUP command in this

subroutine contains a table with six bit patterns that are used to create the circular pattern
around the outside of the 7-segment LED display. By adding 1 to the index variable
each time the subroutine is called, it causes the next bit pattern in the sequence to get
placed in OUTH. There are only entries in the LOOKUP command’s lookup table for index
values from 0 through 5. What happens when the value of index gets to 6? The lookup
command doesn’t automatically know to go back to the first entry, but you can use an
IF…THEN statement to fix that problem. The command IF index = 6 THEN index =
0 resets the value of index to 0 each time it gets to 6. It also causes the sequence of bit
patterns placed in OUTH to repeat itself over and over again. This, in turn, causes the 7-
segment LED display to repeat its circular pattern over and over again.
Update_Display:
IF index = 6 THEN index = 0
' BAFG.CDE
LOOKUP index, [ %01000000,
%10000000,
%00000100,
%00000010,
%00000001,
%00100000 ], OUTH
index = index + 1
RETURN
Your Turn – Adjusting the Meter’s Hardware and Software

There are two ways to change the sensitivity of the meter. First the software can be
changed. For example, the 7-segment LED display will cycle at one-tenth the speed if
you multiply the time variable by 10 in the Delay subroutine, and it will cycle twice as
fast if you divide the time variable by 2.
Modify LightMeter.bs2 so that the time variable is multiplied by 10. The

easiest way to do this is to change
PAUSE time
to
PAUSE time * 10
in the Delay subroutine.
Run the modified program and test to make sure the cycling of the 7-segment
LED display is now one tenth of what it was before.
You can also try multiplying the time variable by other values such as 5 or 20,
or dividing by 2 using PAUSE time / 2.
You can also make the display cycle at one tenth the speed by swapping the 0.01PF
capacitor for the 0.1 PF capacitor. Remember that when you use a capacitor that is ten
times as large, the RC-time measurement will become ten times as long.
Replace the 0.01 PF capacitor with a 0.1 PF capacitor.

Run the program and see if the predicted effect occurred.
Which is better, adjusting the software or the hardware? You should always try to use
the best of both worlds. Pick a capacitor that gives you the most accurate measurements
over the widest range of light levels. Once your hardware is the best it can be, use the
software to automatically adjust the light meter so that it works well for the user, both indoors
and outdoors. This takes a considerable amount of testing and refinement, but that’s all part
of the product design process.
SUMMARY
This chapter introduced a second way to use the RCTIME command by using it to measure
light levels with a photoresistor. Like the potentiometer, the photoresistor is a variable
resistor. Unlike the potentiometer, the photoresistor’s resistance changes with light levels
instead of with position. Stamp Plot Lite was used to graph successive light
measurements, and methods for recording and interpreting graphical data were
introduced. The WRITE and READ commands were used to store and retrieve values to
and from the BASIC Stamp’s EEPROM. The EEPROM was then used in an RC-time
data logging application. In this chapter’s last activity, a light meter application was
developed. This application used subroutines to perform the three different jobs required
for the light meter to function.
Questions
1. What kind of different things can sensors detect?
2. What is the name of the chemical compound that makes a photoresistor sensitive
to light?
3. How is a photoresistor similar to a potentiometer? How is it different?
4. What kind of circuit was used to measure the photoresistor?
5. What kind of measurement does the BASIC Stamp perform on this circuit?
6. How was the photoresistor test circuit different from the potentiometer test
circuit from Chapter #5? What changes had to be made to the photoresistor test
program to get it to work with the new circuit?
7. If the line plotting the photoresistor increases in Stamp Plot Lite, what does that
say about the light level being measured?
8. Can two different programs use the same COM port at the same time?
9. What is the difference between the Span and Time Span settings in Stamp Plot
Lite?
10. What does EEPROM stand for?
11. How many bytes can the BASIC Stamp’s EEPROM store? How many bits can
it store?
12. What command do you use to store a value in EEPROM? What command do
you use to retrieve a value from EEPROM? Which one requires a variable?
13. There are two differences between storing bytes and words using the EEPROM.
What are they?
14. What is a label?
15. What is a subroutine?
16. What command is used to call a subroutine?

17. What command is used to end a subroutine?
18. What is used to name a subroutine?
19. What’s the difference between a main routine and a subroutine?
Exercises
1. Draw the schematic of a photoresistor RC-time circuit connected to P5.
2. Modify TestPhotoresistor.bs2 to so that it works on a circuit connected to P5
instead of P2.
3. Modify TestPhotoresistor.bs2 so that it displays the same measurements with a
0. 1 PF capacitor that it displays with a 0.01 PF capacitor.
4. Imagine that you are either using a smaller capacitor in your RC-time circuit or
dividing the measurements by a value that always keeps them below 256. This
will allow you to store twice as many values in EEPROM. Explain why.
5. Explain how you would modify LightMeter.bs2 so that the circular pattern
displayed by the 7-segment LED display goes in the opposite direction.
Projects
1. In an earlier chapter, you used a pushbutton to make an LED blink. Instead of
using a pushbutton, use a photoresistor to make the LED blink when you cast a
shadow over it. Hint: You can use an IF…THEN statement and the greater
than/less than operators to decide if your time measurement is above or below a
certain value. The operator > is used for greater than, and the operator < is used
for less than.
2. Use your photoresistor and a PBASIC program to make a simple encoder. An
encoder is a device that reads spokes on a wheel as they pass by. Use your
photoresistor as the sensor that reads the spokes and use your hand as the spokes.
By waving your hand past the photoresistor, you can emulate spokes passing by
the sensor. Use the Debug Terminal to display how many times you pass your
hand over the photoresistor. With some calibration, you can also hold your
fingers wide apart and pass them over the photoresistor to emulate spokes.
3. Design an automated shade controller using a servo and a photoresistor. You
can accomplish this by attaching a piece of cardboard or balsa to your servo
horn. Then, mount the servo above the photoresistor so that the cardboard or
balsa casts a shadow over the photoresistor. The servo should be able to adjust
the level of shade by adjusting the position of the servo horn. Write a program
that makes the servo move to cast more shade over the photoresistor when the
light is bright and less shade over the photoresistor when the light is dim.
4. Expand the previous project so that it logs the measured light level every half-
minute for 20 minutes, and then displays the measurements in Stamp Plot Lite.
After you get this working, modify the program so that higher light levels are
displayed by high points in the graph while lower light levels are displayed by
lower points in the graph.
More in-depth coverage of light measurement using a photodiode, scientific
units and math, and data logging, are featured in this text along with other sensor
applications.

Stamp Plot Lite was developed in conjunction with this text to demonstrate the
fundamentals of techniques used in industrial process control.
Chapter #8: Frequency and Sound · Page 215
Chapter #8: Frequency and Sound

YOUR DAY AND ELECTRONIC BEEPS
Here are a few examples of beeps you might hear during a normal day: The microwave
oven beeps when it’s done cooking your food. The cell phone plays different tones of
beeps that resemble songs to get your attention when a call is coming in. The ATM
machine beeps to remind you not to forget your card. A store cash register beeps to let
the teller know that the bar code of the grocery item passed over the scanner was read.
Many calculators beep when the wrong keys are pressed. Let’s not forget that you may
have started your day with a beeping alarm clock.
MICROCONTROLLERS, SPEAKERS, BEEPS AND ON/OFF SIGNALS

Just about all of the electronic beeps you hear during your daily routine are made by
microcontrollers connected to speakers. The microcontroller creates these beeps by
sending rapid high/low signals to various types of speakers. The rate of these high/low
signals is called the frequency, and it determines the tone or pitch of the beep. Each time
a high/low repeats itself, it is called a cycle. You will often see the number of cycles per
second referred to as Hertz, and it is abbreviated Hz. For example, one of the most
common frequencies for the beeps that help machines get your attention is 2 kHz. That
means that the high/low signals repeat at 2000 times per second.
Introducing the Piezoelectric Speaker

In this activity, you will experiment with sending a variety of signals to a common, small,
and inexpensive speaker called a piezoelectric speaker. Its schematic symbol and part
drawing are shown in Figure 8-1.
Figure 8-1
Piezoelectric Speaker
Schematic Symbol and
Part Drawing
A piezoelectric speaker is commonly referred to as a piezo speaker or piezo buzzer, and

piezo is pronounced “pE-A-zO”.
ACTIVITY #1: BUILDING AND TESTING THE SPEAKER

In this activity, you will build and test the piezoelectric speaker circuit.
Speaker Parts
(1) Piezoelectric speaker
(2) Jumper wires
Building the Piezoelectric Speaker Circuit

The negative terminal of the piezoelectric speaker should be connected to Vss, and the
positive terminal should be connected to an I/O pin. The BASIC Stamp will then be
programmed to send high/low signals to the piezoelectric speaker’s positive terminal.

Vdd Vin Vss
X3
P15
P14
P13
P12
P11 Figure 8-2
P9 P10 + Piezoelectric
P9
P8 Speaker Circuit
P7 Schematic and
P6
P5
Wiring Diagram
P4
Vss P3
P2
P1
P0
X2
How the Piezoelectric Speaker Circuit Works

When a guitar string vibrates, it causes changes in air pressure. These changes in air
pressure are what your ear detects as a tone. The faster the changes in air pressure, the
higher the pitch, and the slower the changes in air pressure, the lower the pitch. The
element inside the piezospeaker’s plastic speaker case is called a piezoelectric element.
When high/low signals are applied to the speaker’s positive terminal, the piezoelectric
element vibrates, and it causes changes in air pressure just as a guitar string does. As
with the guitar string, your ear detects the changes in air pressure caused by the
piezoelectric speaker, and it typically sounds like a beep or a tone.
Programming Speaker Control

The FREQOUT command is a convenient way of sending high/low signals to a speaker to
make sound. The BASIC Stamp Manual shows the command syntax as this:
FREQOUT Pin, Duration, Freq1 {, Freq2}
As with most of the other commands used in this book, Pin is a value you can use to
choose which BASIC Stamp I/O pin to use. The Duration argument is a value that tells
the FREQOUT command how long the tone should play, in milliseconds. The Freq1
argument is used to set the frequency of the tone, in Hertz. There is an optional Freq2
argument that can be used to mix frequencies.
Here is how to send a tone to I/O pin P9 that lasts for 1.5 seconds and has a frequency of
2 kHz:
FREQOUT 9, 1500, 2000
Example Program: TestPiezoWithFreqout.bs2

This example program sends the 2 kHz tone to the speaker on I/O pin P9 for 1.5 seconds.
You can use the Debug terminal to see when the speaker should be beeping and when it
should stop.
Enter and run TestPiezoWithFreqout.bs2.

Verify that the speaker makes a clearly audible tone during the time that the
Debug Terminal displays the message “Tone sending…”
' What's a Microcontroller - TestPiezoWithFreqout.bs2

' Send a tone to the piezo speaker using the FREQOUT command.
'{$STAMP BS2}
'{$PBASIC 2.5}
DEBUG "Tone sending...", CR
FREQOUT 9, 1500, 2000
DEBUG "Tone done."

Your Turn – Adjusting Frequency and Duration

Save TestPiezoWithFreqout.bs2 under a different name.
Try some different values for the Duration and Freq1 argument.
After each change, run the program and make a note of the effect.
As the Freq1 argument gets larger, does the tone’s pitch go up or down? Try
values of 1500, 2000, 2500 and 3000 to answer this question.
ACTIVITY #2: ACTION SOUNDS

Many toys contain microcontrollers that are used to make action sounds. Action sounds
tend to involve rapidly changing the frequency played by the speaker. You can also get
some interesting effects from mixing two different tones together using the FREQOUT
command’s optional Freq2 argument. This activity introduces both techniques.
Programming Action Sounds

Action and appliance sounds have three different components:
1. Pause
2. Duration
3. Frequency
The pause is the time between tones, and you can use the PAUSE command to create that
pause. The duration is the amount of time a tone lasts, which you can set using the
FREQOUT command’s Duration argument. The frequency determines the pitch of the
tone. The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch, the lower the frequency, the lower
the pitch. This is, of course, determined by the FREQOUT command’s Freq1 argument.
Example Program: ActionTones.bs2

ActionTones.bs2 demonstrates a few different combinations of pause, duration, and
frequency. The first sequence of tones sounds similar to an electronic alarm clock. The
second one sounds similar to something a familiar science fiction movie robot might say.
The third is more the kind of sound effect you might hear in an old video game.
Load and run ActionTones.bs2.
' What's a Microcontroller - ActionTones.bs2

' Demonstrate how different combinations of pause, duration, and frequency
' can be used to make sound effects.
'{$STAMP BS2}
'{$PBASIC 2.5}
duration VAR Word

frequency VAR Word
DEBUG "Alarm...", CR
PAUSE 100
FREQOUT 9, 500, 1500
PAUSE 500
FREQOUT 9, 500, 1500
PAUSE 500
FREQOUT 9, 500, 1500
PAUSE 500
FREQOUT 9, 500, 1500
PAUSE 500
DEBUG "Robot reply...", CR

PAUSE 100
FREQOUT 9, 100, 2800
FREQOUT 9, 200, 2400
FREQOUT 9, 140, 4200
FREQOUT 9, 30, 2000
PAUSE 500
DEBUG "Hyperspace...", CR
PAUSE 100
FOR duration = 15 TO 1 STEP 1
FOR frequency = 2000 TO 2500 STEP 20
FREQOUT 9, duration, frequency
NEXT
NEXT
DEBUG "Done", CR
END
How ActionTones.bs2 Works

The “Alarm” routine sounds like an alarm clock. This routine plays tones at a fixed
frequency of 1.5 kHz for a duration of 0.5 s with a fixed delay between tones of 0.5 s.
The “Robot reply” routine uses various frequencies for brief durations.
The “Hyperspace” routine uses no delay, but it varies both the duration and frequency.
By using FOR…NEXT loops to rapidly change the frequency and duration, you can get
some interesting sound effects. When one FOR…NEXT loop executes inside another one, it
is called a nested loop. Here is how the nested FOR…NEXT loop shown below works. The
duration variable starts at 15, then the frequency loop takes over and sends
frequencies of 2000, then 2020, then 2040, and so on, up through 2500 to the piezo
speaker. When the frequency loop is finished, the duration loop has only repeated one
of its 15 passes. So it subtracts one from the value of duration and repeats the
frequency loop all over again.
FOR duration = 15 TO 1
NEXT
NEXT
Example Program: NestedLoops.bs2

To better understand how nested FOR…NEXT loops work, NestedLoops.bs2 uses the DEBUG
command to show the value of a much less complicated version of the nested loop used
in ActionTones.bs2.
Load and run NestedLoops.bs2.

Examine the Debug Terminal output and verify how the duration and frequency
arguments change each time through the loop.
' What's a Microcontroller - NestedLoops.bs2

' Demonstrate how the nested loop in ActionTones.bs2 works.
'{$STAMP BS2}
'{$PBASIC 2.5}
duration VAR Word

frequency VAR Word
DEBUG "Duration Frequency", CR,

"-------- ---------", CR

DEBUG " " , DEC5 duration,
" ", DEC5 frequency, CR
NEXT
DEBUG CR
NEXT
END
Your Turn – More Sound Effects

There is pretty much an endless number of ways to modify ActionTones.bs2 to get
different sound combinations. Here is just one modification to the “Hyperspace” routine:
DEBUG "Hyperspace jump...", CR
NEXT
NEXT
NEXT
NEXT
Save your example program under the name ActionTonesYourTurn.bs2.

Have fun with this and other modifications of your own invention.
Two Frequencies at Once

You can send two frequencies at the same time. In audio, this is called “mixing”.
Remember the FREQOUT command’s syntax from Activity #1:
FREQOUT Pin, Duration, Freq1 {, Freq2}
You can use the optional Freq2 argument to mix two frequencies using the FREQOUT
command. For example, you can mix 2 and 3 kHz together like this:
FREQOUT 9, 1000, 2000, 3000
Each touchtone keypad tone is also an example of two frequencies mixed together. In
telecommunications, that is called DTMF (Dual Tone Multi Frequency). There is also a
PBASIC command called DTMFOUT that is designed just for sending phone tones. For
examples of projects where phone numbers are dialed, see the DTMFOUT command in the
BASIC Stamp Manual.
Example Program: MixingTones.bs2

This example program demonstrates the difference in tone that you get when you mix 2
and 3 kHz together. It also demonstrates an interesting phenomenon that occurs when
you mix two sound waves that are very close in frequency. When you mix 2000 Hz with
2001 Hz, the tone will fade in and out once every second (at a frequency of 1 Hz). If you
mix 2000 Hz with 2002 Hz, it will fade in and out twice a second (2 Hz), and so on.
Beat is when two tones very close in frequency are played together causing the tone you
hear to fade in and out. The frequency of that fading in and out is the difference between
the two frequencies. If the difference is 1 Hz, the tone will fade in and out at 1 Hz. If the
difference is 2 Hz, the tone will fade in and out at 2 Hz.
The variations in air pressure made by the piezoelectric speaker are called sound waves.
When the tone is loudest, the variations in air pressure caused by the two frequencies are
adding to each other (called superposition). When the tone is at its quietest, the variations
in air pressure are canceling each other out (called interference).
Load and run MixingTones.bs2.

