DYNAMICS OF RIGID BODIES

Miko Anderson P. Yjares

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 VISION
Laguna University shall be a socially responsive educational
institution of choice providing holistically developed
individuals in the Asia-Pacific Region.

MISSION
Laguna University is committed to produce academically
prepared and technically skilled individuals who are socially
and morally upright citizens.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

MISSION
The Department of Mechanical Engineering of Laguna
University is committed to produce academically prepared
and technically skilled mechanical engineers who are socially
and morally upright citizens.
VISION
The Department of Mechanical Engineering of Laguna
University is envisioned to be the provincial college of choice
producing well-equipped mechanical engineers who
specializes on energy management.

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 Table of Contents

Module 1: Introduction to Dynamics 1

Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 1
Lesson 1. Position, Velocity, and Acceleration 1
Assessment Task 12
Summary 13
Reference 13

Module 2: Uniform Rectilinear Motion 14

Introduction 14
Learning Objectives 14
Lesson 1. Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion 15
Lesson 2. Motion of Several Particles 16
Assessment Task 24
Summary 25
Reference 26

Module 3: Position Vector, Velocity, and Acceleration 27

Introduction 27
Learning Objectives 28
Lesson 1. Position Vector, Velocity and Acceleration in Curvilinear
Motion 28
Lesson 2. Rectangular Components of Velocity and Acceleration 30
Assessment Task 42
Summary 43
Reference 44

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1.1. Position Coordinate 2

Figure 1.2. Position Occupied by a Particle 2
Figure 1.3. Movement of Particle 3
Figure 1.4. Velocity of The Particle 3
Figure 1.5. Representation of Acceleration 5
Figure 1.6. Motion Curves 6
Figure 1.7. Example 2 8
Figure 1.8. Example 3 10
Figure 2.1. Relative Motion of Two Particles 17
Fugure 2.2. One Degree of Freedom 18
Figure 2.3. Example 1 19
Figure 2.4. Example 2 22
Figure 3.1. Curvilinear Motion 29
Figure 3.2. Relative Motion of Two Particles 30
Figure 3.3. Example 1 31
Figure 3.4. Vertical Motion 32
Figure 3.5. Horizontal Motion 32
Figure 3.6. Example 2 33
Figure 3.7. Horizontal Motion 34
Figure 3.8. Vertical Motion 34
Figure 3.9. Target will be Hit if Either of These Two Firing Angles is Used 35
Figure 3.10. Velocity and Acceleration Expressed in Terms of Tangential
and Normal Components
36
Figure 3.11. Radial and Transverse Components 37
Figure 3.12. Example 3 38
Figure 3.13. Normal Component of Acceleration 39
Figure 3.14. Example 4 40
Figure 3.15. Velocity of B 40
Figure 3.16. Acceleration of B 41
Figure 3.17. Acceleration of B with Respect to Arm OA 41

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Course Code: ENG’G 104

Course Description: The course deals with the forces acting on bodies in
motion. It includes kinematics of machines and kinetics of particles of rigid bodies
such as rectilinear and curvilinear translation and rotational motions.

Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILO):

At the end of the course, students should be able to:
1. Apply the principles governing the motion of particles, velocity and
acceleration in solving engineering problems;
2. Apply the principles of Newton’s Second Law in solving engineering
problems;
3. Apply the principles of kinetics of particles, kinematics of rigid bodies
and momentum methods in solving engineering problems.

Course Requirements:
Assessment Tasks - 60%
Major Exams - 40%
_________
Periodic Grade 100%

Final Grade = Total CS + Final Exam x 70% + 30% of the

Midterm

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 MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION TO DYNAMICS

Introduction

Dynamics includes:

 Kinematics, which is the study of the geometry of motion. Kinematics is used to relate
displacement, velocity, acceleration, and time, without reference to the cause of the
motion (Beer et al., 2013).
 Kinetics, which is the study of the relation existing between the forces acting on a body,
the mass of the body, and the motion of the body. Kinetics is used to predict the motion
caused by given forces or to determine the forces required to produce a given motion
(Beer et al., 2013).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Solve for the velocity and acceleration of a particle.

2. Understand the basic part of rectilinear motion of particles

Lesson 1. Position, Velocity, and Acceleration

A particle moving along a straight line is said to be in rectilinear motion. At any given
instant t, the particle will occupy a certain position on the straight line. To define the position P of
the particle, we choose a fixed origin O on the straight line and a positive direction along the line.
We measure the distance x from O to P and record it with a plus or minus sign, according to

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whether P is reached from O by moving along the line in the positive or the negative direction.
The distance x, with the appropriate sign, completely defines the position of the particle; it is called
the position coordinate of the particle considered (Beer, Johnston Jr., Mazurek, & Cornwell, 2013).

Figure 1.1. Position Coordinate

For example, the position coordinate corresponding to P in Fig. 1.1a is x = +5m; the
coordinate corresponding to P’ in Fig. 1.1b is x’ = -2m.

When the position coordinate x of a particle is known for every value of time t, we say that
the motion of the particle is known. The “timetable” of the motion can be given in the form of an
equation in x and t. The units most often used to measure the position coordinate x are the meter
(m) in the SI system of units and the foot (ft) in the U.S. customary system of units. Time t is
usually measured in seconds (s) (Beer et al., 2013).

