DESIGN OF MACHINE ELEMENTS

Nivish George
 Springs
Spring is an elastic machine element, which deflects under the
action of the load and returns to its original shape when the load is
removed
Induces torsional shear stresses in spring wire
Types even the spring is subjected to axial loading

Leaf Spring

Extension Spring

Compression Spring

Torsion Spring
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Terminology of Springs
Mean diameter
𝐷𝑖 + 𝐷𝑜
𝐷=
2
Spring index parameter
𝐷 Eqn 11.2c
𝐶=
𝑑
Spring index indicates the relative
sharpness of curvature

If C low value: Stresses excessive

due to curvature effect

If C high: Prone to buckling

C: 6-9 is preferred

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 Terminology of Springs

Free length: Compressed length: Solid Length:

The axial length of an The axial length of the The axial length of the
unloaded helical spring which is spring which is so
compression spring subjected to maximum compressed that the
𝐹. 𝐿. compressive force adjacent coils touch each
= (𝑖𝑡 −1) × 𝐺𝑎𝑝 other
𝐶. 𝐿. = (𝑖𝑡 −1) × 𝐺𝑎𝑝 + 𝑆. 𝐿 𝑆. 𝐿. = 𝑖𝑡 𝑑
+ 𝑖𝑡 𝑑 + 𝑦
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 Terminology of Springs
Pitch of the coil (p): Axial distance between adjacent coils in
uncompressed state of spring
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝑝=
(𝑖𝑡 − 1)
Stiffness of the spring (k): Force required to produce unit deflection
𝐹
𝑘= Eqn 11.7a
𝑦
Active (N) and inactive coils: Active coils are the coils in the spring which
contribute to spring action, support the external force and deflect under
the action of force

End coils which do not contribute to spring action are called inactive coils
𝐼𝑛𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙𝑠 = (𝑖𝑡 −𝑖)
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 Unbent Spring
Two basic equations for
the design of helical
springs
• Load-stress equation
• Load-deflection
equation

Dimensions
• The diameter of the bar is equal to the wire diameter of
the spring (d)
• The length of the equivalent bar is 𝜋𝐷𝑖
• Bar is fitted with bracket of length (D/2)
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 Unbent Spring
Torsional moment due to force P
𝐹𝐷
𝑀𝑡 =
2
Torsional shear stress due to the force P
𝑇𝑟 𝐺𝜃 8𝐹𝐷
𝜏1 = = =
𝐽 𝑙 𝜋𝑑 3
Eqn 11.1c
Considering equivalent bar in the form of helical coil, the additional
stresses accounted
• Direct or transverse shear stress in spring wire
• Length of inside fibre is less than length of outside fibre
which induces stress concentration at the inside of fibre
coil
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Stresses in spring wire

Pure torsional stress

Direct shear stress

Combined torsional, direct

and curvature shear stress

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 Load-Stress Equation
Modification in the stress equation to accommodate the direct
shear and curvature stress effect

K=KsKc

4𝐹 8𝐹𝐷 0.5𝑑
Direct shear stress, 𝜏2 = =
𝜋𝑑 2 𝜋𝑑 3 𝐷

8𝐹𝐷 0.5𝑑 8𝐹𝐷

𝜏 = 𝜏1 + 𝜏2 = 3
1+ = 𝐾𝑠
𝜋𝑑 𝐷 𝜋𝑑 3
Combined torsional, direct and curvature shear stress by Wahl
8𝐹𝐷 Wahl factor 4𝐶 − 1 0.615
𝜏=𝐾 Eqn 11.1c 𝐾= + Eq 11.2a
𝜋𝑑3 4𝐶 − 4 𝐶

LOAD-STRESS EQUATION
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 Load-Deflection Equation

The angle of twist (θ)

