Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering

https://doi.org/10.1007/s13369-019-04315-6

REVIEW ARTICLE - PETROLEUM ENGINEERING

Deep Illustration for Loss of Circulation While Drilling

Salaheldin Elkatatny1 · Abdulmalek Ahmed1 · Mahmoud Abughaban2 · Shirish Patil1 

Received: 6 October 2019 / Accepted: 26 December 2019

© King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals 2020

Abstract
One of the most severe, costly, and time-consuming problems in the drilling operation is the loss of circulation. The drilling
fluid accounts for 25–40% of the total cost of the drilling operation. Loss of the drilling fluid will increase the total cost of
the drilling operation. Uncontrolled lost circulation of the drilling fluid may result in dangerous well control problem and
in some cases the loss of the well. Fluid losses can occur in different formations such as natural fracture, induced fracture,
unconsolidated, and cavernous and vugular. The objective of this paper is to deeply understand and illustrate different types
of loss of circulation, techniques used to determine the loss rate, and detection of loss zones. In addition, losses mitigation
techniques, different lost circulation materials (LCM), and the apparatus used to evaluate the available LCM will be explained
in detail. The deep literature review illustrated that lost circulation costs 10–20% of the cost of drilling high-pressure high-
temperature wells and 90% of these losses occur in fractured formations. The loss rate depends on the drilling fluid types,
and it is generally higher in the case of water-based drilling fluid than in the case of oil-based drilling fluid. It is important
to utilize an advanced measurement for losses with high frequency to detect the occurrences of lost circulation quickly and
correctly. The measurements of flow rate (flow in and flow out) should be supported by additional data such as logging data,
lost circulation information (loss rate and depth), mud properties, and surface drilling parameters. The preventive approach
is the most efficient to mitigate the loss of circulation since the use of conventional LCM is not successful in most of the
cases because of their limitations. It is vital to consider the size of different fractures encountered while drilling and modify
the laboratory equipment to simulate this problem. Loss of circulation is affected by many parameters that are related to
formation characterization, drilling parameters, fluid properties, and a lot of other known and unknown factors. Therefore, it
is a challenge to predict the loss of circulation. To overcome such challenge, it is recommended to develop a new technique
such as artificial intelligence to predict the thief zones and the loss rate by capturing the changes in the drilling mechanical
parameters and the fluid properties.

Keywords  Loss of circulation · Drilling fluid · Lost circulation material · Drilling cost

1 Introduction

Loss of circulation or loss of return is known as the partial or

* Shirish Patil complete loss of the drilling fluid from the annulus into the
patil@kfupm.edu.sa formation at any depth when using an overbalanced drilling
Salaheldin Elkatatny technique [1]. There are two necessary conditions for the
elkatatny@kfupm.edu.sa occurrence of circulation loss: the wellbore pressure must
Abdulmalek Ahmed be greater than the fracture pressure and the availability of
g201080240@kfupm.edu.sa flow pathways for losses to occur [2, 3].
Mahmoud Abughaban Drilling mud components are very expensive and cost
mahmoud.abughaban@aramco.com the petroleum industry around $12.31 billion in 2018 as
1
Department of Petroleum Engineering, King Fahd University
indicated by the drilling mud global market [4]. In addition
of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia to the high cost of the drilling operation which resulted
2
Drilling Technology Division, EXPEC Advanced Research
from mud losses, uncontrolled lost circulation of the
Center, Dhahran Heights ‑ Building 9172, C‑24a, Dhahran,
Saudi Arabia

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 Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering

drilling fluid can result in dangerous well control problem 2.2 Partial Losses
and in some cases the loss of the well [5].
Different techniques are used to treat loss of circulation Lost circulation is called partial or moderate loss when
problem while drilling and workover operations. The first losses are varying from 10 to 50  bbl/h under the static
step is to adjust the drilling fluid properties to decrease condition and a loss rate of 10–20% of the drilling mud
the equivalent circulation density (ECD) and, as a result, under dynamic condition [19, 22, 23]. Some researchers
reduce the volume of lost drilling fluid to the forma- have defined the rate of partial loss to be between 10 and
tion [2, 6]. ECD represents the mud density and annular 500 bbl/h [18, 20, 24]. Other researchers have limited the
pressure loss. The second step is to use solid particles, loss rate to be ranged from 25 to 100 barrels per hour for
which are referred to as lost circulation material (LCM) to water-based mud and 10 to 30 barrels per hour for oil-based
reduce and prevent loss of circulation. The common LCM muds [25]. According to Ivan et al. [26], the mud losses rate
includes flaky, granular, fibrous, blended, water/acid-sol- ranging from 10 to 25 barrels per hour is classified as partial
uble, hydratable/swellable LCM, nanoparticles, cement losses. Partial loss can occur in unconsolidated sand, grav-
plug, polyurethane grouting, settable plugs, cross-linked els, horizontal natural fracture, and vertical induced fracture
gel, and viscoelastic surfactant [7–10]. [15, 18].
Each type of lost circulation material mentioned above
has some advantages and disadvantages. Most of these 2.3 Severe Losses
treatments need time to be prepared and placed, while oth-
ers need to be removed out of the hole to keep the tools Lost circulation is called severe when losses are varying
safe [11]. In order to avoid lost circulation, some methods from 50 to 150 bbl/h under the static condition and a loss
are introduced to identify the thief zones such as resis- rate of 50–100% of the drilling mud under dynamic con-
tivity logs, temperature profile, and ECD [2, 6, 12, 13]. dition [15, 19]; severe loss is also called a complete loss
However, some of these methods are difficult to be applied [18]. Some researchers defined the severe loss as the loss
because of financial issues and lack of technology. The circulation associated with the loss of more than 500 bbl/h
conventional methods for loss of circulation detection are [18, 23, 24]. Other researchers have limited the loss rate to
not accurate. be more than 100 bbl/h for water-based mud and more than
30 bbl/h for oil-based muds [25]. According to Ivan et al.
[26], the mud loss rate greater than 25 bbl/h is defined as
severe losses. Severe loss can occur in long unconsolidated
2 Types of Lost Circulation sand gravels, caverns, vugs, large induced, and natural frac-
tures [18]. Caverns losses occur at shallow depths and are
Lost circulation is divided into four types based on the very hard to mitigate [21].
severity of the losses: seepage, partial, severe, and total
losses [14]. 2.4 Total Losses

