Base Two Grammar

Grammar of Base Two
What is a Verb?
Verb is taken from a Latin word (Verbum) which means (Word).

Verb is the most important part of a sentence. A verb asserts something about the subject of
the sentence and expresses actions, events, existence, possessions or states of being. Verb is
the critical element of the predicate of a sentence.
Family of Transitivity
Transitive Verbs Intransitive Verbs Pseudo Transitive Verbs Ambitransitive Verbs
Mono-Transitive Verbs of Complete Predicate
Di-Transitive Verbs of Incomplete Predicate
Complex Transitive
Transitive Verbs: Those verbs which need an object are called transitive verbs.
• teach, eat, read, cook, invite…..
¾ Mono-Transitive Verbs: Are those verbs which take one object.
• Break, tear, paint, visit, hire, meet, call….

• We hired Sahil and Ali.
¾ Di-Transitive Verbs: Are those verbs which take two objects. One is direct object and
indirect object.
• Bring, prepare, send, get, make, buy…..
• Subj + verb + direct object + preposition + indirect object.
• She sent a letter to me.
• Subj + verb + indirect object + direct object.
• She sent me a letter.
1 Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli

¾ Complex Transitive Verbs: Are those verbs which take one object and one
complement.
• Choose, announce, declare, consider, select, find, deem…
• Subj + verb + object + complement.
Noun Adjective
• We announced Ali the winner.

• I consider her the best.
• I made a cake in her birthday.
• They will choose you their captain.
• She announced her engagement in the paper.
Intransitive Verbs: Are those verbs which do not take an object.
• Go, arrive, sleep, die, walk…..

¾ Verbs of Complete Predicate: They are intransitive verbs and their meaning is complete
without a complement.
• sleep, die, cry,
• The baby is crying.
¾ Verbs of Incomplete Predicate: They are intransitive verbs and their meaning is not
complete. They need a complement which is generally a noun or adjective.
• look, is, seem,
• Ali looks happy.
• Sahil is a teacher.
¾ Pseudo Transitive Verbs: Are those verbs which take object, but can’t be changed into
passive voice.
• have, has, own, arrive, reach, fit…
• I have a car.
• He reached home.
• The dress fits her.
¾ Ambitransitive Verbs (Ergative Verbs): Some verbs can be used both transitively and
intransitively with a difference in meaning.
Transitive Intransitive
The children fly their kites. Birds fly.
She studied English. She studied hard.
I read my newspaper. I always read in bed

Causative Verbs:
¾ Are those verbs which cause another person to perform or not perform an action.
¾ Causative verbs are used when a subject does not perform an action; they get an
action done by someone else.
Subj + causative verb + obj + full infinitive/bare infinitive + obj/comp.
Causer Doer Receiver Doer
Help make
Get full infinitive let bare infinitive
Cause help
Have
Make:
It means (to force someone to do something, to compel, to coerce).
Active Structure:
Subj + make + obj + bare infinitive + obj/comp.
I made Laila polish my shoes.

The teacher makes the students make examples.
I make my students come on time.
Sahil will make Ali respect him.
I will have made her clean the room.
They are making us invite them.
Cause:
It means (to make someone do something).
Active Structure:
Subj + cause + obj + full infinitive + obj/com.
I caused Ali to leave the class.

Sahil will cause me to fix the car.

Cause me to wash the car.
Let me be caused to wash the car.
The following points should be taken into account while changing causative verbs (make and
cause) into passive voice.
o To be verbs are used according to each tense.

o Bare infinitive is changed into full infinitive.
o Receiver doer becomes subject of passive sentence.
o By phrase comes at the end of passive sentence as optional.
o Make is changed into (made).
o Cause is changed into (caused).
Passive Structure of Make:
Subj + to be verb + made + full infinitive + obj/comp + (by phrase).
I make Laila polish my shoes.

Laila is made to polish my shoes by me.
My students are made to come on time by me.
Ali will be made to respect him.
She will have been made to clean the room.
We are being made to invite them.
Make me respect them.
Let me be made to respect them.
Make them paint the room.
Let them be made to paint the room.
Make her buy a gift for me.
Let her be made to buy a gift for me.
Passive Structure of Cause:
Subj + to be verb + caused + full infinitive + obj/com + (by phrase).
Ali was caused to leave the class by me.

I will be caused to fix the car by Sahil.
Her husband was caused to cook rice by her.
Let:
It means (to allow someone to do or not to do something).
Active Structure:
Subj + let + obj + bare infinitive + obj/comp.

She let them play outside.
They won’t let us attend the meeting.
Passive Structure:
¾ We have three ways for changing (let) into passive voice.
1. Subj + to be verb + let + bare infinitive + obj/comp + (by phrase).

They were let play outside by her.
2. Subj + to be verb + allowed + full infinitive + obj/comp + (by phrase).
They were allowed to play outside by her.
I do not let them speak in the class.
They are not allowed to speak in the class.
3. Subj + to be verb + permitted + full infinitive + obj/comp + (by phrase).

They were permitted to play outside by her.
Let me close the door.

Let me be allowed to close the door.
Let them help us.
Let them be allowed to help us.
Have:
It means (to choose or select someone to do or not to do something).
Active Structure:
Subj + have + obj + bare infinitive + obj/comp.
I have Ali paint my room.

The manager had Sahil teach the class.
She will have her husband wash the clothes.
They will have me fix the car.
Passive:
¾ Subject up to have does not move.

¾ Receiver doer becomes by agent.
¾ Base verb is changed into past participle.
¾ Only transitive verbs are possible to be changed into passive voice.

Passive Structure:
Subj + have + object + past participle + (by phrase)
I have Ali paint the room.

I have the room painted by Ali.
The manager had Ahmad teach the class.
The manager had the class taught by Ahmad.
They will have him help her.
They will have her helped by him.
I will have Ahmad go to school.
No change is possible.
I will have her write fast.
Have me wash the car.

Have the car washed by me.
Get:
It means (to persuade, convince or encourage someone to do something).
Active Structure:
Subj + get + obj + full infinitive + obj/comp.
I got Ali to study hard.

She will get her children to go school.
They get me to teach her.
Passive:
¾ Subject up to get does not move.

¾ Receiver doer becomes by agent.
¾ Base verb is changed into past participle.
¾ Only transitive verbs are possible to be changed into passive voice.
Passive Structure:
Subj + get + object + past participle + (by phrase).
I got Ahmad to wash the car.

I got the car washed by Ahmad.
Sahil will get me to teach her.
Sahil will get her taught by me.

I got Sohail to study hard.
She gets her children to go to school.
Get me to wash the car.
Get the car washed by me.
Help:
It means (to assist someone to do something).
Active Structure:
Subj + help + obj + full infinitive/bare infinitive + obj/comp.
I help the students learn English.

