Advanced Control Theory

Dr. S. Ushakumari
PG Coordinator
Dept of EEE
CET
 Introduction
 Systems which does not obey the principle of superposition.
 Principle of superposition implies that if a system has
responses y1(t) and y2(t) to any two inputs x1(t) and x2(t)
respectively then the system response to the linear
combination of these inputs 1x1  t    2 x 2  t  is given by the
linear combination of the individual outputs, i.e, 1 y1  t    2 y 2  t 
where α1 and α2 are constants.
1 x1  t    2 x 2  t 
x
1 G y1 x2 y2 G y3
G

 To satisfy the principle of superposition, y3 = 1 y1  t    2 y 2  t 

 Characteristics of non linear system
 The response of nonlinear system to a particular test signal is no
guide to their behaviour to other inputs, since the principle of
superposition does not hold good for nonlinear systems.
 The nonlinear system response may be highly sensitive to input
amplitude. The stability study of nonlinear systems requires the
information about the type and amplitude of the anticipated
inputs, initial conditions etc, in addition to the usual
requirement of the mathematical model.
 Nonlinear systems may exhibit limit cycles which are self
sustained oscillations of fixed frequency and amplitude.
 Nonlinear systems may have jump resonance in the frequency
response.
 Characteristics of non linear
system(contd…)
 The output of a nonlinear system will have harmonics and sub-
harmonics when excited by sinusoidal signals.
 The nonlinear systems will exhibit phenomena like frequency
entrainment and asynchronous quenching.
 Types of nonlinearities
• The nonlinearities can be classified as incidental
and intentional.
• The incidental nonlinearities are those which are
inherently present in the system. Eg: Saturation,
dead-zone, coulomb friction, stiction, backlash
etc.
• The intentional nonlinearities are those which are
deliberately inserted in the system to modify
system characteristics. Eg: relay.
 SATURATION
• In this type of nonlinearity the output is proportional to input
for a limited range of input signals. When the input exceeds
this range, the output tends to become nearly constant.
 DEADZONE
• The deadzone is the region in which the output is zero for a
given input.
• Many physical devices do not respond if the input signal is
less than some small value.
• When the input is increased beyond this deadzone value, the
output will be linear.
 FRICTION
 Friction exists in any system when there is relative motion
between contacting surfaces.
 The viscous friction is linear in nature.
 The coulomb friction and stiction are nonlinear frictions. The
coulomb friction offers a constant retarding force only when
the motion is initiated. Due to interlocking of surface
irregularities, more force is required to move an object from
rest than to maintain it in motion. Hence the force of stiction is
always greater than that of coulomb friction.
Linearization of Nonlinear Systems
• In control engineering a normal operation of the system may be
around an equilibrium point, and the signals may be considered
small signals around the equilibrium.
• If the system operates around an equilibrium point and if the signals
involved are small signals, then it is possible to approximate the
nonlinear system by a linear system.
• Such a linear system is equivalent to the nonlinear system
considered within a limited operating range.
• The linearization procedure to be presented in the following is based
on the expansion of nonlinear function into a Taylor series about the
operating point and the retention of only the linear term.
 Linear Approximation of Nonlinear
Mathematical Models
• To obtain a linear mathematical model for a nonlinear system,
we assume that the variables deviate only slightly from some
operating condition.
• Consider a system whose input is x(t) and output is y(t). The
relationship between y(t) and x(t) is given by
y = f(x) (1)
• If the normal operating condition corresponds to x , y , then
(1) may be expanded into a Taylor series about this point as:
1 d2f
    
df 2
y  f x  x  x  x  x  ... (2)
dx 2! d x 2

where the derivatives df/dx , d2f/dx2 , … are evaluated at x  x

 Linear Approximation of Nonlinear
Mathematical Models(contd…)
• If the variation is small, we may neglect the higher-order terms
in  x  x  . Then (2) may be written as

y  y  K x  x (3)
where,

y  f x

• (3) may be rewritten as (4)

• (4) gives a linear mathematical model for the nonlinear system

given by y=f(x) near the operating point
 Linear Approximation of Nonlinear
Mathematical Models(contd…)
• Next, consider a nonlinear system whose output y is a function
of two inputs x1 and x2 , so that
(5)
• To obtain a linear approximation to this nonlinear system, we
expand (5) into a Taylor series about the normal operating
point x 1 , x 2 .
 Linear Approximation of Nonlinear
Mathematical Models(contd…)
• The partial derivatives are evaluated at
• Near the normal operating point, the higher-order terms may
be neglected. The linear mathematical model of this nonlinear
system in the neighborhood of the normal operating condition
is then given by
Describing Function
System Definition
System Definition (contd…)
In many cases the system presents a nonlinear phenomenon
which is fully characterized by its static characteristics, i.e.,
its dynamics can be neglected