Lost circulation is called total loss when no return is detected

2.1 Seepage Losses at the surface [19, 20, 25]. It is also defined as a case where
the drilling mud level in the annulus cannot be seen. Total
Lost circulation is called seepage when losses are varying loss can occur in cavernous, vugular, and very large fractures
from 1 to 10 barrels per hour (bbl/h) under the dynamic [18]. Some researchers consider the total and severe losses to
condition and a loss rate ranging from 10 to 20 bbl/h under be the same. Table 1 lists different types of lost circulation
static condition [15]. The rate of seepage loss could be less with their specific loss rate in oil and water base mud [25].
than 10 bbl/h [16–20]. The loss rate changes based on the
drilling fluid types; for water-based drilling fluid, the loss
rate usually is less than 25 bbl/h, while for oil-based drill- Table 1  Types of lost circulation [25]
ing fluid, the loss rate is less than 10 bbl/h.
Seepage loss occurs in different formations and it com- Classification Typical loss rate (bbl/h)
monly occurs in permeable and porous formations where Oil-based mud Water-based mud
the formed filter cake while drilling is not impermeable
Seepage < 10 < 25
[13]. Ferron et al. [21] stated that the main cause of seep-
Partial 10–40 25–100
age losses is the erosion of the filter cake because of the
Severe > 40 > 100
drilling cutting and the mud turbulent.
Total No returns No returns

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3 Zones of Lost Circulation is varying from an inch to large channels [17]. Lost cir-
culation through cavernous zones is detected by a sudden
Loss of circulation is expected to occur in any type of lithol- and very fast increase in the rate of penetration (ROP) and
ogy and formations as this issue has been encountered in maybe drop of the drillstring from many inches to several
many rock types at different depths. Most of the lost cir- feet into the new zone before the occurrence of the loss. A
culation zones are defined based on the fracture length and sudden loss of drilling fluid is also another indication of
shape. Some of the formations have more tendency to lose the losses in the vugular formations which leads to a quick
fluids such as natural fracture, unconsolidated zones, cavern- and complete lost circulation. These zones are considered
ous, vugular zones, and induced fracture. These formations the hardest formation to plug [13, 28]. Figure 1c illustrates
are defined based on the path and speed of the fluid when it the formation of cavernous vugs.
exits the wellbore [13].

3.1 Natural Fracture Zone 3.4 Induced Fracture

While drilling through limestone and chalk formations, Induced fractures are commonly created in the weak zones
which contain natural fractures [17, 27], the pit level is located above the high-pressure zone where a high mud
reduced gradually and slowly confirming the occurrence of weight is used. They may also be initiated because of
losses. A total loss can occur when the drilling is continued rough handling of the drilling tools, choke down or exces-
are more fractures are exposed [28]. Figure 1a represents sive backpressure [13]. At shallow depth, the fracture is
natural fracture zones. usually horizontal, whereas deeper than 2500 ft the frac-
ture is mostly vertical [22]. According to Dupriest et al.
3.2 Unconsolidated Zones [30] and Zhong et al. [31], more than 90% of circulation
loss is contributed to the induced fracture. Loss of return
These zones include high-permeable and porous formations, through induced fracture is evidenced by a rapid loss of
micro-fractured carbonates, loose gravels, and unconsoli- level of drilling fluid in the pit, which causes a complete
dated sands [29]. Lost circulation through unconsolidated loss when drilling is continued [28].
zones is detected by a slow drop of the pit level, and a total
loss can be caused if drilling is continued [28]. They com-
monly have a permeability ranging from 10 to 100 Darcy
and occur at shallow depths [22]. Figure 1b illustrates the 4 Effects of Lost Circulation
unconsolidated zone in the high-permeable formation.
Loss of circulation has many consequences that affect the
3.3 Cavernous and Vugular Zones drilling operation economically and efficiently such as
the increasing the drilling cost and non-productive time,
These zones are most commonly occurring in dolomite leading to poor hole cleaning condition, and causing well
or limestone formations because of infiltrating water that control problems.
dissolves calcium [13, 22]. The openings size in this zone

Fig. 1  Lost circulation in a natural fracture, b unconsolidated zone, c cavernous zone

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 Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering

4.1 Increasing the Non‑productive Time be 1.8 million bbl [24, 44]. Lost circulation in onshore drill-
ing operation costs approximately $65,000 per day, whereas,
Solving the lost circulation problem takes long time where in the offshore drilling operation, the cost is estimated to be
it is required to prepare a new pill with different lost circula- doubled about ($120,000) per day. In Canada and the USA, a
tion material and circulate the pill through the system; this well that suffers from circulation loss has a mud cost ranging
will increase the non-productive time [32]. Lost circulation from $8000 to $50,000 [45]. Circulation loss costs 10% to
requires up to 3 days to control in onshore wells, whereas 20% of the price of drilling high-pressure high-temperature
the number of days is increased in offshore wells to be up to (HPHT) wells [46, 47].
7 days [33]. From 1993 to 2003, in the Gulf of Mexico, more
than 10% of the non-productive time is caused by fluid loss 4.4 Well Control Problem
[34, 35]. A $2–$4 billion per year is estimated to be spent in
the non-productive time because of the circulation loss [36]. After the occurrence of lost circulation, the mud level in the
Figure 2 shows that the loss of circulation is one of the most annulus is decreased which leads to a reduction in the hydro-
problems that require more time to be handled [37]. static pressure; this leads to the decrease in the wellbore
pressure below the formation pressure. Consequently, a kick
4.2 Poor Hole Cleaning will happen because of the entrance of formation fluids into
the wellbore, which might cause a blowout of the well [5].
After a fluid loss has happened, the mud level is reduced
inside the wellbore. As a result, mud will not be able to
remove the cutting properly from the bottom to the surface 5 Measuring the Loss of Circulations
of the well. This causes a poor hole cleaning particularly in
directional drilling [38]. Consequently, poor hole cleaning The flow out (%) is the difference between the flow rate of
will lead to cuttings accumulation at the bottom of the well the mud pumped inside the wellbore and the flow rate out
which results in a stuck pipe and pack off [39, 40]. of the well. This flow rate can be measured by two methods
which are flowmeter and the pit level.
4.3 Increasing the Cost
5.1 Flowmeter
Loss of drilling fluid is one of the most drilling problems that
increase the financial cost. The annual cost of the problem is Electromagnetic flowmeters are installed on the rig site to
approximately $1 billion [41, 42]. The treatment of fluid loss obtain high-frequency drilling fluid loss which gives com-
costs around $200 million annually [26]. This cost contains plete information about the losses with the rate of sam-
lost drilling mud, lost time, and treatment costs [43]. The pling of 0.2 s−1 [2]. It has an accuracy of 10–15 l/min. The
annual loss of the mud into the formation is approximated to flowmeter that measures the flow rate inside the wellbore
is placed on the standpipe, while the flowmeter that meas-
ures the flow rate coming out of the well is placed upstream
the shakers [48]. The flowmeters could only be used with
water-based mud because of their operational requirements
of using electrically conductive drilling fluid [49]. Because
of the poor quality of the mud coming out from the wellbore
and its contamination with the drilled cuttings, the flow-
meters measure the flow rate of the fluid coming out of the
hole with less accuracy compared to the flowrate of the fluid
flowing into the well.