I help the students to learn English.
Passive:
¾ Receiver doer becomes the subject of passive sentence.

¾ To be verbs are used according to each tense.
¾ Bare infinitive is changed into full infinitive.
¾ Subject of active sentence becomes by agent.
¾ Help is changed into (helped).
Passive Structure:
Subj + to be verb + helped + full infinitive + obj/comp + (by phrase).
I help the students learn English.

The students are helped to learn English by me.
Sahil will help me to buy a car.
I will be helped to buy a car by Sahil.
Help me (to) wash the car.
Let me be helped to wash the car.

Linking Verbs:
¾ Linking verbs are those verbs which connect a subject with a complement.
¾ They are also called Copular/Copulas/Copular Verbs.
Be, seem, appear, look, sound, smell, taste, feel, become, get, etc.
The weather is hot.
It is getting late.
She looks beautiful.
Dynamic Verbs/Event Verbs:
¾ Are those verbs which show action not state of being.

¾ The verbs in which there is an action or event or there is usually movement of
hands and legs are called dynamic verbs.
Ali is fixing the car.
He is writing a letter.
Stative Verbs:
¾ Are those verbs which show state not action.

¾ Are those verbs which show mental feelings, emotions and also state of a
person, place or thing.
Stative Verbs
Mental State Possession Other Existing States
Emotional State Sense Verbs
1. Mental State:
Know, realize, understand, recognize, believe, feel, think, imagine, forget, doubt,
remember, etc
2. Emotional State:
Love, like, appreciate, hate, dislike, fear, enjoy, mind, care, etc.

3. Possession:
Possess, have, own, belong
4. Sense/Perception:
Taste, smell, hear, feel, see, touch, etc.
5. Other Existing Verbs:
Seem, look, appear, be, exist, contain, include, etc.
Dynamic and Stative Verbs:
¾ The verbs which are used both dynamically and statively are called
Dynamic and Stative Verbs.
Stand, wear, sit, lie,
Ali is sitting in the car.
As Dynamic As Stative
He is doing the action of sitting. He is in the state of sitting.
Sense Verbs/Verbs of Perception:
¾ Are those verbs which show our five senses.

¾ They are also called verbs of perception.
Taste, hear, listen, see, watch, smell, feel, touch
Sense Verbs
Past Present
Bare Infinitive/Verb + -ing Verb + -ing
We can use after sense verbs bare infinitive or -ing form of the verbs.
¾ When we use sense verbs with bare infinitive, it shows that we observed
an action completely.

1. Subj + sense verb + obj + bare infinitive + obj/comp.
I saw Sahil play cricket.

She listened to birds sing.
I smelled the soup cook on the stove.
I listened to Naghma sing.
¾ When we use them with –ing form of the verb, they show that we
observed an action for a while when it was in continuation.
2. Subj + sense verb + obj + verb + -ing + obj/comp.
I saw Sahil playing.

I smell soup cooking.
Phrasal Verbs:
¾ Verb plus preposition or adverb that has a special meaning is called phrasal
verb.
¾ A two or three-word verb is called phrasal verb.
Phrasal Verb
Separable Phrasal Verbs Non-Separable Phrasal Verbs
¾ Separable Phrasal Verbs: Are those verbs which we can separate and use between
verb and preposition a noun or pronoun object.
¾ We can use a noun/pronoun between verb and preposition.
Fill in
Fill out
Bring back
Turn on
Turn off
Give up
o I will bring back your book.
o I will bring your book back.

¾ Non-Separable Phrasal Verbs: Are those verbs which can not be separated and we
can’t use a noun or pronoun between verb and preposition.
¾ We can’t use noun or pronoun between verb and preposition.
Hurry up
Sit down
Stand up
Come back
Look over
Go off
o He came back here.
o I will look over your paper.
We have two kinds of phrasal verbs.
1. Intransitive Phrasal Verbs: Verb + preposition/adverb

The tank blew up.
Did you catch on?
2. Transitive Phrasal Verbs: They take a direct object.
We set up a new class.
Please, turn on the fan.
Hypothesis Verbs:
¾ Are those verbs which show wishes and hopes.

¾ Hypothesis verbs are followed by subjunctive mood.
Structures:
1. Subj + wish + that + simple past tense.

¾ This structure talks about the present known fact.
I wish (that) I were a president.
I wish (that) they were here.
I wish (that) Ali knew English.
2. Subj + wish + that + past perfect tense.
¾ This structure talks about the past known fact.
I wish (that) he had helped.
I wish (that) Ali had invited me.

Emotive Verbs:
¾ Are those verbs which are used t express out range activities.
¾ They are followed by ‘that clause’ and ‘should’.
• Protest, demonstrate, cry, shout, intend, pretend
The teachers are protesting that their salaries should be increased.
The prisoners are complaining that the police should leave them.
She is crying that her mother should feed her.
Factual Verbs
Private Public
They are used to show mental activity. They do not show mental activity.
(think, forget, believe, realize, (say, express, ask, agree, admit,

doubt, expect, know, recognize) add, complain)
I think that he was the manager. Karzai added that he would help Afghans
I believe that Karzai will win the election. The students complained that the teachers
did not help them.
Pronoun:
¾ Pro means (in place of name) and noun means (name).

¾ Pronoun is a word which is used in place of a noun to avoid repeating nouns.
Personal Pronouns
Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns Possessive Pronouns Reflexive Pronouns
I Me Mine Myself
You You Yours Yourself/Yourselves
We Us Ours Ourselves
They Them Theirs Themselves
He Him His Himself
She Her Hers Herself
It It Its

1. Subject Pronouns:
¾ Are those which are used to replace the subject of a sentence.
¾ They introduce the doer of an action.
¾ Subject pronouns always come before action verbs.
Ali is a good boy. He studies hard his lesson.
2. Object Pronouns:
¾ Are those pronouns which are used to replace the object of a sentence.
I will meet Sahil tomorrow. I met him yesterday too.
3. Possessive Pronouns:
¾ Are those pronouns which are used to show possession and they are used
instead of possessive nouns.
My pen is new, but yours is old.
4. Reflexive Pronouns:
¾ Reflexive pronouns are used when the subject and object of a sentence is the
same. Or they are used when the doer and receiver of an action are the same.
I saw myself in the mirror.
Structures:
1. Subj + verb + reflexive pronoun
She cut herself.
2. Subj + verb + obj/comp + reflexive pronoun
I wash my clothes myself.
3. Subj + reflexive pronoun + verb + obj/comp (It shows stress)
(Emphatic Pronouns)
I myself met Karzai.
4. Subj + verb + obj/copm + reflexive pronoun.
I went there myself. (It shows willingness/no stress)
5. Subj + verb + obj + by + reflexive pronoun.
(By + Reflexive pronoun means alone)
She went there by herself.
Relative pronouns:
¾ Are those pronouns which are used to join the two clauses and replace the noun or
pronoun which comes before it.
(who, whom, which, that)
Relative Pronouns
Subject Object

