Technical Writing

Technical Writing

Lumen Learning

Cover photo by tec_estromberg, CC-By 2.0, available from https://flic.kr/p/hWT88P

 CONTENTS

Introduction.................................................................................................................................1
• Introduction Overview....................................................................................................................................... 1
• What is Technical Writing?................................................................................................................................ 1
• The Many Contexts of Communicating Technical Information..........................................................................4
• Basic Assumptions and Potential Complications.............................................................................................. 5
• Legal Issues and Communication..................................................................................................................... 9
• Appreciating Different Cultures....................................................................................................................... 11

Audience-Centered Communication......................................................................................15
• Audience-Centered Communication Overview............................................................................................... 15
• Appreciating Technical Communication Audiences........................................................................................ 15
• Rhetorical Nature of Technical and Professional Writing................................................................................17

Format........................................................................................................................................19
• Format Overview............................................................................................................................................. 19
• General Design Concepts............................................................................................................................... 20
• Additional Sources for Formatting................................................................................................................... 22

Language and Tone..................................................................................................................23

• Avoiding Confusing Terms.............................................................................................................................. 23
• Legal Issues.................................................................................................................................................... 25
• Use Language That is Sensitive to Your Audience......................................................................................... 27
• How Will Your Reader Respond to This Tone?............................................................................................... 28
• Use Concrete, Sensory Language.................................................................................................................. 29
• Use the Active Voice....................................................................................................................................... 30
• Read Your Paper Aloud to Check Cohesiveness............................................................................................ 30
• Use Parallel Structure..................................................................................................................................... 31
• Rephrase Awkward Word Order..................................................................................................................... 32
• Eliminate Unnecessary Language.................................................................................................................. 33

Visuals.......................................................................................................................................35
• Visuals Overview............................................................................................................................................ 35
• NASA: Technical Report Writing..................................................................................................................... 39
• The Value of Visual Instructions...................................................................................................................... 41
• Photos and Illustrations................................................................................................................................... 43

Web Sites...................................................................................................................................48
• Web Sites Overview........................................................................................................................................ 48
• Considerations for Web Site Writing............................................................................................................... 48
• Website Design............................................................................................................................................... 49
• Page Design................................................................................................................................................... 57
• Pictures and Photographs............................................................................................................................... 60
• Typography..................................................................................................................................................... 62

Memos........................................................................................................................................66
• Memos Overview............................................................................................................................................ 66
• Memos: Style for Students.............................................................................................................................. 67
• Memos: Writing Commons.............................................................................................................................. 69
• Memos: Purpose and Format.......................................................................................................................... 74

Letters........................................................................................................................................77
 • Letters Overview............................................................................................................................................. 77
• Example Letters.............................................................................................................................................. 80
• Professional Letters........................................................................................................................................ 85
• Memorandums and Letters............................................................................................................................. 86
• Business Letters............................................................................................................................................. 91

Descriptive and Prescriptive Reports.....................................................................................94

• Reports Overview........................................................................................................................................... 94
• Composing Business Reports and Proposals................................................................................................. 95
• Procedure and Process Reports..................................................................................................................... 97
• Instructions and Process Reports................................................................................................................... 98
• Examples of Instructional and Process Reports............................................................................................ 102

Classification and Partition Reports.....................................................................................103

• Classification Reports and Partition Reports Overview.................................................................................103
• Organizational Patterns................................................................................................................................. 104
• Classifying..................................................................................................................................................... 106
• Comparing and Contrasting.......................................................................................................................... 107

Informative Presentations.....................................................................................................109
• Instructional Presentation Overview.............................................................................................................. 109
• Functions of the Presentation to Inform........................................................................................................ 110
• Types of Presentations to Inform.................................................................................................................. 113
• Getting Started with an Informative Presentation.......................................................................................... 116
• Preparing Your Informative Speech.............................................................................................................. 117
• Creating an Informative Presentation............................................................................................................ 121

Research..................................................................................................................................124
• Research Overview....................................................................................................................................... 124
• Textual Research.......................................................................................................................................... 125
• APA Documentation Overview...................................................................................................................... 126
• Basic Guidelines For Citing Resources......................................................................................................... 127
• APA Style Documentation............................................................................................................................. 127
• APA Style In-Text Citations........................................................................................................................... 128
• APA Style Reference Lists............................................................................................................................ 129
• Questions to Evaluate the Authority of the Researcher's Methods...............................................................131
• Demystify Research Methods....................................................................................................................... 132
• Intellectual Property...................................................................................................................................... 136

Problem Analysis....................................................................................................................138
• Problem Analysis Overview.......................................................................................................................... 138
• Planning Reports (Annotated)....................................................................................................................... 139

Summaries and Responses...................................................................................................144

• Summaries and Responses Overview.......................................................................................................... 144
• Summaries and Responses.......................................................................................................................... 145

Proposal...................................................................................................................................147
• The Proposal Overview................................................................................................................................. 147
• Preparing Business Proposals...................................................................................................................... 148
• Front Matter: Contents, Lists, and More........................................................................................................ 154
• Ethics and Technical Communication........................................................................................................... 156

Feasibility Report....................................................................................................................160
• Feasibility Report Overview.......................................................................................................................... 160
• Preparing Feasibility Studies......................................................................................................................... 164
 • Front Matter: Contents, Lists, and More........................................................................................................ 170
• Ethics and Technical Communication........................................................................................................... 172

Persuasive Presentations......................................................................................................176
• Persuasive Presentation Overview............................................................................................................... 176
• Functions of the Presentation to Persuade................................................................................................... 177
• Principles of Persuasion................................................................................................................................ 180
• Meeting the Listener's Basic Needs.............................................................................................................. 182
• Presentations to Persuade, Getting Started.................................................................................................. 187
• Persuasive Presention Assessment.............................................................................................................. 188

Rules of Writing......................................................................................................................190
• Rules of Writing Overview............................................................................................................................. 190
• Basic Rules of Punctuation........................................................................................................................... 190
• Edit for Economy........................................................................................................................................... 191
• Punctuation, Mechanics, Capitalization, and Spelling Introduction...............................................................192
• Hyphens........................................................................................................................................................ 193
• Apostrophes.................................................................................................................................................. 195
• Quotation Marks............................................................................................................................................ 196
• Semicolons, Colons, and Dashes................................................................................................................. 197
• Commas........................................................................................................................................................ 199
• The Period.................................................................................................................................................... 202
• Parentheses.................................................................................................................................................. 202
• Abbreviations and Acronyms........................................................................................................................ 203
• Expressing Temperatures and Numbers....................................................................................................... 208
• Capitalization................................................................................................................................................ 209
• Spelling......................................................................................................................................................... 212
• Everyday Words that are Commonly Misspelled........................................................................................... 214
• Terms that are Commonly Misspelled in Technical Writing...........................................................................217
 INTRODUCTION

INTRODUCTION OVERVIEW

In this section, you will be made aware of the learning contents of each module and plan how you intend to
complete each module in order to successfully complete the course. In addition, you will learn the definition
of technical writing–giving your readers clear and easy access to information by formatting and using language as
related to technical writing. You will gain an understanding of the differences between academic writing and
technical writing. Further, you will be introduced to cultural communication and ethics.

Licensing & Attributions

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WHAT IS TECHNICAL WRITING?

Technical writing is an audience-centered means of communication that provides a reader with clear and easy
access to information. In the business world, time equates to profit, and profit is the force behind all business
interaction. The technical writer and reader have a vis-à-vis relationship. The writer recognizes, respects, and
addresses the importance of time in effective and efficient communication by providing documents written in
specific formats, using unambiguous language to send clearly assessable information. The reader in turn
thoroughly understands the information in order to give a thoughtful response.

Formatting and Language

Formatting and appropriate language are the basic design elements of all technical documents. A format that
shows a hierarchical structure and a coordinate structure of information leads the reader thorough text. Using

1
appropriate language is significant in providing the reader with a thorough understanding of the purpose of the
documents, how the document relates to the reader’s needs, and what action is expected of the reader.

A document may have one reader (the primary reader) or several readers (the secondary readers). A primary
reader is the person who ordered the report to be written or the person for whom a report is intended. These
readers will usually read the entire report. Secondary readers are those readers who will read only the sections of
the report that relate to them, their jobs, their departments, responsibilities, etc. For example, if a report was sent
that detailed funding for different departments, a piping superintendent may only want to read the section that
relates to piping. This is where format, the use of headings, is significant in allowing the reader easy access to
information. That the piping superintendent can scan though the document and clearly find the heading that
identifies his department saves time.

Academic Writing versus Technical Writing

The definite purpose, strict format and use of appropriate language in technical writing define the differences
between technical writing and academic writing. The academic writer purpose may be to write an assignment, a
story, a letter, etc.. These works may or may not have a reader. However, technical writing always has a definite
purpose and will always have a reader. Regardless of the number of the intended readers of a document who
may or may not read the document, the document will be read by the primary reader.

Cultural Communication
Technical writers need to be aware of the differences between the behavior and the norms, beliefs and values of
specific cultural. According to Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall, In Understanding Cultural Differences, each
culture operates according to its own rules (1990, pp. 3-4). Hall and Hall add that problems occur when members
of one culture apply the rules to another culture (1990, pp. 3-4). To communicate effectively with other cultures,
the technical writer needs to not only be aware of rules governing behaviors that can be observed but also of the
not-so-obvious rules that govern the norms, beliefs, and values of the people of a culture. The invisible rules of a
culture dramatically impact the acceptance of ideas, plans, and strategies. The Cultural Iceberg
illustrates patterns of world communication, showing indicators of Institutional Culture (the obvious behavior of a
culture), which can be clearly seen as the tip of the iceberg, and People Culture (the norms, beliefs and values of
a culture), which cannot be seen and which are the barriers to successful communication.
Ethics
Technical writers have a responsibility to their readers and to their employers to follow ethics when writing reports.
Technical writers must use words that demonstrate valid appeals to reason, avoiding emotional words and
phrases that appeal to basic emotion instead of justifiable reasoning. In addition, technical writers must use valid
references to support ideas and strategies, avoiding referencing non experts to sway readers’ support. Also,
technical writers must use accurate numbers to report data, avoiding charts and tables that skew data. Using any
type of fallacies in technical writing is unethical and could result in dire consequences.

Not only do technical writers have a responsibility to report accurate information,

they also have a responsibility to credit accurate sources of information. At no time
is it acceptable to rearrange information in order to attempt to indicate that the
writer is the source of someone else’s idea or to indicate that the writer read a
report that included information he/she cited, when the primary source of the
information was cited in another report. All sources must be referenced accurately
in the text and cited on a reference page.

Daniel G. Riordan (2005), in Technical Report Writing Today, cites Dombrowski to

define three threads of ethics:

One major thread is that the communicator must be a good person who cares for the audience.
Communicators must tell the truth as convincingly as possible, because truth will lead to the good of the
audience. Another thread is that the communicator must do what is right, regardless or possible outcomes. A
third thread is that communicators must act for the greatest good for the greatest number of people. (p. 16)

In addition, Riordan (2005) references the “code of ethics of the Society for Technical Writers, and cites five of the
code’s tenants:

My commitment to professional excellence and ethical behaviors means that I will

• Use language and visuals with precision.
• Prefer simple direct expression of ideas.
• Satisfy the audience’s need for information, not my own need for self-expression.
• Hold myself responsible for how well my audience understands my message.
• Report the work of colleagues, knowing that a communication problem may have more than
one solution. (Riordan, 2005, pp. 15-16)
References
Hall, E. T. & Hall, M. R. (1990). Understanding Cultural Differences. Yardmouth: Intercultural Press, Inc.

Riordan, D. G. (2005). Technical Report Writing Today. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

Licensing & Attributions

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THE MANY CONTEXTS OF

COMMUNICATING TECHNICAL
INFORMATION

Though you may already know a great deal about effective communication within an academic environment,
technical communication is not limited to this area. You must know how to communicate effectively in many other
settings such as a professional environment.

Technical Communication Can Take Many Forms

Many different types of documents are created and used every day by
professionals. The most common and well known of these documents are memos
and emails, which are used in every type of business. In addition to this, technical
communicators also create instructions, product guides and documentation, graphs,
charts, images, videos, and other forms of content. No matter what medium a
technical communicator chooses to use, the main goal is always to be informative
and clear.

Technical Communication Serves a Practical

Purpose
Technical communication is employed in real world settings for practical purposes. Whether to instruct, inform, or
to persuade, technical communication is used for a myriad of purposes beyond the sort of straightforward
informative writing typical of educational or certain social settings. Beyond being inspiring or entertaining,
technical writing must be useful to an audience trying to perform a task.

Technical Communication Addresses Complex Audiences

Academic papers are often addressed to a single individual or a small group of peers with very similar
experiences and expectations. Technical writing, because of its practical and collaborative nature, must often be
geared toward a complex audience. Technical communicators must be careful to be conscious of intended and
unintended audiences, foreign and domestic readers, and individuals with vastly differing responsibilities,
experiences, and expectations of a given document. The context in which a document is read will differ with each
reader and it is important to keep documents concise and free of bias and excessive or unclear language to
ensure that they are understood.
Technical Communication is Collaborative
Technical communication documents will often require input or additional
work from several co-authors, depending on the complexity of the document
and the nature of the task with which it is dealing. Paul Anderson’s Technical
Communication textbook relates an anecdote regarding the proposal to build
the International Space Station which contained text and drawings from more
than 300 engineers. This may be an extreme example, but even when writing
a technical document alone, collaboration and consultation with coworkers or
other members of the intended audience may form a part of an author’s
writing process.

Technical Communication is Shaped by

Conventions and Culture
Much as with academic writing, organizational conventions as well as culture will shape the style used in technical
documents. Organizations may conceive of themselves and formal and conservative or informal and innovative,
and reflect this self-conception in their communication style. This reflection often extends to social dimensions
within the workplace or the culture of the society in which the organization operates. A technical communicator’s
style will change depending on the social and organizational contexts that they are working within.

Technical Communication is a complex discipline because it can occur in so many contexts. It can be
encountered in nearly any professional setting from a construction yard to a courtroom. It is present when you
consult a user manual for your car, microwave, computer, or un-assembled bookshelf. Adaptivity to ever
changing audiences as well as legal and ethical issues and a variety of social factors is one of the most important
traits of a successful technical communicator.
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BASIC ASSUMPTIONS AND POTENTIAL

COMPLICATIONS

Before you begin to learn about a subject, it is natural to make assumptions about it. It is important not to act on
these assumptions unless you can prove that they are correct.

Writing for Work vs. Writing for School

The main assumption that most people have about technical writing is that it’s like writing for a class: You start
with a thesis, perfect it, build structural sentences, eliminate first person viewpoint, add an intro, body, and
conclusion, and so on. What isn’t taught in schools is that writing memos, proposals, business letters, and
instructions is different than writing an academic essay. When writing at work, you don’t build up to your main
point–you get to it immediately. Your boss isn’t grading you on how well you wrote your business memo, they’re
looking for pertinent information without filler and ‘fluff’.
‘Redos’ in the world of Academia
Try to remember that when you write a memo, that memo can be changed
after it is sent. This gives you the option to resubmit almost anything if you
don’t think you did a good job with the first submission. This option is rarely
offered in school–once you submit a paper, there are no ‘redos’. Your
professor will more than likely ignore your efforts. Your boss on the other
hand, expects revisions. If you send a memo for a meeting for Tuesday and
the meeting gets canceled, people are going to be angry if they show up on
Tuesday. Resubmission is important in business because business is always
changing. However, when sending out your first draft of a memo, make sure it
is as close to perfect as you can get it. Even if you redo this memo, people
may still have already opened it, or my still open it to see the differences in
changes. So, if you write a new memo saying the meeting will no longer take place on Tuesday, that is not
necessarily a redo, but a whole new memo in itself. The new subject would be meeting canceled instead of
meeting on Tuesday. But if you are redoing a memo on a progress report, your boss still may choose to read the
first draft as well as your second. Also, be sure your second draft is better than your first. A lot of people think that
if its a second draft it will obviously be better than the first but this is not always the case. Be sure to read and re
read your memos.

Education vs. Practicality

When you are at school, your teachers expect you to show that you are learning. In order to best demonstrate
that, you prepare reports, papers, projects and take exams. Few teachers will give you the benefit of the doubt
that you know something without proving it. This is why writing in school serves an educational purpose. You
are expected to write about everything you know, and if you leave something out, your teacher is going to
assume that you don’t know it.