5.2 Pit Level

Monitoring the pit level by floating or acoustic sensors is

very important to indicate the cumulative quantity of the
drilling fluid lost over a period of time. A decrease in the
drilling fluid-pit level can refer to a significant loss of cir-
culation [2]. Pit level has low accuracy in the detection of
a small loss. Moreover, it is affected by many factors such
Fig. 2  Number of days required to control drilling problems [37] as filling and draining of surface lines, losses in the surface,

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increasing and reduction of mud cycles due to pressure and

temperature variations in the hole and the additives added to
the mud such water or chemicals [2]. It is important to utilize
an advanced measurement with high frequency to detect the
occurrences of lost circulation quickly and correctly.

6 Detection of Losses Zones

Identifying the properties and the location of the zone of

lost circulation (thief zone) is important to prevent lost cir-
culation. Equivalent circulating density (ECD), propagation
resistivity log, and temperature survey are the main meas-
urements that can be used to identify the location of thief
zones. There are also some indirect indications at the rig site
that can be used to identify the location of the loss zone. For
example, thief zone is considered to be at the drill bit when
there is a notable change in the torque, penetration rate, and Fig. 4  Effects of lost circulation on ECD when circulation is stopped
vibration [50]. [6]

6.1 Equivalent Circulating Density

in Fig. 4b. This slow decrease in the ECD is caused by the
Measuring the equivalent circulating density (ECD) while flow of the mud into the well coming from the fracture [6].
drilling can provide a sign of induced fracture existence.
When the drilling fluid is circulated, there will be a rapid 6.2 Propagation Resistivity Log
increase in ECD in the case of undamaged formation as
shown in Fig. 3a, while in the case of fractured formation, A propagation resistivity log can be useful in identifying the
the ECD increases slowly as shown in Fig. 3b. This gradual fracture height. This technique depends on two measure-
increase in ECD is due to the flow of the mud into the frac- ments: the first measurement provides information about the
ture [2]. On the other hand, when the circulation is stopped, near-well area; the second measurement goes deeper into the
there will be a rapid decrease in the ECD in the case of formation [12]. A short fracture is indicated by a separation
undamaged formation as shown in Fig. 4a, while in the case of the curves measured at the two depths [6]. The size of the
of fractured formation, the ECD drops gradually as shown fracture is estimated by the length of the separated interval
as shown in Fig. 5 [12]. A long fracture is indicated by an
increase in both curves of resistivity without separation as
shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 3  Effects of lost circulation on ECD when mud is circulated [6] Fig. 5  Indication of short fracture

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7.1.1 Controlling Bottom Hole Pressure

Applying a high overbalanced pressure could break the

formation and cause losses. The wellbore pressure should
be kept less than the fracture pressure and greater than
the optimum formation pressure to prevent compressive
failure of the rock [52]. The pressure can be controlled
through minimizing the hydrostatic pressure in the well-
bore using drilling fluid which has the minimum safe den-
sity [13] and minimizing the circulating density by chang-
ing the mud properties (yield point (YP), gel strength, and
viscosity within the safe margin [53].

7.1.2 Wellbore Pressure Containment Improvement (WPCI)

Fig. 6  Indication of long fracture [12]
Wellbore pressure containment is the highest pressure that
wellbore can withstand which is higher than the lower
6.3 Temperature Survey in situ stress [54]. It is considered a major challenge in
deep, HPHT wells. The circulation loss occurs in the for-
Temperature logging is a helpful method to identify the mations of depleted sands, shales or leaking faults because
thief zones. In geothermal wells, a temperature survey is of using a high mud weight [55]. To effectively manage the
commonly used to discover losses zones [2]. The profile WPCI, the following information is required: last casing
of the temperature along an opened hole is logged after setting depth, casing size and properties, and drill pipe,
some hours of stopping the circulation. Then, when the rate of fluid loss, type and weight of drilling fluid and type
circulation is resumed, the profile of the temperature is of thief zone [56].
recorded again. The temperature discontinuities, which are
the changes between the two profiles, point out where the
drilling fluid goes during the circulation [13]. 7.1.3 Running Intermediate Casing in the Transition Zones
To improve the detection of lost circulation, the meas-
urements of flow rate should be supported by additional The transition zone is the zone where the formation pressure
data such as logging data, loss of circulation information is changed gradually from low pressure (normal formation
(ECD, depth, duration), properties of the mud (rheology, pressure which is equal to 9 ppg) to high pressure. Most of
mud density, particle size, solids content), and surface the drilling problems including lost circulation occur in this
drilling parameters (torque, weight on bit (WOB), stand- zone because of the breakdown of the low-pressure forma-
pipe pressure, mud density, fracture gradient, and ROP). tion when a high mud weight is used to drill this section.
The problems coming from these zones can be prevented by
protecting the formation using the intermediate casing [13].

7 Mitigation of Lost Circulation

7.1.4 Wellbore Strengthening
Avoiding and mitigating lost circulation involves wide
strategies and good preparation that should consider all Wellbore strengthening enables the driller to use a high
the important factors during the operation. Loss of cir- mud weight and make a very high overbalance (sometimes
culation can be mitigated by two approaches: preventive greater than 3000 psi) against a weak formation by plugging
and corrective. this formation using different plugging techniques [57]. The
wellbore strengthening plugs are blends of different materi-
als with different sizes that can penetrate the fractures and
7.1 Preventive Approach make a bridge to separate the wellbore from these fractures
[36].
The preventive approach is based on managing the loss of The preventive approach to mitigate the loss of circu-
return by planning ahead and possibly stopping its occur- lation is easier than the corrective approach. Keeping the
rence [51]. wellbore pressure equal to or very close to the formation