1. Who: People usually subject.
2. Whom: People usually object.
3. That: People and thing subject and object.
4. Which: Things subject and object.
9 I have a friend. He lives in London.
9 I have a friend who/that lives in London.
9 I met a man yesterday. He is an engineer.
9 The man whom I met yesterday is an engineer.
9 I bought a pen yesterday. It was very expensive.
9 The pen which/that I bought yesterday was very expensive.
Indefinite Pronouns:
¾ Are those pronouns which are used to replace the name of an indefinite person, place
and thing.
• They are formed by adding Some, Any, No and Every to One/Body, thing and
where.
The pronouns beginning with Some are used commonly in affirmative sentences; to
expect positive answer or agreement they are used in questions.
• She met someone.
• Did you meet someone?
The pronouns beginning with Any are used commonly in negative and questions
sentences.
• Did he go anywhere?
• No, he did not go anywhere.
The pronouns beginning with No are used in affirmative sentences with negative
meaning.
• He bought nothing.
• I met no one.
The pronouns beginning with Every are used in all types of sentences.
• She bought everything there.
• Did you meet everyone?
• I did not meet everyone.
Demonstrative Pronouns:
¾ Are those pronouns which are used to point out singular, plural, near and far items.
This These + to be + comp.
That These + to be + comp.
• This is Ali.
Interrogative Pronouns:
¾ Are those pronouns which are used to interrogate about items.
¾ (Who, whom, whose, what, which)
• Who killed Sahil?
• What do you buy?

Distributive Pronouns:
¾ Are those pronouns which are used to refer to things, persons or place
distributively or individually.
Each, either, neither, etc.
• Each student has a book.
• Each has a pen too.
Reciprocal Pronouns:
¾ Are those pronouns which are used to show reciprocal or mutual actions.
Each other, one another, etc.
• They talked with each other.
Sequence of Pronouns:
General sequence of pronouns in a sentence
1. If the first, second and third persons are present in a sentence, the sequence is:
Second person + third person + first person
o You, she and I will participate in the conference.
2. If there are first and second persons present in a sentence, the sequence is:
Second person + first person
o You and I will participate in the conference.
3. If there are second and third persons present in a sentence, the sequence is:
Second person + third person
o You and he will participate in the conference.
4. If there are first and third persons present in a sentence, the sequence is:
Third person + first person
o She and I will participate in the conference.
5. If there are two third persons a plural and a singular present in a sentence, the
sequence is:
Third person plural + third person singular
o They and he will participate in the conference.
6. If there are two third persons a feminine and a masculine present in a sentence, the
sequence is:
Third person masculine + third person feminine
o He and she will participate in the conference.
7. If there are third persons, a third person personal and a third person non personal, the
sequence is:
Third person personal + third person non personal
o He and it are best friends.

8. If there are four third persons, a masculine, a feminine, a plural and a non personal
present in a sentence, the sequence is:
Third person plural + third person masculine + third person feminine +
third person non personal
o They, he, she and it were sleeping here.
Note:
First person singular always comes at the end, but first person plural always comes at
the beginning.
First person plural + second person + third person
We, you and she will participate in the conference.
If first and third persons or first and second persons are present in a sentence, the
following possessive adjective and reflexive pronouns will be the first person
plural.
He and I finished our work.
You and I finished our work.
You and I improved ourselves.
If second and third persons are present in a sentence, the following possessive
adjective and reflexive pronoun will be of second person.
You and he will write your H.W.
You and he injured yourselves.
If there are two persons a first person and third person preceded by possessive
adjective of first person, the sequence is possessive adjective of first person + third
person + first person.
My brother and I will meet Karzai.
If there are two persons a second and a third person preceded by a possessive
adjective of second person, the sequence is:
Second person + possessive adjective of second person with third person.
You and your brother came here.
If there are two third persons a personal pronoun and a third person preceded by a
possessive adjective of third person, the sequence is:
Third person + third person with possessive adjective
He and his brother came here.
Adjective:
¾ The word Adjective has been derived from a Greek Word Adjectuce which means
added to.
¾ Adjective is a word which modifies a noun or pronoun.
¾ Adjective is a word which is used with a noun to describe or point out the person,
place, thing or animal.
¾ Adjective is a word which tells us about the quantity, number, kind, color of a person,
place, or thing.

Sahil is an intelligent student.
There is some rice in the plate.
She bought a blue dress.
Sohail has an American car.
Positions of an adjective in a sentence:

¾ An adjective has got three main positions in a sentence.
1. Attributive Position
2. Predicative Position
3. Post Predicative Position
1. Attributive Position:
¾ When an adjective comes before a noun is called attributive position.
Ali is a good boy.
This is an interesting book.
She is a clever girl.
2. Predicative Position:
¾ When an adjective comes after a to be or linking verb without a noun is
called Predicative Position.
She looks beautiful.
He is clever.
3. Post Predicative Position:

¾ When an adjective comes neither after a linking verb nor before a noun is
called Post Predicative Position.
I always make my mother happy.
I found him intelligent.
I want to try on something larger.
Kinds of Adjective:
1. Adjective of Quality:
¾ Are those adjectives which show the quality of a noun or describe a noun.
¾ Are those adjectives which tell us something about the color, age, condition,
or any other good or bad quality of a person, place or thing.
Note: Adjective of Quality answers the question “What kind of”.
I met an old man yesterday.
He is a loyal person.
He bought a black car.
Note: Third form of a verb is also used as an Adjective of Quality.
Afghanistan is a destroyed country.

2. Adjective of Quantity:
¾ Are those adjectives which show how much is of a thing meant.
¾ Are those adjectives which tell us something about the quantity of a liquid or
an uncountable noun.
They answer the ‘How much’ question.
Little, all, whole, enough, some, any, etc.
There is a little milk in the refrigerator.
He has some money.
3. Demonstrative Adjectives:
¾ Demonstrative adjectives are used to indicate toward a person, place or thing.
This, that, these, those.
This book is mine.
4. Possessive Adjectives:
¾ Are those adjectives which are used to show possession and relationship.
¾ They follow nouns.
My, your, our, their, his, her, its.
This is my book.
My brother is an engineer.
5. Interrogative Adjectives:
¾ Are those adjectives which are used before nouns and interrogate about the
nouns.
¾ When (whose, which, what) are used before nouns are called interrogative
adjectives.
Which book did you buy?
Whose car is this?
What time is it?
6. Proper Adjectives:
¾ Are those adjectives which are made from proper nouns.
Proper Nouns Proper Adjectives
Pakistan Pakistani
Afghanistan Afghani
7. Distributive Adjectives:
¾ Are those adjectives which refer to nouns individually.
(each, every, either, neither)
Every student had a pencil.
Neither way is right.