However, writing something at work serves a completely different purpose. Your readers are coworkers and
clientele who don’t know as much as you do about the things you are writing about, and look to your writing as a
guide. This is called writing for a practical purpose. Because your readers are trying to reach their own practical
goals, they expect your writing to be clear, concise, and to the point. By including essential information only, you
are helping your readers find out what they need without getting frustrated, bored, or overwhelmed.

Relationships Between People

Writing in school is often much more direct than writing for a business.
When you write a paper, you only have one communicative relationship:
The one between you and your professor. Since this is the only social
situation you encounter with your assignment, you don’t experience as
much of a variety of relationships as you do with technical writing. When
you look at your writing at work, you realize that you are connecting with
many different people. There is the relationship between employee and
employer, between supplier and customer, and between coworkers. You
may often be competing with other people, or you may be working
alongside them on a project.

Use of Graphics
Graphics in technical writing are not only encouraged, they are mandatory. A colorful graphic can be highly
convincing when you’re presenting something, especially if it gets the point across visually. Some examples of
graphics are:
1. Tables
2. Charts
3. Photographs
4. Graphs
 5. Drawings
6. Symbols

Not only are graphics visually appealing, but they also make a presentation easy to navigate. Usually, they are
discouraged in school papers. In the business field, visuals can be the determining factor in getting a job, securing
a deal, or impressing the boss. However, when using graphics, make sure they are appropriate and relate to the
topic. It is very unprofessional to send inappropriate graphics to your work force, and it may cause confusion if the
graphics do not relate to your topic. Graphics are used to enhance the document, not take away from it.

Teamwork
Many schools are starting to encourage writing in groups to get a sense of the teamwork that you will experience
in the workplace. Collaboration at the office is common; even if you aren’t part of a team, you might still consult
coworkers and readers. You may also submit drafts that are constantly being revised.

Conventions and Culture

Another assumption you may have about technical writing is that it
almost never changes. But if you look at the word “technical” as it
relates to “technology,” you may find that technology is always
changing. That is why before you can become a successful
technical writer, you must learn about your organization’s style and
about the social and political factors of your writing.

Your Company’s Style

Technical writing is not a constant. Each company has its own way
of promoting itself, from a liberal and casual style to a conservative and formal style. You will need to adjust your
writing based on how the company wants you to represent it.

Cross-Cultural Communication
One of the major assumptions that many people who begin technical writing have is that the standard for their
company in their city is the standard that should be in use all around the world. In fact, this is a huge mistake to
make. Even if these assumptions are unconscious, they are still insulting. Geoff Hart speaks about this in his
article, “Cross-Cultural Communication Requires Us to Test Our Assumptions.” [1]. He mentions that there are
many obvious traps that Americans miss when traveling, especially when they are in situations that they have
experienced before, but with other American businessmen. Verbs can also pose problems, as do metaphors and
phrases. Complex sentences are some of the largest problems–it is when we use big words and long sentences
that we can most often be misinterpreted. Writing things that are short and sweet may not seem professional, but
keep in mind that you are writing for a select audience who is looking for familiar words and doesn’t have the
patience to appreciate your grasp on the English language.

One of the most important things to keep in mind when writing for a different audience than you’re used to is to
never assume anything. If you reread something from another perspective and think, “Maybe my audience
wouldn’t get this,” it’s probably true. Technical writers should never think that their writing does not need to be
edited. By learning to edit your own writing, you are conceding that it is not perfect. By doing this, you prove that
you are trying to make the audience understand your message.

Potential Complications
If you choose to be a technical writer, you will face many complications (potentially). For the most part, they have
to do with a changing world, changing beliefs, and changing cultures.
Technology
Technology is huge in technical writing because many writers are responsible for creating guides, instructions,
policies and procedures, training materials, and so on. Since we have
entered a digital age, we are becoming more dependent on machines
to assist us and the variety of these machines changes every month.
Since one of the main goals for tech writing is to anticipate any
questions or problems that arise, it can be very difficult for a writer to
adjust to shifting tastes.

Ethical Communication
Ethics are huge in technical writing. Usually, ethics codes are present
at the workplace (even if they aren’t always enforced, they exist).
Ethics aren’t in black and white and many people are apt to disagree
with them, potentially complicating ensuing writing.

Working in Teams
I have included this section because many technical writers may find themselves working in many teams over the
course of their careers and it’s a good idea to know well in advance what you’re in for.

You and your teammates may not always agree on the best way to approach a problem. You may think that you
have the best ideas, but get angry when you find yourself doing all the work. However, working in a team to
collaboratively edit writing is the best way to get your work done because you’re not just listening to yourself–
you’re listening to your team members, which can help disperse subjectivity. Although you may feel that you work
better alone, that won’t always be the case. Whether you like it or not, you will usually be in teams for most of your
working life, so get used to it soon.

Losing Focus of Your Goal

As you can see from this complex Wikibook, you need to remember a lot of things in order to become a
successful technical writer. Remember, when it comes to technical writing, the more concise and understandable
your text is, the better. You may tend to wander off topic if you’ve been working on a project for a long time, but
this can severely damage your end result. Keep focused and remember to leave any shred of an opinion out of
your work. Just take things one word at a time.

Notes
1. Jump up↑ Hart, Geoff. “Cross Cultural Communication Requires Us to Test Our Assumptions. STC-
Montreal, September 30th, 2008
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 LEGAL ISSUES AND COMMUNICATION

In business, image is everything. Public opinion of a company affects a consumer’s views on that company’s
products. This, in turn, affects the company’s public profit, and essentially its standing. When a company is
involved in a lawsuit or a recall, the company has to consider the consequences that these issues will have on
their business and needs to consider the costs of repairing the company’s reputation. These are among the
reasons certain documents are carefully reviewed before being sent to their intended readers. To write ethically,
you must also identify another group of people: the individuals who will gain or lose because of your message.
Collectively, these people are called stakeholders because they have a stake in what you are writing. Only by
learning who these stakeholders are can you assure that you are treating them in accordance with your own
ethical values. When crafting your communication think about who will be affected by what you say and how you
say it. You have to be sensitive to the following language in a professional document:
• Race and gender roles
• Political correctness
• Generalizations
• Cultural awareness
• Religious symbols

Under the law, most documents written by employees represent the position and commitments of the organization
itself. There are always legal issues to consider when writing a professional document and they reflect in writing
style. Professional documents can serve as evidence in disputes over
contracts and in product liability lawsuits. A lawsuit is a civil action
brought in court. Today, the average company is involved in 400
lawsuits at any given time. While most companies win their lawsuits,
being caught in a lawsuit has many consequences. Lawsuits cost
companies time and money. The money spent on lawyers and the time
spent in court takes away resources a company could use for
improving business and products. Lawsuits also have ramifications for
a company’s reputation. Recalls can be another legal problem for
companies. A recall is when a product is removed from the market or a
correction is made to the product because it is either defective or
potentially harmful. In most cases, a recall results from an unintentional
mistake by a company rather than from an intentional disregard for the law. Sometimes a company discovers a
problem and recalls a product on its own. Other times a company recalls the product after concerns are made.

There are a number of reasons why a company may face a lawsuit or a recall. One of the main reasons a
company gets involved in a lawsuit is because the directions to the company’s product were not clear to the
consumer. For this reason, the general guideline is that instructions should be understandable, clear and concise
at the fourth to sixth grade reading level. Also, when in a lawsuit, a company has to remember that all documents
may be subpoenaed. This means that any document from memos and emails to proposals and studies can be
subject to revision by a court of law. Another reason a company gets into a lawsuit may be over a recall. An
aspect of recalls are those dealing with safety concerns. Many products are recalled for potential safety concerns,
even if no one was actually hurt. To avoid safety recalls, companies need to make sure they consider every
possible danger involved with a product. Some dangers may seem to be common knowledge, but companies
should be aware of those and label the product accordingly, regardless of assumptions about common
knowledge.

Communication Constraints
Constraints are limits for documents set by the company or industry.As you gather the information that will form
the basis for the way you craft your communication, you should also learn about any expectations, regulations, or
other factors that may constrain what you can say and how you can say it. In the working world, expectations and
regulations can affect any aspect of a communication. Aspects that affect communication are as follows:
• Tone of voice
• Use of abbreviations
• Tables
• Margins
• Length of document (as a maximum)

It is important to find out about these constraints and take them into account as you create your communication.
Some of these constraints come directly from the employer. Your employer and your readers probably have
expectations about the way you write a professional document. There are often, unspoken expectations about
how the required elements will be prepared. You are
cultivating a company’s desire for a particular corporate
image, to protect its legal interests, and to preserve its
competitive edge. A toy company like LEGO, would not want
to be associated with a technical document that includes
slang or words that could damage their reputation. They are
legally protecting their business. Since all documents can be
used against individuals and companies in court, all written
documents with the company name should include only
professional content that properly represents the company.

Other times, constraints are set by government regulations

that determine how certain reports need to be written.
Regulations are laws made by the government that affect
what is in a document or how a document is written. Writing
constraints can originate from outside the company. For example, from government regulations that specify how
patent applications, environmental impact report, and many other types of documents are to be prepared.
Similarly, scientific, technical, or other professional journals have strict rules about many aspects of the articles
they publish. These regulations act as standards for crafting your communication effectively.

Style Constraints
Constraints may be set by style issues as well. There should be no clichés and idioms in documents because
they may pose a problem with translating documents from one language to another. A cliché is a worn-out or
overused expression that tends to sound trite and often doesn’t express what you truly mean to say. Examples
include: the bottom line is, head over heels, or take it or leave it. Idioms are words or expressions that are
specialized vocabulary used by a group of people also known as jargon. Look at the phrases that you use when
you write and see if they make sense when translated literally. If they don’t, replace them with language that is
clear and direct, and will not be misunderstood. Don’t use “compound” sentences (and, or, nor, but, however,
yet).Opinions and jokes should also be avoided in business documents. Communicate, argue or persuade your
readers through facts and data instead of opinions.
Many companies also like to form a “custom” way of writing. Companies like Microsoft want all their documents to
be written in the same style and format. The only way to do this is to teach the writers the “correct” way to write in
order to portray Microsoft. What many people may not know is that Microsoft does this to cover themselves in a
legal trial. If every single document is written using the same format, they can make sure that the customers
understand the entire document and do not run into trouble with inconsistencies.

How do you know if you are following the correct constraints? The easiest way to understand how to write in your
specific field is to look at documents written by your company and other companies in the industry within the past
few months. This will allow you to see their style and how they make their argument. Some companies even
publish style guides for writing. By seeing your company’s regulations, you can begin to draft your argument.
Make sure to follow your company’s guidebook (if they have one) to be sure that your style is correct with their
recommendations.

Remember that in professional writing you are trying to persuade the reader using an ethical style. This means to
avoiding content that will not stand up in court, especially since people file lawsuits for everything these days.
Make sure that the documents you write for your company are persuasive while also preserving your company’s
competitive edge.
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APPRECIATING DIFFERENT CULTURES

Today, the majority of workplaces are multicultural. Employees in the

workplace are more likely to come from different backgrounds including
cultural environments and different parts of the world. The textbook Technical
Communication by Paul V. Anderson makes a point to emphasize cultural
differences. It is important to take into account who a document will be read
by.

The following characteristics show differences between cultures and should

be considered by effective writers:
• Amount of Detail Expected – High-context cultures such as Japan,
China, and France provide little details in their writing. A high-
context culture is based on fewer, deeper relations with people;
there are many unspoken social rules and understandings within the
culture. People in these cultures expect readers to have enough
knowledge about the communication before they begin reading. In
areas such as instructions, for example, it is assumed that readers
have enough background knowledge or experience that there is no
need to explain different tools used or walk the reader through any
steps. People in low-context cultures such as the United States,
Great Britain, and Germany assume readers know very little before
they begin reading. Low-context cultures have a greater number of
surface-level relations; rules are more explicitly defined so others know how to behave. People in low-
context cultures expect detailed writing that explains the entire process. Writers should consider the
cultural audience of their writing so that readers are not insulted by an excess or lack of information.
• Distance Between the Top and Bottom of Organizational Hierarchies – Many organizations in the
United States and Western Europe have great distances with many layers between top-level
management and low-level workers. When the distance is large, writing to employees above and below
tends to be more formal. In cultures where companies are more flatly organized, communication
between layers tends to be less formal.
 • Individual versus Group Orientation – Many Asian and South American cultures are collectivist,
meaning people pursue group goals and pay attention to the needs of the group. In individualistic
cultures such as the United States and Northern Europe, people are more interested in personal
achievement. Writers should know if they are writing to an audience that is “me-oriented” or one that is
“we-oriented.”
• In-person Business Communications – There are several differences that one should be aware of
when meeting a colleague with a different cultural background. For instance, some cultures stand very
close to each other when talking and some prefer to have distance. Some cultures make eye contact
with each other and some find it disrespectful. There are also certain cultures where an employee will
not disagree or give feedback to their superior. It is seen as disrespectful. In these cultures, it is usually
unacceptable to ask questions.
• Preference for Direct or Indirect Statements – People in the United States and Northern Europe
prefer direct communications, while people in Japan and Korea typically prefer indirect communications.
When denying a request in the U.S., a writer will typically apologize, but firmly state that request was
denied. In Japan, that directness may seem rude. A Japanese writer may instead write that the decision
has not yet been made, delaying the answer with the expectation that the requester will not ask again. In
Japan, this is viewed as more polite than flatly denying someone; however, in the United States this may
give false hope to the requester, and the requester may ask again.
• Basis of Business Decisions – In the United States and Europe, business decisions are typically
made objectively with consideration given to cost, feasibility, timeliness, etc. In Arab cultures,
business decisions are often made on the basis of personal relationships. Writers should know if a
goal-oriented approach is best, or if a more personable communication would be preferred.
• Interpretation of Images, Gestures, and Words
– Words, images, and gestures can mean different
things in different cultures. Knowing how images
will be interpreted in another culture is crucial
before sending documents to unfamiliar audiences.
For example, hand gestures are interpreted
differently around the world, and graphics showing
hands should generally be avoided. Also,
religiously affiliated wording can cause offense by
readers. “I’ve been blessed to work with you” and
comments that lend themselves to religious
references should be avoided in the business
setting.

Gaining Knowledge about

Intercultural Readers
It is often difficult to determine who will be reading your documents. It is important to distinguish your audience
before writing. When writing to a wide variety of people, knowing their cultural biases, assumptions, and customs
are essential. There are a variety of resources online that provide cultural information about countries around the
world. Understanding differences reduces the amount of miscommunication when doing global business. As an
example, in the United States many times the date is written Month, Day, Year, but in other countries they write a
date Day, Month, Year. Knowing this can reduce the confusion of when things are sent, due, and timelines.
Learning information about other nationalities helps you relate to your readers as well as prepare you for the
future. Readers will appreciate your knowledge about their customs.
Other Sources
Coworkers are a great source of intercultural information. People familiar with
you and the company provide the best information about the expectations of
your audience. If coworkers have previously written to your audience, they
may be able to offer insight as to how your writing will be interpreted.

Previous communications kept by your company can also be a useful tool for
determining how to write to another culture. If the writing was well received,
you will able to look for clues as to how to structure your writing. Writing that
resulted in a new partnership or a completed sale may be the best indicator of
how to structure your writing.

Unknown Readers
It is not always possible to know who your reading audience may be. Many emails or memos written to your
intended audience may go through numerous people. Although you may be targeting one type of audience, it is
important to not forget about the “phantom,” “future,” and “complex” readers.

Phantom readers– Real but unnamed readers are phantom readers. They are “behind the scenes” and their
presence is usually unknown to a writer. Phantom readers are included in communications that require a
decision. A clue to phantom readers presence is that the person written to is not high enough in
organizational hierarchy to make a decision. It is important to meet the needs of the phantom readers
because they may be the most important reader.

Future Readers– Written communications may still be used weeks, months or even years after being written.
Every company document is considered a legal document, so lawyers and judges could be future readers.
Future readers can also be employees who retrieve old communications for information or ideas. Writing
communications with future readers in mind will save time and give documents an appeal that will please a
wide range of readers.

Complex Audiences– Addressing a group of people who will be reading from many perspectives is a
complex audience. Focusing on writing to complex audiences will allow you to relate to people from many
different backgrounds. It is important to relate to each reader while not taking away from your overall
communication.

