Thermodynamics 2

Precious Arlene Villaroza-Melendrez

 VISION

Laguna University shall be a socially responsive educational

institution of choice providing holistically developed individuals in
the Asia-Pacific Region.

MISSION

Laguna University is committed to produce academically prepared

and technically skilled individuals who are socially and morally
upright citizens.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

MISSION

The Department of Mechanical Engineering of Laguna University

is committed to produce academically prepared and technically
skilled mechanical engineers who are socially and morally upright
citizens.

VISION

The Department of Mechanical Engineering of Laguna University

is envisioned to be the provincial college of choice producing well-
equipped mechanical engineers who specializes on energy
management.
 Table of Contents

Module 1: Property of Steam 1

Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 1
Lesson 1 The State Diagram – for Steam 2
Assessment 1 10
Summary 10

Module 2: Property of Wet Steam 12

Introduction 12
Learning Objectives 12
Lesson 1. Property of Steam 12
Lesson 2. Property of Wet Steam 14
Assessment 2 21
Summary 22

Module 3: Property of Vapor 23

Introduction 23
Learning Objectives 23
Lesson 1. Constant Pressure Process 24
Lesson 2. Constant Volume Process 29
Assessment 3 32
Summary 33
Course Code: ME108

Course Description: The course deals with the thermodynamic properties of

pure substances, ideal and real gases, the study and application of the laws of
thermodynamics in the analysis of processes and cycles. It includes introduction to
vapor and gas cycles.

Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILO):

At the end of the course, students should be able to:
1. Identify the different properties of pure substance, ideal gas and real
gas
2. Apply thermodynamic concepts and principles in analyzing and solving
problems.
3. Apply the laws of thermodynamics in analyzing problems.
4. Evaluate the performance of thermodynamic cycles.

Course Requirements:
Assessment Tasks - 60%
Major Exams -40%
_________
Periodic Grade 100%

Computation of Grades:

PRELIM GRADE = 60% (Activity 1-4) + 40% (Prelim exam)

MIDTERM GRADE = 30 %( Prelim Grade) + 70 % [60% (Activity 5-7) + 40% (Midterm exam)]

FINAL GRADE = 30 %( Midterm Grade) + 70 % [60% (Activity 8-10) + 40 %( Final exam)]

 MODULE 1
PROPERTY OF STEAM

Introduction

Steam is one of the most common and easy to produce sources of energy known to
man. It is a semi-invisible gas that is created when water is heated to its boiling point. When
this occurs, water will vaporize and turn its physical state from a liquid form to a gas form.
This gaseous form is called steam. Steam is actually the technical term for water vapor. It
has many useful properties. It helped drive industrialization during the 18th and 19th
centuries. The steam engine was one of the most important technological innovations of the
1800’s! (Al-Shemmeri, 2010).

Today, steam is now used mostly for heating applications in industrial settings. It is used
as a source for both direct and indirect heat. Steam is a very hot gas. Water will boil and
form steam at 212° F, but even after the steam has formed, it’s temperature can still
increase. It is for this reason many industries use hot air hoses in order to harness the
properties of steam, whether it is for hot air transfer or outright steam removal. You can see
hot air collector hoses using steam for industrial applications such as heating, sterilization,
propulsion, atomization, cleaning, and humidification (Al-Shemmeri, 2010).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Understand the property of steam; and

2. Derive and solve problems using steam tables and Mollier Chart.

1
Lesson 1. The State Diagram – for Steam

Reminder: You need to provide a Steam Tables and Mollier Chart (Thermodynamics
Properties of Water Including Vapor, Liquid and Solid Phase) by Joseph H. Keenan, Philip
G. Hill and Joan G. Moore

Processes1–2, 2–3, and 3–4 represents a typical constant pressure heating of water
which initially heated to its boiling point, (1–2), upon continued heat input it starts to
evaporate at point 2, it is completely liquid, then gradually some of the water becomes vapor
till it reaches point 3, where all the water has evaporated, further heating will make the water
vapor superheated (process 3–4) (Al-Shemmeri, 2010).

Vapor
A B
Water-vapor
equilibrium

ice water

Figure 1.1: Formation of Vapour (Steam) (Al-Shemmeri, 2010).

2
Property Tables and Charts for Vapors

Tables are normally available which give data for saturated liquid and saturated vapor, a
listing for a given saturation pressure or temperature, some or all of the
quantities . The tables enable to be obtained
for saturated liquid, wet vapour and dry saturated vapor. Charts for steam are readily
available which show as ordinate against s (specific entropy) as abscissa see Figure
1.2 (Al-Shemmeri, 2010).