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pressure and avoiding the drilling through the thief zones (if added flaky LCM and a mixture of LCMs. Nygaard et al.
possible) are the most efficient approach to prevent losses. [59] increased the categories of LCM to seven; these are
In some cases, preventive approach is not always effec- flaky, granular, fibrous, blended, water/acid-soluble, hydrat-
tive, such as drilling in fractured and vuggy carbonate; there- able/swellable LCMs, and nanoparticles. Nygaard et al. [59]
fore, corrective approach is required. classification is based on the application, appearance and
both the chemical and physical properties of the LCM. The
7.2 Corrective Approach chemical properties include the reactivity and swellability
of the material with different chemicals and the solubility of
The corrective approach is the treatment that is applied only these materials in acids. The physical properties contain the
after the occurrence of lost circulation [7]. The treatment is particle’s size and shape [24]. In the following section, the
done using different materials that defined as lost circulation plugging mechanisms of different LCM will be discussed
material (LCM). When the thief zones are expected, the cor- and Table 2 summarizes the different properties and exam-
rective approach includes the treatment of the drilling mud ples of LCM.
with loss of circulation materials (LCMs) that are usually
blended with the drilling fluid to plug the loss zones when (A) Flaky LCM
they are encountered [8].
LCM must have a perfect size selection to seal the frac- A material can bridge and plug the thief formations. It has a
ture efficiently. If the size of the material is very large com- large surface area and a flat and thin shape. Sometimes, it has
pared to the fracture size, they cannot enter the cracks or no stiffness and can form a mat across the permeable zone
pores. In the same way, if the size of the material is very [18, 28]. The examples of flaky materials are flaked calcium
small, they cannot seal the fractures [10]. According to carbonate, mica, cellophane, vermiculite, and corncobs.
Kulkarni et al. [58], using large particles of LCM has two
challenges. The first challenge that it can affect the rheology (B) Granular LCM
of the drilling mud and the equivalent circulating density
(ECD). The second challenge is their tendency to settle out It is material that can pass through the pores and form
the mud. a filter cake [60]. It can form a seal inside the pores of
the formation or the fracture [18, 28]. It is rigid and has
7.2.1 Conventional LCM a high crushing resistance and stiffness which is suitable
to seal the fracture and strength the wellbore by applying
It is important to understand and evaluate the behavior and greater stress on the particles [7, 61]. Granulate materials
the performance of LCM to prevent the loss of circulation. are available in different sizes and lengths. The examples
Howard et  al. [28] classified LCM into four categories: of granular materials are calcium carbonate, nutshells,
dehydratable, lamellated, fibrous, and granular. White [9] gilsonite, graphite, asphalt, perlite, and course bentonite.
added two types of LCM to the Howard’s classification. He

Table 2  Properties and examples of LCM

Lost circulation material (LCM) Properties Examples

Flaky Large surface area Flaked calcium carbonate, mica, cellophane, vermiculite, and corncobs
Thin and flat shape
No stiffness
Granular Rigid Calcium carbonate, nutshells, gilsonite, graphite, asphalt, perlite, and
High stiffness course bentonite
High crushing resistance
Fibrous Long and slender shape Sawdust, cellulose fibers, shredded paper, mineral fibers, and nylon fibers
Low stiffness
Blended Combination of different types
Acid/water soluble Not damaging the permeability Calcium carbonate, Magma fiber, ground marble and salts
Removable
Hydratable/swellable Changeable in shape Polymer
High elasticity
Nanoparticles Extremely fine and small Iron hydroxide, calcium carbonate, and silica

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(C) Fibrous LCM 7.2.2 Other LCM

A material is able to form a bridge across the formations There are also different LCMs that have been used by
pores to build a rapid mud cake [18, 28]. It is utilized many researchers to cure the losses zones such as cement
commonly in vugular and fractured formations. It has plug, polyurethane grouting, settable plugs, cross-linked
low stiffness and long and slender shape [13]. It is less gel, and viscoelastic surfactant.
expensive and available in a wide range of particle size
distribution. Fibrous materials include sawdust, cellulose (A) Cement Plug
fibers, shredded paper, mineral fibers, and nylon fibers.
Some of the fibrous material is Magma fiber [62]. Cement is one of the most widely used LCMs. Many kinds
of cement have been used as LCM. Different customized
(D) Blended LCM applications were developed using effective cement compo-
sitions and types. These applications differ based on the type
It is a mixture of two or more types of LCM. It can enter and properties of drilling mud [71]. They contain ultrathi-
high-permeable vugs and fracture zones and plug them xotropic and thixotropic cement slurries: slurries including
effectively. It has a significant effect on reducing the fluid calcium carbonate, flakes, and mica for mechanical bridging
loss compared to the individual LCM because of the various for control the loss [21]. It is not recommended to use the
sizes and properties of the blended LCM [63]. Many stud- cement as a lost circulation material in the reservoir section
ies focused on the efficient sealing of blended LCMs have because it cannot be easily removed. However, a new acid-
concluded that the permeability of mud cake is minimized soluble cement has been developed to be removed after lost
by using a combination of LCMs [33, 64]. circulation treatment. It provides good compressive strength
and can be removed by hydrochloric acid, which reduces
(E) Water-/Acid-Soluble LCM formation damage [72, 73].

This material can be used in the reservoir section since it (B) Polyurethane Grouting
does not damage the formation’s permeability because it is
easily removable [65]. The development of these materials Polyurethane grouting is a solution or a mixture of chemi-
has increased compared to the conventional LCM (flaky, cal grouts that react with each other and water to form a gel,
granular, fibrous and blended) which can damage the per- leading to an increase in viscosity. Polyurethanes are one
meability of the reservoir [66]. Examples of water- or acid- class of chemical groups which are pure resins solutions that
soluble materials include calcium carbonate, Magma fiber, are mixture of organic products in a solvent [71]. This group
ground marble and salts. contains single element prepolymerized polyurethanes,
which need water to start the reaction and two elements
(F) Hydratable/Swellable LCM polyurethanes which are mixed and react together [74].

A material is changeable in shape. It is a mixture of dif- (C) Settable Plugs

ferent LCM with a highly reactive chemical additive such
as a polymer which has a high elastic property. hydratable/ A plug is utilized for slurry, which is a gel or solidified.
swellable LCM is activated when it contacts the mud or the Rigid setting fluids have been developed for sealing high
formation and seal the zone of losses [25]. circulation loss zones [75]. It is developed in a way that
keeps fluid at low viscosity and reacts at certain bottom hole
(G) Nanoparticles LCM temperature [76]. It cannot be removed easily and difficult
to spot in the correct zone [71].
They are extremely fine and small particles such as iron
hydroxide, calcium carbonate, and silica. Nanoparticles can (D) Cross-linked Gel
be prepared by two methods. The first method is by prepar-
ing a solution that contains the nanoparticles, and then later It is a high-viscosity gel formed by the development of
it was added to the mud. The second method is by directly cross-linked bonds between polymer chains [75]. This inte-
preparing a drilling fluid with nanoparticles [67–70]. rior network might be the product of a chemical or physical
cross-linking. Chemical gels include irreversible covalent
bonds making the polymer network [77]. Adding more
of these solutions to the mud formulations may rise the