Figure 1.2. Position Occupied by a Particle

Consider the position P occupied by the particle at time t and the corresponding coordinate
x (Fig. 1.2). Consider also the position P’ occupied by the particle at a later time 𝑡 + ∆𝑡; the position
coordinate of P’ can be obtained by adding to the coordinate x of P the small displacement ∆𝑥,
which will be positive or negative according to whether P’ is to the right or to the left of P. The
average velocity of the particle over the time interval ∆𝑡 is defined as the quotient of the
displacement ∆𝑥 and the time interval ∆𝑡:
∆𝑥
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
∆𝑡

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If SI units are used, ∆𝑥 is expressed in meters and ∆𝑡 in seconds; the average velocity will thus
be expressed in meters per second (m/s). If U.S. customary units are used, ∆𝑥 is expressed in
feet and ¢t in seconds; the average velocity will then be expressed in feet per second (ft/s) (Beer
et al., 2013).
The instantaneous velocity v of the particle at the instant t is obtained from the average
velocity by choosing shorter and shorter time intervals ∆𝑡 and displacements ∆𝑥:

The instantaneous velocity will also be expressed in m/s or ft/s. Observing that the limit of the
quotient is equal, by definition, to the derivative of x with respect to t, we write

𝑑𝑥
𝑣= (1.1), (Beer et al., 2013).
𝑑𝑡

Figure 1.3. Movement of Particle

The velocity v is represented by an algebraic number which can be positive or negative.

A positive value of v indicates that x increases, i.e., that the particle moves in the positive direction
(Fig. 1.3a); a negative value of v indicates that x decreases, i.e., that the particle moves in the
negative direction (Fig. 1.3b). The magnitude of v is known as the speed of the particle (Beer et
al., 2013).

Figure 1.4. Velocity of The Particle

Consider the velocity v of the particle at time t and also its velocity 𝑣 + ∆𝑣 at a later time
𝑡 + ∆𝑡 (Fig. 1.4). The average acceleration of the particle over the time interval ¢t is defined as
the quotient of ∆𝑣 and ∆𝑡:

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 ∆𝑣
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
∆𝑡

If SI units are used, ∆𝑣 is expressed in m/s and ∆𝑡 in seconds; the average acceleration will thus
be expressed in m/s2. If U.S. customary units are used, ∆𝑣 is expressed in ft/s and ∆𝑡 in seconds;
the average acceleration will then be expressed in ft/s 2 (Beer et al., 2013).
The instantaneous acceleration a of the particle at the instant t is obtained from the
average acceleration by choosing smaller and smaller values for ∆𝑡 and ∆𝑣:

The instantaneous acceleration will also be expressed in m/s 2 or ft/s2. The limit of the quotient,
which is by definition the derivative of v with respect to t, measures the rate of change of the
velocity. We write
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= (1.2)
𝑑𝑡
or, substituting for v from (1.1),
𝑑 2𝑥
𝑎= (1.3), (Beer et al., 2013).
𝑑𝑡 2

Figure 1.5. Representation of Acceleration

The term deceleration is sometimes used to refer to a when the speed of the particle (i.e.,
the magnitude of v) decreases; the particle is then moving more slowly. For example, the particle
of Fig. 1.5 is decelerated in parts b and c; it is truly accelerated (i.e., moves faster) in parts a and
d (Beer et al., 2013).

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 Another expression for the acceleration can be obtained by eliminating the differential dt
in Eqs. (1.1) and (1.2). Solving (1.1) for dt, we obtain dt = dx/v; substituting into (1.2), we write

𝑑𝑣
𝑎=𝑣 (1.4), (Beer et al., 2013).
𝑑𝑥

Example 1
Consider a particle moving in a straight line, and assume that its position is defined by the
equation
𝑥 = 6𝑡 2 − 𝑡 3
where t is expressed in seconds and x in meters. The velocity v at any time t is obtained by
differentiating x with respect to t:
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = 12𝑡 − 3𝑡 2
𝑑𝑡

The acceleration a is obtained by differentiating again with respect to t:

𝑑𝑣
𝑎= = 12 − 6𝑡
𝑑𝑡

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 Figure 1.6. Motion Curves

The position coordinate, the velocity, and the acceleration have been plotted against t in
Fig. 1.6. The curves obtained are known as motion curves. Keep in mind, however, that the
particle does not move along any of these curves; the particle moves in a straight line. Since the
derivative of a function measures the slope of the corresponding curve, the slope of the x–t curve
at any given time is equal to the value of v at that time and the slope of the v−t curve is equal to
the value of a. Since a = 0 at t = 2s, the slope of the v−t curve must be zero at t = 2s; the velocity
reaches a maximum at this instant. Also, since v = 0 at t = 0 and at t = 4s, the tangent to the x−t
curve must be horizontal for both of these values of t (Beer et al., 2013).

A study of the three motion curves of Fig. 1.6 shows that the motion of the particle from t
= 0 to t = ∞ can be divided into four phases:

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 1. The particle starts from the origin, x = 0, with no velocity but with a positive acceleration.
Under this acceleration, the particle gains a positive velocity and moves in the positive
direction. From t = 0 to t = 2 s, x, v, and a are all positive (Beer et al., 2013).