Keep an eye on the Debug Terminal as the tones play, and note the different
effects that come from mixing the different tones.
' What's a Microcontroller - MixingTones.bs2

' Demonstrate some of the things that happen when you mix two tones.
'{$STAMP BS2}
'{$PBASIC 2.5}
DEBUG "Frequency = 2000", CR

FREQOUT 9, 4000, 2000
DEBUG "Frequency = 3000", CR

FREQOUT 9, 4000, 3000
DEBUG "Frequency = 2000 + 3000", CR

FREQOUT 9, 4000, 2000, 3000

FREQOUT 9, 4000, 2000, 2001

FREQOUT 9, 4000, 2000, 2002

FREQOUT 9, 4000, 2000, 2003

FREQOUT 9, 4000, 2000, 2005

FREQOUT 9, 4000, 2000, 2010
DEBUG "Done", CR
END
Your Turn – Condensing the Code

MixingTones.bs2 was written to demonstrate some interesting things that can happen
when you mix two different frequencies using the FREQOUT command’s optional Freq2
argument. However, it is extremely inefficient.
Modify MixingTones.bs2 so that it cycles through the Freq2 arguments ranging

from 2001 to 2005 using a word variable and a loop.
ACTIVITY #3: MUSICAL NOTES AND SIMPLE SONGS

Figure 8-3 shows the rightmost 25 keys of a piano keyboard. It also shows the
frequencies at which each wire inside the piano vibrates when that piano key is struck.
The keys and their corresponding notes are labeled C6 through C8. These keys are
separated into groups of 12 notes called octaves. When you are counting 12-keys, make
sure to include the black keys. The sequence of notes also repeats itself every 12 keys.
Note that C7 is twice the frequency of C6. This is true for any note in the next octave up.
Likewise, if you go one octave down, the frequency will be half the value.
Internet search for – “musical scale”: By using the words "musical scale" in a search
engine like Google or Yahoo, you will find lots of fascinating information about the history,
physics and psychology of the subject. The 12 note scale is the main scale of western
music. Other cultures use scales that contain 2 to 35 notes per octave.
If you’ve ever heard a singer practice his/her notes by singing the Solfege, “Do Re Mi Fa
Sol La Ti Do”, the singer is attempting to match the notes that you get from striking the
white keys on a piano keyboard. These white keys are called natural keys. A black key
on a piano can either be called sharp or flat. For example, the black key between the C
and D keys is either called C-sharp (C#) or D-flat (Db). Whether a key is called sharp or
flat depends on the particular piece being played, and the rules for that are better left to
the music classes.
Figure 8-3
Rightmost Piano Keys and Their Frequencies
1244.5
1480.0
1661.2
1864.7
1217.5
2489.0
2960.0
3322.4
3729.3
1108.7
3520.0
3951.1
4186.0
1046.5
1318.5
1396.9
1568.0
1760.0
1975.5
2093.0
2349.3
2637.0
2793.0
3136.0
1174.7
C D F G A C D F G A
6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7
# # # # # # # # # #
or or or or or or or or or or
D E G A B D E G A B
6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7
b b b b b b b b b b
C6 D6 E6 F6 G6 A6 B6 C7 D7 E7 F7 G7 A7 B7 C8
Tuning Method: The keyboard in Figure 8-3 uses a method of tuning called equal
temperament. The frequencies are determined using a reference note, then multiplying it by
(n/12)
2 for values of n = 1, 2, 3, etc. For example, you can take the frequency for A6, and
(1/12) (2/12)
multiply by 2 to get the frequency for A6#. Multiply it by 2 to get the frequency for
B6, and so on. Here is an example of calculating the frequency for B6 using A6 as a
reference frequency:
The frequency of A6 is 1760
(2/12)
2 = 1.1224
1760 X 1.224 = 1975.5
1975.5 is the frequency of B6
Programming Musical Notes

The FREQOUT command is also useful for musical notes. Programming the BASIC Stamp
to play music using a piezospeaker involves following a variety of rules used in playing
music using any other musical instrument. These rules apply to the same elements that
were used to make sound effects, frequency, duration, and pause. This next example
program plays some of the musical note frequencies on the piezospeaker, each with a
duration of half a second.
Example Program: DoReMiFaSolLaTiDo.bs2

Load and run DoReMiFaSolLaTiDo.bs2
' What's a Microcontroller - DoReMiFaSolLaTiDo.bs2

' Send an octave of half second tones using a piezoelectric speaker.
'{$STAMP BS2}
'{$PBASIC 2.5}
'Solfege Tone Note
DEBUG "Do...", CR: FREQOUT 9,500,1047 ' C6
DEBUG "Re...", CR: FREQOUT 9,500,1175 ' D6
DEBUG "Mi...", CR: FREQOUT 9,500,1319 ' E6
DEBUG "Fa...", CR: FREQOUT 9,500,1396 ' F6
DEBUG "Sol..", CR: FREQOUT 9,500,1568 ' G6
DEBUG "La...", CR: FREQOUT 9,500,1760 ' A6
DEBUG "Ti...", CR: FREQOUT 9,500,1976 ' B6
DEBUG "Do...", CR: FREQOUT 9,500,2093 ' C7
END
Your Turn – Sharp/Flat Notes

Use the frequencies shown in Figure 8-3 to add the five sharp/flat notes to
DoReMiFaSolLaTiDo.bs2
Modify your program so that it plays the next octave up. Hint: Save yourself
some typing and just use the * 2 operation after each Freq1 argument. For
example, FREQOUT 9, 500, 1175 * 2 will give you D7, the D note in the 7th
octave.
Storing and Retrieving Sequences of Musical Notes

A good way of saving musical notes is to store them using the BASIC Stamp’s
EEPROM. Although you could use many WRITE commands to do this, a better way is to
use the DATA directive. This is the syntax for the DATA directive:
{Symbol} DATA {Word} DataItem {, {Word} DataItem, … }
Here is an example of how to use the DATA directive to store the characters that
correspond to musical notes.
Notes DATA "C","C","G","G","A","A","G"
You can use the READ command to access these characters. The letter ‘C’ is located at
address Notes + 0, and a second letter ‘C’ is located at Notes + 1. Then, there’s a
letter ‘G’ at Notes + 2, and so on. For example, if you want to load the last letter ‘G’
into a byte variable called noteLetter, use the command:
READ Notes + 6, noteLetter
Characters are stored in bytes. Each character has a number-code that is used to store it.
These codes are called ASCII codes, and they were introduced in Chapter #1. These
values can range anywhere from 0 to 255.
It takes more than one byte to store a value greater than 255. The word variable takes
two bytes of space in memory, and a word variable can store a number between 0 and
65535.
You can also store lists of numbers using the DATA directive. Frequency and duration
values that the BASIC Stamp uses for musical notes need to be stored in word variables
because they are usually greater than 255. Here is how to do that with a DATA directive.
Frequencies DATA Word 2093, Word 2093, Word 3136, Word 3136,
Word 3520, Word 3520, Word 3136
Because each of these values occupies two bytes, accessing them with the read command
is different from accessing characters. The first 2093 is at Frequencies + 0, but the
second 2093 is located at Frequencies + 2. The first 3136 is located at Frequencies
+ 4, and the second 3136 is located at Frequencies + 6.
The values in the Frequencies DATA directive correspond with the musical notes in
the Notes DATA directive.
Here is a FOR…NEXT loop that places the Notes DATA into a variable named noteLetter,
then it places the Frequencies DATA into a variable named noteFreq.
FOR index = 0 to 6
READ Notes + index, noteLetter
READ Frequencies + (index * 2), Word noteFreq
DEBUG noteLetter, " ", DEC noteFreq, CR
NEXT
What does the (index * 2) do? Each value stored in the Frequencies DATA directive
takes a word (two bytes), while each character in the Notes DATA directive only takes
one byte. The value of index increases by one each time through the FOR…NEXT loop.
That’s fine for accessing the note characters using the command READ Notes +
index, noteLetter. The problem is that for every one byte in Notes, the index
variable needs to point twice as far down the Frequencies list. The command READ
Frequencies + (index * 2), Word noteFreq, takes care of this.
The next example program stores notes and durations using DATA, and it uses the
FREQOUT command to play each note frequency for a specific duration. The result is the
first few notes from the children’s song Twinkle Twinkle Little Star.
The Alphabet Song used by children to memorize their “ABCs” uses the same notes as
Twinkle Twinkle Little Star.
Example Program: TwinkleTwinkle.bs2

This example program demonstrates how to use the DATA directive to store lists and how
to use the READ command to access the values in the lists.
Load and run TwinkleTwinkle.bs2

Verify that the notes sound like the song Twinkle Twinkle Little Star.
Use the Debug Terminal to verify that it works as expected by accessing and
displaying values from the three DATA directives.
' What's a Microcontroller - TwinkleTwinkle.bs2

' Play the first seven notes from Twinkle Twinkle Little Star.
'{$STAMP BS2}
'{$PBASIC 2.5}
Notes DATA "C","C","G","G","A","A","G"
Frequencies DATA Word 2093, Word 2093, Word 3136, Word 3136,
Word 3520, Word 3520, Word 3136
Durations DATA Word 500, Word 500, Word 500, Word 500,
Word 500, Word 500, Word 1000
index VAR Nib

noteLetter VAR Byte
noteFreq VAR Word
noteDuration VAR Word
DEBUG "Note Duration Frequency", CR,

"---- -------- ---------", CR
FOR index = 0 TO 6

DEBUG " ", noteLetter
READ Durations + (index * 2), Word noteDuration

DEBUG " ", DEC4 noteDuration
READ Frequencies + (index * 2), Word noteFreq

DEBUG " ", DEC4 noteFreq, CR
FREQOUT 9, noteDuration, noteFreq
NEXT
END
Your Turn – Adding and Playing More Notes

This program played the first seven notes from Twinkle Twinkle Little Star. The words
go “Twin-kle twin-kle lit-tle star”. The next phrase from the song goes “How I won-der
what you are”, and its notes are F, F, E, E, D, D, C. As with the first phrase the last note
is held twice as long as the other notes. To add this phrase to the song from
TwinkleTwinkle.bs2, you will need to expand each DATA directive appropriately. Don’t
forget to change the FOR…NEXT loop so that it goes from 0 to 13 instead of from 0 to 6.
Modify TwinkleTwinkle.bs2 so that it plays the first two phrases of the song
instead of just the first phrase.
ACTIVITY #4: MICROCONTROLLER MUSIC

Note durations are not recorded on sheet music in terms of milliseconds. Instead, they
are described as whole, half, quarter, eight, sixteenth, and thirty-second notes. As the
name suggests, a half note lasts half as long as a whole note. A quarter note lasts one
fourth the time a whole note lasts, and so on. How long is a whole note? It depends on
the piece of music being played. One piece might be played at a tempo that causes a
whole note to last for four seconds, another piece might have a two second whole note,
and yet another might have some other duration.
Rests are the time between notes when no tones are played. Rest durations are also
measured as whole, half, quarter, eighth, sixteenth and thirty-second.
A Better System for Storing and Retrieving Music

You can write programs that store twice as much music in your BASIC Stamp by using
bytes instead of words in your DATA directives. You can also modify your program to
make the musical notes easier to read by using some of the more common musical
conventions for notes and duration. This activity will start by introducing how to store
musical information in a way that relates to the concepts of notes, durations, and rests.
Tempo is also introduced, and it will be revisited in the next activity.
Here is an example of the DATA directives that stores musical notes and durations for the
next example program. When played, it should resemble the song “Frere Jacques”. Only
the note characters are stored in the Notes DATA directive because LOOKUP and
LOOKDOWN commands will be used to match up letters to their corresponding frequencies.
Notes DATA "C","D","E","C","C","D","E","C","E","F",

"G","E","F","G","Q"
Durations DATA 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4,
2, 4, 4, 2
WholeNote CON 2000
The first number in the Durations DATA directive tells the program how long the first
note in the Notes Data directive should last. The second duration is for the second note,
and so on. The durations are no longer in terms of milliseconds. Instead, they are much
smaller numbers that can be stored in bytes, so there is no Word prefix in the data
directive. Compared to storing values in terms of milliseconds, these numbers are more
closely related to sheet music. Here is a list of what each duration means.
x 1 – whole note
x 2 – half note
x 4 – quarter note
x 8 – eighth note
x 16 – sixteenth note
x 32 – thirty-second note
After each value is read from the Durations DATA directive, it is divided into the
WholeNote value to get the Duration used in the FREQOUT command. The amount of
time each note lasts depends on the tempo of the song. A faster tempo means each note
lasts for less time, while a slower tempo means each note lasts longer. Since all the note
durations are fractions of a whole note, you can use the duration of a whole note to set the
tempo.
What does the "Q" in Notes DATA mean? "Q" is for quit, and a DO WHILE…LOOP
checks for "Q" each time through the loop.
How do I play a rest? You can insert a rest between notes by inserting a "P". The Your
th
Turn section has the first few notes from Beethoven’s 5 Symphony, which has a rest in it.
How do I play sharp/flat notes? NotesAndDurations.bs2 has values in its lookup tables for
sharp/flat notes. When you use the lower-case version of the note, it will play the flat note.
For example, if you want to play B-flat, use “b” instead of “B”. Remember that this is the
same frequency as A-sharp.
Example Program: NotesAndDurations.bs2

Load and run NotesAndDurations.bs2.
How does it sound?
' What's a Microcontroller - NotesAndDurations.bs2

' Play the first few notes from Frere Jacques.
'{$STAMP BS2}
'{$PBASIC 2.5}
Notes DATA "C","D","E","C","C","D","E","C","E","F",

"G","E","F","G","Q"
Durations DATA 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4, 4,
2, 4, 4, 2
WholeNote CON 2000
index VAR Byte

offset VAR Nib
noteLetter VAR Byte

noteFreq VAR Word
DO UNTIL noteLetter = "Q"
LOOKDOWN noteLetter, [ "A", "b", "B", "C", "d",

"D", "e", "E", "F", "g",
"G", "a", "P", "Q" ], offset
LOOKUP offset, [ 1760, 1865, 1976, 2093, 2217,

2349, 2489, 2637, 2794, 2960,
3136, 3322, 0, 0 ], noteFreq
READ Durations + index, noteDuration
noteDuration = WholeNote / noteDuration
index = index + 1
LOOP
END
How NotesAndDurations.bs2 Works

The Notes and Durations DATA directives were discussed before the program. These
directives combined with the WholeNote constant are used to store all the musical data
used by the program.
The declarations for the five variables used in the program are shown below. Even
though a FOR…NEXT loop is no longer used to access the data, there still has to be a
variable (index) that keeps track of which DATA entry is being read in Notes and
Durations. The offset variable is used in the LOOKDOWN and LOOKUP commands to
select a particular value. The noteLetter variable stores a character accessed by the
READ command. LOOKUP and LOOKDOWN commands are used to convert this character into
a frequency value. This value is stored in the noteFreq variable and used as the
FREQOUT command’s Freq1 argument. The noteDuration variable is used in a READ
command to receive a value from the Durations DATA. It is also used to calculate the
Duration used in the FREQOUT command.
index VAR Byte
offset VAR Nib
noteLetter VAR Byte

noteFreq VAR Word
The main loop keeps executing until the letter ‘Q’ is read from the Notes DATA.
A READ command gets a character from the Notes DATA, and stores it in the noteLetter
variable. The noteLetter variable is then used in a LOOKDOWN command to set the value
of the offset variable. Remember that offset stores a 1 if “b” is detected, a 2 if “B” is
detected, a 3 if “C” is detected, and so on. This offset value is then used in a LOOKUP
command to figure out what the value of the noteFreq variable should be. If offset is
1, noteFreq will be 1865, if offset is 2, noteFreq will be 1976, if offset is 3,
noteFreq is 2093, and so on.
LOOKDOWN noteLetter, [ "A", "b", "B", "C", "d",

"D", "e", "E", "F", "g",
"G", "a", "P", "Q" ], offset
LOOKUP offset, [ 1760, 1865, 1976, 2093, 2217,

2349, 2489, 2637, 2794, 2960,
3136, 3322, 0, 0 ], noteFreq
The note’s frequency has been determined, but the duration still has to be figured out.
The READ command uses the value of index to place a value from the Durations DATA
into noteDuration.
Then, noteDuration is set equal to the WholeNote constant divided by the

noteDuration. If note duration starts out as 4 from a READ command, it becomes 2000
÷ 4 = 500. If noteDuration is 8, it becomes 1500 ÷ 8 = 250.
Now that noteDuration and noteFreq are determined, the FREQOUT command plays the
note.
Each time through the main loop, the index value must be increased by one. When the
main loop gets back to the beginning, the first thing the program does is read the next
note, using the index variable.
index = index + 1
LOOP
Your Turn – Experimenting with Tempo and a Different Tune

The length of time that each note lasts is related to the tempo. You can change the tempo
by adjusting the WholeNote constant. If you increase it to 2250, the tempo will decrease,
and the song will play slower. If you increase it to 1750, the tempo will increase and the
song will play more quickly.
Save NotesAndDurations.bs2 under the name NotesAndDurationsYourTurn.bs2.

Modify the tempo of NotesAndDurationsYourTurn.bs2 by adjusting the value of
WholeNote. Try values of 1500, 1750, 2000, and 2250.
Re-run the program after each modification, and decide which one sounds best.
Entering musical data is much easier when all you have to do is record notes and
durations. Here are the first eight notes from Beethoven’s Fifth Symphony.
Notes DATA "G","G","G","e","P","F","F","F","D","Q"
Durations DATA 8, 8, 8, 2, 8, 8, 8, 8, 2
WholeNote CON 2000

Save your modified program Beethoven’sFifth.bs2.
Replace the Notes and Durations DATA directives and the WholeNote constant
declaration with the code above.
Run the program. Does it sound familiar?
Adding Musical Features

The example program you just finished introduced notes, durations, and rests. It also
used the duration of a whole note to determine tempo. Cell phones that play music to let
you know that somebody is calling have three features that were not supported by the
previous example program:
x They play “dotted” notes.

x They determine the whole note duration from a value called tempo.
x They play notes from more than one octave.
The term “dotted” refers to a dot used in sheet music to indicate that a note should be
played 1 ½ times as long as its normal duration. For example, a dotted quarter note
should last for the duration of a quarter note, plus an eighth note. A dotted half note lasts
for a half plus a quarter note’s duration. You can add a data table that stores whether or
not a note is dotted. In this example, a zero means there is no dot while a 1 means there
is a dot:
Dots DATA 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 1, 0
Cell phones typically take the tempo for a song in beats per minute. This is the same as
saying quarter notes per minute.
BeatsPerMin CON 200
Figure 8-4 is a repeat of Figure 8-3 from page 224. It shows the 6th and 7th octaves on the
piano keyboard. These are the two octaves that sound the clearest when played by the
piezospeaker. Here is an example of a DATA directive you will use in the Your Turn
section to play notes from more than one octave using the Notes DATA directive.
Octaves DATA 6, 7, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7, 6,
6, 6, 6
Figure 8-4
Rightmost Piano Keys and Their Frequencies
1244.5
1480.0
1661.2
1864.7
1217.5
2489.0
2960.0
3322.4
3729.3
1108.7
3951.1
4186.0
2093.0
2349.3
2637.0
2793.0
3136.0
3520.0
1046.5
1318.5
1396.9
1568.0
1760.0
1975.5
1174.7
C D F G A C D F G A
6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7
# # # # # # # # # #
or or or or or or or or or or
D E G A B D E G A B
6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7
b b b b b b b b b b
C6 D6 E6 F6 G6 A6 B6 C7 D7 E7 F7 G7 A7 B7 C8
Example Program: MusicWithMoreFeatures.bs2

This example program plays the first few notes from For He’s a Jolly Good Fellow. All
the notes come from the same (7th) octave, but some of the notes are dotted. In the Your
turn section, you will try an example that uses notes from more than one octave, and
dotted notes.
Load and run MusicWithMoreFeatures.bs2.