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viscoelastic properties, improving the capability to sustain 9 Apparatus to Evaluate LCM

the temperature and pressure [75].
The evaluation of the LCM performance is conducted using
(E) Viscoelastic Surfactant different testing apparatus. The apparatus varies based on the
capacity of the fluid loss at constant temperature and pres-
It is made of surfactants that self-assemble into worm-like sure [7, 61]. Some of these equipments vary based on the
micellar structures that act as polymers, raising the viscosity efficiency of LCM to seal fractured formations [63, 79–81].
of the mud at low shear rates [78]. The worm-like micelle is The plugging efficiency of LCM depends on the size of
damaged at a higher shear rate. However, when surfactant the particles and the concentration of LCM. There are five
particles self-assemble added at small shear rates, worm-like common apparatus used to evaluate LCM such as particle
micelle can be reformed which increases the mixture viscos- plugging apparatus (PPA), LCM tester, impermeable and
ity and enhances the pseudoplastic behavior. permeable fracture test, and HPHT fluid loss.

9.1 Particle Plugging Apparatus

8 Advantages and Disadvantages of LCM It is a HPHT equipment that measures the filtration and
bridging characteristic of the LCM. Ceramic disk and
Each type of the LCM mentioned above has some advan- tapered slot are used by PPA as a filtration medium to
tages and disadvantages [71]. Whatever LCM is utilized, simulate a fracture width ranging from 2 to 5  mm. To
it must be compatible with the drilling mud in the well- simulate the zones of fracture precisely, PPA has a various
bore. It should have the ability to go through constrictions range of porosity and permeability. The apparatus’s limita-
in the BHA. LCM should also have a slight impact on the tion is 500 °F (260 °C) for temperature and 5000 psi for
permeability of the formation. Tables 3 and 4 show the pressure. When the test temperature is greater than 200 °F,
advantages and limitations of each LCM. backpressure should be applied to avoid fluid boiling. PPA
has a hand pump, which applies hydraulic pressure to the
cell. The size of the filtration cell is 300 ml. The filtration

Table 3  Advantages and LCM Advantages Disadvantages

disadvantages of main LCM
Granular Form acid-soluble cake Brittle material
Resistant to surge and swap effects Requires high solids
Non-compressible and granular loading
Create formation dam-
age due to Acidizing
workover
Fibers Removed without post-treatment Low acid solubility
Highly compressible and flexible Shrinking and swelling
Wide range of particle sizes Bacterial degradation
High soluble in alkaline solutions Increase viscosity
Renewable, biodegradable, and inexpensive Affect pumping ability
Acid soluble Available in a wide range of strength, density, Degradable above 60 °C
and shape High manufacturing cost
Compatible with other components of the fluid
Non-damaging and non-toxic to the formation
Reducing acid treatments
Dissolve some solid particles
Nanoparticles Effective at plugging pore throats High manufacturing cost
Thinner impermeable mud cake
Control formation damage
Reduce friction and wear
Combinations of LCM Works better in bridging fractures Affects density and
Reduce spurt losses rheology
Used in multiple applications Cannot be dissolved by
traditional treatments

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Table 4  Advantages and disadvantages of other LCM

LCM Advantages Disadvantages

Cement plugs Effective against severe and complete losses Applied in non-producing zones
Permanent solution for the problem Irreversible process
Can be used in reservoir sections
More expensive
Delaying the drilling process
Settable plugs No risk of bit nozzles plugging Hard to be set at the desired location
Cover a wide range of fracture widths Impacts on the environment
Cross-linked gels High gel strengths Damage the invaded zone
Low cost Require removal treatment
Form filter cakes after treatment
Risk of premature or late gelation
Viscoelastic surfactants Non-wall-building Great dependence of viscosity with temperature
Obtained from renewable sources Expensive
low stability at temperatures higher than 200°F
No need for remedial treatments
Ability to break and recombine
Fewer additives and easier to prepare
Form gels at lower concentrations
Polyurethane grouting Control setting time and viscosity Hard to be set at the desired location
Make a rigid plug Does not resist high-pressure differentials
Squeeze material into the loss zone
Can be manufactured to be low viscosity

Fig. 8  LCM tester

is gathered out on the top to prevent wrong readings com-

ing from settling of particles.
In addition, the modified PPA has been developed. It is
high-pressure equipment that measures the filtration and
Fig. 7  Particle plugging apparatus (PPA) bridging characteristic of LCM. Fabricated steel fractures
are used as a filtration medium to simulate a fracture width
that varies from 0.3 to 0.7 mm. The apparatus’s limitation
is a maximum pressure of 8700 psi. Figure 7 shows the
PPA.

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Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering

9.2 LCM Tester

It is a low-temperature low-pressure equipment used to

evaluate the sealing efficiency of the LCM. Tapered slot
and straight slot are used as a filtration medium to simulate
a fracture width ranging from 1 to 5 mm for straight slot
and from 2 to 12 mm for the tapered slot. The apparatus’s
limitation is 300 °F for temperature and 1000 psi for pres-
sure. Figure 8 shows the LCM tester.

9.3 Impermeable and Permeable Fracture Testers

Impermeable fracture tester shown in Fig.  9 is a low-

pressure equipment that measures the sealing efficiency Fig. 10  HPHT fluid loss
of LCM. Uneven aluminum platens are used as a filtration
medium to simulate a fracture width ranging from 0.3 to
1 mm. The apparatus’s maximum pressure is 1250 psi. The 9.4 High‑Temperature High‑Pressure Fluid Loss
apparatus has many components that enable the user of
creating induced fractures horizontally or vertically using It is a HPHT equipment used to measure the filtration char-
the treated drilling fluid. Permeable fracture tester (Fig. 9) acteristic of LCM. Filter paper and ceramic disk are used as
is high-pressure equipment that measures the sealing a filtration medium to simulate a fracture width with differ-
efficiency of LCM. Porous plates are used as a filtration ent sizes. The apparatus’s limitation is a maximum pressure
medium to simulate a fracture width that varies from 0.25 that varies from 1500 to 2000 psi and maximum temperature
to 1 mm. The permeable fracture tester could be used for that ranges between 350 and 500 °F. Figure 10 shows the
a maximum pressure of up to 6000 psi. HPHT fluid loss.
Table 5 summarizes all the apparatuses listed above with
their specific limitations and details. When the formation
is drilled, it is vital to consider the sizes of fractures. These
fractures change as the pressure of the mud widens the cur-
rent fracture or creates new fracture [82]. So, it is important
to simulate the real cases of lost circulation in the labora-
tory. New modifications were conducted in the laboratory for
testing the LCM. The HPHT cell was developed to be able
to use different slot disks with different properties in order
to simulate the actual cases of circulation loss as shown in
Fig. 11a. Several disks varying in thickness and perforation
size were modified to simulate the actual downhole bit noz-
zles in the cases of the circulation loss as shown in Fig. 11b,
c. Also, different fracture geometry in slot disks (length,
height, and width) was designed to simulate the most severe
conditions of the losses as shown in Fig. 11d.