Figure 1.2 Temperature – Entropy chart for Water/Steam (Al-Shemmeri, 2010).

3
Figure 1.3: Mollier Chart

4
Saturation Temperature

Saturation temperature is the temperature at which liquids star to boil or the temperature
at which vapors begin to condense. The saturation temperature of a given substance
depends upon its existing pressure. It is directly proportional to the pressure, i.e., it
increases as the pressure is increased and decreases as the pressure is decreased
(Melegrito, Pasamonte, Siapno & Sta. Maria, 2008).

Examples:

A. Water boils at 100 at atmospheric condition (101.325 kPa)

B. Water boils at 179.91 at a pressure of 100 kPa

C. Steam condenses at 311.06 at 10 MPa.

D. Steam condenses at 39 at 0.0070 MPa.

Subcooled Liquid

A sucooled liquid is one which has a temperature lower than the saturation temperature
corresponding to the existing pressure (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Example:

Liquid water at 60 and 101.325 is a subcooled liquid. Why?

From the steam tables, the saturation temperature at 101.325 kPa is 100 . Since the
actual temperature of liquid water of 60 is less than 100 , therefore, it is subcooled
liquid (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Compressed Liquid

A compressed liquid is one which has a pressure higher that the saturation pressure
corresponding to the exiting temperature (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Question:

Is liquid water at 110 kPa and 100 a compressed liquid?

From steam tables

5
Comparing:

The actual liquid water pressure of 110 kPa is greater than at 100 . therefore, it is
a compressed liquid (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Saturated Liquid

A saturated liquid is a liquid at the saturations (saturation temperature or saturation

pressure) which has temperature equal of the boiler point corresponding to the exiting
pressure. It is pure liquid, i.e., it has no vapor content (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Examples:

a. Liquid water at 100 and 101.325 kPa.

b. Liquid water at 233.90 and 3 Mpa.

c. Liquid water at 324.75 and 12 Mpa.

From Steam Tables:

Vapor

Vapor is the name given to a gaseous phase that is in contact with the liquid phase, or
that is in the vicinity of a state where some of it might be condensed (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Saturated Vapor

A saturated vapor is a vapor at the saturation conditions (saturation temperature and

saturation pressure). It is 100 % vapor, i.e., has no liquid or moisture content (Melegrito et
al., 2008).

Examples:

A. Steam (water vapor) at 100 and 101.325 kPa.

B. Steam at 212.42 and 2 Mpa.

C. Steam at 352.37 and 17 Mpa.

6
Superheated Vapor

A superheated vapor is a vapor having a temperature higher that the saturation

temperature corresponding to the exiting pressure (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Examples:

A. Steam at 200 and 101.325 kPa

200

B. steam at 300

Degree of superheat,

The degree of superheat is the difference between the actual temperature of

superheated vapor and the saturation temperature for the existing pressure (Melegrito et al.,
2008).

In equation form:

= Actual superheated temperature – at existing pressure

Example:

Determine the degrees of superheated of superheated steam at 200 and 101.325

kPa.

From steam tables:

Degrees Subcooled,

The degree subcooled of a subcooled liquid is the difference between the saturation
temperature for the given pressure and the actual subcooled liquid temperature (Melegrito et
al., 2008).

at given p-actual liquid temperature

7
Example:

Determine the degrees subcooled of liquid water at 90 and 101.325 kPa.

From steam tables:

Wet vapor

A wet vapor is a combination of saturated vapor and saturated liquid (Melegrito et al.,
2008).

Quality, x

The quality of wet vapor or wet steam is the percent by weight that is saturated vapor
(Melegrito et al., 2008).

Percent Moisture, y

The percent moisture of wet vapor or is the percent by weight that is saturated vapor
(Melegrito et al., 2008).

Let

m = mass of wet vapor

= mass of the saturated vapor content of wet vapor

= mass of the saturated liquid content of wet vapor

Then,

Following the definition of quality (x) and percent moisture (y) (Melegrito et al., 2008).

For saturated liquid:

8
For saturated vapor:

For wet vapor:

But in percent form

in decimal form

9
 Assessment Task 1

Show the COMPLETE SOLUTIONS including the derivation of formula and

interpolations/extrapolations:NO Calculator Technique and Applications.