8. Numeral Adjectives:
¾ Numeral adjectives show how many persons or things are meant.
¾ Numeral adjectives tell us the definite or indefinite number of person or
things.
There are two kinds of numeral adjectives:
Definite Numeral Adjective Indefinite Numeral Adjective
Cardinal Adjective Ordinal Adjective Multiplicative Adjective
1. Cardinal Adjective:
¾ They show the exact number.
¾ They answer the question ‘How many’.
One, two, three
2. Ordinal Adjective:
¾ They show the exact position.
¾ They show the order.
First, second, third
3. Multiplicative Adjective:
¾ Is used where there is repetition for size.
Single, double, triple, four folds
Price of houses has been increased four folds in Afghanistan.
Indefinite Numeral Adjectives:

¾ They do not show exact number.
Few, some, all, many, any, several, etc.
There were some people in the party.
9. Exclamatory Adjective:
¾ When (what) alone or with a phrase modifies a noun is called exclamatory
adjective.
¾ When (what) is used in exclamatory sentences with a noun is called exclamatory
adjective.
What a personality you have!
What a car!
What a gril!

10. Emphasizing Adjectives/Emphatic Adjectives:
¾ When (very, own) come before nouns which they modify are called emphasizing
adjective.
My very enemies are my own relatives.
That was my own mistake.
I saw him stealing with my own eyes.
11. Denominal Adjectives:

¾ When a noun modifies another noun, it is called denominal adjective.
Summer dress
Bus driver
English teacher
12. Phrasal Adjectives:

¾ When two or more than two adjectives together modify a noun, it is called phrasal
adjective.
¾ a/an + cardinal number + singular noun
We have a ten month course.
I wrote a fifty page book.
Degrees of Adjective:
Positive Degree/Simple Degree of Adjective:

¾ Positive degree of adjective is used to modify a noun.
He is a good boy.
She is clever.
Comparative Degree of Adjective:

¾ Comparative degree of adjective is used when we compare one person, thing or
place with another one person, thing or place.
¾ Comparative degree of adjective is used when there is a single comparison or it is
used when two persons, things or places are compared with each other.
Sahil is taller than Ali.
Pakistan is hotter than Afghanistan.
Rules for forming comparative degree of an adjective:

o We add –er to most one-syllable adjectives.
Short – shorter, cold – colder
o If one-syllable adjectives end with consonant + vowel + consonant, double the
last consonant and then add -er.
big – bigger, hot – hotter, thin – thinner
o If two or more than two syllable adjectives end with consonant + y, change –y to I
and then add –er.
happy – happier, easy – easier

o We use (more, less) before two or more than two syllable adjectives.
intelligent – more intelligent, excellent – more excellent
Note:
Good – better
Bad – worse
Far – farther
Many/much – more
Little - less
Superlative Degree of Adjective:

¾ Superlative degree of adjective is used when we compare one person, thing or
place with more than one person, thing or place.
¾ Superlative degree of adjective is used when we single out one person, thing or
place among a group of persons, things or places.
Sahil is the tallest student in this class.
Afghanistan is the most beautiful country in Asia.
Note: Rules for forming superlative degree of adjective are the same as the rules of forming
comparative degree of adjective, only we use (-est) instead of (-er) and (most) instead of
(more).
Notes:
¾ We usually use (than) after comparative adjective.
Ali is fatter than me.
¾ When we compare two qualities of the same person or thing, we use (more)
before the first positive adjective.
She is more beautiful than intelligent.
¾ What is the difference between comparative adjectives (older and elder)?
Both (older and elder) are comparative adjectives.
Older is used for comparison and followed by (than) while elder is not used for
comparison and nor followed by (than).
Elder is only used for family members.
He is older than me
He is my elder brother.
¾ What is the difference between (oldest) and (eldest)?
Oldest is used for comparison while eldest is used for family members
He is the oldest boy in our class.
He is my eldest brother.
¾ When compare family members, use (the) before (eldest) and (of) after (eldest).
Sahil is the eldest of my five brothers.

¾ We usually use than after the comparative adjective, but after the following
comparative adjectives (to) is used in place of (than).
o Senior, junior, superior, prior, inferior
I am junior to Sahil.
Sahil is senior to me.
¾ (The) is used before the superlative degree of an adjective.
¾ When do we use (of) and when (in) after the superlative adjectives?
We usually use (in) with places like (towns, buildings, country, world) or with
organizations (class, team, company, etc.).
He is the tallest student in the class.
Afghanistan is the most beautiful country in the world.
¾ We use (of) with time expressions.
Who is the most popular person of this century?
¾ We use (of) after superlative degree when we point at one out of a limited and a
small number.
Ahmad is the youngest of these boys.
He is the oldest teacher of these five teachers.
¾ What is the difference between (less) and (lesser)?

Less is more commonly used than lesser.
Sahil is less intelligent than Ali.
Sahil is lesser intelligent than Ali.
¾ What is the difference between (lesser) and (fewer)?
Lesser is used with uncountable while fewer is used with countable nouns.
There are fewer boys in the class today than yesterday.
She drank lesser milk today than yesterday.
Sequence of Adjective:
Quality/ Size/ Shape/ Texture Style Age Color Origin Material Purpose Noun
Opinion Length Width
beautiful big round blue eyes
smart Long- Tight- black woolen sweater
sleeved fitting
lovely Shoulder- Thick wavy blonde hair
length
nice small Oval smooth shiny old yellow English amber party broach
Adverbs:
¾ Adverb is a word which modifies a verb, adjective, conjunction, preposition, another
adverb, gerund, infinitive, phrase and a whole sentence.
1. Adverb Modifying Verb:
She drives carefully.
Ali speaks slowly.

2. Adverb Modifying adjective:
The question was too difficult.
He is very intelligent.
3. Adverb Modifying Conjunction:
I didn’t go to the party simply because Laila was not there.
I will help only if you come.
4. Adverb Modifying Preposition:
They are right on the top of the mountain.
She is exactly next to me.
5. Adverb Modifying Another Adverb:
She called me really loudly.
Ahmad studies very hard.
6. Adverb Modifying Gerund:
Driving fast is dangerous.
Studying hard is useful.
7. Adverb Modifying Infinitive:
To drive fast is dangerous.
To study hard is useful.
8. Adverb Modifying Phrase:
She is madly in love with him.
She was dressed all in white.
9. Adverb Modifying Whole Sentence:
Unfortunately she died.
Definitely he is right in this case.
Kinds of Adverb:
1. Adverb of Place:
¾ Are those adverbs which show location.
¾ They answer the question (Where).
Here, there nowhere, over there, school, Kabul, etc.
Laila was sitting there.
They live in Kabul.
2. Adverb of time:
¾ Are those adverbs which show time.
¾ They answer the question (When).
late, before, now, soon, yesterday, last week, last month, etc.
They came here yesterday.
I will meet him tomorrow.
3. Interrogative Adverb:
¾ When (when, why, how, where) are used to ask questions, they are called
interrogative adverbs.
Where does he live?
When did she get married?