10 Prediction of Lost Circulation Using

Artificial Intelligence

Loss of circulation is affected by many parameters related to

formation characterization, drilling parameters, fluid prop-
erties, and a lot of other known and unknown factors, thus
making it very hard to develop an analytical model to predict
Fig. 9  Impermeable and permeable fracture tester the losses or the zones of lost circulation. Therefore, many

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 Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering

Table 5  Apparatus used to evaluate LCM

Apparatus Particle plugging LCM tester Impermeable HPHT fluid loss Modified PPA Permeable fracture
apparatus (PPA) fracture test test

Maximum tem- 500 300 – 350–500 – ~

perature (°F)
Maximum pressure 4000–5000 1000 1250 1500–2000 8700 6000
(psi)
Filtration medium Ceramic disks API slots TS Uneven aluminum Filter paper Fabricated steel Porous plates
API/ TS platens ceramic disks fractures
Fracture width 2 mm (TS) 1–5 mm (SS) 0.3–1 mm – 0.3–0.7 mm 0.25–1 mm
(mm) 5 mm (SS) 2–12.7 (TS)
Measured values Filtration/bridging Sealing efficiency Sealing efficiency Filtration charac- Filtration/bridging Sealing efficiency
teristic characteristic

Fig. 11  Laboratorymodification

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Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering

researchers tried to use artificial intelligence to predict the coefficient of 0.78 for the training, 0.98 for the validation,
loss of circulation. and 0.95 for the testing data.
Moazzeni et  al. [83] predicted the amount and exist- Solomon et al. [87] used ANN to estimate the induced
ence of lost circulation using the artificial neural networks fracture’s width and find the size of loss prevention materi-
(ANNs). Data from 32 wells in Maroun oil field were used, als. ANN model was trained and validated using an input
and 18 parameters were used as inputs (current depth of the data of 30 points. This resulted in a coefficient of deter-
well from ground surface, current depth of the well from sea mination of 79%. Predictability of the ANN model was
level, drilled depth, drilling time, open hole length, top of compared with different fracture models, and the results
the formation, north direction of the well, east direction of indicated that ANN has an error of 15% compared to 26%
the well, bit size, pump flow rate, pump pressure, mud den- error by other models.
sity, solid percent, viscometer reading at 300 and 600 rpm, Manshad et al. [88] applied support vector machine
fluid loss, amount of losses in the day previous of losses (SVM) to estimate the amount of lost circulation and
problem, and amount of losses in 2 days previous of consid- radial basis function to predict the severity of the losses
ered day). The data were divided into three parts (70% for in Maroun oilfield. Three parameters from 30 wells were
training, 15% for testing, and 15% for validation). The ANN used as input parameters which are north and east direc-
model estimated the rate of fluid loss with a correlation coef- tion, losses volume in the day before the day of study,
ficient of 0.95 for training, 0.82 for the validation, and 0.77 and losses volume in 2 days before the day of study. SVM
for the testing data. It also estimated the type of losses with was able to estimate the quantity of the losses with a high
good accuracy. performance of 79.6%. Also, the radial basis function was
Toreifi et al. [84] designed two models to estimate the able to predict the quality of the losses with a high perfor-
lost circulation quantitatively and qualitatively in Maroun mance of 78.3%.
oil field using ANN. They used 1756 data point from 38 Al-Hameedi et al. [89] used machine learning to esti-
wells using 16 input parameters which are east and north mate the volume of lost circulation, in Dammam forma-
coordinates, the current depth, formation tip depth, ROP, tion. Six input parameters from 500 wells were used in this
type of formation, annulus volume, pump pressure, mud study. These parameters are the ECD, mud weight, nozzles
pressure, flow rate, viscosity of filter cake, plastic viscosity size (total flow area of the nozzles (TFA)), PV, ROP, and
(PV), YP, solid content, initial strength, and final strength WOB. They were able to predict the volume of the losses
after 10 min. 60% of the data were used for training, 20% with high accuracy in four different types of losses (seep-
for testing, and 20% for validating the developed model. The age, partial, severe, and total).
first model predicted the rate of losses with a high accuracy Alkinani et  al. [90] applied the ANN to predict the
represented by a correlation coefficient of 0.95 for training losses of drilling fluid in the induced fracture forma-
and 0.94 for testing. The second model determined the type tion. They used mud weight, ECD, PV, YP, flow rate (Q),
of losses (i.e., seepage, partial, severe, or total) with a cor- rotary speed, WOB, and TFA collected from 1500 wells
relation coefficient of 0.99 for training and 0.98 for testing. as inputs. The data were divided into three parts: 60% for
Efendiyev et al. [85] studied the effect of petrophysical training, 20% for validation, and 20% for testing. Their
properties on the circulation loss. Fuzzy logic was used ANN model predicted the loss of circulation with high
to determine the severity of the losses based only on two coefficient of determination of 0.925.
petrophysical properties which are permeability and poros- Abbas et al. [91] implemented ANN and SVM to pre-
ity. They concluded that when the rock is impermeable and dict the occurrence of mud losses. A dataset of 1120
dense, the circulation loss is minor, when the rock is mod- cases from 385 wells in a different field in Iraq was used
erately permeable and low-porous, the circulation loss is in this study. The data have five types of losses (i.e., no
intensive, when the rock is low-permeable and moderately losses, seepage losses, partial losses, severe losses, and
porous, the circulation loss is partial, when the rock is highly total losses). The input parameters are lithology, MW, flow
permeable and porous, the circulation loss is catastrophic, rate, ROP, circulating pressure, inclination, solids content,
and when the rock is permeable and highly porous, the cir- fluid loss, drillstring speed, WOB, YP, PV, Marsh funnel
culation loss is serious. viscosity, 10-s gel strength, 10-min gel strength, azimuth,
Far and Hosseini et al. [86] studied the influences of measured depth, and hole size. The data were divided
depth, mud weight, flow rate, and pump pressure on lost into two parts: 75% to train the model and 25% to test the
circulation using ANN. They also used the ANN to predict developed model. ANN predicted the losses with a corre-
the amount of the losses in Asmari formation. The data lation coefficient of 0.87 and 0.83 for training and testing
were divided into three parts: 70% to train the model, 15% data, respectively. SVM has the ability to predict the loss
for validation, and 15% to test the ANN model. The ANN of circulation with high correlation coefficient of 0.92 for
model predicted the volume of losses with a correlation training and 0.91 for testing data.