a) Saturated actuators
System Definition (contd…)
b) Relay control

c) Gears backlash
System Definition (contd…)
d) Hysteresis in magnetic materials

e) Dead zone in electro mechanical systems

System Definition (contd…)
Nonlinearities are not always a drawback, they can also a
have a “stabilising” effect
System Definition (contd…)
System Definition (contd…)
 System Definition (contd…)
Many systems can be reduced to a simplified form in which
the all linear dynamics is concentrated in a unique block and
the static non linear characteristics is represented by a
separate block
System Definition (contd…)
If constant (or very slowly varying) reference signals are
considered, under some conditions it is possible to separate
the low-frequency, almost static, behaviour defined by a
working nominal condition and a high frequency behaviour
due to small variations around such a working point
Limit cycles
Limit cycle: a periodic oscillation around a constant working
point
Limit cycle can be a drawback in control systems:
• Instability of the equilibrium point
• Wear and failure in mechanical systems
• Loss of accuracy in regulation
Parameters of the limit cycle can be used to discriminate
between acceptable and dangerous oscillations
• oscillation frequency
• oscillation magnitude
Electronic oscillators can be based on limit cycles
Describing Function - Assumptions
The describing Function approach to the analysis of steady-
state oscillations in non linear systems is an approximate tool
to estimate the limit cycle parameters.

It is based on the following assumptions

• There is only one single nonlinear component
• The nonlinear component is not dynamical and time
invariant
• The linear component has low-pass filter properties
• The nonlinear characteristic is symmetric with respect to the
origin
Describing Function - Assumptions
There is only one single nonlinear component.
• The system can be represented by a lumped parameters
system with two main blocks:
• The linear part
• The nonlinear part
Describing Function - Assumptions
The nonlinear component is not dynamical and time
invariant.
• The system is autonomous. All the system dynamics is
concentrated in the linear part so that classical analysis tools
such as Nyquist and Bode plots can be applied.
Describing Function - Assumptions
The linear component has low-pass filter properties
• This is the main assumption that allows for neglecting the
higher frequency harmonics that can appear when a
nonlinear system is driven by a harmonic signal.

• The more the low-pass filter assumption is verified the more

the estimation error affecting the limit cycle parameters is
small
Describing Function - Assumptions
The nonlinear characteristic is symmetric with respect to the
origin
• This guarantees that the static term in the Fourier expansion
of the output of the nonlinearity, subjected to an harmonic
signal, can be neglected

• Such an assumption is usually taken for the sake of

simplicity, and it can be relaxed
Fourier expansion
Describing Function – Harmonic balance
Describing Function – Harmonic balance
Consider the polar representation of a complex number
associated with the exponential form of harmonic signals.

• Taking into account the low-pass property of the linear part

of the system
Describing Function – Harmonic balance
Describing Function – Harmonic balance
The harmonic balance equation is a necessary condition for
the existence of limit cycles in the nonlinear system.

The approximate analysis gives good estimates if the low-

pass filter hypothesis is strongly verified. It is a good tools
for engineers

The harmonic balance equation is similar to the

characteristic polynomial function, i.e. it leads to the Nyquist
condition for closed-loop stability
Describing Function – Harmonic balance

The Describing Function is a linear approximation of the

static nonlinearity limited to the first harmonic

In most cases the Describing Function is not a function of

the frequency and this simplifies the verification of the
harmonic balance equation by means of the Nyquist plot of
the transfer function
Describing Function – Harmonic balance
Describing Function – Computation
The DF computation can be performed by means of its
definition

• The evaluation of coefficients a1 and b1 can be performed

by means of both analytical calculation and numerical
integration, depending on the type of nonlinearity involved
Describing Function – Computation
Describing Function – Computation
Describing Function – Computation
Describing Function – Computation
Describing Function – Computation
Describing Function – Computation
Describing Function – Computation
Describing Function – Computation
Describing Function – Computation
Describing Function – Computation
Describing Function – Computation
Describing Function – Computation
Describing Function – Computation
Describing Function – Computation
Describing Function – Computation
Describing Function – Computation
Describing Function – Computation
Describing Function – Computation
Describing Function – Computation
DF Analysis – Example of application
DF Analysis – Example of application
DF Analysis – Example of application
DF Analysis – Example of application
DF Analysis – Example of application
DF Analysis – Example of application
DF Analysis – Example of application
DF Analysis – Example of application
DF Analysis – Example of application
control law is applied to the speed control problem
DF Analysis – Example of application
DF Analysis – Example of application
DF Analysis – Example of application
DF Analysis – Example of application
DF Analysis – Example of application
DF Analysis – Example of application
DF Analysis – Example of application
DF Analysis – Example of application