Count notes and see if you can hear the dotted (1 ½ duration) notes.
Also listen for notes in octave 7. Try changing one of those notes to octave 6.
The change in the way the music sounds is pretty drastic.
' What's a Microcontroller - MusicWithMoreFeatures.bs2

' Play the beginning of For He's a Jolly Good Fellow.
'{$STAMP BS2}
'{$PBASIC 2.5}
Notes DATA "C","E","E","E","D","E","F","E","E","D","D",

"D","C","D","E","C","Q"
Octaves DATA 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7,
7, 7, 7, 7, 7
Durations DATA 4, 2, 4, 4, 4, 4, 2, 2, 4, 2, 4,
4, 4, 4, 2, 2
Dots DATA 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 1, 0
BeatsPerMin CON 320
index VAR Byte

offset VAR Nib
noteLetter VAR Byte

noteFreq VAR Word
noteOctave VAR Nib
noteDot VAR Bit
wholeNote VAR Word

wholeNote = 60000 / BeatsPerMin * 4
LOOKDOWN noteLetter, [ "C", "d", "D", "e", "E",

"F", "g", "G", "a", "A",
"b", "B", "P", "Q" ], offset
LOOKUP offset, [ 4186, 4435, 4699, 4978, 5274,

5588, 5920, 6272, 6645, 7040,
7459, 7902, 0, 0 ], noteFreq
READ Octaves + index, noteOctave

noteOctave = 8 - noteOctave
noteFreq = noteFreq / (DCD noteOctave)

READ Dots + index, noteDot

IF noteDot = 1 THEN noteDuration = noteDuration * 3 / 2
index = index + 1
LOOP
END
How MusicWithMoreFeatures.bs2 Works

Below is the musical data for the entire song. For each note in the Notes DATA directive,
there is a corresponding entry in the Octaves, Durations, and Dots DATA directives.
For example, the first note is a C note in the 7th octave; it’s a quarter note and it’s not
dotted. Here is another example: the second from the last note (not including “Q”) is an
E note, in the 7th octave. It’s a half note, and it is dotted. There is also a BeatsPerMin
constant that sets the tempo for the song.
Notes DATA "C","E","E","E","D","E","F","E","E","D","D",
"D","C","D","E","C","Q"
Octaves DATA 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7, 7,
7, 7, 7, 7, 7
Durations DATA 4, 2, 4, 4, 4, 4, 2, 2, 4, 2, 4,
4, 4, 4, 2, 2
Dots DATA 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 0, 1, 0
BeatsPerMin CON 320
In the previous example program, WholeNote was a constant. This time, it’s a variable
that will hold the duration of a whole note in ms. After this value is calculated,
WholeNote will be used to determine all the other note durations, just like in the previous
program. The index, offset, noteLetter, and noteDuration variables are also used
in the same manner they were in the previous program. The noteFreq variable is
handled a little differently since now it has to be adjusted depending on the octave the
note is played in. The noteOctave and noteDot variables have been added to handle
the octave and dot features.
wholeNote VAR Word
index VAR Byte

offset VAR Nib
noteLetter VAR Byte

noteFreq VAR Word
noteOctave VAR Nib
noteDot VAR Bit
The wholeNote variable is calculated using the BeatsPerMin. The tempo of the song is
defined in beats per minute, and the program has to divide BeatsPerMin into 60000 ms,
then multiply by 4. The result is the correct value for a whole note.
wholeNote = 60000 / BeatsPerMin * 4
Math executes from left to right. In the calculation wholeNote = 60000 /

beatsPerMin * 4, the BASIC Stamp first calculates 60000 / beatsPerMin.
Then, it multiplies that result by 4.
Parentheses can be used to group operations. If you want to divide 4 into beatsPerMin
first, you can do this: wholeNote = 60000 / (beatsPerMin * 4).
This is all the same as the previous program:

LOOKDOWN noteLetter, [ "C", "d", "D", "e", "E",

"F", "g", "G", "a", "A",
"b", "B", "P", "Q" ], offset
Now that octaves are in the mix, the part of the code that figures out the note frequency
has changed. The LOOKUP command’s table of values contains note frequencies from the
8th octave. These values can be divided by 1 if you want to play notes in the 8th octave,
by 2 if you want to play notes in the 7th octave, by 4 if you want to play notes in the 6th
octave and by 8 if you want to play notes in the 5th octave. The division happens next.
All this LOOKUP command does is place a note from the 8th octave into the noteFreq
variable.
LOOKUP offset, [ 4186, 4435, 4699, 4978, 5274,
5588, 5920, 6272, 6645, 7040,
7459, 7902, 0, 0 ], noteFreq
Here is how the noteFreq variable is adjusted for the correct octave. First, the READ
command grabs the octave value stored in the Octaves DATA. This could be a value
between 5 and 8.
READ Octaves + index, noteOctave
Depending on the octave, we want to divide noteFreq by either 1, 2, 4, or 8. That means

that the goal is really to divide by 20 = 1, 21 = 2, 22 = 4, or 23 = 8. The statement below
takes the value of noteOctave, which could be a value between 5 and 8, and subtracts
that value from 8. If noteOctave was 8, now it’s 0. If noteOctave was 7, now it’s 1.
If noteOctave was 6, now it’s 2, and if noteOctave was 5, now it’s 3.
Now, noteOctave is a value that can be used as an exponent of 2, but how do you raise 2
to a power in PBASIC? One answer is to use the DCD operator. DCD 0 is 1, DCD 1 is 2,
DCD 2 is 4, and DCD 3 is 8. Dividing noteFreq by DCD noteOctave means you are
dividing by 1, 2, 4, or 8, which divides noteFreq down by the correct value. The end
result is that noteFreq is set to the correct octave. You will use the Debug Terminal in
the Your Turn section to take a closer look at how this works.
How am I supposed to know to use the DCD operator? Keep learning and practicing.
Every time you see a new command, operator, or any other keyword used in an example,
look it up in the BASIC Stamp manual. Read about it, and try using it in a program of your
own design. Get in the habit of periodically reading the BASIC Stamp Manual and trying the
short example programs. That’s the best way to get familiar with the various commands and
operators and how they work. By doing these things, you will develop a habit of always
adding to the list of programming tools you can use to solve problems.
The first two lines of code for determining the note duration are about the same as the
code from the previous example program. Now, however, any note could be dotted,
which means the duration might have to be multiplied by 1.5. A READ command is used
to access values stored in EEPROM by the Dots DATA directive. An IF…THEN statement is
used to multiply by 3 and divide by 2 whenever the value of the noteDot variable is 1.
READ Dots + index, noteDot

IF noteDot = 1 THEN noteDuration = noteDuration * 3 / 2
Integer math The BASIC Stamp does not automatically process a number like 1.5. When
performing math, it only works with integers: …, -5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, … The best
solution for multiplying by 1.5 is to multiply by 3/2. First, multiply by 3, and then divide by 2.
There are many ways to program the BASIC Stamp to handle fractional values. You can
program the BASIC Stamp to use integers to figure out the fractional portion of a number.
This is introduced in the Basic Analog and Digital Student Guide. There are also two
operators that make fractional values easier to work with, and they are: ** and */. These
are explained in detail in the Applied Sensors Student Guide and in the BASIC Stamp
Manual.
The remainder of this example program works the same way that it did in the previous
example program:
index = index + 1
LOOP
END
Your Turn – Playing a Tune with More than One Octave

MusicWithMoreFeatures.bs2 made use of rests, but it stayed in one octave. The tune
“Take Me Out to the Ball Game” shown below plays most of its notes in the 6th octave.
There are two notes in the 7th octave, and they make a big difference to the way it sounds.
Save the example program under the name

MusicWithMoreFeaturesYourTurn.bs2.
Modify the program by replacing the four data directives and one constant
declaration with these:
Notes DATA "C","C","A","G","E","G","D","P","C","C","A",
"G","E","G","Q"
Octaves DATA 6, 7, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 6, 7, 6,
6, 6, 6
Durations DATA 2, 4, 4, 4, 4, 2, 2, 4, 2, 4, 4,
4, 4, 2
Dots DATA 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0,
0, 0, 1
BeatsPerMin CON 240
Run the program and verify that it sounds right.
Those two notes in the 7th octave are essential for making the tune sound right. It’s
interesting to hear what happens if those 7 values are changed to 6.
Try changing the two 7 values in the Octaves DATA directive so that they are 6.
Keep in mind, this will make “Take Me out to the Ball Game” sound weird.
Run the program, and listen to the effect of the wrong octaves on the song.
Change the Octaves DATA back to its original state.
Run the program again and listen to see if it sounds correct again.
ACTIVITY #5: CELL PHONE RINGTONES

Many cell phones play music that can be downloaded from web pages. The computer
sends the data about the notes to the microcontroller in the phone, then plays the notes
whenever a call comes in. These are called ringing tones or often just ringtones.
One of the most widely used way of composing, recording and posting notes is one that
features strings of text that describe each note in the song. Here is an example of how the
first few notes from Beethoven’s 5th look in RTTTL format:
Beethoven5:d=8,o=7,b=125:g,g,g,2d#,p,f,f,f,2d
This format for storing musical data is called RTTTL, which stand for Ringing Tone Text
Transfer Language. The great thing about RTTTL files is that they are widely shared via
the World Wide Web. Many sites have RTTTL files available for free download. There
are also free software programs that can be used to compose and emulate these files as
well as download them to your cell phone. The RTTTL specification is also published on
the World Wide Web. Appendix G summarizes how an RTTTL file stores notes,
durations, pauses, tempo, and dotted notes.
This activity introduces some PBASIC programming techniques that can be used to
recognize different elements of text. The ability to recognize different characters or
groups of characters and take action based on what those characters contain is extremely
useful. In fact, it’s the key to converting RTTTL format ringtone (like Beethoven5
above) into music. At the end of this activity, there is an application program that you
can use to play RTTTL format ringtones.
Selecting which Code Block to Execute on a Case by Case Basis

The SELECT…CASE statement is probably the best programming tool for recognizing
characters or values. Keep in mind that this is one of the tools used to convert an RTTTL
ringtone into musical notes. In general, SELECT…CASE is used to:
x Select a variable or expression.

x Evaluate that variable or expression on a case by case basis.
x Execute different blocks of code depending on which case that variable’s value
fits into.
Here is the syntax for SELECT…CASE:
SELECT expression
CASE condition(s)
statement(s)
ENDSELECT
You can try the next two example programs to see how SELECT…CASE works.
SelectCaseWithValues.bs2 takes numeric values you enter into the Debug Terminal and
it tells you the minimum variable size you will need to hold that value.
SelectCaseWithCharacters.bs2 tells you whether the character you entered into the Debug
Terminal is upper or lower case, a digit, or punctuation.
Remember to use the upper Windowpane in the Debug Terminal to transmit the
characters you type to the BASIC Stamp. The Transmit and Receive Windowpanes are
shown in Figure 8-5.
Windowpanes Figure 8-5

Sending Messages
Transmit ĺ to the BASIC Stamp
Click the Transmit

(upper) Windowpane
Receive ĺ and enter the value
or characters you
want to transmit to
the BASIC Stamp.
Example Program: SelectCaseWithValues.bs2

Enter and run SelectCaseWithValues.bs2.
Click the Debug Terminal’s Transmit Windowpane.
Enter a value between 0 and 65535. Remember to press the enter key to send
your value.
Table 2-2 (below) is a copy of the table on page 54. Use this table to verify that
the example program makes the right decisions about the size of the numbers
you enter into the Debug Terminal.
Table 2-2: Variable Types and Values They Can Store

Variable type Range of Values
Bit 0 to 1
Nib 0 to 15
Byte 0 to 255
Word 0 to 65535
What happens if you enter a number larger than 65535? If you enter the number 65536,
the BASIC Stamp will store the number 0. If you enter the number 65537, the BASIC Stamp
will store the number 1, and so on. When a number is too large for the variable it fits into, it
is called overflow.
' What's a Microcontroller - SelectCaseWithValues.bs2

' Enter a value and see the minimum variable size required to hold it.
'{$STAMP BS2}
'{$PBASIC 2.5}
value VAR Word
DEBUG "Enter a value from", CR,

"0 to 65535: "
DO
DEBUGIN DEC value
SELECT value
CASE 0, 1
DEBUG "Bit", CR
PAUSE 100
CASE 2 TO 15
DEBUG "Nib (Nibble)", CR
PAUSE 200
CASE 16 TO 255
DEBUG "Byte", CR
PAUSE 300
CASE 256 TO 65535

DEBUG "Word", CR
PAUSE 400
ENDSELECT
DEBUG CR, "Enter another value: "
LOOP
How SelectCaseWithValues.bs2 Works

A word variable is declared to hold the values entered into the Debug Terminal.
value VAR Word
The DEBUGIN command takes the number you enter and places it into the value variable.
DEBUGIN DEC value
The SELECT statement chooses the value variable as the one to evaluate cases for.
SELECT value
The first case is if the value variable equals either 0 or 1. If value equals either of those
numbers, the DEBUG and PAUSE commands that follow it are executed.
CASE 0, 1
DEBUG "BIT", CR
PAUSE 100
The second case is if value equals any number from 2 to 15. If it does equal any of
those numbers, the DEBUG and PAUSE commands below it are executed.
CASE 2 to 15
DEBUG "NIB (Nibble)", CR
PAUSE 200
When all the cases are done, the ENDSELECT keyword is used to complete the
SELECT..CASE statement.
ENDSELECT
Example Program: SelectCaseWithCharacters.bs2

This example program evaluates each character you enter into the Debug Terminal’s
Transmit Windowpane. It can recognize upper and lower case characters, digits, and
some punctuation. If you enter a character the program does not recognize, it will tell
you to try again (entering a different character).
Enter and run SelectCaseWithCharacters.bs2.

Click Debug Terminal’s Transmit Windowpane, enter characters and observe the
results.
' What's a Microcontroller - SelectCaseWithCharacters.bs2

' Program that can identify some characters: case, digit, punctuation.
'{$STAMP BS2}
'{$PBASIC 2.5}
character VAR Byte
DEBUG "Enter a character: ", CR
DO
DEBUGIN character
SELECT character
CASE "A" TO "Z"

DEBUG CR, "Upper case", CR
CASE "a" TO "z"

DEBUG CR, "Lower case", CR
CASE "0" TO "9"

DEBUG CR, "Digit", CR
CASE "!", "?", ".", ","

DEBUG CR, "Punctuation", CR
CASE ELSE
DEBUG CR, "Character not known.", CR,
"Try a different one."
ENDSELECT
DEBUG CR, "Enter another character", CR
LOOP
How SelectCaseWithCharacters.bs2 Works

When compared to SelectCaseWithValues.bs2, this example program has a few
differences. First, the name of the value variable was changed to character, and its
size was changed from word to byte. This is because all characters in PBASIC are byte
size. The SELECT statement chooses the character variable for case by case evaluation.
SELECT character
The quotation marks are used to tell the BASIC Stamp Editor that you are referring to
characters.
SELECT character
CASE "A" to "Z"

DEBUG CR, "Upper case", CR
CASE "a" to "z"

DEBUG CR, "Lower case", CR
CASE "0" to "9"

DEBUG CR, "Digit", CR
CASE "!", "?", ".", ","

DEBUG CR, "Punctuation", CR
There is also one different CASE statement that was not used in the previous example:
CASE ELSE
DEBUG CR, "Character not known.", CR,
"Try a different one."
This CASE statement tells the SELECT code block what to do if none of the other cases are
true. You can get this case to work by entering a character such as % or $.
Your Turn – Selecting Based on Ranges

Modify the SELECT…CASE statement in SelectCaseWithCharacters.bs2 so that it
displays “Special character” when you enter one of these characters: @, #, $, %,
’^’ , &, *, (, ), _, or +.
RTTTL Ringtone Player Application Program

Below is the RTTTL file that contains the musical information used in the next example
program. There are five more RTTTL_File DATA directives that you can try in the Your
Turn section. This program plays a tune called Reveille, which is the bugle call played at
military camps first thing in the morning. You may have heard it in any number of
movies or television shows.
RTTTL_File DATA "Reveille:d=4,o=7,b=140:8g6,8c,16e,16c,8g6,8e,",
"8c,16e,16c,8g6,8e,8c,16e,16c,8a6,8c,e,8c,8g6,",
"8c,16e,16c,8g6,8e,8c,16e,16c,8g6,8e,8c,16e,",
"16c,8g6,8e,c,p,8e,8e,8e,8e,g,8e,8c,8e,8c,8e,8c,",
"e,8c,8e,8e,8e,8e,8e,g,8e,8c,8e,8c,8g6,8g6,c."
Example Program: MicroMusicWithRtttl.bs2

This application program is pretty long, and it’s a good idea to download the latest
version from the www.parallax.com ĺ Downloads ĺ Educational Curriculum page.
Look for a link named Selected Example Programs near the What’s a Microcontroller
PDF downloads. Downloading the program and opening it with the BASIC Stamp Editor
should save you a significant amount of time. The alternative, of course, is to hand enter
and debug four pages of code.
Use the BASIC Stamp Editor to open your downloaded

MicroMusicWithRtttl.bs2 file, or hand enter the example below very carefully.
Run the program, and verify that the piece is recognizable as the Reveille bugle
call.
Go to the Your Turn section and try some more tunes (RTTTL_File DATA
directives).
' What's a Microcontroller - MicroMusicWithRtttl.bs2

' Play Nokia RTTTL format ringtones using DATA.
'{$STAMP BS2}
'{$PBASIC 2.5}
' -----[ I/O Definitions ]-------------------------------------------------
SpeakerPin CON 9 ' Piezospeaker connected to P9.
' -----[ Variables ]-------------------------------------------------------
counter VAR Word ' General purpose counter.

char VAR Byte ' Variable stores characters.
index VAR Word ' Index for pointing at data.
noteLetter VAR Byte ' Stores note character.

noteFreq VAR Word ' Stores note frequency.
noteOctave VAR Word ' Stores note octave.
duration VAR Word ' Stores note duration.

tempo VAR Word ' Stores tempo.
default_d VAR Byte ' Stores default duration.

default_o VAR Byte ' Stores default octave.
default_b VAR Word ' Stores default beats/min.
' -----[ EEPROM Data ]-----------------------------------------------------
RTTTL_File DATA "Reveille:d=4,o=7,b=140:8g6,8c,16e,16c,8g6,8e,",

"8c,16e,16c,8g6,8e,8c,16e,16c,8a6,8c,e,8c,8g6,",
"8c,16e,16c,8g6,8e,8c,16e,16c,8g6,8e,8c,16e,",
"16c,8g6,8e,c,p,8e,8e,8e,8e,g,8e,8c,8e,8c,8e,8c,",
"e,8c,8e,8e,8e,8e,8e,g,8e,8c,8e,8c,8g6,8g6,c."
Done DATA ",q,"
Notes DATA "p", "a", "#", "b",

"c", "#", "d", "#",
"e", "f", "#", "g",
"#"
Octave8 DATA Word 0, Word 3520, Word 3729, Word 3951,
Word 4186, Word 4435, Word 4699, Word 4978,
Word 5274, Word 5588, Word 5920, Word 6272,
Word 6645
' -----[ Initialization ]--------------------------------------------------
counter = 0 ' Initialize counter.
GOSUB FindEquals ' Find first '=' in file.