2. At t = 2s, the acceleration is zero; the velocity has reached its maximum value. From t =
2s to t = 4s, v is positive, but a is negative; the particle still moves in the positive direction
but more and more slowly; the particle is decelerating (Beer et al., 2013).

3. At t = 4 s, the velocity is zero; the position coordinate x has reached its maximum value.
From then on, both v and a are negative; the particle is accelerating and moves in the
negative direction with increasing speed (Beer et al., 2013).

4. At t = 6s, the particle passes through the origin; its coordinate x is then zero, while the
total distance traveled since the beginning of the motion is 64m. For values of t larger than
6s, x, v, and a will all be negative. The particle keeps moving in the negative direction,
away from O, faster and faster (Beer et al., 2013).

Example 2

The position of a particle which moves along a straight line is defined by the relation 𝑥 = 𝑡 3 −
6𝑡 2 − 15𝑡 + 40, where x is expressed in feet and t in seconds. Determine (a) the time at which the
velocity will be zero, (b) the position and distance traveled by the particle at that time, (c) the
acceleration of the particle at that time, (d) the distance traveled by the particle from t = 4s to t =
6s.

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 Figure 1.7. Example 2

Solution

The equations of motion are

a. Time at Which v = 0. We set v = 0 in (2):

𝑡 = +5𝑠

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Only the root t = 15s corresponds to a time after the motion has begun: for t < 5 s, v < 0, the
particle moves in the negative direction; for t > 5 s, v > 0, the particle moves in the positive
direction.

b. Position and Distance Traveled When v = 0. Carrying t = 15s into (1), we have

𝑥5 = −60𝑓𝑡.

The initial position at t = 0 was x0 = 140ft. Since 𝑣 ≠ 0 during the interval t = 0 to t = 5s, we have

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑑 = 𝑥5 − 𝑥0 = −60𝑓𝑡 − 40𝑓𝑡 = −100𝑓𝑡

Distance traveled = 100ft in the negative direction

c. Acceleration When v = 0. We substitute t = 15s into (3):

𝑎5 = 6(5) − 12
𝑎5 = +18 𝑓𝑡/𝑠 2

d. Distance Traveled from t = 4s to t = 6s. The particle moves in the negative direction from t = 4s
to t = 5s and in the positive direction from t = 5s to t = 6s; therefore, the distance traveled during
each of these time intervals will be computed separately.

Total distance traveled from t = 4s to t = 6s is 8ft + 10ft = 18ft

Example 3

A ball is tossed with a velocity of 10 m/s directed vertically upward from a window located 20 m
above the ground. Knowing that the acceleration of the ball is constant and equal to 9.81 m/s 2

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downward, determine (a) the velocity v and elevation y of the ball above the ground at any time t,
(b) the highest elevation reached by the ball and the corresponding value of t, (c) the time when
the ball will hit the ground and the corresponding velocity. Draw the v−t and y−t curves.

Figure 1.8. Example 3

Solution

a. Velocity and Elevation. The y axis measuring the position coordinate (or elevation) is chosen
with its origin O on the ground and its positive sense upward. The value of the acceleration and
the initial values of v and y are as indicated. Substituting for a in a = dv/dt and noting that at t = 0,
v0 = +10 m/s, we have

𝑣 = 10 − 9.81𝑡 (1)

Substituting for v in v = dy/dt and noting that at t = 0, y0 = 20m, we have

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 𝑦 = 20 + 10𝑡 − 4.905𝑡 2 (2)
b. Highest Elevation. When the ball reaches its highest elevation, we have v = 0. Substituting
into (1), we obtain
10 − 9.81𝑡 = 0
𝑡 = 1.019𝑠
Carrying t = 1.019s into (2), we have
𝑦 = 20 + 10(1.019) − 4.905(1.019)2
𝑦 = 25.1𝑚
c. Ball Hits the Ground. When the ball hits the ground, we have y = 0. Substituting into (2), we
obtain

𝑡 = +3.28𝑠

Only the root t = 13.28 s corresponds to a time after the motion has begun. Carrying this value of
t into (1), we have

𝑣 = 22.2𝑚/𝑠 𝑤

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Assessment Task 1

1. The motion of a particle is defined by the relation 𝑥 = 𝑡 4 − 10𝑡 2 + 8𝑡 + 12,

where x and t are expressed in inches and seconds, respectively. Determine
the position, the velocity, and the acceleration of the particle when t = 1s.
2. The motion of a particle is defined by the relation 𝑥 = 2𝑡 3 − 9𝑡 2 + 12𝑡 + 10,
where x and t are expressed in feet and seconds, respectively. Determine the
time, the position, and the acceleration of the particle when v = 0.
3. A loaded railroad car is rolling at a constant velocity when it couples with a
spring and dashpot bumper system. After the coupling, the motion of the car is
defined by the relation 𝑥 = 60𝑒 −4.8𝑡 sin 16𝑡, where x and t are expressed in
millimeters and seconds, respectively. Determine the position, the velocity, and
the acceleration of the railroad car when (a) t = 0, (b) t = 0.3 s.

4. The motion of a particle is defined by the relation 𝑥 = 6𝑡 4 − 2𝑡 3 − 12𝑡 2 + 3𝑡 +

3, where x and t are expressed in meters and seconds, respectively. Determine
the time, the position, and the velocity when a = 0.