4. Relative Adverbs:
¾ When (when, why, how, where) are used o join two clauses, they are called
relative adverbs.
The market where I bought this book is in Kabul.
September 11th is the day when WTC towers were attacked.
I teach English how you taught me.
He punished me why I had cheated.
5. Adverb of Certainty:
¾ Adverbs of certainty are used to say how sure we are about someone or
something.
¾ They can be used at the beginning or in the middle of a sentence.
Certainly, definitely, surely, obviously, etc.
Certainly you deserve that position.
Definitely he is right in this case.
6. Adverb of Degree:
¾ Adverbs of degree are used to show the degree of something
¾ Adverbs of degree are used to show in what degree something is.
Too, hardly, enough, quite, very, fairly
She is too intelligent.
Ali is very tired.
7. Adverb of Frequency:
¾ Are those adverbs which tell us that how often an action takes place.
¾ They answer the question (how often).
Always = 100-100%
Usually = 75-90%
Often = 60-85%
Sometimes = 30-60%
Occasionally 25-45%
Rarely = 10-30%
Never = 0%
She always speaks loudly.
I sometimes meet them.
Position of Adverb of Frequency:

1. They usually come after subject and before main verb.
He usually misses the class.
2. They usually come after to be verbs.
They are often late.
3. They usually come between the helping verb and its main verb.
I have never smoked cigarettes.
4. They usually come between the two helping verbs or modal auxiliary verbs.
He should never have gone to Cinema.

5. They usually come before have to and has to and used to.
I always have to come here.
8. Adverb of Manner:
¾ Adverbs of manner tell us that how something happens or how something is done.
¾ They answer the question (how).
Formation of Adverbs of Manner:

1. We add (ly) with most of the adjective to change them to adverbs of manner.
o Quick + ly = quickly
o Bad + ly = badly
o Careful + ly + carefully
2. If an adjective is ending in (e), drop the final (e) and add (ly).
o True truly
o probable probably
o terrible terribly
3. Some adjectives end in (e), take (ly).

o nice nicely
o extreme extremely
o grave Gravely
4. If an adjective is ending with (L), keep (L) and add (ly).

o Careful carefully
o Beautiful beautifully
o Hopeful hopefully
5. If an adjective ends in (y), change (y) into (i) and add (ly).
o Happy happily
o Easy easily
o Crazy crazily
6. If an adjective is ending in (ic), add (ally).

o Comic comically
o Fantastic fantastically
o Automatic automatically
7. Some adjectives do not take (ly).

o soon
o hard
o fast
o good – well

8. There are some adjectives which end in (ly) such as lovely, silly, likely,
lonely, etc.
In a + friendly/lovely/silly + manner/way
o She talks in a lovely manner.
o He walks in a silly way
Positions of Adverbs of Manner:

1. Adverbs of manner normally come at the end of a sentence.
Ali talks loudly.
2. Initial Position.
Loudly Ali talks.
3. Mid Position.
Ali loudly talks.
Why do we use Articles?

¾ Articles are used to show whether we are referring to things that are known to the
speakers or that are not known to the speakers.
¾ Articles can also show whether we talk about things in general or
particular.
Article:
¾ An article is a word which limits a noun or confines a noun.
Article
Indefinite Articles Definite Articles

a/an the
Uses of Indefinite Articles:
1. A and An are used before singular countable nouns.
A book an egg
A pen an apple
2. A is used before those nouns beginning with consonant sounds.
A teacher a house
A university a one-door car
3. An is used before those nouns beginning with vowel sounds.
An orange an umbrella
An hour an honest man
4. A and an can not be used with plural countable and uncountable nouns.
5. A and an can not be used before adjectives. However, we can use A and An before
adjectives when there is a noun after them.
A nice car
An interesting book

6. We use A and An with a noun that is used for classifying. It means to what group,
class or type someone or something belongs to.
She is a doctor.
I used my hand as a duster.
Uses of Definite Article:

1. The is used before both countable and non-countable nouns.
2. We put (the) before a singular noun of a family to mean every member of
the family.
The heart pumps the blood. (Every heart pumps the blood)
The dog barks. (Every dog barks)
3. We use (the) before some proper nouns.
Oceans:
The Indian Ocean
The Pacific Ocean
The Atlantic Ocean
Seas:
The Black Sea
The Mediterranean Sea
The Caspian Sea
Rivers:
The Amo River
The Mississippi River
The Group of Islands:
The Hawaiian Islands
The Chinese Islands
Mountains:
The Himalayas
The Amazons
Deserts:
The Sahara Desert
The Arizona Desert
Names of Holy Books:
The Holy Quran
The Holy Bible
Names of Some Famous Books:
The Fact is Fact
The One Rule
Names of Newspapers:
The Kabul Times
The Nation
The Names of Airplanes:
The PIA
The French Airlines

Names of Nations:
The Muslim
The English
The Sunnis
Historical Places:
The Taj Mahal
The Badshahi Mosque
The is used before directions:
The East
The West
Before Superlative Degree of Adjective:
She is the most beautiful girl in our school.
The difference between Definite and Indefinite Article

1. When we speak generally about someone or something, we use (a/an).
He bought a book.
2. When we speak particularly about someone or something, we use (the).
How was the bought a book?
3. When we speak about a singular noun for the first time, we use (a/an), but when we
repeat the same noun, we put (the) before it.
Laila has a boy and a girl. The boy is 15 and the girl is 14.
4. We use indefinite article before a common singular noun.
A student should respect their teacher.
5. We use definite article for particular noun.
I lost the book.
6. We use (a/an) with singular proper adjectives.
An American
A Chinese
7. We use (the) when we talk about plural nationality.
The American
The Indian
Noun:
¾ Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, animal, idea, etc.
Sahil
Kabul
Book
Cat
Islam
Kinds of Noun:
1. Proper Noun:
¾ Proper name is the name of a particular person, place, thing, etc.
¾ The first letter of each proper noun should be always be capitalized.
Sahil
Afghanistan
Toyota

2. Common Noun:
¾ A noun which is given in general to every person, place, thing, etc.
Teacher
Country
Car
3. Material Noun:
¾ A noun from which other things are made is called material noun.
Iron (car, table…)
Wood (table, door, window…)
Plastic
4. Abstract Noun:
¾ Abstract noun is the name of something which we experience as an
idea, not by a direct physical contact or perception.
Information
Love
Honesty
Power
5. Collective Noun
¾ A noun which is singular in form, but plural in meaning is called
collective noun.
Team
Class
Army
6. Concrete Noun
¾ Is the name of something which can be seen and touched is called
concrete noun.
Table
Car
Book
Interjection:
¾ Interjections are used to express some sudden strong feeling of someone.
Oh!, aha!, ha! Ha!, hurrah!, Vow!,
Hurrah! We won the competition.
Ha! Ha! I finished my work.
Conjunction:
¾ Conjunction is a word or a group of words which join two words, clauses, sentences,
phrases, etc.
¾ A word that is used to connect phrases or parts of a sentence is called conjunction.
Sahil and Ali are friends.
I did not come here because I was sick.