GOSUB ProcessDuration ' Get default duration.
GOSUB FindEquals ' Find next '='.
GOSUB ProcessOctave ' Get default octave.
GOSUB FindEquals ' Find last '='.
GOSUB GetTempo ' Get default tempo.
' -----[ Program Code ]----------------------------------------------------
DO UNTIL char = "q" ' Loop until 'q' in DATA.

GOSUB ProcessDuration ' Get note duration.
GOSUB ProcessNote ' Get index value of note.
GOSUB CheckForDot ' If dot, 3/2 duration.
GOSUB ProcessOctave ' Get octave.
GOSUB PlayNote ' Get freq, play note, next.
LOOP ' End of main loop.
END ' End of program.
' -----[ Subroutine - Find Equals Character ]-----------------------------

FindEquals: ' Go through characters in

' RTTTL file looking for
DO ' '='. Increment counter
READ RTTTL_File + counter, char ' until '=' is found, then
counter = counter + 1 ' return.
LOOP UNTIL char = "="
RETURN
' -----[ Subroutine - Read Tempo from RTTTL Header ]----------------------
GetTempo: ' Parse RTTTL file for Tempo.

' Convert characters to
default_b = 0 ' digits by subtracting 48
DO ' from each character's ASCII
READ RTTTL_File + counter, char ' value. Iteratively multiply
IF char = ":" THEN ' each digit by 10 if there
default_b = default_b / 10 ' is another digit, then add
counter = counter + 1 ' the most recent digit to
EXIT ' one's column.
ENDIF ' For example, the string
default_b = default_b + char - 48 ' "120" is (1 X 10 X 10)
counter = counter + 1 ' + (2 X 10) + 0. The '1'
default_b = default_b * 10 ' is converted first, then
LOOP UNTIL char = ":" ' multiplied by 10. The '2'
' is then converted/added.
RETURN ' 0 is converted/added, done.
' -----[ Subroutine - Look up Octave ]------------------------------------
ProcessOctave: ' Octave may or may not be

' included in a given note
READ RTTTL_File + counter, char ' because any note that is
SELECT char ' played in the default
CASE "5" TO "8" ' octave does not specify
noteOctave = char - "0" ' the octave. If a char
counter = counter + 1 ' from '5' to '8' then use
CASE ELSE ' it, else use default_o.
noteOctave = default_o ' Characters are converted
ENDSELECT ' to digits by subtracting
IF default_o = 0 THEN ' '0', which is the same as
default_o = noteOctave ' subtracting 48. The first
ENDIF ' time this subroutine is
' called, default_o is 0.
RETURN ' If 0, then set default_o.
' -----[ Subroutine - Find Index of Note ]--------------------------------
ProcessNote: ' Set index value for lookup

' of note frequency based on
READ RTTTL_File + counter, char ' note character. If 'p',

SELECT char ' index is 0. If 'a' to 'g',
CASE "p" ' read character values in
index = 0 ' DATA table and find match.
counter = counter + 1 ' Record index value when
CASE "a" TO "g" ' match is found. If next
FOR index = 1 TO 12 ' char is a sharp (#), add
READ Notes + index, noteLetter ' 1 to the index value to
IF noteLetter = char THEN EXIT ' increase the index (and
NEXT ' frequency) by 1 notch.
counter = counter + 1 ' As with other subroutines,
READ RTTTL_File + counter, char ' increment counter for each
SELECT char ' character that is processed.
CASE "#"
index = index + 1
counter = counter + 1
ENDSELECT
ENDSELECT
RETURN
' -----[ Subroutine - Determine Note Duration ]---------------------------
ProcessDuration: ' Check to see if characters

' form 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 or 32.
READ RTTTL_File + counter, char ' If yes, then convert from
' ASCII character to a value
SELECT char ' by subtracting 48. In the
CASE "1", "2", "3", "4", "8" ' case of 16 or 32, multiply
duration = char - 48 ' by 10 and add the next
counter = counter + 1 ' digit to the ones column.
READ RTTTL_File + counter, char
SELECT char
CASE "6", "2"
duration = duration * 10 + char - 48
ENDSELECT
CASE ELSE ' If no duration, use
duration = default_d ' use default.
ENDSELECT
IF default_d <> 0 THEN ' If default_d not defined

duration = 60000/default_b/duration*3 ' (if default_d = 0), then
ELSE ' set default_d = to the
default_d = duration ' duration from the d=#.
ENDIF
RETURN
' -----[ Subroutine - Check For '.' Indicating 1.5 Duration ]-------------
CheckForDot: ' Check for dot indicating

' multiply duration by 3/2.
READ RTTTL_File + counter, char ' If dot found, multiply by
SELECT char ' 3/2 and increment counter,
CASE "." ' else, do nothing and
duration = duration * 3 / 2 ' return.
ENDSELECT
RETURN
' -----[ Subroutine - Find Comma and Play Note/Duration ]-----------------
PlayNote: ' Find last comma in the

' current note entry. Then,
READ RTTTL_File + counter, char ' fetch the note frequency
SELECT char ' from data, and play it, or
CASE "," ' pause if frequency = 0.
READ Octave8 + (index * 2), Word noteFreq
IF noteFreq = 0 THEN
PAUSE duration
ELSE
FREQOUT SpeakerPin, duration, noteFreq
ENDIF
ENDSELECT
RETURN
How MicroMusicWithRtttl.bs2 Works

This example program is fun to use, and it shows the kind of code you will be able to
write with some practice. However, it was included in this text more for fun than for the
coding concepts it employs.
If you examine the code briefly, you might notice that you have already used all of the
commands and operators in the program. Here is a list of the elements in this application
example that should, by now, be familiar:
x Comments to help explain your code

x Constant and variable declarations
x DATA declarations
x READ commands
x IF…ELSE…ENDIF blocks
x DO…LOOP both with and without WHILE and UNTIL

x Subroutines with GOSUB, labels, and RETURN
x FOR…NEXT loops
x LOOKUP and LOOKDOWN commands
x The FREQOUT and PAUSE commands
x SELECT…CASE
Your Turn – Different Tunes

Try replacing the RTTTL_File DATA directive in MicroMusicWithRTTTL.bs2
with each of the five different music files below.
Only one RTTTL_File DATA directive at a time! Make sure to replace, not add, your
new RTTTL_File DATA directive.
Run MicroMusicWithRTTTL.bs2 to test each RTTTL file.
RTTTL_File DATA "TwinkleTwinkle:d=4,o=7,b=120:c,c,g,g,a,a,2g,f,",

"f,e,e,d,d,2c,g,g,f,f,e,e,2d,g,g,f,f,e,e,2d,c,c,",
"g,g,a,a,2g,f,f,e,e,d,d,1c"
RTTTL_File DATA "FrereJacques:d=4,o=7,b=125:c,d,e,c,c,d,e,c,e,f",

",2g,e,f,2g,8g,8a,8g,8f,e,c,8g,8a,8g,8f,e,c,c,g6",
",2c,c,g6,2c"
RTTTL_File DATA "Beethoven5:d=8,o=7,b=125:g,g,g,2d#,p,f,f,f,2d"
RTTTL_File DATA "ForHe'sAJollyGoodFellow:d=4,o=7,b=320:c,2e,e,e,",

"d,e,2f.,2e,e,2d,d,d,c,d,2e.,2c,d,2e,e,e,d,e,2f,",
"g,2a,a,g,g,g,2f,d,2c"
RTTTL_File DATA "TakeMeOutToTheBallgame:d=4,o=7,b=225:2c6,c,a6,",

"g6,e6,2g.6,2d6,p,2c6,c,a6,g6,e6,2g.6,g6,p,p,a6",
",g#6,a6,e6,f6,g6,a6,p,f6,2d6,p,2a6,a6,a6,b6,c,",
"d,b6,a6,g6"
Downloading RTTTL Files: As mentioned earlier, there are lots of RTTTL files available
for download from various sites on the World Wide Web. These files are contributed by ring-
tone enthusiasts, many of whom are not music experts. Some phone tones are pretty good,
others are barely recognizable.
If you want to download and play some more RTTTL files, make sure to remove any spaces
from between characters, then insert the text file between quotes.
SUMMARY
This chapter introduced techniques for making sounds and musical tones using the
BASIC Stamp and a piezoelectric speaker. The FREQOUT command can be used to send a
piezoelectric speaker high/low signals that cause it to make sound effects and/or musical
notes. The FREQOUT command has arguments that control the I/O Pin the signal is sent
to, the Duration of the tone, the frequency of the tone (Freq1). The optional Freq2
argument can be used to mix tones.
Sound effects can be made by adjusting the frequency and duration of tones and the
pauses between. The value of the frequency can also be swept across a range of values or
mixed to create a variety of effects.
Making musical notes also depends on frequency, duration, and pauses. The value of the
FREQOUT command’s Duration argument is determined by the tempo of the song and the
duration of the note (whole, half, quarter, etc.). The Freq1 value of the note is
determined by the note’s letter and octave. Rests between notes are used to set the
duration of the PAUSE command.
Playing simple songs using the BASIC Stamp can be done with a sequence of FREQOUT
commands, but there are better ways to store and retrieve musical data. DATA directives
along with their optional Symbol labels were used to store byte values using no prefix
and word values using the Word prefix. The READ command was used to retrieve values
stored by DATA directives. The READ command’s Address argument always used the
DATA directive’s optional Symbol label to differentiate between different types of data.
Some the symbol labels that were used were Notes, Durations, Dots, and Octaves.
Musical data can be stored in formats that lend themselves to translation from sheet
music. The sheet music style data can then be converted into Frequency using the
LOOKUP and LOOKDOWN commands. Mathematic operations can also be performed on
variable values to change the octave of a note by dividing its frequency by a power of
two. Mathematic operations are also useful for note durations given either the tempo or
the duration of a whole note.
SELECT…CASE was introduced as a way of evaluating a variable on a case by case basis.

SELECT…CASE is particularly useful for examining characters or numbers when there are
many choices as to what the variable could be and many different sets of actions that
need to be taken based on the variable’s value. A program that converts strings of
characters that describe musical tones for cell phones (called RTTTL files) was used to
introduce a larger program that makes use of all the programming techniques introduced
in this text. SELECT…CASE played a prominent role in this program because it is used to
examine characters selected in an RTTTL file on a case-by-case basis.
Questions
1. What causes a tone to sound high-pitched? What causes a tone to sound low-
pitched?
2. What does FREQOUT 15, 1000, 3000 do? What effect does each of the
numbers have?
3. What are the three main elements of sound effects?
4. Can you put one FOR…NEXT loop inside another? How does that work?
5. How can you modify the FREQOUT command from Question 2 so that it sends
two frequencies at once?
6. If you strike a piano’s B6 key, what frequency does it send?
7. How can you use the FREQOUT command to send musical notes?
8. Where does the data in a DATA directive get stored?
9. How much memory does it take to store a character?
10. How much memory is a word?
11. How do you modify a DATA directive or READ command if you want to store and
retrieve word values?
12. Can you have more than one DATA directive? If so, how would you tell a READ
command to get data from one or the other DATA directive?
13. Trick question: How long does a quarter note last?
14. What commands can you use to translate note letters (characters) in a DATA
directive into their corresponding frequencies?
15. What’s an octave? If you know the frequency of a note in one octave, what do
you have to do to that frequency to play it in the next higher octave?
16. What’s tempo? How do you figure out the value of a quarter note from the
tempo? How do you figure out the value of a whole note?
17. What does the DCD operator do? What’s DCD 3? What’s DCD 4? What’s DCD
5?
18. What does SELECT…CASE do?
Exercises
1. Modify the “Alarm…” tone from ActionTones.bs2 so that the frequency of the
tone it plays increases by 500 each time the tone repeats.
2. Modify NestedLoops.bs2 so that the FREQOUT command’s Freq2 argument also
uses the value of the duration variable.
3. Modify DoReMiFaSolLaTiDo.bs2 so that it plays all the notes in the octave
from C5 through C6.
4. Modify the DEBUG commands in TwinkleTwinkle.bs2 so that it displays the
duration of each note as either quarter (a duration of 500) or half (a duration or
1000).
5. Modify NotesAndDurations.bs2 so that it calculates the value of a variable called
wholeNote based on the value of a constant called Tempo.
6. Explain how you would modify MusicWithMoreFeatures.bs2 so that it plays two
frequencies at the same time for each note.
7. Explain how to modify MusicWithMoreFeatures.bs2 so that it displays an alert
message in the Debug Terminal each time a dotted note is played.
8. Explain what the CheckForDot subroutine in MicroMusicWithRtttl.bs2 does.
How does it convert a note into a dotted note?
Projects
1. Build pushbutton controlled tone generator. If one pushbutton is pressed, the
speaker should make a 2 kHz beep for 1/5 of a second. If the other pushbutton is
pressed the speaker should make a 3 kHz beep for 1/10 of a second.
2. Modify the program from the first project so that each time you press and release
one of the pushbuttons, it plays a musical note for ½ a second. If you press one
pushbutton, the note should advance up to the next higher note. If you press the
other pushbutton, it should play the next lower note.
3. Use a potentiometer circuit to control the tempo of TwinkleTwinkle.bs2.
4. Make an application that generates tone based on the brightness in a room. You
will need a photoresistor circuit for this application. The speaker should beep
once every second. The tone should get higher as the light gets brighter and
lower as the light gets dimmer.
5. Make a musical note player. A potentiometer is used to select the note, and the
pushbutton plays the note. Optionally, use two pushbuttons. If both pushbuttons
are pressed, it plays a half note. If one pushbutton is pressed, it plays a quarter
note, and if the other pushbutton is pressed, it plays an eighth note.
6. Make a music box with two pushbuttons, a 7-segment display and a

piezospeaker. This music box plays one of three songs that you select using the
pushbuttons and 7-segement LED display. One pushbutton can be used to scroll
through the number 1-3 on the 7-segment LED display. The other pushbutton
plays the song.

More sound effects, clicks, crickets are introduced using the piezoelectric
speaker. The pentatonic and equal temperament scale are the basis for
discussion of math fractions. The speaker is also used as feedback for a variety
of sensor measurements.
The speaker is used to make a frequency generated by a device called a 555
timer audible. The BASIC Stamp is used to measure the frequency of the tone
with a command called COUNT.

You can use this book to view the output of the FREQOUT command, both as
digital pulses, and as a sine wave.
Chapter #9: Electronic Building Blocks · Page 257
Chapter #9: Electronic Building Blocks

THOSE LITTLE BLACK CHIPS
You need look no further than your BASIC Stamp (see Figure 9-1) to find examples of
“those little black chips”. Each of these chips has a special function. The upper-right
chip is the voltage regulator. This chip takes the battery voltage and converts it to almost
exactly 5.0 V, which is what the rest of the components on the BASIC Stamp need to run
properly. The upper-left chip is the BASIC Stamp’s EEPROM. PBASIC programs are
condensed to numbers called tokens that are downloaded to the BASIC Stamp. These
tokens are stored in the EEPROM, and you can view them by clicking Run and then
Memory Map in the BASIC Stamp Editor. The largest chip is called the Interpreter chip.
It fetches the tokens from the EEPROM and then interprets the PBASIC command that
the token represents. Then, it executes the command, fetches the next token, and so on.
This process is called “fetch and execute”.
Figure 9-1
Integrated
Circuits on the
BASIC Stamp
People use the term “integrated circuit” (IC) to talk about little black chips. The
integrated circuit is actually a tiny silicon chip that’s contained inside the black plastic or
ceramic case. Depending on the chip, it may have anywhere between hundreds and
millions of transistors. A transistor is the basic building block for integrated circuits, and
you will have the opportunity to experiment with a transistor in this chapter. Other
familiar components that are designed into silicon chips include diodes, resistors and
capacitors.
Take a moment to think about the activities you’ve tried in this book so far. The list
includes switching LEDs on and off, reading pushbuttons, controlling servos, reading
potentiometers, measuring light, controlling displays, and making sounds. Even though
that’s just the beginning, it’s still pretty impressive, especially considering that you can
combine these activities to make more complex gizmos and gadgets. The core of the
system that made all those activities possible is comprised of just the three integrated
circuits shown in Figure 9-1 and a few other parts. It just goes to show how powerful
integrated circuits can be when they are designed to work together.
EXPAND YOUR PROJECTS WITH PERIPHERAL INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

There are thousands of integrated circuits designed to be used with microcontrollers.
Sometimes different integrated circuit manufacturers make chips that perform the same
function. Sometimes each chip’s features differ slightly, and other times, the chips are
identical, but one might cost a little less than the other. Each one of the thousands of
different integrated circuits can be used as a building block for a variety of designs.
Companies publish information on how each of their integrated circuits work in
documents called datasheets that are published on the World Wide Web. These
manufacturers also publish application notes, which show how to use their integrated
circuit in unique or useful ways that make it easier to design products. The integrated
circuit manufacturers give away this information in hopes that engineers will use it to
build their chip onto the latest must-have toy or appliance. If thousands of toys are sold,
it means the company sells thousands of their integrated circuits.
In this chapter, you will experiment with a transistor, and a special-purpose integrated
circuit called a digital potentiometer. As mentioned earlier, the transistor is the basic
building block for integrated circuits. It’s also a basic building block for lots of other
circuits as well. The digital potentiometer also has a variety of uses. Keep in mind that
for each activity you have done, there are probably hundreds of different ways that you
could use each of these integrated circuits.
ACTIVITY #1: CONTROL CURRENT FLOW WITH A TRANSISTOR

In this activity, you will use a transistor as a way to control the current passing through an
LED. You can use the LED to monitor the current since it glows more brightly when
more current passes through it and less brightly when less current passes through it.
Introducing the Transistor

Figure 9-2 shows the schematic symbol and part drawing of the 2N3904 transistor. There
are many different types of transistors. This one is called NPN, which refers to the type
of materials used to manufacture the transistor and the way those materials are layered on
the silicon. The best way to get started thinking about a transistor is to imagine it as a
valve that is used to control current. Different transistors control how much current
passes through by different means. This transistor controls how much current passes into
C (collector) and back out of E (emitter). It uses the amount of current allowed into the B
(base) terminal to control the current passing from C through E. With a very small
amount of current allowed into B, a current flow of about 416 times that amount flows
through the transistor into C and out of E.
C Figure 9-2
B
B 2N3904 Transistor
E
2N3904
E
The 2N3904 Part Datasheet: As mentioned earlier, semiconductor manufacturers publish

documents called datasheets for the parts they make. These datasheets contain
information engineers use to design the part into a product. To see an example of a part
datasheet for the 2N3904: Go to www.fairchildsemi.com. Enter 2N3904 into the Search field
on Fairchild Semiconductor’s home page, and click Go. One of the search results should be
a link to the 2N3904 Product Folder. Follow the link to the product folder, then click
Download this Datasheet link. Most web browsers display the datasheet by opening it with
Adobe Acrobat Reader.
Transistor Example Parts

(1) Transistor – 2N3904
(2) Resistors – 100 k: (brown-black-yellow)
(3) Jumper wires
Building and Testing the Transistor Circuit

Figure 9-3 shows a circuit that you can use to manually control how much current the
transistor allows through the LED. By twisting the knob on the potentiometer, the circuit
will deliver different amounts of current to the transistor’s base. This will cause a change
in the amount of current the transistor allows to pass from its collector to its emitter. The
LED will give you a clear indication of the change by glowing more or less brightly.