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 Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering

11 Lesson Learnt 2. Whatever LCM is utilized, it must be consistent with the

drilling mud in the wellbore, it should have the ability
1. Loss of circulation is the most common, severe, costly, to go through constrictions in the bottom hole assembly,
and time-consuming problem in oil and gas fields. The and LCM should also have a slight impact on the forma-
drilling fluid accounts for 25–40% of the total cost of tion’s permeability.
the drilling operation, so any loss of the drilling fluid 3. It is important to simulate the real cases of lost circu-
will significantly increase the total cost of the drilling lation in the laboratory using different slot disks with
operation. The loss rate depends on the drilling fluid different properties and geometries. There is a need
types, and it is generally higher in the case of water- to develop the PPA instrument that can be used with
based drilling fluid than in the case of oil-based drill- real cores to evaluate the removal efficiency of the used
ing fluid. Circulation loss costs 10–20% of the price of LCM, especially in the reservoir section.
drilling an HPHT wells, and 90% of these losses occur 4. The implementation of AI in the drilling became more
in fractured formations. applicable. The AI is recommended to be applied in the
2. The preventive approach to mitigate the loss of circula- issues of lost circulation because it can consider all the
tion is easier than the corrective approach. Keeping the parameters that affect the losses in building the model
wellbore pressure very close or equal to the formation and help the driller to prepare the treatment for this
pressure is the most efficient approach to prevent losses. issue as quickly as possible. When the lost circulation
It is very difficult to cure losses, especially in workover is known, the driller can adjust the important drilling
operations. The use of conventional LCM is not suc- parameters to deal with the losses.
cessful in all cases of lost circulation because of their
limitations and disadvantages.
3. When the formation is drilled, it is vital to consider the Acknowledgements  The authors would like to thank King Fahd Uni-
versity of Petroleum and Minerals and Saudi Aramco for permission to
size of fractures. These fractures change as the mud publish this paper and providing the funding to conduct this research,
hydrostatic pressure increases which results in increase under the Project Number CIPR2322.
in the size of the existing fracture or creating a new frac-
ture.
4. Loss of circulation is affected by many parameters that References
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OMC-2015-261 was Presented at Offshore Mediterranean Confer- offshore drilling. Paper SPE 135155, Presented in SPE Annual
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onepe​tro.org/confe​rence​-paper​/OMC-2015-261 (2015) ://doi.org/10.2118/13515​5-MS (2012)
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and What are the Next Solutions? In: SPE Lost Circulation Work- lost circulation material LCM pills for high temperature appli-
shop, Dubai, 20–22 May 2014 cations. SPE-180309-MS was Presented at SPE Deepwater
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duction Practice, 1 Jan, New York, New York. https​://www.onepe​ 59. Nygaard, R.; Alsaba, M.; Hareland, G.: Review of lost circula-
tro.org/confe​rence​-paper​/API-53-014 (1953) tion materials and treatments with an updated classification.
46. Growcock, F.B.; Kaageson-Loe, N.; Friedheim, J.; Sanders, M.W.; AADE-14-FTCE-25 was Presented at AADE National Techni-
Bruton, J.: Wellbore stability, stabilization and strengthening. cal Conference and Exhibition, Houston, TX, USA. http://www.
OMC-2009-107 was Presented at Offshore Mediterranean Confer- aade.org/app/downl​oad/72380​16107​/AADE-14-FTCE-25.pdf
ence and Exhibition, 25–27 March, Ravenna, Italy. https​://www. (2014)
onepe​tro.org/confe​rence​-paper​/OMC-2009-107 (2009) 60. Bourgoyne, A.T.: Applied Drilling Engineering. Society of Petro-
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sented at 51st U.S. Rock Mechanics/Geomechanics Symposium, tribution and fracture modeling with fracture simulation software.
25–28 June, San Francisco, California, USA. https​://www.onepe​ SPE-115039-MS was Presented at IADC/SPE Asia Pacific Drill-
tro.org/confe​rence​-paper​/ARMA-2017-0492 (2017) ing Technology Conference and Exhibition, Jakarta, Indonesia,
48. Sanfillippo, F.; Brignoli, M.; Santarelli, F.J.; Bezzola, C.: Charac- 25–27 Aug. https​://doi.org/10.2118/11503​9-MS (2008)
terization of conductive fractures while drilling. SPE-38177-MS 62. Ali, A.; Kalloo, C.; Singh, U.: A practical approach for prevent-
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49. Beda, G.; Carugo, C.: Use of mud microloss analysis while drill- 63. Oort, E.V.; Friedheim, J.E.; Pierce, T.; Lee, J.: Avoiding losses
ing to improve the formation evaluation in fractured reservoir. in depleted and weak zones by constantly strengthening well-
SPE-71737-MS was Presented at SPE Annual Technical Confer- bores. SPE Drill. Complet. 26(04), 519–530 (2011). https​://doi.
ence and Exhibition, 30 Sept–3 Oct, New Orleans, Louisiana. org/10.2118/12509​3-pa
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50. Power, D.; Ivan, C.D.; Brooks, S.W.: The top 10 lost circulation approach to preventing lost circulation while drilling. SPE-
concerns in deepwater drilling. SPE-81133-MS was Presented 24599-MS was Presented at SPE Annual Technical Confer-
at SPE Latin American and Caribbean Petroleum Engineering ence and Exhibition, 4–7 Oct, Washington, DC. https​://doi.
Conference, 27–30 Apr, Port-of-Spain, Trinidad and Tobago. https​ org/10.2118/24599​-MS (1992)
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51. Savari, S.; Whitfill, D.L.: Managing total fluid loss is critical for logging while drilling and drilling mud/loss-circulation-material
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USA. https​://doi.org/10.4043/25693​-MS (2015) Complet. 14(03), 168–177 (1999). https​://doi.org/10.2118/57713​
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3(04), 489–494 (1988). https​://doi.org/10.2118/16927​-pa 66. Sweatman, R.E.; Scoggins, W.C.: Acid-soluble magnesia cement:
new applications in completion and workover operations. SPE