Mindful Tips When Writing

• Never Use Racial Profiling: Racial slurs, profiling or any other form in a professional document are
unacceptable in every instance. NO matter how comfortable you are with your audience. If the
document were to come in the possession of unintended hands it could look highly negative upon you.
The professional world on no level tolerates writing like this. Save it for your personal or individual
writing.
• Never Use Profanity: Again, this is not accepted in the professional world on any level. Even
writing between co-workers, this can offend and look negatively upon you.
• Be Mindful and Respectful of Religious Beliefs: Avoid words like bless, god, covet, bible, or any
other religious connotations. Avoid mentioning holiday names, for example; “During the Christmas
Season…”, but rather “During this holiday season…”. This will ensure no one group feels excluded or
discriminated against. Again, writing in this way is just professional courtesy.
• Avoid Slang: This is a general tip for all writing, but avoiding slang terms will ensure your words are
not misconstrued and taken other than your intended meaning.
• Write As if the World is Reading: Once you have written your ideas on any medium; computer, email,
paper, etc., everyone has access to it. Remember your writing is becoming public knowledge. You
have no idea who will run across your document, so ensure there is no compromising information.
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 AUDIENCE-CENTERED
COMMUNICATION

AUDIENCE-CENTERED COMMUNICATION
OVERVIEW

In this learning module, you will learn about designing documents for clear and easy access to information.

It is your responsibility as the writer to provide your readers with clear and easy access to needed information. To
do this you need to know the needs of your reader and create a well-designed document (using headings,
subheadings, markers, and white space). In addition, you need to use clear language and to be aware of the
difference between components of academic writing and technical writing.
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APPRECIATING TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION

AUDIENCES

Types of Audiences
When preparing documents, it is important to remember potential audiences for your work. Awareness of the
differences between Intended and Unintended audiences may impact how an author presents or includes
information in a document, and may make a difference in the event of a legal issue concerning the document.
Also, awareness of a complex audience will ensure that an author’s writing does not exclude any potential
readers. You do not want to leave an important figure out if they need to be touched on.
Intended vs. Unintended Audience
Intended audiences are best thought of as the people you are
initially writing to. It is the audience for which your document is
intended. Unintended audiences may be anyone that comes
across your writing at any point in time. In a professional
setting, its important to be mindful of the unintended audience
of any written work. This includes any email, memos or
proposals produced in the course of business. In addition to
being a good rule of thumb, it is in your best interest legally to
remain professional in every document you produce as these
documents may be used as evidence in court against either the
author or the business from which they originated.

Complex Audience
Writing for a complex audience is different from academic writing. In academia, there is a specific audience for
most pieces of writing, generally an instructor, teaching assistant, or a fairly small group of peers. In a
professional setting, you will often write for a complex audience of people with different backgrounds, specialties,
and expectations. With that in mind, avoid using terminology that is too technical so you don’t unintentionally
exclude portions of your audience. This can become increasingly difficult when writing for larger and more
complex audiences.

Tailoring Employment Documents For a Specific Audience

When it comes to an employment document such as a résumé or a cover

letter there is no such thing as “one size fits all”. Each document should be
individually tailored to catch the attention of the employer to which the
document(s) are being submitted. To do this effectively, it helps to research
the company and the position. Some different ways that this can be done are:
• Looking at the job description – The job description usually gives a
set of skills that will be required for the position. The skills outline
what the employer is looking for, and therefore, what should be
added into a resume. (One should never lie about applicable skills,
but highlight and prioritize these skills among others).
• Looking at the company website – Looking at the company’s website
can help with understanding the company environment and values
that may not be listed in a job description. This can be most
beneficial when writing a cover letter, in which it is important to
acknowledge the potential employer.

In addition to looking at the job description and company website, it is helpful

to evaluate the type of job that you are applying for. If you are applying to a
job in a design field, you would want to tailor your résumé to be more creative
and avoid using any sort of generic template.

Depending on your level of experience, it can be beneficial to create a list of skills and job experience in a Word
document. As mentioned above, different jobs typically look for a specific set of skills. To make it easier to tailor a
business document to a potential employer, it can be easy to have a Word document of skills and job experiences
listed. After you determine the specific job you’re applying for, copy and paste the appropriate skills into the
document.

It is important to remember that in employment documents you are selling yourself. Each job will be
slightly different, so it is crucial to tailor your résumé to the employer. Additionally, make sure it is not
cluttered with information that the employer may find unnecessary.
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RHETORICAL NATURE OF TECHNICAL

AND PROFESSIONAL WRITING

Communication in the workplace is practiced and accomplished for many practical purposes. The goal is to
effectively convey information to an audience, whether it be to co-workers or someone with greater
responsibilities in the workplace. Workplace writing differs from written communication in other contexts, such as
educational or social arenas. In the workplace, writing is considered a legal document and is frequently archived
or retained for several years at a time. These writings can be referenced to in the future if legal complications
arise. Workplace writing also varies from typical writing due to the fact that the audience is generally reading
documents not for entertaining nor teaching themselves; it should contain important, relevant and needed
information only, with no redundancy.

Reader-Centric Writing
Workplace writing should always focus on the audience; what does the reader need to know? Writing should
effectively convey the precise information that the reader is seeking. If the writing is an attempt to persuade the
reader, then the writer must consider what will persuade the reader most. For example, a work team may be
writing a proposal to install new production machinery in a factory. Different readers in the company will want
different information from this proposal. A well-written document will consider every potential reader and give the
information that each reader is seeking.

Throughout all of your work, constantly think about your readers. As you make each writing decision, consider
your readers’ characteristics, goals, expectations, situation, and other factors that will shape their response to
what you say. Concentrate on crafting a communication that will be persuasive and usable in your readers’ eyes.
These are two important qualities of successful work-related communications. Focus specifically on the ways your
readers will respond, moment by moment, while they are reading your communication. This will be the only
opportunity to influence your readers directly.

Effective Workplace Writing

Workplace writing must be persuasive and usable to all potential readers. For a document to be efficient, it
must be easily understood by the intended audience. It is important to use simple sentences, words, and
structure so that all that view the document can comprehend it. A document that is hard to understand is not
usable or
effective, since the audience will be unable to properly understand the document. Highly usable writing should
help readers quickly locate, understand, and use the information to complete their task(s). It can be used as a
reference, a how-to, or a means for them to see your progress on your own tasks and what still needs to be done.

Persuasive writing should convince readers that the information is accurate and should be followed. For example,
a reader may be considering several different proposals. The chosen proposal is most likely to be the one that is
most persuasive; however, if writing is not persuasive, then it is not likely to be followed. Thus, the entire writing
effort will have been wasted. It is pertinent to understand, though, that being persuasive does NOT mean
conducting unethical behavior. Do not write a document to simply to have yours preferred or chosen over others.
Always be sure to use ethical practices.

Some ethical practice questions to ask yourself: Did I cite my sources? Did I use credible information? Did I “twist”
any information? Am I using the correct language? Am I only telling the truth, no “bluffing”? Am I being realistic?
Am I being timely? Am I being accurate? Am I giving a correct assessment and perception of what will be done?

How Writers and Readers Interact

Writers and readers interact in unique ways. In all cases, writing is a one-way flow of information. Therefore,
writers must consider and include all of their readers’ needs.
Every reader is different, but an effective writer must
anticipate what will be most useful to the audience.
Additionally, the world is extremely diverse. Some readers
may be more relaxed or open-minded than others. For this
reason, writers must learn to be conscientious in their writing
to ensure they won’t discourage or offend any of their
readers. If a reader is offended, any decision made will likely
not be made in the writer’s favor. Effective writing eliminates
unnecessary pieces of information and ensures a concise
document.

Different readers may construe different meanings from the

same words. The meaning may be shaped by a user’s previous experience, culture, or even a user’s state of
mind. Each reader will construct a meaning based on the context of the writing and their previous experiences.
This is why when writing a document you must start with who your audience is and what they need to know.

Readers react moment by moment when reading a document. Important information will usually have a greater
impact if it is placed at the beginning of a document. This ensures that it will be read right away. Many readers will
not finish a document, and so this “inverted pyramid” writing style is very effective. In addition, the average
business professional says that they do not spend more than 30 seconds reading a resume, and no more than 5
minutes on a business proposal. It is prudent to place the most important information at the beginning of the
document and least important at the end. The writer should ensure stylistic continuity as well. A writer attempting
humor in a long technical document may confuse the reader; while the same humor, if used while writing about a
personal anecdote, may more easily amuse the reader. To reiterate, every reader will have a different reaction to
a piece of writing, and these reactions will depend on everything from the context of the writing to the reader’s
cultural upbringing.
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 FORMAT

FORMAT OVERVIEW

This learning unit includes information on formats, headings, sub headings, markers, chunking, and white space.

Information in reports needs to be formatted in a hierarchical structure. The first heading is the title of the report.

After this first heading the structure is a coordinated into four sections, so
each section of a report shows the same order of information. Headings
identify the sections of information: Major Headings; Division of Major
Headings; Sub Division of Major Headings; Sub-Sub Division of Major
Headings.

Not every report needs four headings. A report may have two sections,
three sections, or four sections. However, a report cannot have more than
four hierarchal sections. If your report needs more than four sections, you
need to reorganize the information in the report.

Within each section, markers are used to identify specific points. Chunking
and white space are used to make information more accessible. Markers can
be bullets, numbers, underlining, bold font, italics, etc. Chunking is creating
small sections of information, surrounded by white space. White space is
empty space that separates sections of text.

When using bullets to mark several items, be sure to chunk items into
groups. Lists of items that are continuously bulleted become solid text and
the effect of marking information is lost.

See example:

Example – How to Use White Space in Technical Writing

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 GENERAL DESIGN CONCEPTS

Designing Reader-Centered Pages and Documents

You build your communications out of visual elements: the dark marks of your words, sentences, and paragraphs
against the light background of the page, as well as your drawings and graphs and tables. Your readers see the
visual design of these elements before they read and understand your message. And what they see has a
powerful effect on the success of your communications, on its usability and persuasiveness.

Here are ways that good design enhances usability.

• Good design helps readers understand your information.
• Good page design helps readers locate information quickly.
• Good design helps readers notice highly important content.

Here are some ways good design affects readers’ attitudes, thereby increasing a communication’s
persuasiveness.
• Good design encourages readers to feel good about the communication itself.
• Good design encourages readers to feel good about the communication’s subject matter.

A Reader-Centered Approach to Design

Because page design can have such a significant impact on your communication’s usability and persuasiveness,
you should approach design in the same reader-centered manner that you use when drafting text and graphics.
Think continuously about your readers, including who they are, what they want from your communication, and the
context in which they will be reading.

Design Elements of a Communication

It is helpful to think about the building blocks of a page design in the way that professional graphic designers do.
When they look at a page, they see six basic elements.
• Text. Paragraphs and sentences.
• Headings and titles. Labels for sections of your communication.
• Graphics. Drawings, tables, photographs, and so on — including their captions.
• White space. Blank areas.
• Headers and footers. The items, such as page numbers, that occur at the top or bottom of each page
in a multipage document.
• Physical features. These include paper, which may take many shapes and sizes, and bindings,
which come in many forms.
CREATING GRAPHICS
Planning
1. Identify places where graphics will increase
your communication’s usability.
2. Identify places where graphics will increase
your communication’s persuasiveness.

Note: Make sure not to add graphics to areas that will alter the flow
of the document/communication. Add graphics in places in
between paragraphs or other logical breaks in the document.

Selecting
1. Select the types of graphics that will best support
your readers’ tasks.
2. Select the types of graphics that will effectively
influence your readers’ attitudes.
3. Select the types of graphics that will best support
your case.

Designing
1. Design graphics that are easy to understand and use.
2. Design them to support your readers’ tasks.
3. Design graphics that your readers will find persuasive.
4. Keep your graphics simple enough for easy use.
5. Label content clearly.
6. Provide your graphics with informative titles.
7. Address the graphics with a sort summary of results or caption about the graphic.

Using Color
1. Use colors to support your message.
2. Use color for emphasis, not decoration or too distracting from the body text.
3. Choose a color scheme, not just individual colors.
4. Provide high contrast between text and background.
5. Select colors with appropriate associations.
6. Limit the number of colors.
7. Use color to unify the overall communication.

Integrating with the Text

1. Introduce each graphic in the text first.
2. Tell your readers the conclusions you want them to draw from the graphic.
3. Provide all explanations your readers will need in order to understand and use each graphic.
4. Locate each graphic near its references.

Addressing an International Audience

1. Check your graphics with persons from other nations for clarity when possible.
2. Check your graphics with technology for problems when intra-converted between computer systems.

Using Graphics Ethically

1. Avoid elements that might mislead your readers.
2. Obtain permission from the copyright owner of each image that is not in the public domain.
3. Give credit to all involved in the development or research of the graphic.
4. Be sure the graphic will benefit the document overall and will not just add unnecessary clutter.
1
From Paul V. Anderson’s Technical Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach
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ADDITIONAL SOURCES FOR FORMATTING

“Headings: How to Make Your Text Scannable”

https://www.prismnet.com/~hcexres/textbook/headings.html

“How to Use White Space in Technical Writing”

http://www.ehow.com/how_2122748_use-white-space-technical-writing.html
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 LANGUAGE AND TONE

AVOIDING CONFUSING TERMS

It is important that the technical writer is aware of language

to avoid in order to communicate clearly, to provide easy
access to information, and to show respect to the reader.

See the following definitions and examples:

Avoid jargon. Technical jargon is used only if the writer is

communicating with readers who are in specific trades and
will understand the message. However, using jargon when
communicating with readers outside of the trade will result in
the reader having no reference to what the message is
saying.

Example- The substance has a high vitriolic base.

The average readers probably will not understand this

message without looking up the definition of vitriolic. They
might guess at the meaning to avoid looking it up, or falsely believe they know the meaning. Regardless, the
unclear communication will impact the reader’s time and may have damaging effects.

Avoid double talk. Double talk is empty language. The writing is actually saying nothing. Double talk is used to
fill space and is a clear indication the writer does not have a clear understanding of the issue or is trying to
mislead the reader. Intentional double talk is not ethical communication.

Example- The redistricting will neither affect our client demographics nor our individual client portfolios. The
impact of the restructuring at the present time, however, is still undetermined. We will let you know the
impact as soon as it becomes apparent.

Avoid sexist language. Sexist language is neither respectful nor politically correct. Using sexist language can
alienate readers or result in lawsuits. Use gender-neutral terms or restructure sentences in order to avoid sexist
pronouns, avoiding the use of the he/she combination pronoun.

Example- A driver needs at least 8 hours of sleep after he has driven for 8 hours.

Avoid biased language- Do not indicate in any way a personal preference of one item, action, belief, position,
etc. over another. To avoid biased language, use objective language when writing, and avoid using subjective
terms.

Objective terms produce a concrete (tangible) image. Objective terms allow the reader to form his own opinion.
For example- The cost of car is $60,000. The reader may think this is expensive or inexpensive.

Subjective terms produce an abstract (intangible) image. Subjective terms sway opinion. However, each reader
interprets the term differently. Example- The car is expensive. Expensive to one reader may not be expensive
to another reader. The writer is not giving the reader information that will let the reader make a decision.
 Avoid a negative tone– A negative tone is just as apparent in written communication as it is in oral
communication. Using words or phrases with negative connotations can alienate readers and can inadvertently
result in disrupting successful interactions.

Examples – Because you did not . . . .You were told . . . .I will not process the order . . . .

Avoid colloquialisms– Colloquialisms are words or phrases specific to geographical

regions. Examples – Please leave the package on the stoop. We need to replace the

davenports. Avoid idioms– Idioms are words or phrases specify to a particular culture.

Examples – We are working in the red. We are working to the bottom line.

Be tactful– Being tactful usually encourages readers to consider the writer’s position or request. Use a collegial
tone. Using qualifying words such as it seems, you may consider, perhaps sends the message that the writer and
the reader are equally important.

Use Repetition, Order, and Coordinate Structure- Using repetition, order, and coordinate structure is important in
technical writing.

Repetition means that the writer uses the same word or phrase to refer to a particular idea, item, action, etc.
throughout a report. The technical writer does not use synonyms. A reader has a limited amount of time to read a
document, and does not have time to try to figure out if the synonym means the same as the word or phrase
previously used or if another idea has been introduced.

Order means that the writer uses the same term to identifying similar concepts. For example, if the terms size,
weight, density was used to describe one part of a mechanism, the same terms, size, weight, density are used to
describe all parts of the same mechanism.

Coordinate structure refers to organization. All sections of a report must have the same structure. The major
sections, subsections, sub points, etc. follow in the same order in all sections. Repetition, order, and coordinate
structure provide readers with clear and easy access to information.