Turn the knob on the potentiometer and verify that the LED changes brightness
in response to a change in the position of the potentiometer’s wiper terminal.
Vdd Vdd Vdd Vin Vss

X3
P15
LED
P14 Figure 9-3
P13
P12 Manual
P11 Potentiometer
P10
P9
Controlled
POT 100 k: P8 Transistor
P7 Circuit
10 k: P6
P5
100 k: P4
P3
P2
P1
P0
Vss Vss X2
Your Turn – Switching the Transistor On/Off

If all you want to do is switch a transistor on and off, you can use the circuit shown in
Figure 9-4. When the BASIC Stamp sends a high signal to this circuit, it will make it so
that the transistor conducts as much current as if you adjusted the potentiometer for
maximum brightness. When the BASIC Stamp sends a low signal to this circuit, it will
cause the transistor to stop conducting current, and the LED should emit no light.
What’s the difference between this and connecting an LED circuit to an I/O pin?
BASIC Stamp I/O pins have limitations on how much current they can deliver. Transistors
have limitations too, but they are much higher. In the Industrial Control Student Guide, a
transistor is used to drive a small DC fan. It is also used to supply large amounts of current
to a small resistor that is used as a heating element. Either of these two applications would
draw so much current that they would quickly damage the BASIC Stamp, but the transistor
takes it in stride.

Write a program that sends high and low signals to P8 twice every second.
HINT: LedOnOff.bs2 from Chapter #2 needs only to be modified to send
high/low signals to P8 instead of P3. Remember to save it under a new name
before making the modifications.
Run the program and verify that it gives you on/off control of the LED.
Vdd Vdd Vin Vss

X3
P15
LED
P14 Figure 9-4
P13
P12 Circuit that
P11 Gives BASIC
P10
P9
Stamp
100 k: P8 Transistor
P8 P7
P6
On/Off Control
P5
100 k: P4
P3
P2
P1
P0
Vss X2
ACTIVITY #2: INTRODUCING THE DIGITAL POTENTIOMETER

In this activity, you will replace the manually adjusted potentiometer with an integrated
circuit potentiometer that is digitally adjusted. You will then program the BASIC Stamp
to adjust the digital potentiometer, which will in turn adjust the LED’s brightness in the
same way the manual potentiometer did in the previous activity.
Introducing the Digital Potentiometer

Figure 9-5 shows a pin map of the digital potentiometer you will use in this activity. This
chip has 8 pins, four on each side that are spaced to make it easy to plug into a
breadboard (1/10 inch apart). The manufacturer places a reference notch on the plastic
case so that you can tell the difference between pin 1 and pin 5. The reference notch is a
small half-circle in the chip’s case. You can use this notch as a reference for the pin
numbers on the chip. The pin numbers on the chip count upwards, counterclockwise
from the reference notch.
Part Substitutions: It is sometimes necessary for Parallax to make a part substitution. The
part will function the same, but the label on it may be different. If you find that the digital
potentiometer included in your What’s a Microcontroller Parts Kit is not labeled AD5220, rest
assured that it will still work the same way and perform correctly in this activity.
Reference
Notch Figure 9-5
AD5220 Pin Map
Use the reference

1 CLK Vdd 8 notch to make
sure you have the
2 U/D CS 7
AD5220 right-side-
3 A1 B1 6
up when building it
4 GND W1 5 into your circuit on
the breadboard.
AD5220
Here is a summary of each of the AD5220’s pins and functions:
1. CLK – The pin that receives clock pulses (low-high-low signals) to move the
wiper terminal.
2. U/D – The pin that receives a high signal to make the wiper (W1) terminal move
towards A1, and a low signal to make it move towards B1. This pin just sets the
direction, the wiper terminal doesn’t actually move until a pulse (a low – high –
low signal) is sent to the CLK pin.
3. A1 – The potentiometer’s A terminal.
4. GND – The ground connection. The ground on the Board of Education and
BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board is the Vss terminal.
5. W1 – The potentiometer’s wiper (W) terminal.
6. B1 – The potentiometer’s B terminal.

7. CS – The chip select pin. Apply a high signal to this pin, and the chip ignores all
control signals sent to CLK and U/D. Apply a low signal to this pin, and it acts
on any control signals it receives.
8. Vdd – Connect to +5 V, which is Vdd on the Board of Education and BASIC
Stamp HomeWork Board.
The AD5220 Part Datasheet: To see the part datasheet for the AD5220: Go to
www.analog.com. Enter AD5220 into the Search field on Analog Devices’ home page, and
click the Search button. Click the Data Sheets link. Click the link that reads “AD5220:
Increment/Decrement Digital Potentiometer Datasheet”.
Digital Pot Controlled Transistor Parts

(1) Transistor – 2N3904
(2) Resistors – 100 k: (brown-black-yellow)
(1) Digital potentiometer – AD5220
Building the Digital Potentiometer Circuit

Figure 9-6 shows a circuit schematic with the digital potentiometer used in place of a
manual potentiometer, and Figure 9-7 shows a wiring diagram for the circuit. The
BASIC Stamp can control the digital potentiometer by issuing control signals to P5 and
P6.
Vdd Vdd
Vdd
AD5220
CLK Vdd 8
P6 1
P5 2
U/D CS 7 Figure 9-6
Digital Potentiometer
A1 B1 6
3
Controlled Transistor
4
GND W1 5 100 k: Circuit Schematic
100 k:
Vss Vss
Vdd Vin Vss

X3
P15
P14 Figure 9-7
P13
P12
Digital
P11 Potentiometer
P10 Controlled
P9
P8 Transistor
P7 Wiring Diagram
P6
AD5220
P5
P4
P3
P2
P1
P0
X2
Programming Digital Potentiometer Control

Imagine that the knob on the manual potentiometer from the previous exercise has 128
positions. Imagine also that the potentiometer is in the middle of its range of motion.
That means you could rotate the knob one direction by 63 steps and the other direction by
64 steps.
Let’s say you turn the potentiometer’s knob one step clockwise. The LED will get only
slightly brighter. This would be the same as sending a high signal to the AD5220’s U/D
pin and sending one pulse (high-low-high) to the CLK pin.
HIGH 5
PULSOUT 6, 1
Imagine next that you turn your manual potentiometer 3 steps counterclockwise. The
LED will get a little bit dimmer. This would be the same as sending a low signal to the
U/D pin on the AD5220 and sending three pulses to the CLK pin.
LOW 5
PULSOUT 6, 1
PAUSE 1
NEXT
Imagine next that you turn the potentiometer all the way clockwise. That’s the same as
sending a high signal to the AD5220’s U/D pin and sending 65 pulses to the CLK pin.
Now the LED should be shining brightly.
HIGH 5
PULSOUT 6, 1
PAUSE 1
NEXT
Finally, imagine that you turn your manual potentiometer all the way counterclockwise.
The LED should emit no light. That’s the same as sending a low signal to the U/D pin,
and applying 128 pulses to the CLK pin
LOW 5
PULSOUT 6, 1
PAUSE 1
NEXT
Example Program: DigitalPotUpDown.bs2

This example program adjusts the potentiometer up and down, from one end of its range
to the other, causing the LED to get gradually brighter, then gradually dimmer.
Enter and run DigitalPotUpDown.bs2.
' What's a Microcontroller - DigitalPotUpDown.bs2

' Sweep digital pot through values.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
counter VAR Byte
DO
LOW 5

PULSOUT 6, 1
PAUSE 10
NEXT
HIGH 5

PULSOUT 6, 1
PAUSE 10
NEXT
LOOP
Your Turn – Changing the Rate and Condensing the Code

You can increase or decrease the rate at which the LED gets brighter and dimmer by
changing the PAUSE command’s Duration argument.
Modify and re-run the program using PAUSE 20 and note the difference in the
rate that the LED gets brighter and dimmer.
Repeat for PAUSE 5.
You can also use a command called TOGGLE to make this program simpler. TOGGLE
changes the state of a BASIC Stamp I/O pin. If the I/O pin was sending a high signal,
TOGGLE makes it send a low signal. If the I/O pin was sending a low signal, TOGGLE
makes it send a high signal.
Save DigitalPotUpDown.bs2 as DigitalPotUpDownWithToggle.bs2.

Modify the program so that it looks like the one below.
Run the program and verify that it functions the same as the
DigitalPotUpDown.bs2.
Compare the number of lines of code it took to do the same job.
Running out of program memory is a problem many people encounter when their BASIC
Stamp projects get large and complicated. Using TOGGLE instead of two FOR…NEXT loops
is just one example of many techniques that can be used to do the same job with half the
code.
' What's a Microcontroller - DigitalPotUpDownWithToggle.bs2

' Sweep digital pot through values.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
counter VAR Byte
LOW 5
DO

PULSOUT 6,5
PAUSE 10
NEXT
TOGGLE 5
LOOP
Looking Inside the Digital Potentiometer

Figure 9-8 shows a diagram of the potentiometer inside the AD5220. The AD5220 has
128 resistive elements, each of which is 78.125 : (nominal value). All 128 of these add
up to 10,000 : or 10 k:.
A nominal value means a named value. Parts like resistors and capacitors typically have a
nominal value and a tolerance. Each of the AD5220’s resistive elements has a nominal
value of 78.125 :, with a tolerance of 30% (23.438 :) above or below the nominal value.
Between each of these resistive elements is a switch, called a tap. Each switch is actually
a group of transistors that are switched on or off to let current pass or not pass. Only one
of these switches can be closed at one time. If one of the upper switches is closed (like
pos. 125, 126, or 127), it’s like having the manual potentiometer knob turned most or all
the way clockwise. If pos. 0 or 1 is closed, it’s like having a manual potentiometer turned
most or all the way counterclockwise.
3
A1
Ad5220 78 :
pos. 127
78 :
1 CLK
2 U/D pos. 126
W1 78 :
5 Figure 9-8
7 CS 40 : pos. 125 Inside the AD5220
… …
78 :
pos. 1
78 :
pos. 0 B1
6
Imagine that Pos. 126 is closed. If you want to set the tap to 125, (open pos. 126 and
close pos. 125), set U/D low, then apply a pulse to CLK. If you want to set the tap to Pos
127, set U/D high, and apply 2 pulses. If you want to bring the tap down to 1, set U/D
low, and apply 126 pulses.
This next example program uses the Debug Terminal to ask you which tap setting you
want. Then it decides whether to set the U/D pin high or low, and applies the correct
number of pulses to move the tap from its old setting to the new setting.
With the exception of EEPROM Data, the next example program also has all the sections
you could normally expect to find in an application program:
x Title – comments that include the filename of a program, its description, and the
Stamp and PBASIC directives.
x EEPROM Data – The DATA declarations used by the program.
x I/O Definitions – constant declarations that define I/O pin numbers.
x Constants – constant declarations that define other values used in the program.
x Variables – variable declarations.
x Initialization – a routine that gets the program started on the right foot. In this
next program, the potentiometer’s tap needs to be brought down to zero.
x Main – the routine that handles the primary jobs the program has to do.
x Subroutines – the segments of code that do specific jobs, either for each other, or
in this case, for the main routine.
Example Program: TerminalControlledDigtialPot.bs2

You can use this example program and the Debug Terminal to set the digital pot’s tap.
By changing the tap setting on the digital pot, you change the brightness of the LED
connected to the transistor that the digital pot controls. Figure 9-9 shows an example of
entering the value 120 into the Debug Terminal’s Transmit Windowpane while the
program is running. Since the old tap setting was 65, the LED becomes nearly twice as
bright when it is adjusted to 120.
Windowpanes Figure 9-9

Sending Messages
Transmit ĺ to the BASIC Stamp
Click the Transmit

(upper) Windowpane
Receive ĺ and enter the
numbers for the new
tap setting.
Enter and run TerminalControlledDigtialPot.bs2.

Enter values between 0 and 127 into the Debug Terminal. Make sure to press
the enter key after you type in the digits.
' -----[ Title ]-----------------------------------------------------------

' What's a Microcontroller - TerminalControlledDigitalPot.bs2
' Update digital pot's tap based on Debug Terminal user input.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
' -----[ EEPROM Data ]-----------------------------------------------------
' -----[ I/O Definitions ]-------------------------------------------------
UdPin CON 5 ' Set values of I/O pins

ClkPin CON 6 ' connected to CLK and U/D.
' -----[ Constants ]-------------------------------------------------------
DelayPulses CON 10 ' Delay to observe LED fade.

DelayReader CON 2000
' -----[ Variables ]-------------------------------------------------------
counter VAR Byte ' Counter for FOR...NEXT.

oldTapSetting VAR Byte ' Previous tap setting.
newTapSetting VAR Byte ' New tap setting.
' -----[ Initialization ]--------------------------------------------------
oldTapSetting = 0 ' Initialize new and old

newTapSetting = 0 ' tap settings to zero.
LOW UdPin ' Set U/D pin for Down.

FOR counter = 0 TO 127 ' Set tap to lowest position.
PULSOUT 6,5
PAUSE 1
NEXT
' -----[ Main Routine ]----------------------------------------------------
DO:
GOSUB Get_New_Tap_Setting ' User display and get input.

GOSUB Set_Ud_Pin ' Set U/D pin for up/down.
GOSUB Pulse_Clk_pin ' Deliver pulses.
LOOP
' -----[ Subroutines ]-----------------------------------------------------
Get_New_Tap_Setting: ' Display instructions and

' get user input for new
DEBUG CLS, "Tap setting is: ", ' tap setting value.
DEC newTapSetting, CR, CR
DEBUG "Enter new tap", CR, "setting (0 TO 127): "
DEBUGIN DEC newTapSetting
RETURN
Set_Ud_Pin: ' Examine new and old tap values

' to decide value of U/D pin.
IF newTapSetting > oldTapSetting THEN ' Notify user if values are
HIGH UdPin ' equal.
oldTapSetting = oldTapSetting + 1 ' Increment for Pulse_Clk_pin.
ELSEIF newTapSetting < oldTapSetting THEN
LOW UdPin
oldTapSetting = oldTapSetting - 1 ' Decrement for Pulse_Clk_pin.
ELSE
DEBUG CR, "New and old settings", CR,
"are the same, try ", CR,
"again...", CR
PAUSE DelayReader ' Give reader time to view
ENDIF ' Message.
RETURN
Pulse_Clk_pin:
' Deliver pulses from old to new values. Keep in mind that Set_Ud_Pin
' adjusted the value of oldTapSetting toward newTapSetting by one.
' This keeps the FOR...NEXT loop from executing one too many times.
FOR counter = oldTapSetting TO newTapSetting

PULSOUT ClkPin, 1
PAUSE DelayPulses
NEXT
oldTapSetting = newTapSetting ' Keep track of new and old

' tapSetting values.
RETURN
SUMMARY
This chapter introduced integrated circuits and showed one example of how they can be
used with the BASIC Stamp. A transistor was used as a current valve, and a digital
potentiometer was used to control the amount of current passing through the transistor.
Questions
1. What are the names of the terminals on the transistor you used in this chapter?
2. Which terminal controls the current passing through the transistor?
3. What can you do to increase or decrease the current passing through the
transistor?
4. What is a pin map?
5. What is a reference notch?
Exercises
1. Write a segment of code that makes a BASIC Stamp I/O pin send high/low
signals ten times per second using TOGGLE.
2. Write a segment of code that adjusts the tap in the digital pot to pos. 0 regardless
of what its current setting is.
3. Write a segment of code that sets the tap at pos. 32, then pos. 64, then pos. 96,
then pos. 127. The digital pot should stay at each tap setting for one second.
Projects
1. Add a photoresistor to your project and cause the brightness of the LED to adjust
with the brightness seen by the photoresistor.
2. Connect the AD5220’s CS pin to a BASIC Stamp I/O pin and use it to control
whether or not the chip accepts control signals from the BASIC Stamp. You will
need to disconnect the I/O pin from Vss before connecting it to the BASIC
Stamp’s I/O pin. Keep in mind that a low signal activates the chip, and a high
signal deactivates it.

Industrial Control uses the transistor as an on/off switch for a resistor heating
element. It also uses a phototransistor to detect the passage of stripes on a
spinning wheel.
Chapter #10: Running the Whole Show · Page 273
Chapter #10: Running the Whole Show

SUBSYSTEM INTEGRATION
Most of the activities in this text introduce how to program the BASIC Stamp to interact
with one or two circuits at a time. Many microcontrollers have to handle tens or even
hundreds of circuits. This chapter will demonstrate a few of the techniques used to
manage a variety of circuits with a single microcontroller. Programming the
microcontroller to orchestrate the activities of different circuits performing unique
functions is called subsystem integration.
The example in this chapter uses a sensor array consisting of two pushbutton circuits, a
potentiometer circuit and a photoresistor circuit. The activities in this chapter will guide
you through building and testing each subsystem individually. After each subsystem is
built and tested, you will then write a program that combines each subsystem into a
working unit. Figure 10-1 shows the circuit schematic for the system you will build, and
the master parts list is below.
Always remember: whenever possible, test each subsystem individually before trying to
make them work together. If you follow this rule, your projects will go much more
smoothly, and your chances of success will be greatly improved. The activities in this
chapter will guide you through the process.
Sensor Array Parts List

(2) Capacitors – 0.1 PF
(1) Photoresistor
(5) Jumper wires
P9
220 :
0.1 µF
Vss
P7
nc
220 :
X
Pot
0.1 µF
10 k:
Figure 10-1
Sensor Array
System Schematic
Vss
Vdd Vdd
P4
220 :
P3
220 :
10 k: 10 k:
Vss Vss
ACTIVITY #1: BUILDING AND TESTING EACH PUSHBUTTON CIRCUIT

This activity begins with building and testing a single pushbutton circuit. Once you have
confirmed that the first pushbutton circuit is operating properly, you can then move on to
building and testing the second pushbutton circuit.
Pushbutton Circuit Parts

(2) Jumper wires
Building the First Pushbutton Circuit

Build the pushbutton circuit shown in Figure 10-2.
Figure 10-2
First Pushbutton Circuit
Vdd Vin Vss
X3
Vdd
P15
P14
P13
P12
P11
P10
P9
P3 P8
220 : P7
P6
10 k: P5
P4
P3
P2
Vss P1
P0
X2
Testing the First Pushbutton Circuit

Writing a program to test this circuit should be very simple by now, especially since
you’ve already done it before.
Example Program: ReadPushbuttonState.bs2

This is a repeat of the program for testing pushbuttons from Chapter #3:
Enter and run the ReadPushbuttonState.bs2.