1. A rigid vessel contains 2 kg of steam at 6.39 MPa and 325 . Determine its enthalpy
in kJ using steam tables only.

2. Steam at a pressure of 2.5 MPa is known to have a specific volume of .

What is it specific enthalpy?

3. Your steam has a Data of 5.25 MPa and 395 . Find v, u, h and s.

4. Your steam has a data of 4300 KPag and 362 , Find v, u, h and s.

Summary

Saturated State – A saturated liquid is a vapour whose dryness fraction is equal to zero.

A saturated vapour has a quality of 100% or a dryness fraction of one (Al-Shemmeri,

2010).

Superheated Vapour – A gas is described as superheated when its temperature at a

given pressure is greater than the saturated temperature at that pressure, ie the gas has

been heated beyond its saturation temperature (Al-Shemmeri, 2010).

Degree of Superheat – The difference between the actual temperature of a given vapour

and the saturation temperature of the vapour at a given pressure (Al-Shemmeri, 2010).

Subcooled Liquid – A liquid is described as undercooled when its temperature at a given

pressure is lower than the saturated temperature at that pressure, ie the liquid has been

10
cooled below its saturation temperature (Al-Shemmeri, 2010).

Degree of Subcool – The difference between the saturation temperature and the actual

temperature of the liquid is a given pressure (Al-Shemmeri, 2010).

Triple Point – A state point in which all solid, liquid and vapour phases coexist in
equilibrium (Al-Shemmeri, 2010).
Critical Point – A state point at which transitions between liquid and vapour phases are
not clear for H2O (Al-Shemmeri, 2010).

References:

Al-Shemmeri,Tarik. (2010). Engineering Thermodynamics (1st ed.).

bookboon.com.. ISBN 978-87-7681-670-4

Ducting. (n.d). Steam and its Physical Properties.

https://www.ducting.com/steam-physical-properties.

Melegrito, Raymundo M., Pasamonte, Nelson M., , Renato M. and, Hipolito B.

(2008). Thermodynamics 2. National Book Store. Mandaluyong City.

11
 MODULE 2
PROPERTIES OF WET STEAM

Introduction

This book is well stocked with worked examples to demonstrate the various practical
applications in real life, of the laws of thermodynamics. There are also a good section of
unsolved tutorial problems at the end of the Module.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Understand the property of steam and property of wet steam.

2. Derive and solve problems using steam table and mollier chart;

Lesson 1. Property of Steam

Latent heat of vaporization

The latent heat of vaporization of a pure substance is the amounts of heat added to
remove from the substance in order to convert it from saturated liquid/saturated vapor to
saturate vapor/saturated liquid with the temperature remaining constant. It is inversely
proportional to the temperature or pressure of the substance (Melegrito, Pasamonte, Siapno
& Sta. Maria, 2008).

Example:

Determine the latent heat of vaporization of water at: (a) 100 , (b) 200 , and 300 .

From steam tables (table 1):

(a) at 100 = 2257.0 kJ/kg

12
 at 200 = 1940.7 kJ/kg

(c) = 1404.9 kJ/kg

Critical point

The critical point represents the highest pressure and highest temperature at which
liquid and vapor can coexist in equilibrium. The state of water at critical conditions whether it
is saturated liquid of saturated vapor is unknown. Hence, the latent heat of vaporization of
water at this condition is either zero or undefined (Melegrito et al., 2008).

(Al-Shemmeri, 2010).

•
•
•
•
•
•

Sensible heat

Heat that causes change in temperature without a change in phase (Melegrito et al.,
2008).

Examples:

A. Heat added is raising the temperature of steam from 100 at 101.325 kPa to 15 .

B. Heat removed in lowering the temperature of water from 90 to 80 .

Latent heat

Heat that causes in phase without a change in temperature (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Example:

Heat added in converting 1 kg of water at 100 and 101.325 kPa to 1 kg of team at

100 and 101.325 kPa.