Many writers argue that the use of repetition, order, and coordinate structure is redundant. However, redundancy
is entirely different.

g the action) as the subject of a sentence while the passive voice identifies the object of the action as the subject of a sentence. The passive voice may id

cal writers will write in the active voice. Most of the time identifying the agent of the action the subject of a sentence carries more weight.
 [BL3]Subject of the sentence. However, it is not performing the action.
[BL4]The agent of the action, However, it is a preposition phrase.
[BL5]Subject of the sentence. However, it is not performing the action.
[BL6]The sentence does not identify the agent of the action.

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LEGAL ISSUES

Legal Issues and Communication

In business, image is everything. Public opinion of a company affects a consumer’s views on that company’s
products This, in turn, affects the company’s public profit, and essentially its standing. When a company is
involved in a lawsuit or a recall, the company has to consider the consequences that these issues will have on
their business and needs to consider the costs of repairing the company’s reputation. These are among the
reasons certain documents are carefully reviewed before being sent to their intended readers. To write ethically,
you must also identify another group of people: the individuals who will gain or lose because of your message.
Collectively, these people are called stakeholders because they have a stake in what you are writing. Only by
learning who these stakeholders are can you assure that you are treating them in accordance with your own
ethical values. When crafting your communication think about who will be affected by what you say and how you
say it. You have to be sensitive to the following language in a professional document:
• Race and gender roles
• Political correctness
• Generalizations
• Cultural awareness
• Religious symbols

Under the law, most documents written by employees

represent the position and commitments of the organization
itself. There are always legal issues to consider when writing
a professional document and they reflect in writing style.
Professional documents can serve as evidence in disputes
over contracts and in product liability lawsuits. A lawsuit is a
civil action brought in court. Today, the average company is
involved in 400 lawsuits at any given time. While most
companies win their lawsuits, being caught in a lawsuit has
many consequences. Lawsuits cost companies time and
money. The money spent on lawyers and the time spent in
court takes away resources a company could use for
improving business and products. Lawsuits also have
ramifications for a company’s reputation. Recalls can be
another legal problem for companies. A recall is when a
product is removed from the market or a correction is made
to the product because it is either defective or potentially harmful. In most cases, a recall results from an
unintentional mistake by a company rather than from an intentional disregard for the law. Sometimes a company
discovers a problem and recalls a product on its own. Other times a company recalls the product after concerns
are made.
There are a number of reasons why a company may face a lawsuit or a recall. One of the main reasons a
company gets involved in a lawsuit is because the directions to the company’s product were not clear to the
consumer. For this reason, the general guideline is that instructions should be understandable, clear and concise
at the fourth to sixth grade reading level. Also, when in a lawsuit, a company has to remember that all documents
may be subpoenaed. This means that any document from memos and emails to proposals and studies can be
subject to revision by a court of law. Another reason a company gets into a lawsuit may be over a recall. An
aspect of recalls are those dealing with safety concerns. Many products are recalled for potential safety concerns,
even if no one was actually hurt. To avoid safety recalls, companies need to make sure they consider every
possible danger involved with a product. Some dangers may seem to be common knowledge, but companies
should be aware of those and label the product accordingly, regardless of assumptions about common
knowledge.

Communication Constraints
Constraints are limits for documents set by the company or industry.As you gather the information that will form
the basis for the way you craft your communication, you should also learn about any expectations, regulations, or
other factors that may constrain what you can say and how you can say it. In the working world, expectations and
regulations can affect any aspect of a communication. Aspects that affect communication are as follows:
• Tone of voice
• Use of abbreviations
• Tables
• Margins
• Length of document (as a maximum)

It is important to find out about these constraints and take them into account as you create your communication.
Some of these constraints come directly from the employer. Your employer and your readers probably have
expectations about the way you write a professional document. There are often, unspoken expectations about
how the required elements will be prepared. You are cultivating a company’s desire for a particular corporate
image, to protect its legal interests, and to preserve its competitive edge. A toy company like LEGO, would not
want to be associated with a technical document that includes slang or words that could damage their reputation.
They are legally protecting their business. Since all documents can be used against individuals and companies in
court, all written documents with the company name should include only professional content that properly
represents the company.

Other times, constraints are set by government regulations that determine how certain reports need to be written.
Regulations are laws made by the government that affect what is in a document or how a document is written.
Writing constraints can originate from outside the company. For example, from government regulations that
specify how patent applications, environmental impact report, and many other types of documents are to be
prepared. Similarly, scientific, technical, or other professional journals have strict rules about many aspects of the
articles they publish. These regulations act as standards for crafting your communication effectively.
Style Constraints
Constraints may be set by style issues as well. There should
be no clichés and idioms in documents because they may
pose a problem with translating documents from one
language to another. A cliché is a worn-out or overused
expression that tends to sound trite and often doesn’t
express what you truly mean to say. Examples include: the
bottom line is, head over heels, or take it or leave it. Idioms
are words or expressions that are specialized vocabulary
used by a group of people also known as jargon. Look at the
phrases that you use when you write and see if they make
sense when translated literally. If they don’t, replace them
with language that is clear and direct, and will not be
misunderstood. Don’t use “compound” sentences (and, or,
nor, but, however, yet).Opinions and jokes should also be
avoided in business documents. Communicate, argue or
persuade your readers through facts and data instead of
opinions.

Many companies also like to form a “custom” way of writing.

Companies like Microsoft want all their documents to be
written in the same style and format. The only way to do this is to teach the writers the “correct” way to write in
order to portray Microsoft. What many people may not know is that Microsoft does this to cover themselves in a
legal trial. If every single document is written using the same format, they can make sure that the customers
understand the entire document and do not run into trouble with inconsistencies.

How do you know if you are following the correct constraints? The easiest way to understand how to write in your
specific field is to look at documents written by your company and other companies in the industry within the past
few months. This will allow you to see their style and how they make their argument. Some companies even
publish style guides for writing. By seeing your company’s regulations, you can begin to draft your argument.
Make sure to follow your company’s guidebook (if they have one) to be sure that your style is correct with their
recommendations.

Remember that in professional writing you are trying to persuade the reader using an ethical style. This means to
avoiding content that will not stand up in court, especially since people file lawsuits for everything these days.
Make sure that the documents you write for your company are persuasive while also preserving your company’s
competitive edge.
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USE LANGUAGE THAT IS SENSITIVE TO

YOUR AUDIENCE

Why is it important to use language that is sensitive to the target audience?

When writers use language that implies a biased or judgmental attitude, the audience may take offense and be
less apt to listen to the writer’s argument. Language that is insensitive to gender, ethnicity, or disability should be
avoided.
 Just as writers hope their audience will be willing to respect their point of view, they need to respect the diversity
of a broad base of readers. Language that is inclusive and fair may contribute to the credibility of the writer and
uphold the audience’s sense of dignity and self-worth.

What revisions will help to promote sensitive, fair language?

• Use gender-inclusive language:

◦ he or she instead of he
◦ humankind instead of mankind
◦ garbage collector instead of garbage man
◦ server instead of waitress
• Use correct or accepted racial and ethnic terms:
◦ African American instead of colored or Negro
◦ Asian instead of Oriental
◦ American Indian or Native American instead of Indian
◦ Native Alaskan or Inuit instead of Eskimo
◦ Hispanic instead of Spanish
◦ Latino instead of Mexican
• Use language that respects people for who they are or recognizes a specific ailment:
◦ persons with disabilities instead of handicapped, challenged, disabled, or retarded
◦ visually impaired instead of blind
◦ persons with hearing loss instead of deaf individuals
◦ mentally ill instead of crazy, moron, or loony
◦ those with arthritis instead of arthritis sufferers
◦ people with diabetes instead of diabetes patients

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HOW WILL YOUR READER RESPOND TO

THIS TONE?

Why should tone and voice be considered?

Writers should consider the audience and purpose of each assignment and be cognizant of the tone and voice
they use to communicate with their readers. Sensitivity to the audience’s stance on a particular topic will affect
their perception of the writer as the argument unfolds; a respectful tone is more likely to reach the audience than
one that is condescending.

When the goal is to persuade an audience with an opposing view, empathetic writers think carefully about how
their tone and voice will affect their readers.

Consider these questions related to tone and voice:

• What is the writing’s stance? Is the intent to inform or to persuade?

• What tone and voice is most appropriate for the target audience?
• Are the tone and voice respectful?
• How can the content be presented so it is informative and persuasive but not condescending?
 • What words demonstrate sensitivity to the audience’s views and feelings?
• Have any insensitive words or examples been presented that are likely to cause offense to the readers?

For additional information about tone:

• Consider Your Voice, Tone, and Persona

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USE CONCRETE, SENSORY LANGUAGE

Why should abstract terms be replaced with concrete, sensory terms?

The goal of a writer is to communicate ideas clearly. Since language that refers to intangible or immeasurable
qualities can obscure meaning, abstract terms should be replaced with concrete terms. Language that connects
with tangible and sensory (taste, smell, touch, sight, and sound) is easier for readers to understand and relate to.

How can a sentence be revised to include more concrete

language?

• Replace abstract terms with words that have clear, direct,

and precise meaning.
◦ Abstract: The case sought to establish
equalityfor people of all sexual orientations.
▪ Equality can mean a variety of things to
different people: What does equality mean in
this instance?
◦ Concrete: The case sought to legalize gay marriage.
• Use language that appeals to the senses.
◦ Abstract: The waiting room was unpleasant.
▪ What makes this setting unpleasant? Replace
this term with specific descriptive language.
◦ Concrete: The waiting room was cold,
antiseptic- smelling, and crowded with sick
people who were coughing, groaning, or crying.

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 USE THE ACTIVE VOICE

Why is it important to use the active voice?*

When writers use the active voice, their words are direct; they use concrete verbs and clearly state the action
being performed by the subject. In contrast, the passive voice is indirect; writers may use weak “to be” verbs (is,
am, was, were, being, been) or present progressives (e. g., is working, is laughing), and the actor in the sentence
is absent or disguised.

Go to this link for the video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WekIFyO5OLI

How can passive writing be revised to make use of the active voice?

• Find the subject of the sentence; the subject should be the one performing the action, not receiving
the action.
• Passive: He was questioned by me.
◦ ▪ The subject of this sentence is he, and he is being questioned. He is not performing an
action but is receiving the action.
▪ This sentence can be revised to make the subject represent the person or thing that
is performing the action.
◦ Active: I questioned him.
▪ The subject of the sentence is I, and is followed by a concrete action verb. The
subject is doing the questioning instead of being questioned.
• Check each sentence for passive voice; revise the sentence construction to make use of the
active voice. This process is facilitated when “to be” verbs are eliminated and present progressives
are replaced with action verbs when possible.

Go to this link for the video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_koZ_3Wh87k

For additional resources on active voice, see also:

• Use the Active Voice

• Eliminate unnecessary “to be” verbs
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READ YOUR PAPER ALOUD TO

CHECK COHESIVENESS

Why is it valuable for writers to read their own work aloud?

Reading their own work aloud gives writers the opportunity to take on the role of the reader. When “writers as
readers” add hearing to seeing, another of the five senses is put to work in the critical evaluation process. Words
and ideas that seemed to flow smoothly and connect logically inside the writer’s head often do not reflect the
same sense of cohesiveness when heard in spoken form. Writers who hear their work read aloud are better
equipped to evaluate the paper’s flow of ideas at the global level and to discover grammatical, punctuation, and
word choice errors at the surface level.

What should writers be listening for when they read their work aloud?
• At the global level:
◦ Does the paper make sense?
◦ Does the paper’s content flow logically?
◦ Do the paper’s ideas support the thesis?
• At the paragraph level:
◦ Have appropriate transitions been made between paragraphs?
◦ Have appropriate segues been made among the sentences?
◦ Do the paragraph’s ideas flow logically and sound unified?
• At the sentence level:
◦ What grammatical and usage errors need to be corrected?
◦ What punctuation errors are affecting the rhythm of the paper?
◦ What word choice issues need to be addressed?

What steps can be taken to read aloud effectively?

1. Save a copy of your paper as a new document under a modified file name.
2. Increase the font size to 14 or 16 pt. (or larger), and print a copy of your paper.
3. Find a reasonably quiet, private space to work, if possible.
4. Begin by reading your paper aloud slowly from beginning to end; underline or circle problem areas
as you find them.
5. Go back and reread each paragraph aloud a second time; mark up your draft with notes in the
margins and corrections of grammatical and word choice errors between the lines.
6. Revise the paper on a word processor based on the critical evaluation you made, and then repeat
the read-aloud process to support further revision, editing, and proofreading.
7. Consider asking a friend, relative, or classmate to read the paper aloud to you, also.

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USE PARALLEL STRUCTURE

What is parallel structure?

Parallel structure is established when words within a sentence are united by consistent use of grammatical forms.
This stylistic element is also referred to as parallelism or parallel construction.

Why is it important to use parallel structure?

Lack of parallel structure can disrupt the rhythm of a sentence, leaving it grammatically unbalanced. Proper
parallel structure helps to establish balance and flow in a well-constructed sentence; the alignment of related
ideas supports readability and clarity.
Let’s look at an example:

• Not Parallel: The President traveled to several cities meeting voters, to give speeches, and ask
for campaign funds.
• Parallel: The President traveled to several cities meeting voters, giving speeches, and asking
for campaign funds.

How can a sentence be revised to reflect parallel structure?

1.Find a list within a sentence: Look for words or phrases of equal importance that are separated by
commas and joined by a conjunction

Not parallel: Dr. Kall challenged his students to initiate their own learning, be creative problem-solvers, and
think independently. (In this sentence, Dr. Kall wants his students to do or be three things, but the items in this
list are not parallel in structure.)

2. Evaluate the word forms within the list.

1. Do the verbs appear as infinitives (to + verb), or gerunds (-ing words)? As present tense or past
tense? (Choose the voice and tense of the verb that is consistent with surrounding sentences.)
2. Do the nouns or pronouns and their modifiers appear in consistent form?

3.Alter the words in the list to create proper parallel structure.

Parallel: Dr. Kall challenged his students to become self-motivated learners, creative problem-solvers, and
independent thinkers. (In this sentence, Dr. Kall wants his students to be three things instead of a combination of
being and doing. Additionally, the list follows a pattern since the nouns and adjectives all appear in parallel form.)
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REPHRASE AWKWARD WORD ORDER

Why is it important to rephrase awkward word order?

Since the goal of academic writing is to communicate with clarity, writers should build sentences with words and
phrases that flow smoothly. Words that are missing, misplaced, or out of order can make the writing sound
disjointed or send an unintended message. Reread each sentence carefully or read the paper aloud to check for
awkward wording.

How can awkward wording be corrected?

• Look for missing words or phrases: A missing word or phrase can obscure meaning and
cause confusion. Insert missing words or phrases to complete the intended thought.
• Look at word order after revising: Minor revision of a portion of a sentence can cause a major
problem with word order. Reread each sentence after it has been revised to ensure that it still makes
sense.
• Look for misplaced or dangling modifiers: If a modifier is misplaced or is modifying a subject not
mentioned in the sentence, the message could be misleading or confusing to the reader. Place
modifiers as close as possible to the object being modified.
 • Look at subject-verb order: The English language usually follows the pattern subject-verb-
object(SVO), but other languages may follow different patterns. Non-native English speakers may need
to check their sentences for appropriate syntactical construction.
• ◦ Example of SVO: The scholarly article explains theories on global warming. Subject = article;
Verb = explains; Object = theories
◦ Example of OSV: Theories on global warming the scholarly article explains. (awkward)

For additional information on word order:

• Avoid Misplaced Modifiers

• Avoid Dangling Modifiers
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ELIMINATE UNNECESSARY LANGUAGE

Why should unnecessary words and phrases be eliminated?

Unnecessary words and phrases result in redundancy. A writer can achieve efficiency in writing by using concise
words and phrases that denote clear meaning. Each word should contribute to the argument and purpose of an
assignment; if a word or phrase can be removed from a sentence without affecting its meaning, it should be
eliminated.

How can unnecessary words or phrases be eliminated?

• Revise redundant phrases, synonymous terms, and unnecessary word pairs.