Verify that the BASIC Stamp is able to read the pushbutton.
Correct any problems you catch before moving on to the next circuit.
' What's a Microcontroller - ReadPushbuttonState.bs2

' Check and send pushbutton state to Debug Terminal every 1/4 second.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
DO
DEBUG ? IN3
PAUSE 250
LOOP
Your Turn – Building and Testing the Second Pushbutton Circuit

Once the first pushbutton circuit has been built and tested, the process can be repeated for
the second pushbutton.
Add the pushbutton circuit shown in Figure 10-3.

Test the second pushbutton circuit by modifying ReadPushbuttonState.bs2 so
that it reads the circuit connected to P4. Run the program and verify that the
second pushbutton works.
Correct any problems you catch before moving on to the next activity.
Figure 10-3
Adding a Second Pushbutton Circuit to the Project
Vdd Vin Vss
X3
Vdd
P15
P14
P13
P4 P12
220 : P11
P10
P9
P8
P7
P6
10 k: P5
P4
P3
P2
Vss P1
P0
X2
ACTIVITY #2: BUILDING AND TESTING EACH RC-TIME CIRCUIT

Now that the two pushbutton circuits are built and tested, you can move on to the RC-
time circuits.
Extra Parts for Potentiometer and Photoresistor Circuits

(2) Capacitors – 0.1 PF
(4) Jumper wires
(1) Photoresistor
Building the Potentiometer Circuit

Add the potentiometer circuit shown in Figure 10-4 to the project.
Figure 10-4
Adding a Potentiometer Circuit
Vdd Vin Vss
X3
P15
P7 P14
nc P13
220 :
X
P12
Pot P11
0.1 µF P10
10 k:
P9
P8
P7
P6
P5
P4
P3
Vss P2
P1
P0
X2
Testing the Potentiometer Circuit

You can test this circuit using ReadPotWithRcTime.bs2. This program was first used in
Chapter #5 to read the potentiometer circuit.
Example Program: ReadPotWithRcTime.bs2

Enter and run the ReadPotWithRcTime.bs2.
Verify that the BASIC Stamp gets reliable measurements from the
potentiometer.
Correct any problems you catch before moving on to the next circuit.
' What's a Microcontroller - ReadPotWithRcTime.bs2

' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
time VAR Word
DO
HIGH 7
PAUSE 100
RCTIME 7, 1, time
DEBUG HOME, " time = ", DEC5 time
LOOP
Your Turn – Building and Testing the Photoresistor Circuit

Once the first RC-time circuit has been built and tested, the process can be repeated for
the second RC-time circuit.
Add the photoresistor circuit shown in Figure 10-5 to your project on the
breadboard.
Modify ReadPotWithRcTime.bs2 so the photoresistor is connected to P9.
Correct any problems you catch before moving on to the next activity.
Figure 10-5
Adding the Photoresistor Circuit
Vdd Vin Vss
X3
P15
P9 P14
220 : P13
P12
P11
0.1 µF P10
P9
P8
P7
P6
P5
P4
P3
Vss P2
P1
P0
X2
ACTIVITY #3: SUBSYSTEM INTEGRATION EXAMPLE

Now that all the elements in the sensor array are built and tested, you can now write a
program that makes use of all four sensor circuits. This example will demonstrate how to
program the BASIC Stamp to display a terminal with a menu that a technician might use
to monitor the sensors.
Programming a Menu System and Using the Input/Output PIN Directive

The ON…GOSUB command can be very useful for menus.
ON offset , GOSUB Target1, {Target2, Target3,…}
In the next example program, the ON...GOSUB command uses the value of a variable
named request to direct it to one of four subroutines. If the value of request is 0, the
program executes a GOSUB Read_Pushbutton_1. If the Value of request is 1, the
program executes a GOSUB Read_Pushbutton_2, and so on.
ON request GOSUB Read_Pushbutton_1, Read_Pushbutton_2,
Read_Pot, Read_Photoresistor
You can use the PIN directive to give a name to each I/O pin you are going to use in a
PBASIC program. The BASIC Stamp Editor will then figure out whether you are using
the I/O pin as an input or an output (or both). The PIN directive’s syntax is:
PinName PIN PinNumber
The next example program demonstrates how you can declare and then use a PinName.
For example, the BASIC Stamp Editor assumes that you want to display the input value
of an I/O pin (IN3) if you are using the Pb1Pin PinName in a DEBUG command. This
DEBUG command will display a 1 or 0 depending on whether the pushbutton connected to
P3 is pressed or not pressed. Why? Because the BASIC Stamp Editor knows to
substitute IN3 for Pb1Pin.
Pb1Pin PIN 3
DEBUG CLS, ? Pb1Pin
Here is another example where the BASIC Stamp Editor knows to substitute the value of
9 because the PhotoPin PinName is used in a HIGH command and an RCTIME command.
PhotoPin PIN 9
HIGH PhotoPin
RCTIME PhotoPin, 1, time
Example Program: TerminalOperatedSensorArray.bs2

Figure 10-6 shows the Debug Terminal displayed by TerminalOperatedSensorArray.bs2.
The main menu is shown on the left, and an example of the display when ‘4’ is selected is
shown on the right. Remember to use the upper Windowpane to send your menu
selections to the BASIC Stamp.
Enter and run TerminalOperatedSensorArray.bs2.

Click the Debug Terminal’s upper Windowpane, and type digits to make your
menu selections.
The measurement displayed is the one taken at the instant the menu selection is
made, and it is displayed for 1.5 seconds. Keep this in mind when you press and
hold the pushbuttons, adjust the potentiometer and cast shade onto the
photoresistor.
Figure 10-6
Using the Debug Terminal to Select from a Menu
' -----[ Title ]-----------------------------------------------------------

' What's a Microcontroller - TerminalOperatedSensorArray.bs2
' Use Debug Terminal to choose to read one of four sensors.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
' -----[ I/O Definitions ]-------------------------------------------------
Pb1Pin PIN 3
Pb2Pin PIN 4
PotPin PIN 7
PhotoPin PIN 9
' -----[ Constants ]-------------------------------------------------------
DelayRc CON 100

DelayReader CON 1500
' -----[ Variables ]-------------------------------------------------------
request VAR Nib

time VAR Word
' -----[ Main Routine ]----------------------------------------------------
DO:
GOSUB Display_Menu
GOSUB Get_Request
LOOP
' -----[ Subroutine - Display_Menu ]---------------------------------------
Display_Menu:
DEBUG CLS, "MENU: ", CR, CR,

"1) Pushbutton 1", CR,
"2) Pushbutton 2", CR,
"3) Potentiometer", CR,
"4) Photoresistor", CR, CR
RETURN
' -----[ Subroutine - Get_Request ]----------------------------------------
Get_Request:
DEBUGIN DEC1 request

request = request - 1
RETURN
' -----[ Subroutine - Read_Pushbutton_1 ]----------------------------------
Read_Pushbutton_1:
DEBUG CLS, ? Pb1Pin

PAUSE DelayReader
RETURN
' -----[ Subroutine - Read_Pushbutton_2 ]----------------------------------
Read_Pushbutton_2:
DEBUG CLS, ? Pb2Pin

PAUSE DelayReader
RETURN
' -----[ Subroutine - Read_Pot ]-------------------------------------------
Read_Pot:
HIGH PotPin
PAUSE DelayRc
RCTIME PotPin, 1, time
DEBUG CLS, ? time, " "
PAUSE DelayReader
RETURN
' -----[ Subroutine - Read_Photoresistor ]---------------------------------
Read_Photoresistor:
HIGH PhotoPin
PAUSE DelayRc
RCTIME PhotoPin, 1, time
DEBUG CLS, ? time, " "
PAUSE DelayReader
RETURN
Your Turn – Modifying Subroutines

Terminals are not the only application for ON…GOSUB. For example, if you want to call
the four different subroutines one after another, here is a way to do it:
DO:
' GOSUB Display_Menu

' GOSUB Get_Request
FOR request = 0 TO 3
NEXT
LOOP
Notice that the two subroutines that do the terminal work were commented and the
ON…GOSUB command was placed in a FOR…NEXT loop.
Save your example program under the new name:

TerminalOperatedSensorArrayYourTurn.bs2.
Modify the main routine by making the changes just discussed.
Run the program and verify that it cycles through the measurements.
ACTIVITY #4: DEVELOPING AND ADDING A SOFTWARE SUBSYSTEM

Let’s say that your sensor array is getting placed in a device that only certain employees
are allowed to use, and they have to supply a password. This means you will have to
expand your program so that it saves and verifies a password. It’s better to write a
password program that functions on its own first, and then add it to your larger program.
Programming a Password Checker

You can save a password in a PBASIC program by using a DATA directive. For example:
Password DATA "pass!"
The same as: This DATA directive is the same as Password DATA "p", "a", "s",
"s", "!".
You will need a few variables for storing other values in the program:
index VAR Nib
temp VAR Byte
If you are using a five character password, there is a special kind of variable declaration
(called an array declaration) that you use to declare five variables with the same name.
userEntry VAR Byte(5)
Now you have five byte variables named userEntry: userEntry(0), userEntry(1),
userEntry(2), userEntry(3), and userEntry(4).
The DEBUGIN command has a formatter called STR that automatically loads characters
into an array. For example, you can use:
DEBUGIN STR userEntry \5
If you type five characters in the Debug Terminal’s Transmit Windowpane, the first will
get placed in userEntry(0), the second will get placed in userEntry(1), etc.
There is a PBASIC keyword called EXIT that you can use to break out of a loop. To
check a password, you can use an IF…THEN statement with an EXIT command to cause
the loop to end early if not all the characters are identical. When the loop ends early, it
means that index has not counted all the way up to five, which in turn means the
password was not correct:
FOR index = 0 TO 4
READ Password + index, temp
IF temp <> userEntry(index) THEN EXIT
NEXT
IF index <> 5 THEN

DEBUG CR,"Password not correct.", CR
ENDIF
This next example program places the DEBUGIN command, the FOR…NEXT loop, and the
IF…THEN statement inside a DO…LOOP UNTIL statement that keeps executing until the
value of index gets to 5 (indicating the correct password was entered).
Example Program: PasswordChecker.bs2

Figure 10-7 shows the Debug Terminal displayed by PasswordChecker.bs2. When run,
this program will wait for you to type the letters “pass!” in response to the prompt.
Enter and run PasswordChecker.bs2.

Try entering some letter combinations that are not the password, then enter the
letter combination that is the password: “pass!”.
Figure 10-7
Entering Password
into the Transmit
Windowpane
Click the Transmit

(upper) Windowpane
and enter the
password.
' What's a Microcontroller - PasswordChecker.bs2

' Check password entered in Debug Terminal's Transmit Windowpane.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
Password DATA "pass!" ' Store "secret" password here.
index VAR Nib ' Index variable.

temp VAR Byte ' Stores single char.
userEntry VAR Byte(5) ' Store user entered password.
DO
DEBUG "Enter password: " ' User instructions.

DEBUGIN STR userEntry \5 ' Get user input password.
FOR index = 0 TO 4 ' Check array against DATA

READ Password + index, temp ' Get next password char
IF temp <> userEntry(index) THEN EXIT ' Compare to user input,
NEXT ' exit if not equal.
IF index <> 5 THEN ' If exit, then index not equal

DEBUG CR,"Password not correct.", CR ' to 5 and pass is not correct.
ENDIF
LOOP UNTIL index = 5 ' Only get out of loop when

' index = 5.
DEBUG CR, "Password is correct;", CR, ' Program can move on when
"program can continue..." ' password is correct.
END
Your Turn – Modifying Passwords
Modify the Password DATA directive so that it uses a different five character
password.
By changing five different values in the program, you can also modify it so that
it accepts a four character password instead of a five character password.
Modifying Password Checker for Use in a Larger Program

The goal is to make it easy to fit the PasswordChecker.bs2 program into the example
program from Activity #3. Two things will help. First, the password checking program
should be modified so that it does most of its work in a subroutine. The different parts of
the program should also be labeled with commented headings to help make it clear how
to combine the two programs.
Example Program: ReusablePasswordChecker.bs2

ReusablePasswordChecker.bs2 works the same as PasswordChecker.bs2, but it now uses
a subroutine to do the work, and it has been reorganized into labeled sections.
Verify that the program still works the same as PasswordChecker.bs2.

Examine how the DO…LOOP UNTIL code block was placed into a subroutine.
' -----[ Title ]-----------------------------------------------------------

' What's a Microcontroller - ReusablePasswordChecker.bs2
' Check password entered in Debug Terminal's Transmit Windowpane.
' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}
' -----[ DATA Directives ]-------------------------------------------------
Password DATA "pass!" ' Store "secret" password here.
' -----[ Variable Declarations ]-------------------------------------------
index VAR Nib ' Index variable.

temp VAR Byte ' Stores single char.
userEntry VAR Byte(5) ' Store user entered password.
' -----[ Initialization Routine ]------------------------------------------
GOSUB Check_Password
' -----[ Main Routine ]----------------------------------------------------
' There is no main routine in this program.
DEBUG CR, "All Done"
END
' -----[ Subroutine – Check for Correct Password ]-------------------------
Check_Password:
DO
DEBUG "Enter password: " ' User instructions.
DEBUGIN STR userEntry \5 ' Get user input password.
FOR index = 0 TO 4 ' Check array against DATA

READ Password + index, temp ' Get next password char
IF temp <> userEntry(index) THEN EXIT ' Compare to user input,
NEXT ' exit if not equal.
IF index <> 5 THEN ' If exit, then index not equal

DEBUG CR,"Password not correct.", CR ' to 5 and pass is not correct.
ENDIF
LOOP UNTIL index = 5 ' Only get out of loop when

' index = 5.
DEBUG CR, "Password is correct." ' Program can move on when

' password is correct.
RETURN ' Return when pass is correct.
Advanced Topic: Your Turn – Combining the two Programs

Now that both TerminalOperatedSensorArray.bs2 and ReusablePasswordChecker.bs2
have both been tested, the task is to combine the two. The final program should check
your password before allowing you to choose which sensor to read using the Debug
Terminal.
You can open both programs (ReusablePasswordChecker.bs2 and

TerminalOperatedSensorArray.bs2) in the BASIC Stamp Editor.
Save TerminalOperatedSensorArray.bs2 as PasswordedSensorTerminal.bs2
You will need to tab between each program while copying sections from
ReusablePasswordChecker.bs2 and pasting them into PasswordedSensorTerminal.bs2.
Copy the Password DATA directive (including the commented heading with the
dashed line) from ReusablePasswordChecker.bs2 into
PasswordedSensorTerminal.bs2 just before the I/O Definitions section.
Copy and paste the variable declarations from ReusablePasswordChecker.bs2
into PasswordedSensorTerminal.bs2. These variable declarations are added to
the ones in PasswordedSensorTerminal.bs2, so don’t worry about copying and
pasting the commented Variables heading.
Copy the Initialization section (including the commented heading) from
ReusablePasswordChecker.bs2, and paste it between the Variables section and
the Main Routine in PasswordedSensorTerminal.bs2.
Copy the entire Subroutine section from ReusablePasswordChecker.bs2 and
paste it after the end of the last subroutine in PasswordedSensorTerminal.bs2.
Test PasswordedSensorTerminal.bs2, and see if it works, debug as needed.
SUMMARY
This chapter introduced the technique of individually testing each circuit-subsystem
before integrating it into a larger system. This chapter also introduced the ON…GOSUB
command, which is particularly useful for menu systems. The useful PIN directive was
demonstrated as a way to name your I/O pins and then let the BASIC Stamp Editor figure
out whether to read an input or write to an output. A password program was used to
introduce variable arrays, the EXIT command, and the DEBUGIN command’s STR
formatter. The password program was then integrated into a larger sensor terminal
program to give it more functionality.
Questions
1. When should you test subsystems individually before trying to make them work
together? Why?
2. How many programs did you use in this chapter that were from other chapters?
3. What are the differences between GOSUB and ON…GOSUB?
4. How does the PIN directive differ from the CON and VAR directives?
5. What’s the difference between EXIT and END?
6. How do you declare a variable array?
7. How do you access a particular element in the variable array?
Exercises
1. Explain how to use a FOR…NEXT loop with an ON…GOSUB command to cycle
through a list of subroutines.
2. Explain how to add a menu item to TerminalOperatedSensorArray.bs2 that gives
the operator the option of making a piezospeaker beep.
3. Describe the process you would use (keeping the individual testing rule in mind)
to add a piezospeaker circuit to your project.
4. Modify PasswordChecker.bs2 so that the message "you entered: " appears in the
Debug Terminal along with the text of the password.
Projects
1. Add and test a piezospeaker circuit to the sensor array you developed in this
chapter.
2. Modify TerminalOperatedSensorArray.bs2 so that it has a 5th menu item that
makes the piezospeaker beep at 2 kHz for 1.5 seconds.
3. Modify TerminalOperatedSensorArray.bs2 so that it checks each sensor 10 times

before returning to the main menu. For the RC-time measurements, eliminate
any pause commands in the subroutine. Change the pauses in the pushbutton
subroutines to PAUSE 200.
4. If you succeeded with the last Your Turn portion in Activity #4: Imagine that
your sensor array is part of an alarm system. Imagine also that the pushbutton
circuits are sensors that detect whether or not a door has been opened. Expand
the menu in PasswordedSensorTerminal.bs2 so that the user can arm the alarm
and disarm the alarm with a password. Use LEDs to indicate whether the alarm
is armed or not armed, and use a piezospeaker as the alarm. When the alarm is
armed and a pushbutton is pressed and released, the piezo speaker should send
out brief warning chirps every five or ten seconds for thirty seconds. If the
correct password has not been entered after 30 seconds, the piezospeaker should
make a continuous loud and annoying noise.
5. While working on one of the activities and projects in this book you may have
thought to yourself, “hey, I could use this to build a >> insert your project here:
________________ <<!” Use the material you have learned in this book to
invent a gadget or gizmo of your own design.
All of the books listed are available for free download from www.parallax.com. The
versions cited below were current at the time of this printing, but please check
www.parallax.com for the latest revisions. We continually strive to improve our texts.
Reference
This book is an essential reference for all Stamps in Class Student Guides. It is packed
with information on the BASIC Stamp series of microcontrollers, the Board of Education
and our other carrier boards, the BASIC Stamp Editor, and our PBASIC programming
language.
Stamps in Class Student Guides:

This book (What’s a Microcontroller?) is the gateway text to our other Stamps in Class
Student Guides. After completing this text, you can continue your studies with any of the
Student Guides listed below. For a well-rounded introduction to the design practices that
go into modern devices and machinery, working through the activities and projects in the
following Student Guides is highly recommended.