Conjunction
Coordinating Subordinating Correlative Compound

Conjunction Conjunction Conjunction Conjunction
1. Coordinating Conjunction:
¾ Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two parts of a sentence that are
grammatically equal.
¾ They are the conjunctions which are used to join two main clauses.
¾ Coordinating conjunctions are used to join two clauses of equal rank.
And, but, or, nor, for, yet, so
Position:
¾ Coordinating conjunctions always come between two clauses or words that they join.
I like tea and coffee.
She is intelligent, but impolite.
Kinds of Coordinating Conjunction:
Cumulative Adversative Disjunctive Illative

Conjunction Conjunction Conjunction Conjunction
1. Comulative/Copulative Conjunction:
¾ Are those conjunctions which join two words, two ideas or two statements.
And, so
They played and we watched them.
I was so sick so I went to the doctor.
2. Adversative Conjunction:
¾ Are those conjunctions which are used to show contrast between two statements.
But, yet
She studied hard, but she failed.
They played well, yet they lost the match.
3. Disjunctive/Alternative Conjunction:
¾ Are those conjunctions which are used to express a choice between two options.
Or, nor
Stay or leave the class.
He must do it or he will lose the job.
He is not intelligent nor lazy.

4. Illative Conjunction:
¾ Are those conjunctions which express inference or result.
For
He did not come for he was sick.
She came late for there was heavy traffic.
2. Compound Conjunction:
¾ When two or more than two words are used as a conjunction, they are called
compound conjunction.
As if, as though, in order that, even if, on condition that, as long as, as soon as
He studied hard so that he passed the exam.
He called me in order that he wanted to invite me to the party.
3. Subordinating Conjunction:
¾ Are those conjunctions which join a dependent clause with an independent clause.
Kinds of Subordinating Conjunction:

1. Subordinating Conjunction of Place:
¾ Are those conjunctions which are used to show or talk about place.
Where, every where,
She went to where she had come from.
Where ever you want, you can go.
2. Subordinating Conjunction of Time:
¾ Are those conjunctions which are used to show or talk about time.
When, while, after, before, by the time, since, until, as soon as, etc
I was eating when Sahil knocked on the door.
I waited here until she came.
After he had gone, I returned home.
3. Subordinating Conjunction of Cause and Reason:
¾ They show cause and effect.
Because, now that, since, as, etc.
They lost the match because they did not play well.
As she was not there, I spoke to her mother.
4. Subordinating Conjunction Result:
¾ They show the result.
So…that, such…that
She is so beautiful that every body wants to marry her.
5. Subordinating Conjunction of Contrast/Supposition/Concession:
¾ Are those conjunctions which show opposition and contrast.
Although, even though, while, where as, etc.
Although he studied hard, he failed the test.

6. Subordinating Conjunction of Condition:
¾ Are those conjunctions which show condition for the occurrence of an action.
If, unless, only if, providing that, etc.
You can pass the test only if you study hard.
7. Subordinating Conjunction of Purpose:
¾ Are those conjunctions which show the purpose of doing or not doing something.
So that, in order to, so as, etc.
He comes to MELI so that he can learn English.
8. Subordinating Conjunction of Comparison:
¾ Are those conjunctions which show comparison.
Than, as, as if, as though, etc.
He is more intelligent than Sahil.
He is not as good as I am.
9. Subordinating Conjunction of Manner:
¾ Are those conjunctions which show how an action happens.
As, in the same way, the way that, etc.
He taught us as our former teacher.
4. Correlative/Paired Conjunction:
¾ Are those conjunctions which join two similar grammatical points.
Both Ali and Sahil are students.
1. Both…and: It joins two affirmative sentences and it takes plural verb.
Both Ali and Sahil are intelligent.
I like both teaching and studying.
2. Neither…nor: It joins two negative sentences and the verb is used according to the
second subject.
Neither Ali nor Sahil is intelligent.
I like neither teaching nor studying.
3. Either…or: It means from two one of them. It joins alternative sentences.
Either you or Ali should participate in the conference.
I will buy either a sweater or a jumper.
4. Not only…but also: It means either both of them or none of them. It joins both
affirmative and negative sentences and takes both singular and plural verb.
Not only Ali but also Sahil participated in the conference.
Laila is not only intelligent but also beautiful.
Gerund/Verbal Noun/Ing Noun/Acting Noun:

¾ Ing form of a verb which functions in a sentence as a noun is called gerund.
Studying hard is useful.
Why do we use gerund and infinitive?
1. Because two main verbs are no used in one sentence.
I like playing cricket.
2. To convert a verb into noun.
Watching TV is important.

3. To shorten two clauses into one clause.
I know that I play football. I know playing football.
4. To use Ing as subject, object and complement.
Uses of Gerund:
1. We can use gerund as a subject of a main verb. .
Playing is fun.
2. as a subject of its own object.
Playing games is fun.
3. as an object of a verb.
Admit, advise, love, stop, quit, appreciate, etc.
He loves swimming.
He likes teaching.
4. as an object of a verb with its own object.
I like playing cricket.
They hate studying English.
5. as an object of preposition.
He is tired of teaching.
Thank you for helping me.
We talked about going out.
6. as a complement of a verb.
My bad habit is smoking.
What I dislike is coming late.
Forms of Gerund
Simple/Present Perfect/Past
Active Passive Active Passive
1. Simple or present active gerund.

¾ Subj + gerund verb + gerund.
I love teaching.
She enjoys swimming.
2. Simple or present passive gerund.

¾ Subj + gerund verb + being + past participle.
He hates being insulted.
I like being invited.
She loves being kissed.
1. Perfect or past active gerund.

¾ Subj + gerund verb + having + past participle.
She admits having stolen money.
They deny having insulted him.
They remember having stayed in Pakistan.