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 Summary

According to Beer et al. (2013),

The instantaneous velocity will also be expressed in m/s or ft/s. Observing that the limit of the
quotient is equal, by definition, to the derivative of x with respect to t, we write

𝑑𝑥
𝑣= (1.1)
𝑑𝑡
The instantaneous acceleration will also be expressed in m/s 2 or ft/s2. The limit of the quotient,
which is by definition the derivative of v with respect to t, measures the rate of change of the
velocity. We write

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 𝑑𝑣
𝑎= (1.2)
𝑑𝑡
or, substituting for v from (1.1),
𝑑 2𝑥
𝑎= (1.3)
𝑑𝑡 2
Another expression for the acceleration can be obtained by eliminating the differential dt in Eqs.
(1.1) and (1.2). Solving (1.1) for dt, we obtain dt = dx/v; substituting into (1.2), we write

𝑑𝑣
𝑎=𝑣 (1.4)
𝑑𝑥

Reference

Beer, F., Johnston Jr, E., Mazurek, D., and Cornwell, P. (2013). Vectors Mechanics for Engineers.
McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., 1 221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. 10th
Ed.

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 MODULE 2
UNIFORM RECTILINEAR MOTION

Introduction

Uniform rectilinear motion is a type of straight-line motion which is frequently encountered

in practical applications. In this motion, the acceleration a of the particle is zero for every value of
t. The velocity v is therefore constant, and Eq. (1.1) becomes

𝑑𝑥
= 𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡

The position coordinate x is obtained by integrating this equation. Denoting by x0 the initial value
of x, we write

𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣𝑡 (1.5)
This equation can be used only if the velocity of the particle is known to be constant (Beer et al.,
2013).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Understand the uniform rectilinear motion.

2. Understand topics relating to motion of several particles.

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Lesson 1. Uniformly Accelerated Rectilinear Motion
Uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion is another common type of motion. In this motion,
the acceleration a of the particle is constant, and Eq. (1.2) becomes
𝑑𝑣
= 𝑎 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡

The velocity v of the particle is obtained by integrating this equation (Beer et al., 2013):

𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 (1.6)

where v0 is the initial velocity. Substituting for v in (1.1), we write

𝑑𝑥
= 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑑𝑡

Denoting by x0 the initial value of x and integrating, we have

1
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 (1.7)
2
We can also use Eq. (1.4) and write

Integrating both sides, we obtain

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 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) (1.8), (Beer et al., 2013).

The three equations we have derived provide useful relations among position coordinate,
velocity, and time in the case of a uniformly accelerated motion, as soon as appropriate values
have been substituted for a, v0, and x0. The origin O of the x axis should first be defined, and a
positive direction chosen along the axis; this direction will be used to determine the signs of a, v 0,
and x0. Equation (1.6) relates v and t and should be used when the value of v corresponding to a
given value of t is desired, or inversely. Equation (1.7) relates x and t; Eq. (1.8) relates v and x.
An important application of uniformly accelerated motion is the motion of a freely falling body. The
acceleration of a freely falling body (usually denoted by g) is equal to 9.81 m/s 2 or 32.2 ft/s2 (Beer
et al., 2013).

It is important to keep in mind that the three equations can be used only when the
acceleration of the particle is known to be constant. If the acceleration of the particle is variable,
its motion should be determined from the fundamental equations (1.1) to (1.4) (Beer et al., 2013).

Lesson 2. Motion of Several Particles

When several particles move independently along the same line, independent equations
of motion can be written for each particle. Whenever possible, time should be recorded from the
same initial instant for all particles, and displacements should be measured from the same origin
and in the same direction. In other words, a single clock and a single measuring tape should be
used (Beer et al., 2013).

Relative Motion of Two Particles

Figure 2.1. Relative Motion of Two Particles

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 Consider two particles A and B moving along the same straight line (Fig. 1.7). If the
position coordinates xA and xB are measured from the same origin, the dif-ference xB - xA defines
the relative position coordinate of B with respect to A and is denoted by x B/A. We write

𝑥𝐵/𝐴 = 𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴

𝑥𝐵 = 𝑥𝐴 + 𝑥𝐵/𝐴 (1.9)

Regardless of the positions of A and B with respect to the origin, a positive sign for x B/A means
that B is to the right of A, and a negative sign means that B is to the left of A (Beer et al., 2013).

The rate of change of xB/A is known as the relative velocity of B with respect to A and is
denoted by vB/A. Differentiating (1.9), we write

𝑣𝐵/𝐴 = 𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴

𝑣𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑣𝐵/𝐴 (1.10)

A positive sign for vB/A means that B is observed from A to move in the positive direction; a
negative sign means that it is observed to move in the negative direction (Beer et al., 2013).

The rate of change of vB/A is known as the relative acceleration of B with respect to A and
is denoted by aB/A. Differentiating (1.10), we obtain

𝑎𝐵/𝐴 = 𝑎𝐵 − 𝑎𝐴

𝑎𝐵 = 𝑎𝐴 + 𝑎𝐵/𝐴 (1.11), (Beer et al., 2013).