“Robotics!”, Student Guide, Version 1.5, Parallax Inc., 2000
More Robotics Kits:

The Stamps in Class Robotics! Student Guide is also a beginning, and after completing it,
you will be ready for either or both of these more advanced robotics texts and kits:
“Advanced Robotics: with the Toddler”, Student Guide, Version 1.2, Parallax
Inc., 2003
“SumoBot”, Student Guide, Version 1.1, Parallax Inc., 2002
Educational Project Kits:

Elements of Digital Logic and Understanding Signals focus more closely on topics in
electronics, while StampWorks provides a variety of projects that are useful to hobbyists,
inventors and product designers interested in trying a variety of projects.
“Elements of Digital Logic”, Student Guide, Version 1.0, Parallax Inc., 2003
“StampWorks”, Manual, Version 1.2, Parallax Inc., 2001
Appendix A: USB to Serial Adaptor · Page 293
Appendix A: USB to Serial Adaptor

At the time of this writing, the BAFO BF-810 USB to Serial Adaptor (Parallax Stock#
800-00030) shown in Figure A-1 is the only recommended adaptor for use with Parallax
products. The BF-810 comes with the hardware shown in Figure A-1, a printed manual,
and CD ROM with drivers for use with Windows operating systems.
BAFO Downloads: The manual and software for this product can also be downloaded from:
http://www.bafo.com/.
Figure A-1
BAFO BF-810
USB to Serial
Adaptor
This adaptor is
Parallax Stock#
800-00030. It
also comes with a
manual and CD
(not shown).
Appendix B: Equipment and Parts Lists · Page 295
Appendix B: Equipment and Parts Lists
Parts lists are subject to change: Please note that the part numbers and bills of materials
cited in this appendix are subject to change without notice. If you have questions about a
particular part or quantity, please contact the Parallax using the www.parallax.com ĺ
Company ĺ Contact Parallax link.
To complete the exercises in this book, you need to have one of the following Parallax
hardware options:
Option 1:
x Board of Education Full Kit (#28102) - AND-
x What’s a Microcontroller Parts Kit (#28152 with text, #28122 without text)
These two kits are also sold separately. The Board of Education Full Kit (contents listed
below) is the core equipment of the Stamps in Class curriculum, and it can be used with
any of the Stamps in Class texts and kits.
Board of Education Full Kit (#28102)

Parallax Part # Description Quantity
550-00022 Board of Education 1
800-00016 Pluggable wires 10
BS2-IC BASIC Stamp 2 module 1
800-00003 Serial cable 1
750-00008 DC power supply – 9 V, 300 mA 1
27000 Parallax CD – includes software 1
700-00037 Rubber feet – set of 4 1
You may purchase the What’s a Microcontroller Parts Kit alone (#28122), or with the
parts and the What’s a Microcontroller? printed text together (#28152). These parts kits
are assembled to support the activities and projects in the current printed version of the
text. The What’s a Microcontroller Parts Kit contents are listed in the table on the
following page.
What’s a Microcontroller Parts Kit #28122

What’s a Microcontroller Parts & Text #28152
150-01020 Resistor, 5%, 1/4W, 1 k: 10
150-01030 Resistor, 5%, 1/4W, 10 k: 4
150-01040 Resistor, 5%, 1/4W, 100 k: 2
150-02020 Resistor, 5%, 1/4W, 2 k: 2
150-02210 Resistor, 5%, 1/4W, 220 : 6
150-04710 Resistor, 5%, 1/4W, 470 : 6
152-01031 Potentiometer - 10 k: 1
200-01031 Capacitor, 0.01 PF, 50 V 1
200-01040 Capacitor, 0.1 PF, 100 V 2
201-01080 Capacitor, 1000 PF, 10 V 1
201-03080 Capacitor 3300 PF, 16 V 1
What’s a Microcontroller?
28123 printed text 1
(Included in #28152 only.)
350-00001 LED - Green - T1 3/4 2
350-00005 LED - Bi-Color - T1 3/4 1
350-00006 LED - Red - T1 3/4 2
350-00007 LED - Yellow - T1 3/4 2
350-00009 Photoresistor 1
350-00027 7-segment LED Display 1
400-00002 Pushbutton – Normally Open 2
451-00303 3 Pin Header – Male/Male 1
500-00001 Transistor – 2N3904 1
Potentiometer - 10 k: Digitally
604-00010 1
Controlled (AD5220-B10)
800-00016 3” Jumper Wires – Bag of 10 2
900-00001 Piezo Speaker 1
900-00005 Parallax Standard Servo 1
Appendix B: Equipment and Parts Lists · Page 297
Option 2:
x BASIC Stamp What’s a Microcontroller Kit (#90005)
This kit features the What’s a Microcontroller Parts & Text, with a HomeWork Board
and accessories that are otherwise sold separately. The BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board
can be used with the What’s a Microcontroller? text in place of the Board of Education
and BASIC Stamp 2 module. The HomeWork Board can also be used in the majority of
the activities in the Stamps in Class curriculum, though occasional circuit modifications
are necessary for certain activities. The BASIC Stamp What’s a Microcontroller Kit
includes the following items:
BASIC Stamp What’s a Microcontroller Kit (#90005)

555-28158 HomeWork Board with breadboard 1
28123 What’s a Microcontroller Text 1
27000 Parallax CD – includes software 1
800-00003 Serial cable 1
28122 What’s a Microcontroller Parts Kit 1
700-00037 Rubber feet – set of 4 1
A note to educators: The HomeWork board is available separately in packs of 10 as an

economical solution for classroom use, costing significantly less than the Board of
Education + BASIC Stamp 2 module. Please contact the Parallax Sales Team toll free at
(888) 512-1024 for quantity pricing.
BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board Ten-Pack (#28158)

28158 10
with breadboard
Appendix C: BASIC Stamp and Carrier Board Components and Functions · Page 299
Appendix C: BASIC Stamp and Carrier Board

Components and Functions
The BASIC STAMP 2
Figure C-1 shows a close-up of the BASIC Stamp 2. Its major components and their
functions are indicated by labels.
Figure C-1 BASIC Stamp 2 Components and Their Functions

The Board of Education Rev C

The Board of Education Rev C is shown in Figure C-2 Its major components and their
Figure C-2 Board of Education Rev C

Appendix C: BASIC Stamp and Carrier Board Components and Functions · Page 301
The BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board

The BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board is shown in Figure C-3. Its major components and
their functions are indicated by labels.
Figure C-3 BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board

The Board of Education Rev B

Figure C-4 shows the Board of Education Rev B. Its major components and their
Figure C-4 Board of Education Rev B

Appendix D: Batteries and Power Supplies · Page 303
Appendix D: Batteries and Power Supplies

9 V BATTERIES
For best results, 9 V batteries are recommended.
9 V battery specifications: Look for batteries with ratings similar these:
Not Rechargeable Rechargeable

x Alkaline x Ni-Cad (Nickel Cadmium)
x Ni-MH (Nickel Metal Hydride)
For best results, the battery’s milliamp hour (mAh) rating should be
100 or higher.
Not all chargers work for both types of batteries. Make sure that
your charger is recommended for the battery you are using (either
Ni-Cad or Ni-MH).
Follow all battery and charger instructions and caution statements.
PARALLAX DC SUPPLIES
Parallax carries several power supplies that can be used with the Board of Education Rev
C only. For the servo experiments in this text, the jumper between the X4 and X5 servo
headers should be set to Vdd. The supplies listed in Table D-1 are designed for AC
outlets in the USA, and both have 2.1 mm center-positive barrel plugs that connect to the
Board of Education’s barrel jack.
Table D-1: Power Supplies You Can Get from Parallax, Inc.
Input Output
Parallax Part #
VAC Hz VDC mA
750-00008 120 60 9 300
750-00009 120 60 7.5 1000
GENERIC DC SUPPLIES
For best results with the BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board or any of the Board of
Education Revisions, use a DC supply (also called an AC adaptor) with the following
ratings:
Input
This depends on which country you live in and the amplitude and frequency of the AC
power at the wall outlets. For the USA and Canada, the input should be 120 VAC, 60
Hz.
Output
6 VDC, 800 mA
The mA rating can be higher. A 6 V, 1000 mA supply would be acceptable, for example.
Plug
The Board of Education has both a barrel jack, which can be connected to a barrel plug,
and a 9 V battery connector, which can be connected to a 9 V battery extension. The
HomeWork Board has only the 9 V battery connector.
Barrel Plug
Figure D-1 shows DC supply commonly used with the BASIC Stamp and Board of
Education. It has a 2.1 mm center-positive barrel plug along with the center positive
symbol that is evident on its label.
Appendix D: Batteries and Power Supplies · Page 305
Figure D-1
DC Supply with Barrel Plug
and Center Positive Symbol
9 V Battery Extension
Figure D-2 shows an AC adaptor connected to a 9 V battery extension that can be used
with the BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board. See WARNING discussed next.
Figure D-2
AC Adaptor with 9 V
Battery Extension
WARNING - Beware of Universal AC Adaptors and Reversed Supply Terminals

Figure D-3 shows a common mistake that should be avoided with universal adaptors.
Many of these allow you to reverse the terminals on the 9 V battery extension. Although
it cannot hurt the BASIC Stamp, Board of Education or Homework Board, it can destroy
the Parallax Servo connected to Vin in a matter of seconds. The only system that can
protect the servo from this mistake is the Board of Education Rev C (with jumper set to
Vdd).
TIP TIP
TIP
Figure D-3
Polarity on
Universal
Adaptors
TIP
Beware of “Battery Replacers”

Many battery replacers are designed to supply appliances with low current draw. With
current ratings in the neighborhood of 10 mA, their output capacities are insufficient for
many of the activities in this text. For example, two LEDs connected to 220 : resistors
draw a total of 14.5 mA, and the BASIC Stamp takes an additional 3 to 7 mA. A servo
draws upwards of 100 mA, and that definitely won’t work with a “battery replacer”.
NOTE: It’s pretty easy to tell when a circuit is drawing more current that the supply can
deliver because the Pwr LED on the Board of Education (or HomeWork Board) flickers
and/or goes dim.
Appendix E: Trouble-Shooting · Page 307
Appendix E: Trouble-Shooting
Here is a list of things to try to quickly fix any difficulties getting the BASIC Stamp
Editor to communicate with the BASIC Stamp:
If you are using a Board of Education Rev C, make sure the power switch is set
to position-1.
Rule out dead batteries and incorrect or malfunctioning power supplies by using
a new 9 V battery.
Make sure the serial cable is firmly connected to both the computer’s COM port
and the DB9 connector on the Board of Education or BASIC Stamp HomeWork
Board.
Make sure that your serial cable is a normal serial cable. DO NOT USE A
NULL MODEM CABLE. Most null modem cables are labeled NULL or Null
Modem; visually inspect the cable for any such labeling. If you find that label,
do not try to use it to program the BASIC Stamp.
Disable any palmtop communication software.
If you are using a BASIC Stamp and Board of Education, also check the following:
Make sure the BASIC Stamp was inserted into the socket right-side-up as shown
in Figure 1-30 on page 18.
If you are using a DC power supply that plugs into the wall, make sure it is
plugged in to both the wall and the Board of Education. Verify that the green
Pwr light on the Board of Education emits light when the DC supply is plugged
in.
Make sure the BASIC Stamp is firmly inserted into the socket. Disconnect
power first, then press down firmly on the module with your thumb. Also
visually inspect the BASIC Stamp to make sure that none of the pins folded
under the module instead of sinking into their sockets on the Board of Education.
If your Identification Window looks similar to Figure E-1, it means that the BASIC
Stamp Editor cannot find your BASIC Stamp on any COM port. If you have this
problem, try the following:
Figure E-1
Identification Window
Example: BASIC Stamp

2 not found on COM
ports.
Close the Identification Window.

Make sure the serial cable is properly connected.
Try the Run ĺ Identify test again.
If you know the number of the COM port, but it does not appear in the
Identification Window, use the Edit Port List button to add that COM port, and
then try the Run ĺ Identify test again.
If you have more than one COM port, try connecting your Board of Education or
BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board to a different COM port and see if Run ĺ
Identify works then.
If you have a second computer, try it on the different computer.
If none of these solutions work, go to www.parallax.com and follow the Support
link.
Appendix F: More About Electricity · Page 309
Appendix F: More About Electricity
What’s an Electron? An electron is one of the three fundamental parts of a molecule; the
other two are the proton and the neutron. One or more protons and neutrons stick together
in the center of the molecule in an area called the nucleus. Electrons are very small in
comparison to protons and neutrons, and they orbit around the nucleus. Electrons repel
each other, and electrons and protons attract to each other.
What’s Charge? The tendency for an electron to repel from another electron and attract to
a nearby proton is called negative charge. The tendency for a proton to repel from another
proton and attract an electron is called positive charge. When a molecule has more
electrons than protons, it is said to be negatively charged. If a molecule has fewer electrons
than protons, it is said to be positively charged. If a molecule has the same number of
protons and electrons, it is called neutrally charged.
What’s Voltage? Voltage is like electrical pressure. When a negatively charged molecule is
near a positively charged molecule, the extra electron on the negatively charged molecule
tries to get from the negatively charged molecule to the positively charged molecule.
Batteries keep a compound with negatively charged molecules separated from a compound
with positively charged molecules. Each of these compounds is connected to one of the
battery’s terminals; the positively charged compound is connected to the positive (+)
terminal, and the negative compound is connected to the negative (-) terminal.
The volt is a measurement of electric pressure, and it’s abbreviated with a capital V. You
may already be familiar with the nine volt (9 V) battery used to supply power to the Board of
Education or HomeWork Board. Other common batteries include the 12 V batteries found in
cars and the 1.5 V AA batteries used in calculators, handheld games, and other devices.
What’s Current? Current is a measure of the number of electrons per second passing
through a circuit. Sometimes the molecules bond in a chemical reaction that creates a
compound (that is neutrally charged). Other times, the electron leaves the negatively
charged molecule and joins the positively charged molecule by passing though a circuit like
the one you just built and tested. The letter most commonly used to refer to current in
schematics and books is capital ‘I’.
What’s an amp? An amp is the basic unit of current, and the notation for the amp is the
capital ‘A’. Compared to the circuits you are using with the BASIC Stamp, an amp is a very
large amount of current. It’s a convenient value for describing the amount of current that a
car battery supplies to headlights, the fan that cool a car’s engine, and other high power
devices.
What’s Resistance? Resistance is the element in a circuit that slows down the flow of
electrons (the current) from a battery’s negative terminal to its positive terminal.
The ohm is the basic measurement of resistance. It has already been introduced and it’s
abbreviated with the Greek letter omega (:).
What’s a Conductor? Copper wire has almost no resistance, and it’s called a conductor.
ACTIVITY: OHMS LAW, VOLTAGE, AND CURRENT

This activity applies some of the definitions just discussed.
Ohm’s Law Parts

(1) Resistor – 1 k: (brown-black-red)
(1) Resistor – 2 k: (red-black-red)
Test Circuit
The resistance value of Ri in Figure F-1 can be changed. Lower resistance allows more
current through the LED, and it glows more brightly. Higher resistance values will cause
the LED to look dim because they do not allow as much current to pass through the
circuit.
Disconnect power to your Board of Education or HomeWork Board whenever

you modify the circuit.
Build the circuit shown starting with a 220 : resistor.
Modify the circuit by replacing the 220 : resistor with a 470 : resistor. Was
the LED less bright?
Repeat using the 1 k: resistor, then the 2 k: resistor, checking the change in
brightness each time.
Vdd Vin Vss

X3
Vdd +
R1 R2 R3 R4 P15
P14
P13
P12
Ri P11 Figure F-1
P10 LED Current Monitor
P9
P8
R1 = 220 : P7
LED R2 = 470 : P6
P5
R3 = 1 k: P4
R4 = 2 k: P3
P2
Vss P1
P0
X2
If you are using a 9-V battery, you can also compare the brightness of a different voltage
source, Vin. Vin is connected directly to the 9 V battery’s + terminal, and Vss is
connected directly to the battery’s negative terminal. Vdd is called regulated 5 V. That’s
about half the voltage of the 9 V battery.
If you are not using a 9 V battery, stop here and skip to the Calculating the
Current section.
Start with the circuit shown in Figure F-1, but use a 1 k: resistor.
Make a note of how bright the LED is.
Disconnect power
Modify the circuit by disconnecting the resistor lead from Vdd and plugging it
into Vin.
When you plug the power back in, is the LED brighter? How much brighter?
DO NOT try the Vin experiment with a 220 or 470 : resistor, it will supply the LED with
more current than it is rated for.
Calculating the Current

The BASIC Stamp Manual has some rules about how much current it can supply to
circuits. If you don’t follow these rules, you may end up damaging your BASIC Stamp.
The rules have to do with how much current an I/O pin is allowed to deliver and how
much current a group of I/O pins is allowed to deliver.
Current Rules for BASIC Stamp I/O Pins

x An I/O pin can “source” 20 mA. In other words, if you send the HIGH signal to an
I/O pin, it should not supply the LED circuit with more than 20 mA.
x If you rewire the LED circuit so that the BASIC Stamp makes the LED turn on
when you send the LOW command, an I/O pin can “sink” up to 25 mA.
x P0 through P7 can only source up to 20 mA. Likewise with P8 through P15. If

you have lots of LED circuits, you will need larger resistors so that you don’t draw
too much current.
If you know how to calculate how much current your circuit will use, then you can decide
if it’s OK to make your LEDs glow that brightly.
Every electronic component has rules for what it does with voltage, resistance, and
current. For the light emitting diode, the rule you can use is a value called the diode
forward voltage. For the resistor, the rule is called Ohm’s Law. These are facts that you
need to figure out how much current your LED circuit is using. There are also rules for
how current and voltage add up in circuits. These are called Kirchoff’s Voltage and
Current Laws.
Vdd – Vss = 5 V The voltage (electrical pressure) from Vdd to Vss is 5 V. This is called
regulated voltage, and it works about the same as a battery that is exactly 5 V.
Vin – Vss = 9 V If you are using 9 V battery, the voltage from Vin to Vss is 9 V. Be careful.
If you are using a voltage regulator that plugs into the wall, even if it says 9 V, it could go as
high as 18 V.
Ground and/or reference are words you see used to refer to the negative terminal of a
circuit. When it comes to the BASIC Stamp and Board of Education, Vss is considered the
ground reference. It is zero volts, and if you are using a 9 V battery, it is that battery’s
negative terminal. The battery’s positive terminal is 9 V. Vdd is 5 V (above the Vss
reference of 0 V), and it is a special voltage made by a voltage regulator chip to supply the
BASIC Stamp with power.
Ohm’s Law: V = I × R The voltage measured across a resistor’s terminals (V) equals the
current passing through the resistor (I) times the resistor’s resistance (R).
Diode Forward Voltage: When an LED is emitting light, the voltage measured from anode
to cathode will be around 1.6 V. Regardless of whether the current passing through it is a
large or a small value, the voltage will continue to be approximately 1.6 V.
Kirchoff’s Voltage Law Simplified: voltage used equals voltage supplied. If you supply
a circuit with 5 V, the number of volts all the parts use had better add up to 5 V.
Kirchoff’s Current Law Simplified: current in equals current out. The current that
enters an LED circuit from Vdd is the same amount of current that leaves it through Vss.
Also, if you connect three LEDs to the BASIC Stamp, and each LED circuit draws 5 mA, it
means the BASIC Stamp has to supply all the circuits with a total of 15 mA.
Example Calculation: One Circuit, Two Circuits