• ◦ Quickly speeding (speeding implies quickness)
◦ Young teenage mothers (young and teenage are synonyms)
◦ Financial cost (financial and cost both imply money)
• Revise redundant terms in order to be more efficient.
◦ Redundant: Young adults should self-assess their situation before making a big,
life- changingdecision.
◦ Revised: Young adults should assess their situation before making a major decision.
• Remove redundant adjectives and adverbs; use only those that contribute to the intended message.
◦ Overuse of adjectives: The large, angry, noisy crowd stormed the Capital building.
◦ Revised: The mob stormed the Capital building.
◦ Overuse of adverbs: She carefully and quietly walked through the room.
◦ Revised: She crept through the room.
• Remove redundant modifiers; overuse clutters the writing and distracts the reader.
◦ Overuse of modifiers: The business capitalists, who focus on domestic interests, only
really invest in American groups.
◦ Revised: The business capitalists rarely invest in international groups.

For additional information on eliminating unnecessary words, see also:

• Edit for Economy

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 VISUALS

VISUALS OVERVIEW

Visuals are used to complement text in documents. Visuals are classified according to Tables or Figures.

A table is used to organize data in volumes and rows using numbers and words. Tables present a logical
representation of data. Tables are usually used to show comparison data.

Figures, on the other hand, illustrate all other types of data. Figures include such visuals as pie charts, line
graphs, bar graphs, layouts, photographs, drawings and photographs:
• Pie Charts show segments that compare percentages of a whole.
• Line graphs show the relationship between two or more variables.
• Horizontal Bar Graphs show comparisons of similar units.
• Vertical Bar Graphs illustrate timelines.
• Layouts show detailed space.
• Flow Charts show time sequences or hierarchal structures
• Drawings eliminate unnecessary details to more effectively show how items relate to other items.
• Photographs are exact representations of items. (Riordan, 2005)

Note that although visuals and text complement each other, either can stand alone. Both include and express the
same information in different formats.

References: Riordan, D.G. (2005). Technical report writing today. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.

See the following examples of Tables and Figures:

Tables

Two-Column Simple Table

Five-Column Table

Figures

Pie Chart
Horizontal Bar Graph

Vertical Bar Graph

Line Graph
 Flow Chart

Drawing Photograph
 Layout

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NASA: TECHNICAL REPORT WRITING

Data Presentation
Because most technical reports rely on figures and tables for the presentation of data, the form and quality of the
figures and tables are important in establishing the style and readability of the report. Good judgment should be
used in selecting both the data to be presented and the method of presentation. Use only figures and tables that
add to the value of your report. Present the data as simply and straightforwardly as possible so that your readers
can easily grasp the significant points. Present data in the text, or in a figure, or in a table—but never in more than
one way.

Before beginning to write the report, carefully select the data to include. Most carefully prepared programs yield
more data than are needed to support the conclusions. Including all your data in the report is unnecessary. Use
only data that are directly pertinent to your conclusions, and do not try to impress readers with how much data
you have collected. Quantity is no substitute for quality in presenting technical results.

Once you have selected the data to be included in your report, decide how they can best be presented. Should
they be tabulated or plotted? To answer this question, consider your readers’ needs. Do they need to know exact
values? If so, tabulate your results. If relative trends are more important, use graphs. Both the figures and tables
should be as self-explanatory as possible and arranged logically to tell the main points of your story without
reference to the text.
Figures
The figures used in technical reports generally are of three types— . . . graphs, drawings, and photographs.
Figures are numbered with Arabic numerals in the order of their mention, unless the mention is clearly incidental.
In the final report they are either inserted in the text near (preferably following) their first mention or grouped
together at the back. Sketches are lettered consecutively ((a), (b), (c), etc.) if they are referred to more than once.
Under no circumstances should the arrangement of black and white figures or the parts of one figure be out of
sequence. Figures arranged in a group are in sequence from top to bottom or from left to right. Exceptions are
sometimes made for color figures to reduce the number of pages printed in color.

Prepare figures with consideration for their appearance in the final printed document. The size of the printed
figure including the legend (title) cannot exceed the dimensions of the report image area (7 1/8 by 9 1/8 in. in
NASA reports). Within these limits various sizes, proportions, and arrangements of figures are possible. (A large,
complex figure may be reproduced on facing pages.)

All figures must have legends; if a figure has parts ((a), (b), (c), etc.), it must have corresponding sub legends.
Use similar wording in the legends of related figures. After you have assembled the rough draft of the report,
thumb through the figures and tables, reading merely the title of each to make certain that the format and the
nomenclature are consistent. Conditions applying to the entire figure or to a part are normally stated as part of the
legend or sub legend. But when the same conditions apply, for example, to every graph in a report, they are best
stated once in the text.
Graphs
Graphs should be clear and simple with as few data curves as possible. It is usually best to have no more than six
types of lines or data points on a graph—four is better. Try to avoid interlaced or unrelated curves. As few words
(labels) as possible should be inserted directly on the figure. Equations should be placed in the text, lengthy
tabular material should be presented in a separate numbered table, and explanations and conditions should be
added to the legends or placed in the text.

Choose coordinates that will give your readers a physical feel for the variables being presented. Clearly label
what is plotted and the units used. Whenever possible plot all parts of any one figure or related figures on scales
with the same increments. Label main and auxiliary scales with a word description of the concept or quantity, its
symbol, and its unit. For example, “Axial distance, x, cm” is more immediately descriptive than “x, cm.” Add
auxiliary scales at the left and bottom of the figure if there are four or fewer scales. Place additional scales at the
right or top. For ease in interpolation divide scales into logical, consistent increments. For example, when both
U.S. customary and SI units are used, each scale must stand alone. Do not simply convert the values on one
scale into the other system of units. Such a scale is useless to the reader.

Use the same data symbols and lines to represent the same conditions consistently throughout the graphs of your
report. The following data symbols and types of lines are commonly used:

Do not use the symbols + and x on figures with grid, and avoid solid or partly solid symbols if symbols overlap.
The curves and data points may be identified by keys or labels. Keys are preferred when several curves must be
distinguished or when several conditions are associated with each curve. Keys generally follow the format for
tabular material and should be consistent throughout a set of figures.
Drawings.–
When you use drawings or sketches to illustrate test equipment, try to keep them simple. Include only those
features of the equipment that are essential to your readers’ understanding, and avoid unnecessary detail. …
Photographs.–
. . . . Photographs of similar objects should be sized for compatibility. Glossy prints taken with black-and-white
film reproduce best. Prints that have already been screened are not usable. The use of color in printing is
discouraged because it greatly increases publishing costs.

Do not include a photograph of equipment which is so elementary that a sentence would describe it. Label the
most important features being shown. Remember, equipment that seems simple to you may be complex to
readers who are not familiar with it. Limit the labeling and the field of view to the main items discussed to avoid
confusing readers with extraneous items. Mark up a copy of the photograph rather than the glossy print.

If your photographs are Polaroid prints, have negatives and additional prints made before submitting them for use
in a report, for slides, etc. You are then protected in case of damage or loss, and prints are readily available for
additional uses.

Include some object or scale in the photograph to help your readers judge the size of the objects shown. …
Tables
Tables are often included in technical reports to present data in an exact, highly concentrated form. But because
tabulated data are so concentrated, many readers have difficulty grasping their significance. Tables are therefore
the least preferred method of transmitting results to readers and should be used only when absolutely necessary.
When you use tables, make them as brief and simple as possible. Otherwise your readers may not bother
studying the detailed columns of figures, and you will have wasted your time in presenting the data. “Whenever a
table, or columns within a table, can readily be put into words, do it” (ref. 2).

Tables are numbered in the order of their mention, in Roman numerals except when a report contains 20 or more
tables. Then Arabic numerals are used. Similar data at different conditions are organized into parts ((a), (b), (c),
etc.) of the same table with subtitles. Numbered tables must have titles.

Present tabulated material in an organized manner. Like elements should read down not across. Variables are
usually given in columns topped by boxheads, with the constants given in the first, or stub, column. Boxheads
should be brief; if necessary, they may be amplified by footnotes. Boxheads usually contain a word description of
a concept or quantity, its symbol, and its unit, separated by commas; symbols must be defined when they are
used. Arrange tabulated data in a logical order that your readers can easily recognize. Usually this arrangement is
an ascending or descending order of value for the prime parameter. The order is necessary to clarify trends. You
can also help your readers see relations and comparisons of data by carefully wording the boxheads and the stub
column. Put items to be compared in adjacent columns. Generally numbers in columns are more easily compared
than numbers in rows. Another type of table is the leaderwork table, in which dissimilar data are listed in rows with
leader dots connecting each parameter with the corresponding value.

Give conditions that apply to an entire table in a headnote. Indicate footnote citations by lower-case letters
(superscripts) ordered across the table from left to right and top to bottom.
Licensing & Attributions
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• Technical Report Writing. Authored by: Carol A. Vidoli. Provided by: NASA. Located at: http://ntrs.nasa.gov/archive/nasa/casi.ntrs.nasa.gov/19930013813.pdf. License: Public Domain: No Known Copyright

THE VALUE OF VISUAL INSTRUCTIONS

Visual instructions may or may not include text. Generally, it is good to have both being that there are different
learning styles. However, it can often vary depending on the intended use of the instructions. Visual instructions
serve to clarify a concept that is difficult to explain using only words. Graphics may be used to show how
something looks, how something should look once the step has been completed, how something is done or
constructed, show trends or relationships, add liveliness to the project or simply organize information. Graphics
are useful since almost everyone (including children and others of a different language) can understand visual
instructions. It also eliminates the cost of having to translate and print text instructions in multiple languages.
Graphics are useful in instructions because people can see exactly what they need to complete.

Business and Marketing:

• Minimize language barriers.
• Speeds up the learning curves.
• Minimize human variability.
• Increase instruction use rate and comprehension
• Reduce product returns.
• Decrease assembly time- increase customer satisfaction
• Ease technical support.
• Visualize and generalize data into understandable trends
• Increase integrity of reports and memos
• Promote professionalism
• Ensure universal understanding

Academia:
• Make abstract ideas visible and concrete.
• Connect prior knowledge and new concepts.
• Provide structure for thinking, writing, discussing, analyzing, planning, and reporting.
• Focus thoughts and ideas, leading to understanding and interpretation.
• Help students to clarify thoughts, organize and analyze information, integrate new knowledge, and
think critically.
History
Graphics have been used for communicating a message or story long before written text. Graphics have a deeper
impact across cultures due to their ability to create their own meaning from the picture not words. Although words
may be a part of the Graphic, the images themselves produce the desired response or understanding in the
intended audience. Cave paintings and maps are some of the oldest that we know of and anyone that looks upon
them can see what the graphic means and what it is for. A map from today would naturally look different from one
in the 18th century, but the message would still be the same. The sea routes from England to Africa or the
Caribbean would consist of different names, boundaries, and possessions but the audience would still find the
same meaning.

Common Problems with Visual Instructions

While there are a number of benefits of visual instructions, there are also some drawbacks. When there are no
words included people may interpret graphics differently. Some graphics can be unclear, and this can confuse the
intended audience if the process is very detailed and requires pieces that look identical. When the pictures
include a lot of different peices it is also necessary to zoom in on difficult parts in order to see them better. Also, if
each peice is not drawn to scale, then a circle could represent the top of a table or a washer. There are also
certain graphics that not everyone understands. If you work in a field that employs specialized graphics, use
these graphics only when communicating with readers in your field who will understand and expect them. If you
are using the graphics for a wide audience (such as a board game that may be used for young children to senior
citizens), make sure that the graphics you choose can be understood by all.
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the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts.

PHOTOS AND ILLUSTRATIONS

Photos are used in professional documents as tools for communicating a message that a writer feels can be
strengthened through the use of proper imagery. Photographs can do many things to enhance a message, some
examples can be seen here:

Illustration Checklist
Planning
• What kinds of illustrations are your audience familiar with?
• Do you have information that could be more easily or quickly communicated to your audience visually
or in a combination of words and graphics?
• Do you have definitions that could be displayed visually in whole or in part?
• Do you have any processes or procedures that could be depicted in a flowchart?
 • Do you have information on trends or relationships that could be displayed in tables and graphics?
• Do you have masses of statistics that could be summarized in tables?
• Do you need to depict objects? If so, what do you need to display about the objects? Do you need
to focus attention on specific aspects of the objects? Do you require the realism of photographs?
• What are the design conventions of your illustrations?
• Are there suitable illustrations you could borrow or adapt? Or will you need to create them yourself?

Revising
• Are you illustrations suited to your purpose and audience?
• Do your illustrations communicate information ethically?
• Are your illustrations effectively located and easy to find?
• Are your illustrations numbered and labeled?
• Do your verbal and visual elements reinforce each other?
• Are your illustrations genuinely informative instead of simply decorative?
• When necessary, have you helped your readers to interpret your illustrations with commentary
or annotations?
• Have you acknowledged the sources for borrowed or adapted tables and figures?

How To Perform an Action

Pictures are an effective tool for giving visual representation of how to do something. They can can stand alone or
work in conjunction with the given text, and they can enhance a message if used properly.

If you are using pictures in conjunction with text: As in a set of instructions, the imagery increases understanding
of the task, in addition to decreasing confusion that may arise from text that stands alone. When using a picture to
help portray how to perform a task, it is your responsibility to
make sure the picture matches up with the text. You must
explain the picture using text, and vice versa, explain the
text using a picture. Also, the viewer will accomplish the
task more often when the picture looks how it would if they
were watching the task, not necessarily if they were
experiencing it.

An example would be: if your task was doing a cartwheel,

you wouldn’t want the pictures at an angle where the person
is looking through the eyes of the one doing the cartwheel.
You would want the pictures to be from someone watching
the event, so that the viewer isn’t confused by what they
can’t see (such as where their feet are when they’re looking
at their hands). It’s the simple things that make or break a
document when using pictures. Think and re-think the
pictures you are using and how someone seeing them for the first time will react to them.

How a Finished Product Should Look

When textual information does not capture the essence of what your trying to describe, try putting an actual photo
of what your trying to describe in the document. This type of picture enables you to come as close to reality as
possible. Make sure your pictures are in color and of high quality. Black and white photos tend to blur easily on
paper and lack the detail needed to fully understand a photo. Images cut down on excessive use of describing
words. “A picture is worth a thousand words” relates to this situation.

Be sure to use the text wrap abilities of most word processors. A well placed picture with clean text wrapping can
make an otherwise overwhelming block of text seem reasonably approachable. Looking at 25 pages of block,
justified alignment, plain black text is one of the most boring ways to see a report. A picture can liven up a report,
make it more memorable, and help clarify the report all in one motion.
Map Out an Object, Place, or Process
An example of these types of pictures can be found in an automotive manual or a science textbook. This can be
anything from a picture of a machine to an example of how
photosynthesis works. Arrows and labels can be used in order to
show where everything is and how the process takes place. The
picture should include a big enough background so that the reader
can locate the area in relation to things around it.
Photographs can also play a major role in connecting with the
audience. They are useful in multi-cultural situations when a shared
written language may not exist. Pictures can speak louder than
words, and usually portray the message quicker. It is very important
to keep the first initial reaction in mind when choosing the image you
will place within your document. Be sure to avoid photos that may
have several meanings, or the true meaning may be unclear. In
order to avoid this type of situation, put yourself in the audience that
you are writing for and try to be unbiased when you view the image.
Better yet, test the image on someone who does not know much
about your photo’s topic and ask them what message the photo
sends to them. Clarity is essential in conveying your message.

Do not rely too heavily on pictures though. Pictures and text should
be used simultaneously in order to give the audience the most
accurate direction. Pictures can make a great break in words, but
are not always as useful to get a point across as words are.

Software Can Tremendously Increase Photograph Effectiveness

There are a great deal of photo editing programs for computers that can be utilized to bring out the right angle,
zoom, view, and color of a photo. Some of the most popular photo editing software includes Photoshop, Corel,
and Image Smart. Many computers now come with basic image editing software, which allows one to adjust color,
brightness, crop, and other basic edits.

Cropping is an essential key feature that allows you to enlarge the area of the photo you want the reader to see,
while omitting the background and obsolete area of the background. Cropping is equivalent to looking at an image
under a microscope where you can focus on the areas you want the readers to see the clearest. However, this
can decrease image quality and make the image hard to see. When possible, it is best to use images that need
little to no editing.

When using imagery make sure it is of high image resolution (300 dpi for print, 72 dpi for screen) and the proper
format to be inserting into your document. Typically, sticking with images from original sources, such as a camera
or other .jpg or .tif file are best.

If you find your photograph is not using the right coloring, computer programs such as Photoshop, Corel, etc. will
allow you to adjust the color balance and light in many different variations. This is an important feature, especially
when the photograph was not professionally taken or lacks the appropriate lighting for the setting. Be careful not
to over or under expose the photography.

Labeling is also another feature you can do in a computer program. You can insert boxes with text and arrows
into a photograph in order to label key details. Labeling your photographs keeps the information you are trying to
convey to the reader clear.