13
Lesson 2. Properties of Wet Steam

Subscripts Used/Symbols Used s – specific volume,

(Melegrito et al., 2008).
u – specific internal energy, kJ/kg
f - represents properties of saturated
Formula
liquid

g – represents properties of saturated

vapor

- represents to a change by
evaporation

v – specific volume,

Supercritical
p region
Critical
region
Subcooled or
compressed
region

Superheated line region

Saturated
liquid line

Saturated
vapor line

Wet Region

v
Figure 2.1 Properties of Wet Steam at Pressure and Volume Diagram

14
 Subcooled or Supercritical
region
compressed
T
region Critical
region

Superheated line region

Saturated
Saturated
liquid line
vapor line

S
Figure 2.2 Properties of Wet Steam at Temperature and Entropy Diagram

15
 p

X Y

v
v

Figure 2. 3 Specific Volume of a Water Mixture

v = specific of its saturated liquid content + specific volume of its saturated vapor content

From

But

Then

16
Or

Similarly,

Note:

At saturated conditions, p and t are dependent on one another and the therefore, are
considered as one independent property. At superheated conditions, p and t are
independent from each other and therefore, are considered as two independent properties
(Melegrito et al., 2008).

Quantity could not be more than 100% and per cent moisture could not be lower than
0% (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Examples:

1. Specific whether the steam is wet, dry, or superheated for the following conditions
(Melegrito et al., 2008).

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

17
(g)

(h)

Solution:

(a)

Since

(b)

Since

(c)

Since

(d)

(g)

(h)

Since

2. What are the specific volume, internal energy, enthalpy, and entropy of steam at 1.50
MPa and 254 ? (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Solution:

The steam is superheated, since the temperature of 254 is greater than the saturation
temperature, 198 , at 1.50 MPa (at table 2-Pressure). .

18
 Table 2.1 Interpolation At table 3 (Vapor/Superheated), (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Temperature Sp. Volume Internal Energy Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy

(kJ/kg)

250 0.15195 2695.3 2923.3 6.7090

254

260 0.15595 2713.4 2946.7 6.7535

3. At a mixture of saturation steam and liquid water exists in equilibrium. If the

specific volme of the mixture is , calculate the following: (a) percent moisture, (b)
enthalpy, and (c) entropy (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Solution:

At table 1 (Temperature)

Table 2.2 Interpolation At 250 , (Melegrito et al., 2008).

0.0012512 1085.36 2.7927

0.04888 1716.36 3.2802

0.05013 2801.5 6.0729

19
(a)

(b)

(c)

20
 Assessment Task 2

Show the COMPLETE SOLUTIONS including the derivation of formula and

interpolations/extrapolations: NO Calculator Technique and Applications.

1. A 60 litter rigid tank with adiabatic walls is divided into equal parts A and B by a
partition. On one side is steam at 0.69 MPa, 173 ; on the other side is steam at 4.1
MPa, 372 . The partition is removed and thorough mixing occurs. Determine the
equilibrium state (p,t) neglecting the thickness of the partition.

2. Steam at a temperature of 210 has specific entropy of 7.1167 kJ/kg-K. Determine

the pressure, internal energy, enthalpy and volume.

3. A tank contains exactly 1 kg of water consisting of liquid and vapour in equilibrium at

1.5 MPa. If the liquid occupy one-fourth the volume of the tank and vapour occupy 3/4
the volume of the tank, what is the enthalpy of the contents of the tank?

21
 Summary

Properties of Wet Steam, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Buy Percentage, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

References

Al-Shemmeri,Tarik. (2010). Engineering Thermodynamics (1st ed.).

bookboon.com. ISBN 978-87-7681-670-4

Sta. Maria, Hipolito B. (2008). Thermodynamics 2. National Book Store.

Mandaluyong City.

22
 MODULE 3
PROCESS OF VAPORS

Introduction

Although vapors and ideal gases have similarity in forms and in their processes, all of
the equations that are based on the characteristic equation of a perfect gas or on Joule’s
Law, for instance, are not generally applicable to vapors. But the general energy equation,

and the simple energy equation,

are not based on any limitations concerning the substance. They are applicable,
therefore to process of vapors as well as of gases. Therefore in this chapter, compare the
equations obtained with analogous one for a gas. This was we can avoid the improper
application of a perfect gas equation to a vapor (Melegrito, Pasamonte, Siapno & Sta. Maria,
2008).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Understand the property of process of vapors; and

2. Derive and solve problems using steam table.

23
Lesson 1. Constant Pressure Process

(a) The process on the pv and Ts planes, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

1 2 3 4

Figure 3.1 Constant Pressure Process pv Diagram

T
4

2 3

S
Figure 3.2 Constant Pressure Process TS Diagram

24
Definition the condition of the subatance

Point 1 is in the liquid region and the condition of the substance us “subcooled” or
“compressed” liquid. It is generally defined by giving its pressure and temperature
(Melegrito et al., 2008).