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Dependent Motions

Figure 2.2. One Degree of Freedom

Sometimes, the position of a particle will depend upon the position of another particle or
of several other particles. The motions are then said to be dependent. For example, the position
of block B in Fig. 1.8 depends upon the position of block A. Since the rope ACDEFG is of constant
length, and since the lengths of the portions of rope CD and EF wrapped around the pulleys
remain constant, it follows that the sum of the lengths of the segments AC, DE, and FG is
constant. Observing that the length of the segment AC differs from x A only by a constant and that,
similarly, the lengths of the segments DE and FG differ from x B only by a constant, we write

𝑥𝐴 + 2𝑥𝐵 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

Since only one of the two coordinates xA and xB can be chosen arbitrarily, we say that the system
shown in Fig. 1.8 has one degree of freedom. From the relation between the position coordinates
xA and xB, it follows that if xA is given an increment ∆𝑥𝐴, that is, if block A is lowered by an amount
1
∆𝑥𝐴 , the coordinate xB will receive an increment 𝑥𝐵 = − 2 ∆𝑥𝐴 . In other words, block B will rise by
half the same amount; this can easily be checked directly from Fig. 1.8 (Beer et al., 2013).

In the case of the three blocks of Fig. 1.9, we can again observe that the length of the rope
which passes over the pulleys is constant, and thus the following relation must be satisfied by the
position coordinates of the three blocks:

2𝑥𝐴 + 2𝑥𝐵 + 𝑥𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

19
Since two of the coordinates can be chosen arbitrarily, we say that the system shown in Fig. 1.9
has two degrees of freedom (Beer et al., 2013).

When the relation existing between the position coordinates of several particles is linear,
a similar relation holds between the velocities and between the accelerations of the particles. In
the case of the blocks of Fig. 1.9, for instance, we differentiate twice the equation obtained and
write, (Beer et al., 2013),

Example 1

A ball is thrown vertically upward from the 12-m level in an elevator shaft with an initial velocity of
18 m/s. At the same instant an open-platform elevator passes the 5-m level, moving upward with
a constant velocity of 2 m/s. Determine (a) when and where the ball will hit the elevator, (b) the
relative velocity of the ball with respect to the elevator when the ball hits the elevator (Beer et al.,
2013).

Figure 2.3. Example 1

Solution

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Motion of Ball. Since the ball has a constant acceleration, its motion is uniformly accelerated.
Placing the origin O of the y axis at ground level and choosing its positive direction upward, we
find that the initial position is y 0 = +12 m, the initial velocity is v0 = +18 m/s, and the acceleration
is a = -9.81 m/s2. Substituting these values in the equations for uniformly accelerated motion, we
write

Motion of Elevator. Since the elevator has a constant velocity, its motion is uniform. Again, placing
the origin O at the ground level and choosing the positive direction upward, we note that y 0 = +5
m and write

Ball Hits Elevator. We first note that the same time t and the same origin O were used in writing
the equations of motion of both the ball and the elevator. We see from the figure that when the
ball hits the elevator,

𝑦𝐸 = 𝑦𝐵 (5)

Substituting for yE and yB from (2) and (4) into (5), we have

𝑡 = 3.65𝑠

Only the root t = 3.65s corresponds to a time after the motion has begun. Substituting this value
into (4), we have

𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = 12.30 𝑚

The relative velocity of the ball with respect to the elevator is

21
When the ball hits the elevator at time t = 3.65 s, we have

𝑣𝐵/𝐸 = −19.81 𝑚/𝑠

The negative sign means that the ball is observed from the elevator to be moving in the negative
sense (downward) (Beer et al., 2013).

Example 2

Collar A and block B are connected by a cable passing over three pulleys C, D, and E as shown.
Pulleys C and E are fixed, while D is attached to a collar which is pulled downward with a constant
velocity of 3 in./s. At t = 0, collar A starts moving downward from position K with a constant
acceleration and no initial velocity. Knowing that the velocity of collar A is 12 in./s as it passes
through point L, determine the change in elevation, the velocity, and the acceleration of block B
when collar A passes through L (Beer et al., 2013).

22
 Figure 2.4. Example 2

Solution

Motion of Collar A. We place the origin O at the upper horizontal surface and choose the positive
direction downward. We observe that when t = 0, collar A is at the position K and (vA)0 = 0. Since
vA = 12 in./s and xA - (xA)0 = 8 in. when the collar passes through L, we write

The time at which collar A reaches point L is obtained by writing

23
Motion of Pulley D. Recalling that the positive direction is downward, we write

When collar A reaches L, at t = 1.333 s, we have

Motion of Block B. We note that the total length of cable ACDEB differs from the quantity (x A +
2xD + xB) only by a constant. Since the cable length is constant during the motion, this quantity
must also remain constant. Thus, considering the times t = 0 and t = 1.333 s, we write

But we know that xA - (xA)0 = 8 in. and xD - (xD)0 = 4 in.; substituting these values in (2), we find

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐵 = 16 𝑖𝑛. 𝑥

Differentiating (1) twice, we obtain equations relating the velocities and the accelerations of A, B,
and D. Substituting for the velocities and accelerations of A and D at t = 1.333 s, we have

𝑣𝐵 = 18 𝑖𝑛./𝑠 𝑥

𝑎𝐵 = 9 𝑖𝑛./𝑠 2 𝑥

24
Assessment Task 2

1. A stone is thrown vertically upward from a point on a bridge located 40 m above the water.
Knowing that it strikes the water 4 s after release, determine (a) the speed with which the stone
was thrown upward, (b) the speed with which the stone strikes the water.
2. A motorist is traveling at 54 km/h when she observes that a traffic light 240 m ahead of her
turns red. The traffic light is timed to stay red for 24 s. If the motorist wishes to pass the light
without stopping just as it turns green again, determine (a) the required uniform deceleration of
the car, (b) the speed of the car as it passes the light.