2. Perfect or past passive gerund.
¾ Subj + gerund verb + having + been + past participle.
She admits having been kidnapped.
We appreciate having been invited.
She denies having been helped by Ali.
Participle:
¾ When (ing) or third form of a verb is used to show various functions in a sentence is
called participle.
Participle
Present Participle Past Participle Perfect Participle
1. Present Participle:
¾ Present participle can be used as a verb, an adjective and an adverb.
Present Participle
Verb Adjective Adverb
i. Verb: It shows an action in all progressive tenses.

We are studying English.
She was watching TV.
ii. Adjective: It modifies an noun and has active meaning.
Fighting dog, killing man, boring class, interesting game, shocking news
She heard shocking news.
He has a boring class.
iii. Adverb: It modifies present participle verb.
She was walking crying.
They were coming talking.
He was eating smiling.
2. Past Participle:
¾ When third form of a verb is used as a main verb and an adjective, is called past
participle.
1. Main Verb: It is used in perfect tenses, modal perfect and in passive voice.
She has written a letter.
They must have gone to school.
A car was bought by her.
2. As an adjective: It has positions.
i. Before a noun:
o a/an/the + third form of a verb + noun.
I bought a broken chair yesterday.
I saw the killed man on the road.

ii. After a verb:
o Subj + to be verb + past participle.
The chair is broken.
The door is closed.
Our shoes are polished.
Note:
¾ When past participle is used as an adjective, it gives passive meaning.
3. Perfect Participle:
¾ The perfect participle shows that someone completed an action and started another
action in the past.
1. Having + past participle + object +, +subj + past indefinite tense.
Having taught Base One, I taught Base Two.
2. Having + past participle + object +, +subj + present indefinite tense.
Having taught Base One, I teach Base Two now.
3. Having + past participle + object +, +subj + future indefinite tense.
Having taught Base One, I will teach Base Two.
Structure No 1:
Subj + (H.V) + verb + obj/comp + verb + -ing.
⇒ We use this structure to show that a person is doing two actions at the same time.
• She was going crying.
• They were coming fighting.
• Sahil will teach us laughing.
Structure No 2:
Verb + -ing + is easy + (but) + verb + -ing + is difficult.
⇒ We use this structure to show that doing of this action is easy, but doing of that action is
difficult.
• Saying is easy but doing is difficult.
• Speaking is easy but writing is difficult.
Passive
Verb + -ing + is easy + (but) + being + past participle + is difficult.
• Insulting is easy but being insulted is difficult.
• Beating is easy but being beaten is difficult.
⇒ In these structures in place of (verb + -ing), we can use (to + base form of a verb).
It is easy + to + verb +, + it is difficult + to + verb + com/obj.
• It is easy to speak, it is difficult to teach.
• It is easy to destroy, it is difficult to build.

Passive
It is easy + to + verb + obj/comp +, + it is difficult + to + be + past participle + com/obj.
• It is easy to beat someone; it is difficult to be beaten by someone.
• It is easy to insult someone; it is difficult to be insulted.
Structure No 3:
Subj + (H.V) + like + verb + -ing + obj/comp.
⇒ We use this structure to show that somebody likes or does not like doing something..
• I like teaching English.
• She does not like cooking.
Structure No 4:
Verb + -ing + (adv/adj/obj/com) + be form + good/bad + obj/comp.
⇒ In this structure, the speaker says that doing of this thing is a good or bad habit or
it is someone's hobby.
• Teaching is a holy job.
• Abusing is a bad habit.
• Watching is my hobby.
Structure No 5:
Subj + know + (s)/does/do not know + verb + -ing + obj/comp.
⇒ We use this structure to show that somebody knows or does not know doing this or that
thing.
• I know speaking Urdo.
• She does not know driving.
Past:
Subj + knew/did not know + verb + -ing + obj/comp.
• I did not know speaking English.
• She knew swimming.
Structure No 6:
Have/has + subj + ever + seen + agent/comp + verb + -ing + obj/comp?
⇒ In this structure, the speaker asks that have/has you or somebody ever seen
somebody else doing something.
• Have you ever seen me speaking Arabic?
• Has she ever seen Ahamd fighting someone?
• Have you ever seen her laughing?
Structure No 7:
Subj + saw + agent + verb + -ing + obj/comp.
⇒ In this structure, the speaker says that he saw someone doing this or that action.
• I saw Sahil smoking.
• He saw me teaching.

Passive
Subj + saw + obj + being + p.p.
• I saw her being insulted.
• I saw Sahil being beaten.
Structure No 8:
If + subj + see + obj + verb + -ing + obj/comp +, + subj + simple future tense.
⇒ We use this structure to show that if someone sees someone else doing something,
He/she will do like this.
• If I see Sahil smoking, I will beat him.
• If she sees you sitting here, she will get angry.
Past
If + subj + had + seen + obj + verb + -ing + obj/comp +, + subj + would + have + p.p
+comp/obj.
⇒ We use this structure to show that if someone had seen someone else doing
something, he/she would have done like this or that.
• If I had seen Sahil smoking, I would have beaten him.
• If I had seen you cheating, I would cancel your paper.
Structure No 9:
Subj + will + not + see + agent + verb + -ing + now/again.
⇒ In this structure, the speaker assures someone that he has advised someone.
• You will not him smoking now.
• You will not see her laughing in the class again.
Structure No 10:
While/during + verb + -ing + (obj/comp) + subj + past/present/future indefinite tense.
In this structure, the speaker says that one action was/is/will be in progress when another
action happened/happens/will happen.
• While playing, they fought.
• While/during sleeping, he talks.
• Now see, while eating, they will fall asleep.
Structure No 11:
When + subj + simple present tense + obj/comp +,+ subj + keep + (on) + verb + -ing.
⇒ In this structure, the speaker expresses the present habit of someone that when he/she
does something, he/she keeps it going.
• When he laughs, he keeps on laughing.

Structure No 12:
When + subj + second form of a verb + obj/comp +,+ subj + kept + (on) + verb + -ing.
⇒ In this structure, the speaker expresses the past habit of someone that when he/she did
something in the past, he/she kept it going.
• When he laughed, he kept on laughing.
Structure No 13:
When + subj + simple present tense + obj/comp +,+ subj + will + keep + (on) + verb + -ing.
• Let him be silent, when he talks, he will keep on talking.
Structure No 14:
Subj + second form of a verb + obj/comp + and + kept + (on) + verb + -ing.
⇒ In this structure, the speaker says that someone started an action and kept it on.
• They laughed at them and kept on laughing.
Structure No 15:
Subj + (always) + keep/kept/will keep + verb + -ing + obj/comp.
⇒ In this structure, the speaker says that someone keeps/kept/will keep doing an action.
• She always keeps missing you.
• She always kept missing you.
• I will always keep remembering you.
Structure No 16:
Having + past participle + (obj/comp) +,+ subj + past indefinite tense.
⇒ In this structure, the speaker says that someone completed an action and after that
he/she started another action. It means both actions are in the past tense.
• Having eaten lunch, I went to bed.
• Having been selected, he was very happy.
• Having won the match, the players are going back to their country.
Structure No 17:
After + verb + -ing + (obj/comp) +, + subj + present/past/future indefinite tense.
In this structure, the speaker says that after doing an action the person does/did/will do this
action.
• After eating dinner, I go to bed.
• After eating dinner, I went to bed.
• After eating dinner, I will go to bed.
Structure No 18:
Subj + can not/can/will not be able to/will be able to + base form of a verb + (obj/comp) +
without + verb + -ing + obj/comp.
In this structure, the speaker says that one can or can not do or will not be able to do this
work without doing that work.
• You can not pass in MELI without studying hard.