Point f lies on the saturation curve and is therefore saturated liquid at a given pressure
or temperature (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Point m is in the wet region, is a mixture of liquid and vapor. A quality x and a pressure
or temperature generally defines the condition of the substance. Thus, for the enthalpy at
point m, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Point g is on the saturation vapor curve. A pressure or temperature defines the state or
condition of the substance (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Point 2 in the superheat region is generally, but not necessary, defined by giving its
temperature and pressure (Melegrito et al., 2008).

(b) The work of a reversible nonflow constant pressure process , (Melegrito et al., 2008).

p T
2

1 P=C

1 2

v s

Figure 3.3 pv and TS Diagram

is the area on the pv plane under the constant pressure process (Melegrito et
al., 2008).

25
At p = C

For steady flow process, the work is

And

(c) Transferred heat, Q, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

From the simple energy equation,

For steady flow and nonflow processes,

Where,

If the change in specific internal energy is desired, we use the relation (Melegrito et al.,
2008).

Example:

1. Steam with a specific volume of undergoes a constant pressure process at 1.70 MPa

until the specific volume becomes 0.13796 . What are (a) final temperature, (b) (c) ,

(d) and (e) Q? (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Solution:

Steam at a pressure of 1.70 MPa and with a specific volume of 0.09596 is wet-

mixture, the specific volume of saturated steam at 1.70 MPa is 0.11673 (Melegrito et al.,

2008).

26
 Table 3.1 At 1.70 MPa, Table1, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

870.09 872.06 2.3718

0.11557 1727.2 1923.6 4.0282

0.11673 2597.3 2795.7 6.400

At at pressure of 1.70 MPa and specific volume of 0.13796 the steam is superheated

(Melegrito et al., 2008).

Table 3.2 Interpolation, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Temperature Sp. Volume Internal Energy Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy

(kJ/kg)

260 0.13621 2707.7 2923.3 6.6849

270 0.13944 2725.9 2963.0 6.7290

27
(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

1 2
2

Figure 3.4 Constant Pressure Process pv Diagram

28
 T
2
2

S
Figure 3.5 Constant Pressure Process TS Diagram

Lesson 2. Constant Volume Process

(a) The process on the pv and Ts planes, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

p T
1

p=C

v=C
1

v s

Figure 3.6 Reversible Constant Volume (Isometric) Process.

29
Point 1 is in the superheat region and point 2 in the wet region so that (Melegrito et al., 2008).

(b) Work of the nonflow process, , (Melegrito et al., 2008).

(c) Transferred heat, , (Melegrito et al., 2008).

And

Or

(2-3) One kg of steam at 260 and with an enthalpy of 1861 kJ/kg is confined in a rigid
container. Heat is applied until the steam becomes saturated. Determine (a) Q (b) , (c) ,
and (d) the final temperature (Melegrito et al., 2008).

p T

2
2 1

v s
Figure 3.7 pv and Ts Diagram, Constant Volume

The enthalpy of saturated vapor at 260 is 2796.9 kJ/kg, point 1 is a wet mixture.

Table 3.3. At , (Melegrito et al., 2008).

30
 Table 3.4.Interpolation, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Temperature Sp. Volume Internal Energy Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy

(kJ/kg)

307 0.19294 2551.8 2734.3 5.6479

308 0.018975 2550.1 2732.0 5.6397

(a)

31
(b)

(c)

(e)

Assessment Task 3

Show the COMPLETE SOLUTIONS including the derivation of formula and

interpolations/extrapolations: NO Calculator Technique and Applications.

1. Five kilo of water vapour are contained at 178 kPa and 85 percent quality is a
suitable enclosure. Calculate the heat which must be added in order to just produce a
saturated vapour. What will the pressure be at the end of the heating process?

2. Water vapour at 100 kPa and 150 is contained in a rigid vessel. At what
temperature will the vapour stat to condense when the container is cooled slowly? How
much heat will have to be removed per kilogram in this cooling process?

3. Water vapour at 135 kPa and 183 is compressed isothermally until half the
vapour has condensed. How much work must be performed on the steam in this
compression process per kilogram?

32
 Summary

Constant Pressure Process, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Constant Volume Process, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Reference

Melegrito, Raymundo M., Pasamonte, Nelson M., , Renato M. and, Hipolito B.

(2008). Thermodynamics 2. National Book Store. Mandaluyong City.

33