These computer programs may take some time to become familiar with how they work. It might be necessary to
take a course or tutorial on how to use them to their full advantages, but it’s worth it for all the features these
programs have. There are some free tutorials available on the internet or through the actual program.
Using Graphics From the Artists, Internet, and Other Misc. Sources
Graphics can be found for just about any topic relatively easily if you know how to search for them and cite the
artist properly. Like any written material, pictures are also property of the original artist in many cases. It is
important to use good ethics and cite artists when necessary. The internet and your computer’s clip art file have
countless pictures and graphics as well. Knowing how to use these techniques and tools will make finding and
using images easier.

Citing Images

In order to use or manipulate an image or graphic not your own, from either the Internet or any other source, you
must obtain permission from whoever created or has rights to that image. Usually some type of arrangement
between you and this person or organization will have to be negotiated. This could be anything from paying for
the rights to use the image, or citing the image in the way that is expressed by the owner. Sometimes graphics
will be considered public domain. Studying the copyright information of an image is one way to determine
whether or not it is public domain. Images belonging to a government agency or even to your employer would
typically be considered public domain. Even so, these images should still be cited. A quick guide to citing images
from books and internet can be found at, [[1]]

Finding Images on the Internet

If you are looking for a high resolution image from the internet, you can select in the Google header bar that you
want it only to search for “large images, or extra large images”. If you are not finding what you are looking for,
there are many stock photography sites out there that allow you to have the image, royalty free for very little of
your own money. Some sites to consider would be: Stock.XCHNG (this is a free site, with some restrictions),
Stock Xpert, Corbis, Getty, or others, just type in stock photography in the search bar.

Clip Art/Illustrations

An example of Clip Art

Illustrations are a great way to convey information easily and effectively to an audience of all ages. However,
when using illustrations be sure that there is relevance from the illustration to the topic your discussing.
Illustrations can serve as tangents if they have no relevance to the topic being discussed. Illustrations must be
chosen to highlight the topic you are discussing and not to distract readers from it.

Graphics can portray ideas more easily than a picture. They give a different type of quality than text in the
document. However, when presenting the ideas to well-educated and technologically savvy professionals, clip art
may not present the information efficiently. Illustrations that have a low image resolution can take away from the
details you are trying to portray to your audience.If this is the case then photos may be a better choice because
they are more clear and may get you point across better.
Headline text
Headline text is used to introduce or even explain graphics. It is expected that you label all of your graphics in one
way or another so that when you reference them in you document the reader knows which graphic you are talking
about. Headline text can be as simple as a title for a graph or as complex as a short paragraph below a photo
explaining the origin and context of the image. Your images and text may seem to go together logically without
headlines to you, but your readers will not have your same familiarity.
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 WEB SITES

WEB SITES OVERVIEW

Written communication is a significant and an important aspect of technical writing. It is your responsibility as a
technical writer to know the accepted structure and format of various types of methods of written communication
in order to provide readers with clear and easy access to information.

This module focuses on designing websites, affording easy access to information and respecting cross-cultural
audiences.
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CONSIDERATIONS FOR WEB SITE

WRITING

Daniel Riordan, in Technical Report Writing Today, reports that “[t]he web is one of the primary means of
communication today (2005, p. 322). Riordan adds that “[m]illions of people use it every day to find information, to
purchase items, and to entertain themselves (2005, p. 322). A single web site can be information that is organized
on one page or a single web site can be information that is organized over several pages (Riordan,
2005). Regardless of the amount information on a web site, the web design needs to give the reader clear and
essay access to information just as with any document. As Riordan emphasis, unlike traditional documents in
which a reader progresses through following a structured path from the beginning to the end, after reaching a
Website’s home page, a reader can navigate the site in may different directions (2005). Therefore, special
attention needs to be given to layout since each web mode does not have the traditional sub categories (Riordan,
2005):
In addition, more than the design of any other document, a web design needs to pay careful attention to
addressing a cross-cultural audience since a website is not limited to specific space. Therefore, make sure to
avoid using idioms and pronouns. It is almost impossible for other cultures to translate idioms; referencing
pronouns to their intended nouns is especially difficult for non-English speakers. In addition, a major consideration
for effective cross-cultural communication is the referencing of time formats, dates, weights and measurements,
telephone number formats, address formats, currency, and paper size (Riordan, 2005).
Licensing & Attributions
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WEBSITE DESIGN

Goals
Before designing a website it is important to set goals. What purpose is the website serving? Not all sites serve
the same purpose. For example, a retail site will have very different goals than a nonprofit site.
Some common website goals are:
• Sales
• Marketing
• Update information
• Generate leads
• Distribute information

Goals, in any setting, are important to business success. By setting goals for one aspect of the business, in this
case, the website, it will help in accomplishing other goals of the business, such as:
• Expanding the audience
• Increasing sales
• Connecting other businesses or other parts of the company
• General communication

Design Message
The design message is the image the organization wants to portray to the reader. This can also be called the
brand. When creating the look of the website you must consider logos, colors, fonts, and images. These must all
support the personality of the organization.

Communicating the brand is something that is becoming more prevalent in the workplace. Consistency is needed
everywhere within a business so that the company can
portray a unified front–and believe in it. Giving web pages a
consistent look will help define it as a cohesive website and
will make it easier to navigate. Since companies are building
their workplaces around the “theme” or the “brand”, there is
no reason that the website should not be done in the same
manner. In fact, it is necessary for brand identification,
therefore helping the company advance and succeed. A
consistent brand and image also build trust and value for a
company.

Some important items to consider when communicating the

brand are:
• The brand, whether communicated through
the website or the customer service, must be
consistent
• The brand should be found everywhere–there are no limits to exposure of brands
• Short and simple is always the best route
• You are the brand and the brand is you. If your brand does not reflect the values and beliefs of
the company, it most certainly should not be on your website.

Recognizing Your Audience

Knowing your audience will help you to make better decisions when it comes to deciding which browsers to
support and which new technologies to endorse. Before designing a new website, it would be helpful to look into
the likely browsers, computer user knowledge, and connection speeds of the audience you are addressing. In
redesigning a website that already exists, you can review the past site usage information so that you are providing
improvements to the site where it is needed most.

There are several different guidelines that should be used when designing websites. Here are common site types:
• academic and scientific sites should have additional focus on how the site functions in graphics-
free browsing environments
• consumer audience websites should pay special attention to site performance and presentation
 • a controlled environment where a specific browser is being used, as in a corporate environment, is
where it is best to use all that the website has to offer. Employees usually attend training to learn how
to use these sites and the designer can use the browsers full potential.
• gaming websites is where you can assume that the users will have the latest plug-ins and browsers
and are quite technologically savvy

You can also take a balanced approach to web design. This type of design integrates the latest web technologies,
but implements them in a way that is still functional to those that have older browsers.

Examining the Site’s Purpose

Figuring out how the site will be used in another important step in website design. Those who use the internet
usually fall into two categories:
• those who seek information
• those who search the internet for entertainment

For the informational sites, you may want to consider the technology of the client or use more general approach in
design. For the sites of those seeking entertainment, more cutting-edge technology can be used to better the
experience of the user when they are accessing your site.

There are options for those who want to use the latest technology for their websites, but want to make it available
to everyone. For this situation, you can use a browser detector to serve alternate version depending on the type
of browser the user has. This allows you to use the latest technology and still recognize users that have older
browsers.

Testing Your Site

Test your website on many different browsers and browser versions. Doing this before going live will help off-set
problems you may encounter before it is available to the public. Professional web design firms run their sites
through an intense quality assurance phase. If this is not a feasible task, you can make your site available on a
private test site. You can then run your own quality assurance test throughout the following browsers:
• Acquaintances’ browser
• Corporate office browser
• Different ISPs

Website pages will appear different depending on the environment it is viewed on. The overall idea of this testing
phase is to make sure that the information is being presented clearly and there are not any overt problems.

Content
Content is one of the most important reasons for even creating a website in the first place. If you think about it, a
website with no content has no purpose. A website with no purpose is wasted space on the internet.
When considering content for your website, be sure to think of the following items:
• What is the goal of the website?
• Who is the website trying to reach?
• How much time to people have to spend reading information on the website?
• How did individuals reach this website?
• What is the most important information to the reader?
• What questions do the readers have?
• What action is the reader supposed to take after reading the website content?

Another aspect to consider about website content is how it will be searched within different search engines. Key
words are needed throughout your website to make sure that the website is found by people who are looking
for specific information. It is important to be specific with words, and use them multiple times, so that search
engine robots find the word and place it high on the results list.

Content must also be age and audience appropriate. Age appropriate is hard to determine on the internet since it
is something that can be accessed by everyone who knows how to use a computer. Content on websites,
however, still must be age appropriate so that the right audience is reading the right material. Age
appropriateness also falls under appropriateness in general of making sure that private information does not
become public on the internet. Audience appropriate means that the content of the website is serving the people
with the right information at the correct level of reading to which the intended readers will understand.

With companies becoming more interested in the usability of their websites, positions are being created
specifically for content writing. A website content writer is someone who specifically writes information for
websites. This is written in a different voice than academic writing so that a web surfer will stay interested in the
website, and therefore the information.

Creating a Home Page

Your home page will be the most visited page on your website. Your home page may not always have what your
viewers are looking for, so if you have something that will draw them in to make them want look further for their
information. You will have ten seconds to draw your customers into your site, or else they will hit the “back” button
and will begin to look elsewhere. Your home page should be able to load quickly. The ten seconds you have to
draw the customers into your site begins when they click on the link to your site. If it takes five seconds for your
site to load, you only have a few seconds left to draw customers further. Here are some tips to help your site
download quicker:
• Keep media images small
◦ limit images to no more than 5 to 10KB
◦ pages should not be more than 30KB total per page
• Avoid using ads from external websites on your home page that may slow down the loading time.
You cannot control how fast another server will serve its content.
• Write your HTML in sections so that when the bottom of the page is still loading, your customers
can read the top sections of your home page.
Another important point about home pages it to never stop modifying it. Reviewing your log files once your
website is up and working can help you make your home page more user friendly. Updating the links or the colors
may improve the appeal or ease of use to your site. Remember that everything can be changed, and you don’t
have to settle with something if it’s working.

Compatibility
Features do not always display the same way in different Web browsers. It can be useful to check a created page
using more than just one browser, to ensure that the page displays correctly for a wider audience. Completed
HTML code can be validated by visiting validator.w3.org. Saved HTML code can be uploaded and checked for
accuracy. Any issues with the syntax of the HTML will be listed, as well as suggestions for changing the errors.
This eliminates the need for a person to search their own code for errors after attempting to display it in a
browser.

Design Considerations
Usability
Usability is defined as the ease of using the website. This could be for the intended audience of the website (see
Audience), or it could be determined by the industry or business standards needed for websites. Usability of
websites has gone through different definition changes with the evolution of the internet. In its early years, many
people did not know how to navigate through websites or read the information provided. This made the website
unusable. Now, people look for the easiest possible access to whatever information is needed.

Usability means Communication

Websites are a form of visual communication, serving multiple purposes. Websites can be informative,
persuasive, long-term, advertising, or entertaining. Usability is determined based on the goals of the website.

If the website accomplishes its goals and communicates the necessary messages, it can therefore be considered
usable.

Developing Usability
Starting to test a site before it is built will help avoid some problems before a lot of effort is put into the site. Plan
on doing usability testing in focus groups to help you prepare for a better, more user friendly site. If you do not
have access to a focus group, you can print out your ideas and share them with family and friends and ask for
their insight. Some points to keep in mind when beginning your site are:
• Find out what people expect from your site. Customers may want something different than what
you were preparing to build.
• Wording that you use will be important in how effective your site will be. If you begin testing early,
you can find out what words relay your message better with your audience.
• Customers will provide you with good ideas. Testing with customers will give you ideas that you may
not have thought of.
• Use descriptive headings, bold words, and bullet lists for easy reading
• Incorporate links and resources for more information
• Add pictures, charts, and graphs to enhance communication
• Avoid adding unnecessary information, pictures, sounds, or colors that are more distracting than helpful
• Test the website with audiences to determine usefulness

Testing is key to building a website. You must be willing to listen to the input of others, friends or potential
customers, so you’ll have a better site from the start.
Appearance
Appearance should be aesthetically pleasing. One that is easy to look at and maneuver. Tasks (what the user has
come to this page looking for, such as an email address or information about an event) that are most important
and or most commonly sought should be the main focal points of a web page. Whether it be certain colors driving
that importance, or size, or placement on the page, even directional line guiding you to that point, the important
tasks must not become secondary. In other words, they should stand out more, not become secondary to an
image or a background. Everything on your site should have a purpose, a reason for being where it is and looking
the way it does.

Pictures and colors are important and interesting, but far less important than the content. This is true for any web
page. The user must not get confused upon entrance to a site. They should know where they need to click (and
understand what will come from that click) and not be distracted by images. Unless it’s intended, images should
be minimal and only help PUSH the contents importance, not overwhelm the page. As such, it is the web
designers job to make sure that doesn’t happen. Be it by Layout (see layout) or by visual distractions, forced eye
movement using line or color, or by any other means deemed worthy by the designer, the content should be seen
first, images second or third.

Visability
Visibility could be considered the most important aspect of website design. People must first find the website
before they can view it. Most often people find websites through search engines.

Here are some tips to increase visibility:

• Add text to pictures
• Check the html code for errors
• Use relevant title tags
• Use navigation that all internet users are able to view
• Get rid of duplicate content
• Do not use hidden text

Layout
The layout of a website should be as simple as possible. Extra fluff will only distract the user and cause confusion.
You want your site to be visually pleasing, but first and foremost, understandable. The user is at your site for a
reason, if the layout isn’t successful, the user will most likely leave the page and look for their information
elsewhere.

Things to keep in mind while creating your layout:

• Start with a wireframe; use simple boxes and lines to organize your page. Pictures should be
an afterthought.
• Think of what you want the user to see first and what is the most important. Make those the biggest,
the boldest, the most colorful, anything you can think of to draw attention (but be careful not to
overwhelm your users)
• Always remember, as accustomed, most cultures read from left to right, up then down
◦ Put your logo in the UPPER LEFT-HAND CORNER to draw the user into the rest of your page
◦ Put your least important info (contacts, outside links, site map, related info, etc.) in the bottom
left hand corner. People wont miss it, but they will have gone through the rest of the page
before wandering into that corner. This prevents the viewer from seeing things they may not
be looking for
• Try to draw your viewer through your page at a downward diagonal from the upper left hand corner to
the bottom right hand corner. If this is the way you design your information, your viewer will see that
the things in that diagonal first. Then they will proceed to see any other information you have placed
strategically throughout your page
• If you’re new to wed design, I’d advise sticking to a custom layout with title in the upper left, tabs
across the top left (leave space under the logo before you insert your tabs, logo’s need room to
prosper), scroll
 bar down the right side, buttons are semi 3D (afford clicking, let the user know “hey, I’m clickable, I
have more information about this on another page.” People scan for things that stand out, if something
doesn’t look clickable, no one will try to click on it)

These are just some basics. There are far more things to think about before achieving a successful web page, but
this is a starting point.

Be Search Engine Friendly

Title Tags
The title tag plays an important role in any web page. The text that is placed inside the title tag becomes the name
of the page, which can be seen in the browser toolbar. For example, if you are looking at Google’s website, the
title of the page will simple be “Google.” Titles are helpful because they allow the user to easily see what websites
they have open by simple looking at the tabs in their web browser. The title tag also provides a title for the page
when it is added to favorites and displays a title for the page in search-engine results.

In HTML, the title tag lives inside the head tag. Similar to all other HTML tags, it is opened with <title> and closed
with </title>. Between the two tags, the creator of the HTML document can place whatever text they think best
identifies the web page they are creating. For example, the Google title would be written as <title>Google</title>.

Body Tags
The body tag defines the body of an HTML document. This is where all of the content of an HTML document is
placed. This includes text, links, images, tables, lists, and anything else that the page needs. Everything that can
be seen when looking at a web page is inside of the body tag.

While the body tag is written in the same manner as all other HTML tags, it almost always is more than one line.
For example:
<body>

Document content

</body>

Each line in the body is usually a single element. For example, one line might be a link and the next line is a
picture. Splitting the body in to multiple lines in this way makes writing and editing the HTML much easier
because it makes everything easier to see individually. In addition, lines can be indented to make the document
even easier to read and edit. For example:
<body>
<h1>Heading</h1>

</body>

This also helps the creator of the HTML document easily see if all the tags are properly opened and closed. While
splitting the HTML into different lines and indenting accordingly is recommended, it is not required.