Structure No 19:
Verb + -ing + obj/comp + subj + simple present/past/future tenses.
⇒ We use this structure to show that during an action, the second action takes place.
• Going to school, they fight on the way.
• Going to school, they fought on the way.
• Going to school, they will fight on the way.
• Looking at her, she gets angry.
• Looking at her, she got angry.
• Looking at her, she will get angry.
Structure No 20:
Subj + get + verb + -ing + obj/comp.
⇒ We this structure to show that one becomes busy doing an action.
Here get means (to start).
• She got helping me. = She started helping me.
• I got teaching them.
Structure No 21:
The + verb + -ing + of phrases as subj of the sentence.
• The barking of the dog frightened her.
• The fighting of the children made her sad.
Structure No 22:
Who/whose/where + is/was + the + subj + verb + -ing + obj/comp + E.O.P?
⇒ In this structure, the speaker says that whose is/was that thing, animal or person
doing this action.
Whose
• Whose is the child crying outside?
• Whose is the car parking near the gate?
Who
• Who is the child crying outside?
• Who is the teacher teaching in the class?
Where
• Where is the child crying outside?
• Where is the car parking near the gate?
Structure No 23:
Subj + won't/wouldn't + hear of + verb + -ing + comp/obj.
⇒ This structure is used when somebody is not allowed to perform an action.
• She won't hear of my coming here.
• Sahil wouldn't hear of her going with him.

Preposition + verb + -ing
1. After + gerund:
• After finishing this class, I go home.
• I go home after finishing this class.
2. Before + gerund:
• Before coming here, inform us.
• I drink a cup of milk before coming to class.
3. Without + gerund:
• Without studying hard, you can't pass the test.
• You can't pass the test without studying hard.
4. About + gerund:
• They were talking about buying a house.
5. By + gerund:
• They won the match by playing hard.
6. Of + gerund:
• She is afraid of telling the truth.
7. Accustomed to + gerund:
• You are accustomed to studying at MELI.
8. Be + used to + gerund:
• You are used to studying at MELI.
9. Prefer + verb + -ing + to + verb + -ing:

• I prefer studying to watching TV.
10. Object to + verb + -ing:

• He objects to working with men.
• I look forward to meeting you.
Remember/Forget:
⇒ Remember/forget + verb + -ing refers to those past actions which someone has done in
the past.
• I will never forget having lunch with you.
⇒ Remember/forget + infinitive refers to the present or future time.

• I forgot to call him.
• We must remember to invite them.

⇒ Go on + verb + -ing = continue
• He went on working hard.
⇒ Regret + verb + -ing refers that someone did an action in the past but now he feels sorry
about it.
• He regrets insulting his teacher.
⇒ Regret + infinitive refers the present and the future. It is usually used to say sorry about
an unexpected action or news.
• I regret to say that have failed the test.
The End
Note: In case of having any question, feel free to catch me at: +93 (0) 77 42 18 119 or write
to me at: zareef.fazli@yahoo.com

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Base Two Grammar

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Grammar of Base Two

Verb is taken from a Latin word (Verbum) which means (Word).

Transitive Verbs Intransitive Verbs Pseudo Transitive Verbs Ambitransitive Verbs

Mono-Transitive Verbs of Complete Predicate

Di-Transitive Verbs of Incomplete Predicate

• teach, eat, read, cook, invite…..

¾ Mono-Transitive Verbs: Are those verbs which take one object.

• Break, tear, paint, visit, hire, meet, call….

1 Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli

• We announced Ali the winner.

Intransitive Verbs: Are those verbs which do not take an object.

• Go, arrive, sleep, die, walk…..

The children fly their kites. Birds fly.

She studied English. She studied hard.

I read my newspaper. I always read in bed

2 Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli

Subj + causative verb + obj + full infinitive/bare infinitive + obj/comp.

Causer Doer Receiver Doer

Get full infinitive let bare infinitive

It means (to force someone to do something, to compel, to coerce).

Subj + make + obj + bare infinitive + obj/comp.

 I made Laila polish my shoes.

It means (to make someone do something).

Subj + cause + obj + full infinitive + obj/com.

 I caused Ali to leave the class.

3 Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli

o To be verbs are used according to each tense.

Passive Structure of Make:

Subj + to be verb + made + full infinitive + obj/comp + (by phrase).

I make Laila polish my shoes.

Passive Structure of Cause:

Subj + to be verb + caused + full infinitive + obj/com + (by phrase).

 Ali was caused to leave the class by me.

It means (to allow someone to do or not to do something).

Subj + let + obj + bare infinitive + obj/comp.

4 Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli

¾ We have three ways for changing (let) into passive voice.

1. Subj + to be verb + let + bare infinitive + obj/comp + (by phrase).

3. Subj + to be verb + permitted + full infinitive + obj/comp + (by phrase).

Let me close the door.

It means (to choose or select someone to do or not to do something).

Subj + have + obj + bare infinitive + obj/comp.

 I have Ali paint my room.

¾ Subject up to have does not move.

5 Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli

Subj + have + object + past participle + (by phrase)

I have Ali paint the room.

Have me wash the car.

It means (to persuade, convince or encourage someone to do something).

Subj + get + obj + full infinitive + obj/comp.

 I got Ali to study hard.

¾ Subject up to get does not move.

Subj + get + object + past participle + (by phrase).

I got Ahmad to wash the car.

6 Compiled by: Zareefullah Fazli

It means (to assist someone to do something).

Subj + help + obj + full infinitive/bare infinitive + obj/comp.

 I help the students learn English.

¾ Receiver doer becomes the subject of passive sentence.

Subj + to be verb + helped + full infinitive + obj/comp + (by phrase).

I made Laila polish my shoes.

I caused Ali to leave the class.

Ali was caused to leave the class by me.

I have Ali paint my room.

I got Ali to study hard.

I help the students learn English.

Possess, have, own, belong

Taste, smell, hear, feel, see, touch, etc.

Seem, look, appear, be, exist, contain, include, etc.

Taste, hear, listen, see, watch, smell, feel, touch

I saw Sahil play cricket.

I saw Sahil playing.