3. A motorist enters a freeway at 30 mi/h and accelerates uniformly to 60 mi/h. From the
odometer in the car, the motorist knows that she traveled 550 ft while accelerating. Determine
(a) the acceleration of the car, (b) the time required to reach 60 mi/h.

4. A group of students launches a model rocket in the vertical direction. Based on tracking data,
they determine that the altitude of the rocket was 89.6 ft at the end of the powered portion of the
flight and that the rocket landed 16 s later. Knowing that the descent parachute failed to deploy
so that the rocket fell freely to the ground after reaching its maximum altitude and assuming that
g = 32.2 ft/s2, determine (a) the speed v1 of the rocket at the end of powered flight, (b) the
maximum altitude reached by the rocket.

25
 Summary

In this lesson we derived the equations that describe uniform rectilinear motion (constant
velocity) and uniformly accelerated rectilinear motion (constant acceleration). We also introduced
the concept of relative motion. The equations for relative motion can be applied to the independent
or dependent motions of any two particles moving along the same straight line (Beer et al., 2013).

A. Independent motion of one or more particles. The solution of problems of this type should
be organized as follows, (Beer et al., 2013):
1. Begin your solution by listing the given information, sketching the system, and selecting
the origin and the positive direction of the coordinate axis. It is always advantageous to
have a visual representation of problems of this type
2. Write the equations that describe the motions of the various particles as well as those
that describe how these motions are related.
3. Define the initial conditions, i.e., specify the state of the system corresponding to t = 0.
This is especially important if the motions of the particles begin at different times. In such
cases, either of two approaches can be used.
a. Let t = 0 be the time when the last particle begins to move. You must then determine
the initial position x0 and the initial velocity v0 of each of the other particles.
b. Let t = 0 be the time when the first particle begins to move. You must then, in each
of the equations describing the motion of another particle, replace t with t - t0, where
t0 is the time at which that specific particle begins to move. It is important to recognize
that the equations obtained in this way are valid only for 𝑡 ≥ 𝑡0 .
B. Dependent motion of two or more particles. In problems of this type the particles of the
system are connected to each other, typically by ropes or by cables. The method of
solution of these problems is similar to that of the preceding group of problems, except
that it will now be necessary to describe the physical connections between the particles.
In the following problems, the connection is provided by one or more cables (Beer et al.,
2013),
1. Draw a sketch of the system and select a coordinate system, indicating clearly a positive
sense for each of the coordinate axes.

26
 2. Write the equation describing the constraint imposed by each cable on the motion of the
particles involved. Differentiating this equation twice, you will obtain the corresponding
relations among velocities and accelerations.
3. If several directions of motion are involved, you must select a coordinate axis and a
positive sense for each of these directions. You should also try to locate the origins of
your coordinate axes so that the equations of constraints will be as simple as possible.

Finally, keep in mind that the method of analysis described in this lesson and the
corresponding equations can be used only for particles moving with uniform or uniformly
accelerated rectilinear motion (Beer et al., 2013).

Reference

Beer, F., Johnston Jr, E., Mazurek, D., and Cornwell, P. (2013). Vectors Mechanics for Engineers.
McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., 1 221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. 10th
Ed.

27
 MODULE 3
POSITION VECTOR, VELOCITY, AND
ACCELERATION

Introduction

A. Analyzing the motion of a projectile. Many of the following problems deal with the two-
dimensional motion of a projectile, where the resistance of the air can be neglected. We
developed the equations which describe this type of motion, and we observed that the
horizontal component of the velocity remained constant (uniform motion) while the vertical
component of the acceleration was constant (uniformly accelerated motion). We were able to
consider separately the horizontal and the vertical motions of the particle. Assuming that the
projectile is fired from the origin, we can write the two equations, (Beer et al., 2013):

1. If the initial velocity and firing angle are known, the value of y corresponding to any given
value of x (or the value of x for any value of y) can be obtained by solving one of the above
equations for t and substituting for t into the other equation (Beer et al., 2013).
2. If the initial velocity and the coordinates of a point of the trajectory are known, and you
wish to determine the firing angle a, begin your solution by expressing the components
(vx)0 and (vy)0 of the initial velocity as functions of the angle a. These expressions and the
known values of x and y are then substituted into the above equations. Finally, solve the
first equation for t and substitute that value of t into the second equation to obtain a
trigonometric equation in a, which you can solve for that unknown (Beer et al., 2013).
B. Solving translational two-dimensional relative-motion problems.
1. To visualize the relative motion of B with respect to A, imagine that you are attached to
particle A as you observe the motion of particle B (Beer et al., 2013).
2. To solve a relative-motion problem, first write the vector equations, which relate the
motions of particles A and B. You may then use either of the following methods:

28
 a. Construct the corresponding vector triangles and solve them for the desired position
vector, velocity, and acceleration (Beer et al., 2013).
b. Express all vectors in terms of their rectangular components and solve the two
independent sets of scalar equations obtained in that way. If you choose this approach,
be sure to select the same positive direction for the displacement, velocity, and
acceleration of each particle (Beer et al., 2013).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Analyze the two- and three-dimensional motion of a particle.