ALT Tags

META Tags
The <meta> tag provides metadata, or information, about the HTML page. Some things commonly found in the
<meta> tag are the page description, keywords, author, date created, and any other data that the author wishes
to be included with the document. While it is never visible on the web page itself, it can be seen and used by
computers and search engines. The <meta> tag is always placed in the <head> element of an HTML document.
Unlike many other tags in HTML, the <meta> tag has no end tag. That is, all of the information included in the tag
is placed within the brackets. For example:
<meta name=”keywords” content=”HTML, CSS” />

In this example, the <meta> tag is telling the browser that the keywords for the HTML document are HTML and
CSS. The name and content fields can be any information that the author wants to include. If the author wished to
include the date the document was created, he or she could write
<meta name=”created” content=”3/28/2012″ />

This makes the <meta> tag very valuable when one is creating and organizing multiple HTML documents.

The <meta> tag can also tell browsers to perform certain tasks, such as reload the page. To do this, one would
simply write:
<meta http-equiv=”refresh” content=”30″ />

This tells the browser to reload the page every 30 seconds. In addition to this, the <meta> tag can also tell the
browser how to handle cookies and specify the text direction, and many other things.

References
Concepción, Anne – Marie. Professional Website Design From Start to Finish. Cincinnati: How Design Books,
2001.

Heng, Christopher. “How to Create a Search Engine Friendly Website”. http://www.thesitewizard.com/

sitepromotion/search-engine-friendly.shtml. April, 11 2010.

Kyrnin, Jennifer. About.com Guide to Web Design. Avon, MA: F+W Publications, Inc., 2007.

Niederst, Jennifer. Web Design in a Nutshell. Sebastopol, CA: O’Reilley and Associates, Inc., 1999.
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Website Design. Provided by: WikiBooks. Located at: http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Professional_and_Technical_Writing/Business_Communications/Website#Goals. Project: Professional and Technical Writing.
License: CC BY-SA: Attribution-ShareAlike
• Image of Web Design Advertisement. Authored by: Digital Markketing. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/7FSUGu. License: CC BY: Attribution
• Images of Pages from One Website. Authored by: emimari. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/7ZemsU. License: CC BY-NC: Attribution-NonCommercial
 PAGE DESIGN

Design pages to facilitate scanning by using headings, subheadings, columns; learn special
page design considerations for the Web.

You can enhance readability by giving some thought to the design of your documents. By using headers, lists,
bullets, and other design elements, you can reveal your organization to the reader and emphasize key points.
Below are page design guidelines you should consider when writing print or online documents. Your design can
underscore your message. Be sure to consider these guidelines in the context of design principles.

Design Pages to Facilitate Scanning

According to usability research conducted by Sun Microsystems, “Seventy-nine percent of Web users scan
pages; they do not read word-by-word.” [more]. This finding suggests that you should design documents so they
can be scanned by your readers.
You can create more scannable documents by:
1. Following a deductive organization (i.e., putting purpose, significance, and results in your introduction).
2. Using page-design principles to emphasize the message and organization (e.g., using bullets, lists,
and illustrations to highlight key points).
Use Design Elements to Highlight Your Message

In the example below, notice how your eye is drawn to the blue header and the boxed elements. In these spaces,
you can highlight the important part of your message.

Headings

For some genres of documents, headings would be considered too impersonal or too technical. For example, you
certainly don’t want to see headings and bullets used in a suspense novel. Increasingly, however, headings are
used to help readers scan documents.

Even vague headings like Introduction, Results, and Discussion can be useful: They give readers a sense of what
is covered within the section. Better yet, descriptive titles cue your readers about your stance on the content of
sections. For example, rather than Introduction, Results, and Discussion, you could write “Why Are Headings
Important.”

As previously discussed, highly skilled readers tend to scan through documents on first reading, noting the
content of your headings. This gives them a sense of your overall message. An additional advantage of headings
is that they create additional white space.

Word processing programs enable you to highlight text and then define text as a level 1 heading, level 2 heading,
and so on. Using style tags you can change the size or color of the heading. The advantage of using style tags is
that you can change all level 1 headings with ease rather than going through and changing every level 1 heading.
In other words, if you tagged text 15 times as an H1, and then you edited the look of that heading, your changes
would ripple through the text, changing all 15 headers. Additionally, Microsoft Word and Corel Word Perfect can
use the style tags as hyperlinks.

Results from readability research indicate that readers have difficulties with more than three levels of headings.
When you use more than three levels of headings, readers become confused. Also ensure that all of your
headings are equal grammatically. For example, headings can all be questions, verb phrases, or noun phrases,
yet you cannot mix together questions, verb phrases, and noun phrases.

Level 1 Heading

Level 2 Heading

Level 3 Heading
• Bullets
Many readers and writers love bullets. Some people even claim they think in bullets. Bullets create emphasis.
They focus the reader’s eye on the bulleted material and they break up textual space.

Using a word processor, you can easily adjust the look and feel of bullets, making them ornate or simple.
Again, it’s best to use the bullet style tag so that you transform the look and feel of your bullets with a single key
stroke as opposed to needing to reformat each bullet separately.

Below is a humorous translation from Moby Dick to illustrate the “get to the point” technical style of the Web to
literary discourse:

I go to sea when I:
• Feel
depressed
or
melancholy
“Whenever I find myself growing grim about the mouth; whenever it is a damp, drizzly
• Stop in front
November in my soul; whenever I find myself involuntarily pausing before coffin
of coffin
warehouses, and bringing up the rear of every funeral I meet; and especially
warehouses
whenever my hypos get such an upper hand of me, that it requires a strong moral • Follow
principle to prevent me from deliberately stepping into the street, and methodically
funerals
knocking people’s hats off — then, I account it high time to get to sea as soon as I • Have a
can.”
powerful
urge to
knock
people’s
hats off

Source: This
example is adapted
Source: Moby Dick by Herman Melville from Kathy
Henning’s Writing
for Readers Who
Scan

Lists

Lists share all of the positive attributes of bullets: They create the white space readers love, placing emphasis by
drawing the reader’s eye to what you want to highlight. Yet lists are appropriate when a series of steps is being
presented. Unlike bullets, lists imply you complete item 1 before moving on to item 2.

Using lists and numbering sections of documents is very common in legal and technical genres where more than
one person is writing the document or where litigation may follow.Once again, use the style tag for lists in order to
have control over your document.

Special Page Design Considerations for the Web

Have you ever wondered why many books and magazines have narrow text columns? Alternatively, why are
so many Web pages short, about screen length?

Readability research has found that impatient readers don’t want to turn their heads back and forth to read. They
want to scan the document, reading straight down the page without any head nodding! Impatient readers don’t
want to use scroll bars, either.
Of course, readers’ interactions with texts are in a state of flux. Some readers may actually prefer long documents
because they can be easily printed. However, as a general rule, researchers in the field of usability analysis and
interface design suggest that you limit your content to properly fill the screen page of a monitor set to
• Maximum width = 640 pixels
• Maximum height = 480 pixels
Of course, modern monitors, powered by computers with video boards, may be set to display many more pixels
on a page. The standard, in fact, is probably moving to
• Maximum width = 1024 pixels
• Maximum height = 768 pixels
Licensing & Attributions
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• Page Design. Authored by: Joseph Moxley. Provided by: University of South Florida. Located at: http://writingcommons.org/open-text/writing-processes/format/principles-of-design/114-page-design. Project:
Writing Commons. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives

PICTURES AND PHOTOGRAPHS

Use pictures and photographs to catch the eye of your audience.

The expression “a picture is worth a thousand words” is more than a truism. Images can convey powerful
emotion. Images can illustrate a process or capture a moment with precision (such as a tight end catching the
football on the goal line).

People who shun principles of design, who argue words alone should be sufficient, are really not in touch with the
expectations of today’s readers. Perhaps because today’s readers are bombarded with information, they tend to
be especially receptive to pictures and photographs.

Select appropriate images

Images are not inherently good. In fact, images can be detracting. You don’t want to pour images into a document
that are unrelated to your subject. Because readers’ focus will be drawn to the images, be sure they are
appropriate to your audience and purpose. Consider below two excellent examples of images.

Environmental Web sites, such as The Nature Conservancy or The Sierra

Club, use beautiful images from nature to help stimluate action. Consider,
for example, the EPA’s Draft Report on the Environment. Take a minute to
click through this report, while noting how the top banner image changes
to provide a visual representation of the topic under discussion (land,
water, air, etc.)

It is interesting to note that the U.S. Census Bureau has set the main
graphic to change every minute on its default page, Population Estimates,
perhaps trying to “humanize” the population explosion.

The following summarizes common graphic formats, distinguishing bitmap images from vector images.
What are bitmap images?

GIFs (Graphics Interchange Format) and JPEGs (Joint Photographic

Experts Group) are bitmaps; they use pixels to display colors. In other
words, bitmaps use a grid of squares, and each square, each pixel, can
represent a color.

Different computer monitors have different numbers of bits they can

display for each pixel. A bit is the smallest amount of information stored
by a computer. For example, a 2-bit monitor can display two colors for
each pixel–either black or white. An 8-bit monitor can dedicate 8 bits of
memory to each pixel to represent a color, whereas 24-bit images use 24
bits of memory for each pixel to represent a color. While monitors differ,
you can typically count on a monitor having between 72 to 100 pixels per
inch. As technology evolves, the quality of monitors will expand, and so, too, will the quality of graphics.

When you plan to represent an image on a page that will be printed, you need it saved in at least 300 dpi (dots
per inch).

Number of Bits/Pixels Colors Displayed

8-bit image 256 colors

16-bit image 65+ thousand

24-bit image 16+ million colors

When users make a bitmap image larger, the computer guesses where to put new pixels between the old pixels,
resulting in a blurry image.

GIF (Graphics Interchange Format)

Developed by Compuserve Information Service in the 1980s, GIFs are the most common format of Web graphics
on the Internet. GIFs can present 8 bits or 256 colors, using the Internet color palette. Because they do not
display millions of colors, GIFs can download fairly quickly. Conventional GIFs download one pixel at a time,
while interlaced GIFs display the overall image fairly early in the download, giving the reader a blurry image of the
graphic, and then move from blurry to sharp as the image downloads.

JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group)

JPEGs provide a superior image to GIFs because they can display 24-bit, true-color images. While GIFs have 8
bits of memory dedicated to displaying a color for each pixel, JPEGs have 24 bits of memory dedicated to
displaying a color for each pixel. Thus, photographs and drawings can be rendered more accurately by JPEGs.

JPEG files are larger than GIF files, yet you can typically choose different compression file sizes in graphic
applications. For example, you can make JPEG file sizes 100 times smaller than the original file size. Each time
you compress an image, you erase information, so you need to be careful that you do not so overly compress an
image that it becomes worthless. JPEG compression tends to degrade computer-generated graphics.

PNG (Portable Network Graphic)

According to Web Graphics and Presentations, PNGs were designed for the Internet to have all of the benefits of
GIFs, yet to
 • Provide superior compression and interlacing. GIFs can display the outlines of an image once it
receives 50% of the information from the file. In contrast, a PNG image is recognizable once 25% of the
image is available.
• Create smaller files. PNG files are 5 to 25% smaller than equivalent GIF files.
• Allow users more than one color for a transparent background.
• Compensate for differences in gamma–that is, the level of contrast in an image. PNGs can be
displayed equivalently on Macintosh and PC platforms.

At this point, however, PNG files cannot display animated images.

What are vector images?

Vector images use geometrically defined shapes such as lines, arcs, or polygons, which are used to represent
images as opposed to pixels. When vector images are enlarged, they do not degrade. The computer doesn’t
need to guess about where to add additional pixels. Instead, the geometric shapes are simply scaled in larger or
smaller formats, without blurriness.

Vector images are useful to display graphs, charts, and diagrams. They allow users to focus in on a part of the
diagram, to magnify some part of the image. Vector images are generated by spreadsheet programs, 3D
applications like AutoCAD.

What are image maps?

An image map is a map that has embedded links. In other words, as you move your mouse over an image, you
can access links. The following is an image map.

Learn NC: An image map of North Carolina, this map is linked to a database on NC educational resources
Licensing & Attributions
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• Pictures and Photographs. Authored by: Joseph Moxley. Provided by: University of South Florida. Located at: http://writingcommons.org/open-text/writing-processes/format/principles-of-design/116-pictures-
and- photographs. Project: Writing Commons. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives

TYPOGRAPHY

Understand design principles that are important for both paper and Web documents.
Font selection matters. Even the font you display your documents in can have powerful consequences. Some
fonts can distract readers from your message while others draw in the reader’s eye, bringing the reader’s focus to
your text.
1. What are the Font Families?
2. What is the Difference between Serif and Sans Serif Fonts?
3. How Should You Mix Different Font Families?
4. Strategies

What are the Font Families?

“Fontophiles” tend to have different names for font families. Below are some of the more commonly defined “font
families” (see left column) and a discussion of their uses.
What is the Difference Between Serif and Sans Serif Fonts?

Serif Fonts

Serif fonts have little tails (serifs) at the ends of each letter. Serif fonts include Times New Roman, Courier New,
New York, New Century Schoolbook, and Palatino.

Serif fonts provide a more traditional, conservative appearance. Readers prefer Serif fonts when large text blocks
are displayed. Times New Roman is one of the most popular Serif fonts because it is very legible on the computer
screen and prints very well.

Sans Serif

In French, “sans” means without. Sans Serif fonts lack little tails at the ends of each letter. Sans Serif fonts
include Arial, Geneva, Helvetica, and Comic Sans MS.

Readers find Sans Serif fonts to be less readable than Serif fonts, so writers seldom use them to set long
blocks of texts. Used in contrast to Serif fonts, Sans Serif fonts can catch a reader’s eye. Knowing this,
advertisers use Sans Serif fonts to set headlines and call out text.

How Should You Mix Different Font Families?

Mixing font families can be tricky. If you include too many disparate fonts, the page will appear to lack focus
(see example below). Readers may tell you your document reads like a puzzle. It’s giving mixed messages:

How Should You Mix Different Font Families?

Mixing font families can be tricky. If you include too many disparate fonts, the page will appear to lack focus
(see example below). Readers may tell you your document reads like a puzzle. It’s giving mixed messages:
Designers typically advise that you should use no more than one Serif and not more than one Sans Serif font for
each page. Even when you limit yourself to two fonts, you can create considerable variation by bold face,
underlining, italicizing, or adjusting the size of a font.
Licensing & Attributions
CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Typography. Authored by: Joseph Moxley. Provided by: University of South Florida. Located at: http://writingcommons.org/open-text/writing-processes/format/principles-of-design/113-typography. Project:
Writing Commons. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
 MEMOS

MEMOS OVERVIEW

In this unit we will discuss types of memos and memo format.

Memos are a major accepted method of communication within a specific business, company, or institution. The
successful operation of a company depends on memos for communication between the employees of the
company. Types of memos include: inquires, recommendations, problem-solution, etc.

A memo’s format provides employees with clear and easy access to information. The message is direct. Unless
directly related to the message, references to company structure and operation are eliminated in a
memo. However, a memo follows a specific format for easy access to information. A memo includes a heading
block that identifies the recipient, the sender, the date, and the subject of the message. The order of the parts of
the memo heading block and location of specific part of the block varies, according to different companies’
expectations.

However, the message has three parts, each of which is identified by a specific heading. The three parts are the
introduction, the body, and the conclusion. The introduction references background information and informs the
purpose of the message. The body is the message. The body can be one simple
paragraph or multiple paragraphs. The conclusion expresses what you expect
the recipient to do. The conclusion could be one paragraph or
several paragraphs, or the conclusion could be a simple sentence that asks for
the recipient to contact the sender if there are questions.

Consider the following scenario: You are a consultant for a construction

company. The project manager of the company has charged you with following
the progress of a job that the company has contracted. To keep the project
manager informed of the progress of the job, you may send him/her one of 3
types of memos: A Projection Analysis Timeline Memo, which is sent before
the job begins and details the expected beginning and ending dates of the job; a
Progress Memo, which is sent during the progression of the job and details
the progress of the job, and a Period Report Memo, which is sent after the
completion of the job and details the completion dates of all phases of the job.

Examples of all 3 types of memos can be viewed in the following attachments.