Calculating how much current an LED circuit draws takes two steps:
1. Figure out the voltage across the resistor

2. Use Ohm’s Law to figure out the current through the resistor.
Figure F-2 shows how to figure out the voltage across the resistor. The voltage supplied
is on the left; it’s 5 V. The voltages used are on the right. The voltage we don’t know at
the start is VR, the voltage across the resistor. But, we do know that the voltage across
the LED is 1.6 V (the diode forward voltage). We also know that the voltage across the
parts has to add up to 5 V because of Kirchoff’s Voltage Law. The difference between 5
V and 1.6 V is 3.4 V, so that must be the voltage across the resistor VR.
Vdd
+
+
VR = ? V Figure F-2
VR 1.6V 5V
5V - Voltage Across
VR 5V 1.6V the Circuit,
+ Resistor, and
VR 3.4V
1.6 V LED
-
-
Vss
Kilo is metric for 1000. The metric way of saying 1000 is kilo, and it’s abbreviated with the
lower-case k. Instead of writing 1000 :, you can write 1 k:. Either way, it’s pronounced
one-kilo-ohm. Likewise, 2000 : is written 2 k:.
Milli is metric for 1/1000, and it is abbreviated with a lower-case m. If the BASIC Stamp
supplies an LED circuit with 3.4 thousandths of an amp, that’s 3.4 milliamps, or 3.4 mA.
What’s a mA? Pronounced milliamp, it’s the notation for one-one-thousandth-of-an-amp.
The ‘m’ in mA is the metric notation for milli, which stands for 1/1000. The ‘A’ in mA stands
for amps. Put the two together, and you have milliamps, and it’s very useful for describing
the amount of current the BASIC Stamp and the circuits connected to it draw.
How much current is 7.23 mA? It’s the amount of current the LED shown on the right side
of Figure F-3 conducts. You can replace the 470 : resistor with a 220 : resistor, and the
circuit will conduct 15.5 mA, and the LED will glow more brightly. If you use a 1000 :
resistor, the circuit will conduct 3.4 mA, and the LED will glow less brightly. A 2000 :
resistor will cause the LED to glow less brightly still, and the current will be 1.7 mA.
Figure F-3 shows an example of how to calculate the current the circuit uses if the
resistor is 470 :. Start with Ohm’s Law. You know the answers to V (3.4 V) and R
(470 :). Now, all you have to do is solve for I (the current).
V IuR
3.4V I u 470 :
3.4V
I
+ 470 :
Figure F-3
3.4 V I X 470 : I 0.00723V Current through
: the Resistor
-
I 0.00723 A
7.23
I A
1000
I 7.23 mA
Yes, it’s true - 1 A = 1 V/: (One amp is one volt per ohm).
Let’s say you turned two LEDs on at the same time. That means that inside the BASIC
Stamp, it is supplying the circuits as shown in Figure F-4. Have we exceeded the 20 mA
limit? Let’s find out. Remember that the simplified version of Kirchoff’s Current Law
says that the total current drawn from the supply equals the current supplied to all the
circuits. That means that I in Figure F-4 has to equal the total of the two currents being
drawn. Simply add the two current draws, and you’ll get an answer of 14.5 mA. You are
still under the 20 mA limit, so your circuit is a safe design.
Vdd
I=?
Figure F-4
I I1 I 2 ...I i
Total Current
7.23 mA 470 : 7.23 mA 470 :
I 7.23 mA 7.23 mA Supplied to
I 14.5 mA Two LED
Circuits
LED LED
Vss Vss
Your Turn – Modifying the Circuit

Repeat the exercise in Figure F-2, but use Vin – Vss = 9V. The answer is VR =
7.4 V
Repeat the exercise in Figure F-3, but use a 1 k: resistor. Answer: I = 3.4 mA.
Use VR = 7.4 V to do the exercise in Figure F-3 with a 1 k: resistor. Answer: I
= 7.4 mA.
Repeat the exercise shown in Figure F-4 with one of the resistors at 470 : and
the other at 1 k:. Answer: I = 7.23 mA + 3.4 mA = 10.63 mA.
Appendix G: RTTTL Format Summary · Page 317
Appendix G: RTTTL Format Summary

This is a summary intended to help make sense out of RTTTL format. The full RTTTL
specification can be found published at various web sites. Using any search engine, use
the keywords RTTTL specification, to review web pages that include the specification.
Here is an example of an RTTTL format ringtone:

TakeMeOutToTheBallgame:d=4,o=7,b=225:2c6,c,a6,g6,e6,2g.6,2d6,p,
2c6,c,a6,g6,e6,2g.6,g6,p,p,a6,g#6,a6,e6,f6,g6,a6,p,f6,2d6,p,2a6
,a6,a6,b6,c, d,b6,a6,g6
The text before the first colon is what the cell phone displays as the name of the song. In
this case, the ringtone is named:
TakeMeOutToTheBallGame:
Between the first and second colon, the default settings for the song are entered using d,
o, and b. Here is what they mean:
d – duration
o – octave
b – beats per minute or tempo.
In the TakeMeOutToTheBallGame, the default settings are:

d=4,o=7,b=225:
The notes in the melody are entered after the second colon, and they are separated by
commas. If just the note letter is used, that note will be played for the default duration in
the default octave. For example, the second note in TakeMeOutToTheBallGame is:
,c,
Since it has no other information, it will be played for the default quarter note duration
(d=4), in the seventh octave (o=7).
A note could have up to five characters between the commas; here is what each character
specifies:
,duration note sharp dot octave,
For example:
,2g#.6,
means play the half note G-sharp for 1 ½ the duration of a half note, and play it in the
sixth octave.
Here are a few examples from TakeMeOutToTheBallGame:
,2g.6, – half note, G, dotted, sixth octave

,a6, – default quarter note duration, A note played in the sixth octave
,g#6, – quarter duration, g note, sharp (denoted by #), sixth octave
The character:
,p,
stands for pause, and it is used for rests. With no extra information, the p plays for the
default quarter-note duration. You could also play a half note’s worth of rest by using:
,2p,
Here is an example of a dotted rest:

,2p.,
In this case the rest would last for a half note plus a quarter note’s duration.
Index · Page 319
Index
-%-
Identification Window, 20
%, 173 Identify, 308
-*- Memory Map, 257
*, 94 Software, 5
**, 239 Trouble-Shooting, 307
*/, 95, 239
BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board, 14
-3- BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board
3-position switch, 17 Components, 301
-7- Battery, 14, 45
7-Segment Display, 161–66 Beat, 222
Bi-Color LED, 60
-A- Binary Numbers, 21, 77, 173
Active-High, 79 Bit, 54, 171, 243
Active-Low, 79 Board of Education, 13
AD5220 Digital Potentiometer Components, 300
Pin Map, 262 Full Kit, 295
Pin Names and Functions, 262 Revision label, 102
Algorithm, 96 Servo Header, 104
Amp, 309
Anode, 40 Board of Education Rev B
Array, 284 Components, 302
ASCII Codes, 226
Boe-Bot, 2
-B- Breadboard. See Prototyping Area
Byte, 54, 226, 243
Base, 259
BASIC Stamp -C-
BASIC Stamp 2 Module, 1 Cadmium Sulfide, 185
Components, 299 Capacitor, 139–41, 145
HomeWork Board, 297 Ceramic, 146
Polar – identifying terminals, 139
BASIC Stamp Editor
Page 320 · What’s a Microcontroller
Carriage return, 25 Transmit Windowpane, 117, 118

Carrier board, 13 DEBUGIN, 117–20, 284
Cathode, 40 DEBUGIN Formatters
Character, 226
Charge, 309 STR, 284
Circuit, 41 DEC, 25, 117
Collector, 259 Digital Potentiometer, 261–71
COM Port, 16, 192 Diode Forward Voltage, 313
Comment, 24 DIRH, 171–74
Comment, 52 Disconnect power, 31
Components Dot Notes, 234
BASIC Stamp, 299 Duration, 218, 225, 227, 229–34
BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board, 301 -E-
Board of Education, 300 Echo, 117, 118
Board of Education Rev B, 302 EEPROM, 193–99, 226, 257
Electron, 45, 309
Conductor, 309 Embedded system, 1
Counting, 90 Emitter, 259
CR, 25 END, 25
Current, 38, 45, 46, 309 EXIT, 284
Flow, 46 -F-
milliamp, 314
Fetch and Execute, 257
Cycle, 215 Flat, 223
FOR…NEXT, 52–55, 111
-D-
FREQOUT, 217
DATA, 226 Frequency
DEBUG Duration, 218
Command, 24
Mixing, 218, 221–23
DEBUG Formatters Musical Notes, 223–25
CR, 25 -G-
DEC, 25
GOSUB, 202
Debug Terminal, 23 Ground, 313
Receive Windowpane, 117, 118
Index · Page 321
-H- Current, 313
Hertz, 215 Voltage, 313

HIGH, 49 KVL, 313
Hz. See Hertz
-L-
-I-
Label, 202
I/O Pins. See Input/Output Pins Light Emitting Diode, 37–38, 40–41
IC. See Integrated Circuit
Identification Window, 20 Anode, 40
Identify, 308 Bi-Color, 60
IF…ELSEIF…ELSE, 85 Cathode, 40
IF…THEN…ELSE, 81
IN3, 77 Circuit Calculations, 313
IN7, 147 Schematic Symbol, 40
Indicator light, 37 Terminals, 40
Input/Output Pin
LOOKDOWN, 178
Input, 71
LOOKUP, 175–77
Input/Output Pins, 42 LOW, 50
Default Direction, 173 -M-
Integer, 239 mA, 314
Integrated Circuit, 258 Math Operations, 238
Pin Map, 262 Memory Map, 194, 257
Menu, 279
Reference Notch, 262
Microcontroller, 1
Interference, 222 Microsecond, 111
Milli, 314
-J-
Millisecond, 50, 111
Jumper, 104 Mixing, 218, 221–23
Multiply, 94
-K-
Music
kB, 195 Dot, 234
KB, 195
KCL, 313 Flat, 223
Kilo, 314 FREQOUT and Notes, 224
Kilobyte, 195
Natural, 223
Kirchoff’s Laws (Simplified)
Note Duration, 225, 227, 229–34 Bus, 169

Notes, 223 Device, 169
Octave, 223 Part Drawing
Piano Keyboard, 223 7-Segment Display, 161
Rest, 229 Bi-Color LED, 60
Ringtone, 241 LED, 40
RTTTL Format, 317–18 Photoresistor, 186
RTTTL Format, 241, 247–52 Piezoelectric Speaker, 215
Sharp, 223 Potentiometer, 136
Tempo, 229 Pushbutton – Normally Open, 71
-N- Resistor, 38
Natural, 223 Transistor (NPN), 259
nc, 163 PAUSE, 49
Nested Loop, 219–21 PBASIC Commands
Neutral, 45
Nib, 54, 243 DEBUG, 24
No-Connect, 163 DEBUGIN, 117–20, 284
Notes, 223
DEC, 117
NPN, 259
DO…LOOP, 50
-O-
END, 25
Octave, 223
EXIT, 284
Offset, 151
Ohm, 38, 309 FOR…NEXT, 52–55, 111
Ohm’s Law, 313 FREQOUT, 217
omega, 38
ON…GOSUB, 279–88 GOSUB, 202
operator, 95 HIGH, 49
OUTH \r, 170 IF…ELSEIF…ELSE, 85
Overflow, 243
IF…THEN…ELSE, 81
-P-
LOOKDOWN, 178
Parallel
LOOKUP, 175–77
Index · Page 323
LOW, 50 Parenthesis, 238

ON…GOSUB, 279 Photoresistor, 185–86
PAUSE, 49 RC-Time Circuit, 186
PULSOUT, 110 Piano Keyboard, 223
RANDOM, 95 Piezoelectric
RCTIME, 147–48 Element, 216
READ, 197–99, 226 Speaker, 215
RETURN, 202 Pin Map, 162, 262
SELECT…CASE, 241–46 Pitch, 215
Polling, 90
TOGGLE, 266 Potentiometer, 135–37
UNTIL, 93 Digital, 261–71
WRITE, 195–97, 226 Terminals, 136
PBASIC Directives Prototyping Area
DATA, 226–29 Input/Output Pins, 42
PBASIC, 24 Power Terminals, 41
PIN, 279
Prototyping Areas
Stamp, 24
Socket, 41
PBASIC I/O Registers
Pseudo Random, 96
DIRH, 171–74 Pull-Up Resistor, 79
IN3, 77 Pulse, 110
PULSOUT, 110
OUTH, 171–74
Pushbutton, 71–72
PBASIC Operators Circuit, 75–77
%, 173 Normally Open, 72
*, 94
-R-
**, 239
Radio Control, 149
*/, 95, 239 RANDOM, 95
DCD, 239 RCTIME, 147–48
READ, 195, 226
Order of Execution, 238
Receive Windowpane, 117, 118
Reference, 313 Seed, 96

Reference Notch, 262 SELECT…CASE, 241
Reset button, 23 Sensor, 185
Resistance, 309 Sensor Array, 273, 279
Resistor, 38–40, 48 Servo, 101–2
Color Codes, 39–40 Cable, 101
Leads, 38 Case, 101
Pull-Down, 79 Connecting to BASIC Stamp, 102–10
Pull-Up, 79 Header, 104
Tolerance, 39 Horn, 101
Rest, 229 Jack, 101
RETURN, 202 Sharp, 223
Ringtone, 241 Stamp Plot Lite, 189–93
Robot, 2–4 Status indicator, 37
RTTTL Format, 241, 247–52, 317–18 STR, 284
-S- Subroutine, 202–9
Scaling, 151 Label, 202
Schematic Subsystem Integration, 273
Dots Indicate Connections, 84 Superposition, 222
Drawing, 46 -T-
Schematic Symbol Tempo, 229
7-Segment Display, 162
Terminal
Bi-Color LED, 60 Piezoelectric Speaker, 216
LED, 40 TOGGLE, 266

Token, 257
Photoresistor, 186
Tolerance, 39
Piezoelectric Speaker, 215 Transistor, 258, 259–61
Potentiometer, 136 2N3904, 259
Pushbutton – Normally Open, 71 Base, 259
Resistor, 38 Base Current, 260
Transistor (NPN), 259 Collector, 259
Index · Page 325
Emitter, 259 Nib, 54, 243

NPN, 259 Word, 54, 243
Switching, 260 Vdd, 41, 46, 313
Transmit Windowpane, 117, 118 Vin, 41, 313
Volt, 309
-U- Voltage, 45, 309
UNTIL, 93 Vss, 41, 46, 313
USB to Serial Adaptor, 293 -W-
-V- What’s a Microcontroller
Variables, 52–53, 54, 243 Parts Kit, 295
Array, 284 Text, 295
Bit, 54, 243 Word, 54, 226, 243
Byte, 54, 243 WRITE, 195–97

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What’s a Microcontroller?

14-DAY MONEY BACK GUARANTEE

COPYRIGHTS AND TRADEMARKS

WEB SITE AND DISCUSSION LISTS

Chapter #4: Controlling Motion ............................................................................ 101

SUPPORT AND TEACHER’S GUIDE

THE STAMPS IN CLASS CURRICULUM

Stamps in Class Student Guides:

“Applied Sensors”, Student Guide, Version 2.0, Parallax Inc., 2003

More Robotics Kits:

Educational Project Kits:

Chapter #1: Getting Started

THE BASIC STAMP 2 - YOUR NEW MICROCONTROLLER

AMAZING INVENTIONS WITH THE BASIC STAMP

Parallax Boe-Bot (left)

Prototype by the Robot

Ecological data collection

HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

ACTIVITY #1: GETTING THE SOFTWARE

Computer System Requirements

x Windows 95 or newer operating system

Downloading the Software from the Internet

 Using a web browser, go to www.parallax.com (shown in Figure 1-8).

Go to Activity #2: Installing

Other free downloads at the Parallax web site include:

Finding the Software on the Parallax CD

 Click the floppy diskette icon labeled “Stamp 2/2e/2sx/2p/2pe (stampw.exe)”.

Select the BASIC

ACTIVITY #2: INSTALLING THE SOFTWARE

Installing the Software Step by Step

If you skipped here from the

Install button located near

 Select Typical for your setup type as shown in Figure 1-19.

 Click the Next button.

Click Typical, then click

Click the Install button.

 When the InstallShield Wizard window tells you “InstallShield Wizard

Click the Finish button.

ACTIVITY #3: SETTING UP THE HARDWARE AND TESTING THE

Introducing the BASIC Stamp, Board of Education, and HomeWork Board

See Figure 1-24:

Connecting the Hardware

USB Port Adaptor If you are using a USB to Serial adaptor:

Plug the serial cable

If you are using the BASIC Stamp 2 and Board of Education:

 Set the 3-position switch on the Board of Education to position-0 as shown in

If you are using the BASIC Stamp HomeWork Board:

Testing for Communication

Look for a shortcut similar to

Example: BASIC Stamp

ACTIVITY #4: FIRST PROGRAM

The BASIC Stamp

9 Vdc sends characters to

Example Program: FirstProgram.bs2

' {$STAMP BS2}

' {$PBASIC 2.5}

DEBUG "Hello, it's me, your BASIC Stamp!"

Enter your first

The Debug Terminal

Using a web browser, go to www.parallax.com (shown in Figure 1-8).

Click the floppy diskette icon labeled “Stamp 2/2e/2sx/2p/2pe (stampw.exe)”.

Select Typical for your setup type as shown in Figure 1-19.

Click the Next button.

When the InstallShield Wizard window tells you “InstallShield Wizard

Set the 3-position switch on the Board of Education to position-0 as shown in

Using a web browser, go to www.parallax.com.

Click the Documentation link.

Disconnect power from your Board of Education or HomeWork Board.

Reconnect power to your Board of Education or HomeWork Board.

Disconnect power from your Board of Education or HomeWork Board.

Disconnect power from your Board of Education or HomeWork Board.

Try a second modification to the FOR statement. This time, change it to

Disconnect power from your Board of Education or HomeWork Board.