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Prod. Eng. 5(04), 441–447 (1988). https​://doi.org/10.2118/18031​ drilling fluid systems and drilling fluid additives within fractured
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67. Hoelscher, K.P.; De Stefano, G.; Riley, M.; Young, S.: Application mediterranean conference and exhibition, Ravenna, Italy, 28–30
of nanotechnology in drilling fluids. SPE-157031-MS was Pre- Mar. https:​ //www.onepet​ ro.org/confer​ ence-​ paper/​ OMC-2007-082
sented at SPE International Oilfield Nanotechnology Conference (2007)
and Exhibition, Noordwijk, Netherlands, 12–14 June. https​://doi. 80. Kageson-Loe, N.M.; Sanders, M.W.; Growcock, F.; Taugbol, K.;
org/10.2118/15703​1-MS (2012) Horsrud, P.; Singelstad, A.V.; Omland, T.H.: Particulate based
68. Contreras, O.; Hareland, G.; Husein, M.; Nygaard, R.; Alsaba, loss-prevention material—the secrets of fracture sealing revealed!
M.: Application of in-house prepared nanoparticles as filtration iADC/SPE Drill. Complet. (2008). https​://doi.org/10.2118/11259​
control additive to reduce formation damage. SPE-168116-MS 5-ms
was Presented at SPE International Symposium and Exhibition 81. Sanders, M.; Young, S.; Friedheim, J.: Development and testing of
on Formation Damage Control, Lafayette, USA, 26–28 Feb. https​ novel additives for improved wellbore stability and reduced losses.
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69. Nwaoji, C.O.; Hareland, G.; Husein, M.; Nygaard, R.; Zaka- and exhibition, Houston, USA, 8–9 Apr. https​://pdfs.seman​ticsc​
ria, M.F.: Wellbore strengthening-nano-particle drilling fluid holar​.org/8d13/5a0e4​4fe73​4a94c​767a7​da37c​a538f​f3f0d​c.pdf
experimental design using hydraulic fracture apparatus. SPE- (2008)
163434-MS was Presented at SPE/IADC Drilling Conference 82. Khalifeh, M.; Klungtvedt, K.R.; Vasshus, J.K.; Saasen, A.: Drill-
and Exhibition, Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 5–7 Mar. https​:// ing fluids—lost circulation treatment. SPE-195609-MS was
doi.org/10.2118/16343​4-MS (2013) Presented at SPE Norway One Day Seminar, 14 May, Bergen,
70. Friedheim, J.E.; Young, S.; De Stefano, G.; Lee, J.; Guo, Q.: Norway. https​://doi.org/10.2118/19560​9-MS (2019)
Nanotechnology for oilfield applications—hype or reality?. SPE- 83. Moazzeni, A.R.; Nabaei, M.; Jegarluei, S.G.: Prediction of lost cir-
157032-MS was Presented at SPE International Oilfield Nano- culation using virtual intelligence in one of iranian oilfields. SPE-
technology Conference and Exhibition, Noordwijk, Netherlands, 136992-MS was Presented at Nigeria Annual International Con-
12–14 June. https​://doi.org/10.2118/15703​2-MS (2012) ference and Exhibition, 31 July–7. https​://doi.org/10.2118/13699​
71. Luzardo, J.; Oliveira, E.P.; Derks, P.W.J.; Nascimento, R.V.; 2-MS (2010)
Gramatges, A.P.; Valle, R.; Inderberg, K.: Alternative lost circu- 84. Toreifi, H.; Rostami, H.; Manshad, A.K.: New method for predic-
lation material for depleted reservoirs. OTC-26188-MS was Pre- tion and solving the problem of drilling fluid loss using modular
sented at Offshore Technology Conference OTC Brasil, 27–29 neural network and particle swarm optimization algorithm. J.
Oct, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. https​://doi.org/10.4043/26188​-MS Pet. Explor. Product. Technol. 4(4), 371–379 (2014). https​://doi.
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72. Al-Yami, A.; Al-Ateeq, A.; Vikrant, B.; AlAbdullatif, Z.; Al- 85. Efendiyev, G.; Mammadov, P.; Piriverdiyev, I.; Mammadov,
Qahtani, M.: New development acid soluble cement and sodium V.: Clustering of geological objects using FCM-algorithm and
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org/10.2118/17202​0-MS (2014) occurs during under balanced drilling using drilling data and
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able cement system helps lost circulation in productive zones. org/10.1016/j.ejpe.2016.09.004
SPE-23929-MS was Presented at SPE/IADC Drilling Con- 87. Solomon, O.; Adewale, D.; Anyanwu, C.:: Fracture width predic-
ference, 18–21 Feb, New Orleans, Louisiana. https ​ : //doi. tion and loss prevention material sizing in depleted formations
org/10.2118/23929​-MS (1992) using artificial intelligence. SPE-189068-MS was Presented at
74. Mansure, A.J.: Polyurethane grouting geothermal lost circulation SPE Nigeria Annual International Conference and Exhibition, 31.
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ference, 26–28 Feb, Dallas, Texas. https​://doi.org/10.2118/74556​ 88. Manshad, A.; Rostami, H.; Niknafs, H.; Mohammadi, A.: Inte-
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nanocomposite gel for lost circulation treatment. SPE-94686-MS publi​catio​n/30825​9494_Integ​rated​_Lost_Circu​latio​n_Predi​ction​
was Presented at the SPE European Formation Damage Confer- _in_Oil_Field​_Drill​ing_Opera​tion (2017)
ence, Sheveningen, The Netherlands, 25–27 May. http://dx.doi. 89. Al-Hameedi, A.T.T.; Alkinani, H.H.; Dunn-Norman, S.; Flori,
org/10.2118/94686​-MS (2005) R.E.; Hilgedick, S.A.; Amer, A.S.; Alsaba, M.: Mud loss esti-
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setting fluid arrests lost circulation while minimizing reservoir Technol. 9(2), 1339–1354 (2018). https​://doi.org/10.1007/s1320​
damage. SPE-168127-MS was Presented at the SPE International 2-018-0581-x
Symposium and Exhibition on Formation Damage Control, Lafay- 90. Alkinani, H.H.; Al-Hameedi, A.T.T.; Dunn-Norman, S.;
ette, Louisiana, 26–28 Feb. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/168127​ -MS Alkhamis, M.M.; Mutar, R.A.: Prediction of lost circulation prior
(2014) to drilling for induced fractures formations using artificial neural
77. Alsabagh, A.M.; Khalil, A.A.; Abdou, M.I.; et al.: Investigation of networks. SPE-195197-MS was Presented at SPE Oklahoma City
some copolymers based on acrylic salts as circulation loss control Oil and Gas Symposium, 9–10 Apr, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma,
agents. Egypt. J. Petrol. 22(4), 481–491 (2013) USA. https​://doi.org/10.2118/19519​7-MS (2019, April 8)
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org/10.2118/81494​-MS (2003)
79. Hettema, M.; Horsrud, P.; Taugbol, K. et al.: Development of
an innovative high-pressure testing device for the evaluation of

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