2. Express position vectors, velocities, and accelerations in terms of their rectangular scalar
components.

Lesson 1. Position Vector, Velocity and Acceleration in

Curvilinear Motion

Position Vector and Velocity in Curvilinear Motion

We analyzed the curvilinear motion of a particle, i.e., the motion of a particle along a
curved path. The position P of the particle at a given time was defined by the position vector r
joining the O of the coordinates and point P (Fig. 3.1). The velocity v of the particle was defined
by the relation (Beer et al., 2013).

29
 Figure 3.1. Curvilinear Motion

𝑑𝑟
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡

and was found to be a vector tangent to the path of the particle and of magnitude v (called the
speed of the particle) equal to the time derivative of the length s of the arc described by the
particle:
𝑑𝑠
𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 , (Beer et al., 2013).

Acceleration in Curvilinear Motion

The acceleration a of the particle was defined by the relation

𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡

and we noted that, in general, the acceleration is not tangent to the path of the particle (Beer et
al., 2013).

Derivative of a Vector Function

Before proceeding to the consideration of the components of velocity and acceleration,

we reviewed the formal definition of the derivative of a vector function and established a few rules
governing the differentiation of sums and products of vector functions. We then showed that the
rate of change of a vector is the same with respect to a fixed frame and with respect to a frame
in translation (Beer et al., 2013).

30
Lesson 2. Rectangular Components of Velocity and Acceleration

Denoting by x, y, and z the rectangular coordinates of a particle P, we found that the

rectangular components of the velocity and acceleration of P equal, respectively, the first and
second derivatives with respect to t of the corresponding coordinates, (Beer et al., 2013):

Component Motions

When the component ax of the acceleration depends only upon t, x, and/or v x, and when
similarly, ay depends only upon t, y, and/or vy, and az upon t, z, and/or vz, previous equation can
be integrated independently. The analysis of the given curvilinear motion can thus be reduced to
the analysis of three independent rectilinear component motions. This approach is particularly
effective in the study of the motion of projectiles (Beer et al., 2013).

Figure 3.2. Relative Motion of Two Particles

For two particles A and B moving in space (Fig. 3.2), we considered the relative motion of
B with respect to A, or more precisely, with respect to a moving frame attached to A and in
translation with A. Denoting by rB/A the relative position vector of B with respect to A (Fig. 3.2), we
had

31
Denoting by vB/A and aB/A, respectively, the relative velocity and the relative acceleration of B with
respect to A, we also showed that

, (Beer et al., 2013).

Example 1

A projectile is fired from the edge of a 150-m cliff with an initial velocity of 180 m/s at an angle of
30° with the horizontal. Neglecting air resistance, find (a) the horizontal distance from the gun to
the point where the projectile strikes the ground, (b) the greatest elevation above the ground
reached by the projectile (Beer et al., 2013).

Figure 3.3. Example 1

Solution

The vertical and the horizontal motion will be considered separately.

Figure 3.4. Vertical Motion

32
Vertical Motion. Uniformly Accelerated Motion. Choosing the positive sense of the y axis upward
and placing the origin O at the gun, we have

Substituting into the equations of uniformly accelerated motion, we have

Figure 3.5. Horizontal Motion

Horizontal Motion. Uniform Motion. Choosing the positive sense of the x axis to the right, we
have

Substituting into the equation of uniform motion, we obtain

a. Horizontal Distance. When the projectile strikes the ground, we have

𝑦 = −150 𝑚

Carrying this value into Eq. (2) for the vertical motion, we write

Carrying t = 19.91 s into Eq. (4) for the horizontal motion, we obtain

𝑥 = 155.9(19.91)

33
 𝑥 = 3100 𝑚

Greatest Elevation. When the projectile reaches its greatest elevation, we have v𝑦 = 0; we write

𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑣𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = 150 𝑚 + 413 𝑚 = 563 𝑚

Example 2

A projectile is fired with an initial velocity of 800 ft/s at a target B located 2000 ft above the gun
A and at a horizontal distance of 12,000 ft. Neglecting air resistance, determine the value of the
firing angle a (Beer et al., 2013).

Figure 3.6. Example 2

Solution

The horizontal and the vertical motion will be considered separately.

Figure 3.7. Horizontal Motion

Horizontal Motion. Placing the origin of the coordinate axes at the gun, we have

Substituting into the equation of uniform horizontal motion, we obtain

34
The time required for the projectile to move through a horizontal distance of 12,000 ft is
obtained by setting x equal to 12,000 ft.