𝑀𝑡 𝑙 16𝐹𝐷2 𝑖
𝜃= = Eqn 11.4
𝐽𝐺 𝐺𝑑 4
8𝐹𝐷3 𝑖
Axial deflection, y = Eqn 11.5a
𝐺𝑑 4
LOAD-DEFLECTION EQUATION
𝐺𝑑 4
Stiffness of material, 𝑘 = Eqn 11.7a
8𝐷3 𝑖
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 Series and Parallel Connections
Parallel:
• Force acting is sum of
forces acting on individual
spring (𝐹 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 )
• Total deflection will be
same (𝛿)
𝑦1 𝑘1 = 𝐹 𝑦2 𝑘2 = 𝐹
𝑘 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘2 +. .
Series:
• Force acting is same (F)
• Total deflection will be sum of deflections of
individual springs y = 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
𝐹 𝐹
𝑦1 = 𝑦2 = 1 1 1
𝑘1 𝑘2 = + +. .
𝑘 𝑘1 𝑘2
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 Helical Spring: Design Procedure
• Estimate spring force (F) and required deflection (y), In some cases
it will be specified
• Select suitable material, Obtain permissible shear stress, 𝜏 = 0.5𝑆𝑢𝑡
• Assume spring index value C, Preferred (8-10)
• Calculate Wahl factor, K (Eqn. 11.2a)
• Determine wire diameter from load-stress equation, d (Eqn 11.1d)
• Determine coil diameter, D, (eqn 11.2c)
• Determine number of active coils, i by load deflection equation, i
(eqn 11.5a)
• Determine total number of coils, it, (table 11.4)
• Determine solid length of the spring, (table 11.4)
• Find actual deflection, y by load-deflection equation and also free
length (Assuming suitable gaps)
• Obtain pitch of the coil, p (table 11.4)
• Determine actual spring rate, k (eqn 11.7a)
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 Problem 5.1
It is required to design a helical compression spring subjected to a
maximum force of 1250 N. The deflection of the spring
corresponding to the maximum force should be approximately 30
mm. The spring index can be taken as 6. The spring is made of
patented and cold-drawn steel wire. The ultimate tensile strength
and modulus of rigidity of the spring material are 1090 and 81 370
N/mm2, respectively. The permissible shear stress for the spring wire
should be taken as 50% of the ultimate tensile strength. Design the
spring and calculate
• Wire diameter
• Mean coil diameter
• Number of active coils
• Total number of coils
• Free length of the spring
• Pitch of the coil
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 Problem 5.2
It is required to design a helical compression spring for the valve mechanism.
The axial force acting on the spring is 300 N when the valve is open and 150 N
when the valve is closed. The length of the spring is 30 mm when valve is open
and 35 mm when the valve is closed. The spring is made of oil-hardened and
tempered valve spring wire and the ultimate tensile strength is 1370 N/mm2.
The permissible shear stress for the spring wire should be taken as 30% of the
ultimate tensile strength. The modulus of rigidity is 81370N/mm2. The spring is
to be fitted over a valve rod and the minimum inside diameter of the spring
should be 20 mm. Design the spring and calculate
• Wire diameter
• Mean coil diameter
• Number of active coils
• Total number of coils
• Free length of the spring
• Pitch of the coil
Assume that the clearance between adjacent coils or clash allowance is 15% of
the deflection under the maximum load
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 Design against fluctuating load
1
Mean force, 𝐹𝑚 = 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 + 𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 Eqn 11.16f
2
1
Amplitude force, 𝐹𝑎 = 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝐹𝑚𝑖𝑛 Eqn 11.16g
2
8𝐹𝑚 𝐷 0.5
Torsional Mean stress, 𝜏𝑚 = 𝐾𝑠 , 𝐾𝑠 = 1 + Torsional
𝜋𝑑 3 𝐶
8𝐹𝑎 𝐷
stress amplitude, 𝜏𝑎 = 𝐾 , 𝐾𝑠 = 𝑊𝑎ℎ𝑙 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝜋𝑑 3

Rotating beam completely reversed cycle

Springs are subjected to pulsating shear stresses which vary
′
from 0 to 𝑆𝑠𝑒
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 Design against fluctuating load
Empirical relationships
• Patented and cold-drawn steel wires
′
𝑆𝑠𝑒 = 0.21𝑆𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑠𝑦 = 0.42𝑆𝑢𝑡
• Oil hardened and tempered steel wires
′
𝑆𝑠𝑒 = 0.22𝑆𝑢𝑡 𝑆𝑠𝑦 = 0.45𝑆𝑢𝑡

𝑋𝐹 𝐴𝐸
=
𝐹𝐷 𝐸𝐵

1 ′
𝜏𝑎 𝑆𝑠𝑒
= 2
𝑆𝑠𝑦 1 ′
− 𝜏𝑚 𝑆𝑠𝑦 − 𝑆𝑠𝑒
𝑓𝑠 2
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 Problem 5.3
A helical compression spring of cam mechanism is subjected
to an initial preload of 50 N. The maximum operating force
during the load cycle is 150 N. The wire diameter is 3mm
while the mean coil diameter is 18 mm. The spring is made
of oil-hardened and tempered valve spring wire of grade VW
(Sut=1430N/mm2). Determine the factor of safety used in
design on the basis of fluctuating stresses.