Vertical Motion

Figure 3.8. Vertical Motion

Substituting into the equation of uniformly accelerated vertical motion, we obtain

Projectile Hits Target. When x = 12,000 ft, we must have y = 2000 ft. Substituting for y and
setting t equal to the value found above, we write

Solving this quadratic equation for tan a, we have

35
 𝑎 = 29.5° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 = 70.0°

Figure 3.9. Target Will Be Hit If Either of These Two Firing Angles Is Used

Tangential and normal components

36
 Figure 3.10. Velocity and Acceleration Expressed In Terms Of Tangential and Normal Components

It is sometimes convenient to resolve the velocity and acceleration of a particle P into

components other than the rectangular x, y, and z components. For a particle P moving along a
path contained in a plane, we attached to P unit vectors et tangent to the path and e n normal to
the path and directed toward the center of curvature of the path. We then expressed the velocity
and acceleration of the particle in terms of tangential and normal components. We wrote

where v is the speed of the particle and r the radius of curvature of its path. We observed that
while the velocity v is directed along the tangent to the path, the acceleration a consists of a
component at directed along the tangent to the path and a component a n directed toward the
center of curvature of the path (Beer et al., 2013).

Motion along a space curve

37
 For a particle P moving along a space curve, we defined the plane which most closely fits
the curve in the neighborhood of P as the osculating plane. This plane contains the unit vectors
et and en which define, respectively, the tangent and principal normal to the curve. The unit vector
eb which is perpendicular to the osculating plane defines the binormal (Beer et al., 2013).

Radial and transverse components

Figure 3.11. Radial and Transverse Components

When the position of a particle P moving in a plane is defined by its polar coordinates r
and u, it is convenient to use radial and transverse components directed, respectively, along the
position vector r of the particle and in the direction obtained by rotating r through 90° counter-
clockwise. We attached to P unit vectors e r and eu directed, respectively, in the radial and
transverse directions (Fig. 3.11). We then expressed the velocity and acceleration of the particle
in terms of radial and transverse components

where dots are used to indicate differentiation with respect to time. The scalar components of
the velocity and acceleration in the radial and transverse directions are therefore

38
It is important to note that ar is not equal to the time derivative of vr, and that au is not equal to the
time derivative of vu (Beer et al., 2013).

Example 3

A motorist is traveling on a curved section of highway of radius 2500 ft at the speed of 60 mi/h.
The motorist suddenly applies the brakes, causing the automobile to slow down at a constant
rate. Knowing that after 8 s the speed has been reduced to 45 mi/h, determine the acceleration
of the automobile immediately after the brakes have been applied (Beer et al., 2013).

Figure 3.12. Example 3

Solution

Tangential Component of Acceleration. First the speeds are expressed in ft/s.

Since the automobile slows down at a constant rate, we have

Normal Component of Acceleration. Immediately after the brakes have been applied, the speed
is still 88 ft/s, and we have

39
 Figure 3.13. Normal Component of Acceleration

Magnitude and Direction of Acceleration. The magnitude and direction of the resultant a of the
components an and at are

Example 4

The rotation of the 0.9-m arm OA about O is defined by the relation u=0.15t2, where u is expressed
in radians and t in seconds. Collar B slides along the arm in such a way that its distance from O
is r = 0.9 - 0.12t2, where r is expressed in meters and t in seconds. After the arm OA has rotated
through 30°, determine (a) the total velocity of the collar, (b) the total acceleration of the collar, (c)
the relative acceleration of the collar with respect to the arm (Beer et al., 2013).

40
 Figure 3.14. Example 4

Solution

Time t at which U = 30°. Substituting u = 30° = 0.524 rad into the expression for u, we obtain

Equations of Motion. Substituting t = 1.869 s in the expressions for r, u, and their first and second
derivatives, we have

Figure 3.15. Velocity of B

a. Velocity of B. We obtain the values of vr and vu when t = 1.869 s.

Solving the right triangle shown, we obtain the magnitude and direction of the velocity,
𝑚
𝑣 = 0.524 𝑏 = 31.0°
𝑠

41
 Figure 3.16. Acceleration of B

b. Acceleration of B. We obtain

Figure 3.17. Acceleration of B With Respect To Arm OA

c. Acceleration of B with Respect to Arm OA. We note that the motion of the collar with respect to
the arm is rectilinear and defined by the coordinate r. We write

Assessment Task 3

42
 1. A ball is thrown so that the motion is defined by the equations x = 5t and y = 2 + 6t - 4.9t2,
where x and y are expressed in meters and t is expressed in seconds. Determine (a) the velocity
at t = 1 s, (b) the horizontal distance the ball travels before hitting the ground.

2. An outdoor track is 420 ft in diameter. A runner increases her speed at a constant rate from
14 to 24 ft/s over a distance of 95 ft. Determine the magnitude of the total acceleration of the
runner 2 s after she begins to increase her speed.

3. As the truck shown begins to back up with a constant acceleration of 4 ft/s 2, the outer
section B of its boom starts to retract with a constant acceleration of 1.6 ft/s 2 relative to the
truck. Determine (a) the acceleration of section B, (b) the velocity of section B when t = 2 s.

Summary

According to Beer et al. (2013),

Velocity v of the particle

43
 𝑑𝑟
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑠
𝑣=
𝑑𝑡

Acceleration in Curvilinear Motion

𝑑𝑣
𝑎=
𝑑𝑡

Velocity and acceleration of the particle in terms of tangential and normal components

Rectangular Components of Velocity and Acceleration

Velocity and acceleration of the particle in terms of radial and transverse components

Reference

Beer, F., Johnston Jr, E., Mazurek, D., and Cornwell, P. (2013). Vectors Mechanics for Engineers.
McGraw-Hill Companies Inc., 1 221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. 10th
Ed.

44
45