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 Problem 5.4
An eccentric cam, 100 mm in diameter
rotates with an eccentricity of 10 mm as
shown in Figure. The roller follower is held
against the cam by means of a helical
compression spring. The force between
the cam and the follower varies from 100
N at the lowest position to 350 N at the
highest position of follower. The
permissible shear stress in the spring wire
is recommended as 30% of ultimate
tensile strength. Design the spring from
static consideration and determine the
factor of safety against fluctuating
stresses. Neglect the effect of inertia
forces. Assume Sut=1480N/mm2
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 Concentric Springs
• Two helical compression springs, one inside the other

• The two consecutive springs will have opposite helix to avoid locking
of coils

Advantages
• Load carrying capacity is increased
• Fail safe system
• Surge are eliminated

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 Concentric Springs
Assumptions in Concentric spring
• Springs are made of same material
• Maximum torsional shear stresses induced in outer and inner
springs are equal
• Same free length
• Both springs are deflected by same amount
8𝐹1 𝐷1 8𝐹2 𝐷2
𝜏1 = 𝜏2 𝐾1 = 𝐾2
3
𝜋𝑑1 𝜋𝑑23
Assume, 𝐾1 = 𝐾2
𝐹1 𝐷1 𝐹2 𝐷2
3 = Eqn (a)
𝑑1 𝑑23
𝐹1 𝐷13 𝑖1 𝐹2 𝐷23 𝑖2
𝑦1 = 𝑦2 4 = Eqn (b)
𝑑1 𝑑24

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 Concentric Springs
When both springs are completely compressed, solid length will be
equal
𝑑1 𝑖1 = 𝑑2 𝑖2
𝐹1 𝐷13 𝑖1 𝑑1 𝐹2 𝐷23 𝑖2 𝑑2
5 = Eqn (c)
𝑑1 𝑑25
𝐹1 𝐷13 𝐹2 𝐷23
5 =
𝑑1 𝑑25

𝐷1 𝐷2
Eqn (c)/Eqn (a) = Eqn (d)
𝑑1 𝑑2
Eqn (d)/Eqn (a) 𝐹1 𝐹2
2 =
𝑑1 𝑑22 𝐹1 𝑎1
=
𝐹2 𝑎2
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 Concentric Springs
Assume, c as the radial clearance between the springs
𝑑2 𝑑2 𝑑1 𝑑1
𝐷1 = 𝐷2 + + + 2𝑐 + +
2 2 2 2
2𝑐 = 𝐷1 − 𝐷2 − 𝑑1 + 𝑑2
𝐷1 − 𝐷2 𝑑1 + 𝑑2
𝑐= −
2 2
Assuming diametric clearance (2c) as difference between wire
diameters
2𝑐 = 𝑑1 − 𝑑2 𝐷1 − 𝐷2 = 𝑑1 − 𝑑2 + 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 = 2𝑑1
𝑑1 − 𝑑2 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒, 𝐷1 = 𝐶𝑑1 & 𝐷2 = 𝐶𝑑2
𝑐=
2 𝑑1 𝐶
𝑑1 − 𝑑2 𝐷1 − 𝐷2 𝑑1 + 𝑑2 =
= − 𝑑2 𝐶 − 2
2 2 2
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 Problem 5.5
A concentric spring is used as a valve spring in a heavy duty diesel
engine. It consists of two helical compression springs having the
same free length and same solid length. The composite spring is
subjected to a maximum force of 6000N and the corresponding
deflection is 50 mm. The maximum torsional shear stress induced
in each spring is 800 N/mm2. The spring index of each spring is 6.
Assume same material for two springs and the modulus of rigidity
is 81370 N/mm2. The diametral clearance between the coils is
equal to the difference between their wire diameters. Calculate:
• The axial force transmitted by each spring
• Wire and mean coil diameters of each spring
• Number of active coils in each spring

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 Surge in Spring
• Natural frequency of vibration of spring coincides with the
frequency of external periodic force, resonance occurs
• Spring is subjected to a wave of successive compressions that
travels from one end to other and back which is termed as surge
• Load is transmitted by transferring compression to adjacent coils
• If the onward and backward travel time coincides with exiting
frequency, resonance occurs
• Natural frequency of helical compression springs (between two

1 𝑘
parallel plates), 𝜔 =
2 𝑚
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 Leaf Springs

• Consists of flat plates/ leaves

• Longest leaf at top is called master leaf
• Bent at the end to form spring eyes
• U bolt and centre clip to hold the leaf together
• Master leaf, extra full length leaf, graduated leaf
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Leaf Springs: Graduated leaves
Load- Stress equation
6𝐹𝑔 𝑙
𝜎= Eqn 11.28b
𝑖𝑔 𝑏ℎ2 Table 11.9

Load- Deflection equation

6𝐹𝑔 𝑙 3
𝑦= Eqn 11.28c
𝐸𝑖𝑔 𝑏ℎ3 Table 11.9

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 Leaf Springs: Extra full length leaves
Load- Stress equation
6𝐹𝑓 𝑙
𝜎= Eqn 11.28b
𝑖𝑓 𝑏ℎ2 Table 11.9

Load- Deflection equation

4𝐹𝑓 𝑙 3
𝑦= Eqn 11.28c
𝐸𝑖𝑓 𝑏ℎ3 Table 11.9

Taking 𝑦𝑓 = 𝑦𝑔 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑔 + 𝐹𝑓 = 𝐹 Eqn 11.29d

18𝐹𝑙 12𝐹𝑙 12𝐹𝑙 3

𝜎 𝑓 = ′ 2 𝜎 𝑔 = ′ 2 𝑦= ′ 3
𝑏 ℎ (3𝑖𝑓 + 2𝑖𝑔 ) 𝑏 ℎ (3𝑖𝑓 + 2𝑖𝑔 ) 𝑏 ℎ 𝐸(3𝑖𝑓 + 2𝑖𝑔 )
Eqn 11.30b Eqn 11.30c
Eqn 11.30a
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 Nipping of leaf springs
• Pre-stressing by bending
leaves to a different radii
• Initial gap between full
length leaf and graduated
length leaf before the
assembly is called nip
6𝐹𝑔 𝑙 6𝐹𝑓 𝑙
𝜎𝑏 𝑔 = 𝜎𝑏 𝑓 =
𝑖𝑔 𝑏 ′ ℎ2 𝑖𝑓 𝑏 ′ ℎ2
Taking 𝑐 = 𝑦𝑔 − 𝑦𝑓 , 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠

2𝐹𝑙 3 Eqn 11.32a 6𝐹𝐿

𝑐= 𝜎𝑏 = ′ 2 Eqn 11.32c
𝐸𝑖𝑏 ′ ℎ3 𝑖𝑏 ℎ
2𝑖𝑔 𝑖𝑓 𝐹 Eqn 11.32b
𝐹𝑖 =
𝑖 2𝑖𝑔 + 3𝑖𝑓
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 Problem 5.7

A semi elliptic leaf spring used for automobile suspension

consists of three extra full length leaves and 15 graduated
length leaves, including the master leaf. The centre-to-centre
distance between two eyes of the spring is 1m. The maximum
force that can act on the spring is 75kN. For each leaf, the
ratio of width-to-thickness is 9:1. The modulus of elasticity of
the leaf material is 207000N/mm2. The leaves are pre-stressed
in such a way that when the force is maximum, the stresses
induced in all leaves are same and equal to 450 N/mm2.
Determine
• Width and thickness of the leaves
• The initial nip

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 Problem 5.8

A semi elliptical laminated vehicle spring to carry a load of

6000N is to consist of seven leaves, 65 mm wide. Two of the
leaves extending the full length of the spring. The spring is to
be 1.1 m in length and attached to the axle by two U bolts 80
mm apart. The bolts hold the central portion of the spring so
rigidly that they may be considered equivalent to a band
having a width equal to the distance between the bolts.
Assume a design stress for spring material as 350 MPa.
Determine
• The thickness of the leaves
• Deflection of the spring

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