Projected Analysis Timeline Memo: https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/

oerfiles/technical+writing/
Example+Memo+Projection+Analysis+Timeline+with+Gantt+Chart.doc

Progress Memo: https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/oerfiles/technical+writing/Example+Memo+Progress.docx

Periodic Memo: https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/oerfiles/technical+writing/Example+Memo+Periodic.doc

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• Image of Memo Book. Authored by: Calsidyrose. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/7hWDJG. License: CC BY: Attribution
 MEMOS: STYLE FOR STUDENTS

In many courses, you are asked to submit your writing in memo form, and in some cases your assignments are
given to you as memos. This not only gives you practice in writing a professional document, it invites you to see
your writing as purposeful and aimed at a particular audience. A detailed instructional memo about memo writing
—a “metamemo,” if you will—follows.

MYTHIC UNIVERSITY ONLINE

memo

DATE : August 9, 2008

TO : Users of Style for Students Online
FROM : Joe Schall
SUBJECT : Writing Memos for your Classes

This memo provides you with tips on writing memos for your classes, with special attention to a memo’s audience,
format, organization, content, tone, and style. Because my advice comes in the form of a memo, you can use this
document as a model for writing your own memos.

The Audience for a Memo

It is useful to begin by considering that a memo is essentially a one-on-one communication between writer and
reader. Although a memo may be written to a group of people or with various audiences in mind, usually it is a
highly goal-oriented communication between two people who need to share information. When you write a memo
to a professor in the classroom setting, you are much like the employee who has been assigned to investigate a
problem and report back to a supervisor. Therefore, you are expected to provide concrete information, even
information that the supervisor might already know, in a form that clarifies ideas and puts them into context.
Finally, a memo enjoys a broader context than an essay; hence, you might refer to other related memos as you
write, or you might respond to specific requests made by the audience in your text, in effect, carrying on a
professional conversation.

Typical Memo Format

The overall format of a memo can be broken down into the heading, the body, and the closing notations. What
follows is a brief description of each component.

The Heading
The heading has two parts: part one includes two centered lines at the top of page 1, identifying the name of the
company or institution on the first line, with the word “memorandum” on the second line; part two includes the
“DATE,” “TO,” “FROM,” and “SUBJECT” lines at the left margin, filled in appropriately.

The Body
The body of the memo follows the Introduction, and it is usually presented in single-spaced paragraphs with a line
skipped between each paragraph. The first lines of new paragraphs can appear at the left margin or they can be
indented five spaces.

The Closing Notations

The closing notations, used to identify such things as attachments, appear at the left margin two lines below
the text of the final paragraph. By simply typing the word “Attachment” as a closing notation, you automatically
refer the reader to any attachment, such as a map, a set of calculations, spreadsheets, or a References page.

How Memos are Organized

The general organization of a memo mirrors that of an essay: an introduction, followed by body paragraphs,
followed by a conclusion. However, the first paragraph of a memo is typically used as a forecasting device. Note
how the opening paragraph of this memo defines the memo’s function and reflects its organization. It is sensible
to open memos for your classes in the same way, first directly stating the memo’s purpose, then setting forth the
organization and noting how the memo can be used.
Organization in the body of a memo is typically characterized by the use of section headings and short
paragraphs. Paragraphs should not be too bulky—five or six per page is usually ideal. On the sentence level, you
should take full advantage of the same organizational tools that you employ when you write an essay: meaningful
topic sentences; carefully selected transition words; focused section headings; indented blocks of cited text; a
bulleted series of examples; powerful punctuation marks such as the colon, semicolon, and dash.

Selection and Citation of Content

A memo’s content, of course, is guided by the assignment and the research required. It is important to remember
as you present the content that selectivity and relevance matter greatly. Your job is to select and present the most
pertinent, most current information available to you. Do not hesitate, of course, to let your memo’s content be
heavily informed by your research, but also provide your own interpretation and organization of this research.

As in any essay, you must document the sources of your information so that your reader could find the original
source of the information if desired. If your memo uses sources, provide the bibliographic information related
to your sources on a References page as an attachment at the end of the memo—just as I have in this memo.

A Memo’s Tone and Style

Memos for your classes require a highly informative and straightforward tone, but allow for a slightly informal style
compared to essays. As in this memo, “I” and “you” are handy because they provide a straightforward way of
communicating, but you must be careful not to overuse these terms. Stylish prose is key to good memo writing,
and you should not hesitate to use active, interpretive adverbs and verbs and concrete, carefully chosen
adjectives and nouns.

A memo need not be written in a dry, dull fashion; rather, it should emulate the same stylistic standards that good
prose has always embraced. These standards are summed up neatly in the popular style guide, The Elements
Of Style, as follows:

A sentence should contain no unnecessary words, a paragraph no unnecessary

sentences, for the same reason that a drawing should have no unnecessary lines
and a machine no unnecessary parts (Strunk and White 1979).

As this quote suggests, good prose can achieve elegance by its clarity, efficiency, and sense of purpose.

Conclusion
The conclusion of a memo should not simply provide a summary of the memo’s entire contents, but it should be a
true conclusion—that is, an articulated conviction arrived at on the basis of the evidence presented. The closing
paragraph is the place to spell out the bottom line to the reader. Therefore, I close with my bottom line about
writing memos for your classes:
• Study and use standard memo format to present your text;
• Use internal organizational tools such as section headings, topic sentences, transition words,
and powerful punctuation marks to enhance the flow of ideas;
• Write with the same clarity, grace, and efficiency expected of you in any essay.

Attachment

ATTACHMENT

References

Strunk, William Jr and White, E.B., 1979: The Elements of Style. Macmillan Publishing
Company, Inc., New York, 92 pp.
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 MEMOS: WRITING COMMONS

Memos*
“Memos” was written by Lee Ann Hodges, Tri-County Community College

Memos

Functions and Audience

Short for “memorandum,” a memo is a type of document used to communicate with others in the same
organization. Memos (or memoranda) are typically used for fairly short messages of one page or less, but
informal reports of several pages may also employ memo format.

Format

Memos are distinguished by a header that

includes DATE, TO, FROM, and SUBJECT
lines. Other lines, such as CC or BCC, may
be added as needed. An RE (“Reference”)
line may be used instead of SUBJECT, but
this use is becoming rarer as “RE” is often
mistaken as “Reply” because of its use in
email.
• DATE: List the date on which the
memo is distributed.
• TO: List the names of the recipients
of the memo. If there are several
recipients, it’s acceptable to use a
group name, such as “All
Employees” or “Personnel
Committee Members.”
• FROM: List the name and job title of
the writer(s).
• SUBJECT: Think of the SUBJECT
line as the title for the memo. Make
it specific so that readers can
immediately identify the topic.

These headings may be double- or single-

spaced, and the SUBJECT line is often in all
capital letters. Furthermore, the order of the
items can vary. Many organizations have
their own style preferences on these issues.
If not, the order listed above, double-spaced,
is the most common.

The text of memos typically uses block

format, with single-spaced lines, an extra
space between paragraphs, and no
indentions for new paragraphs. However, if a report using memo format stretches to a few pages in length,
double spacing may be used to improve its readability.

Organization

Professional communication forms are organized according to one of two strategies: Direct and indirect.
• The direct organization strategy presents the purpose of the document in the first paragraph
(sometimes the first sentence) and provides supporting details in the body.
• The indirect organization strategy opens with relevant, attention-getting details that do not directly state
the purpose of the document. The purpose is revealed in the body of the message, usually sandwiched
between supporting details.

The direct approach is used for good news or routine communication; the indirect approach is used for
persuasive, sales, or bad news messages.

A directly stated purpose is welcome in good news or routine messages but could be viewed as abrupt or
insensitive in a bad news or persuasive message. When the audience is not receptive to the message, it is best
to lead up to the purpose gradually.

In both types of organization, action information (such as deadlines or contact information) or a courteous closing
statement is placed in the last paragraph.

Content
Organization
Definition Type of Document
Strategy
Introduction Body Conclusion

Action
Writer arrives at Used for good news or
information
purpose quickly, routine communication
Direct Purpose Details or
sometimes in the (audience is receptive
courteous
first sentence. or neutral)
close

Action
Writer gradually Used for negative, Relevant, Purpose
information
builds up to the persuasive, or sales attention- statement is
Indirect or
purpose, which is messages (audience is getting sandwiched
courteous
stated in the body. not receptive) statements by details.
close
Sample Direct Memo
Sample Indirect Memo

Style and Tone

While memo reports and policy memos are examples of documents that have a more formal tone, most memos
will have a conversational style—slightly informal but still professional. The audience of memos are those with
whom the writer works, so the writing style usually assumes a relationship with them (and therefore a certain lack
of formality); just keep in mind that the relationship is a professional one, so the writing should reflect that.
Furthermore, as with all workplace documents, the audience may contain a variety of readers, and the style and
tone should be appropriate for all of their technical and authority levels.
 Too Informal Too Formal, Stuffy-Sounding, Wordy Appropriate Balance

Direct and concise

opening states the
Hi, everyone. Hope purpose of the
Variety Craft Supplies’ mission is to provide customers with
you had a great memo.
affordable, quality supplies with superb customer service.
weekend. You
Excellent customer service includes being knowledgeable
know those awards
about the supplies, but it also goes beyond that. It’s about
we give out every so Please submit your
having the right attitude about helping customers. It’s time to
often? It’s time for nominations for the
reward employees who have a customer-oriented outlook.
those again! quarterly Customer
Service Excellence
Award by April 8.
Help us identify great
employees!

Common Memo Writing Situations

Memos are used in a variety of workplace communication situations, from documentation of procedures and
policies to simple announcements. Below are some common types of memos:
• Policies (changes and new)
• Instructions
• Procedures
• Announcements
• Trip reports

Distribution Medium

Memos may be distributed manually through print medium in organizations in which not all employees have
access to email. Organizations with access to email may distribute memos as attachments to email.

In organizations in which email reaches every employee (or every employee in the memo’s audience), writers
must determine whether to send a memo or an email message to convey their information. In cases such as this,
writers should consider three factors: the nature of the message, the depth/number of its details, and its
likelihood of being printed for easier reference. These types of messages should be written up in memo format
and attached to an email message for fast (and environmentally friendly) distribution:
• Messages that have an official aura, such as new policies or revisions of policies.
• Messages containing much detail (such as instructions on how to calibrate a complicated piece
of machinery).
• Messages requiring reference away from a computer (necessitating a print copy). Print copies of emails
generally use a small type that is difficult to read.

*Some articles are used across multiple genres and disciplines.

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 MEMOS: PURPOSE AND FORMAT

Memos
A memo (or memorandum, meaning “reminder”) is normally used for communicating policies, procedures, or
related official business within an organization. It is often written from a one-to-all perspective (like mass
communication), broadcasting a message to an audience, rather than a one-on-one, interpersonal
communication. It may also be used to update a team on activities for a given project, or to inform a specific
group within a company of an event, action, or observance.

Memo Purpose
A memo’s purpose is often to inform, but it occasionally includes an element of persuasion or a call to action. All
organizations have informal and formal communication networks. The unofficial, informal communication network
within an organization is often called the grapevine, and it is often characterized by rumour, gossip, and innuendo.
On the grapevine, one person may hear that someone else is going to be laid off and start passing the news
around. Rumours change and transform as they are passed from person to person, and before you know it, the
word is that they are shutting down your entire department.

One effective way to address informal, unofficial speculation is to spell out clearly for all employees what is going
on with a particular issue. If budget cuts are a concern, then it may be wise to send a memo explaining the
changes that are imminent. If a company wants employees to take action, they may also issue a memorandum.
For example, on February 13, 2009, upper management at the Panasonic Corporation issued a declaration that
all employees should buy at least $1,600 worth of Panasonic products. The company president noted that if
everyone supported the company with purchases, it would benefit all ( (Note: Lewis, 2009). )

While memos do not normally include a call to action that requires personal spending, they often represent the
business or organization’s interests. They may also include statements that align business and employee interest,
and underscore common ground and benefit.

Memo Format
A memo has a header that clearly indicates who sent it and who the intended recipients are. Pay particular
attention to the title of the individual(s) in this section. Date and subject lines are also present, followed by a
message that contains a declaration, a discussion, and a summary.

In a standard writing format, we might expect to see an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. All these are
present in a memo, and each part has a clear purpose. The declaration in the opening uses a declarative
sentence to announce the main topic. The discussion elaborates or lists major points associated with the topic,
and the conclusion serves as a summary.

Let’s examine a sample memo.

Figure 9.3
Five Tips for Effective Business Memos

Audience Orientation
Always consider the audience and their needs when preparing a memo. An acronym or abbreviation that is known
to management may not be known by all the employees of the organization, and if the memo is to be posted and
distributed within the organization, the goal is clear and concise communication at all levels with no ambiguity.

Professional, Formal Tone

Memos are often announcements, and the person sending the memo speaks for a part or all of the organization.
While it may contain a request for feedback, the announcement itself is linear, from the organization to the
employees. The memo may have legal standing as it often reflects policies or procedures, and may reference an
existing or new policy in the employee manual, for example.
Subject Emphasis
The subject is normally declared in the subject line and should be clear and concise. If the memo is announcing
the observance of a holiday, for example, the specific holiday should be named in the subject line—for
example, use “Thanksgiving weekend schedule” rather than “holiday observance”.

Direct Format
Some written business communication allows for a choice between direct and indirect formats, but memorandums
are always direct. The purpose is clearly announced.

Objectivity
Memos are a place for just the facts, and should have an objective tone without personal bias, preference, or
interest on display. Avoid subjectivity.

Reference:

Lewis, L. (2009, February 13). Panasonic orders staff to buy £1,000 in products. Retrieved
from http://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/markets/japan/article5723942.ece
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 LETTERS

LETTERS OVERVIEW

Regardless of the more popular methods of communication, such as e-mail and other social media exchanges,
letters remain the most formal and legal type of written business communication. Five types of business letters
are thank you letters, claim letters, adjustment letters, inquiry letters, and transmittal letters. These letters can
be written in a direct approach or an indirect approach. Most claim letters, inquiry letters, and transmittal letters
are written in a direct approach, where the writer refers to background, stating his/her purpose for writing in the
opening sentences of the first paragraph. The indirect approach is used for letters that have negative
messages. These types of letters are letters that deny requests, such as adjustment letters that deny claims or
letters that deny employment applications. After referring to
background, the writer using the indirect approach adds a
disclaimer that is intended to intended to soften a
negative decision. The second paragraph states
and explains the purpose of the decision. This
arrangement is a respectful, professional way to deliver a
negative message.

A thank you letter expresses a simple thank you for a favor,

gift, etc. An acknowledgment of accepting a request to do
something is not a thank you letter. For example, you may
send a request to a motivational speaker to be the guest
speaker at a seminar. After receiving the speaker’s
agreement to accept your invitation, you would respond with
an acknowledgement of his/her acceptance. Although you
may begin this acknowledgment with a statement of
appreciation, this is not a thank you letter. Rather it is a letter
that acknowledges the speaker’s agreement to accept your invitation. In the first paragraph, the letter expresses
your appreciation and how the presentation will benefit your audience. The second paragraph will confirm the
date and time of the presentation. The third paragraph will advise that a follow up communication will detail the
logistics. End the letter with a statement confirming your appreciation.

The following outlines Paragraph Arrangement for the different Types of Letters:

Transmittal
Letter:

First paragraph:
Purpose (main Refer to background information and the reason for the correspondence.
point).

Second
Briefly explain the contents of the related documents/actions that will follow the transmittal
paragraph:
letter.
Explanation.
 1. Tell the time/dates of the related documents/actions can be expected. 2.
Give your contact information, with a professional statement to contact you
Third paragraph:
with questions or further concerns.
Closing.
2. Add a simple: Thank you. (The Thank you could be added as an
abbreviated paragraph).

Inquiry Letter:

First paragraph: Purpose

Refer to background information and the reason for the correspondence.
(main point).

Second paragraph:
Request the specific information you need.
Explanation.

1. Tell the time/dates you expect the requested information.

2. Give your contact information, with a professional statement to contact
Third paragraph: Closing. you with questions or further concerns.
3. Add a simple: Thank you. (The Thank you could be added as
an abbreviated paragraph).

Claim Letter:

First paragraph:
Refer to background information and your claim.
Purpose (main point).

Second paragraph:
Explain how you expect the problem to be resolved.
Explanation.

1. Tell the time/dates you expect a response, informing you of a decision.

2. Give your contact information, with a professional statement to contact
Third paragraph:
you if there are further questions or concerns.
Closing.
3. Add a simple: Thank you. (The Thank you could be added as an
abbreviated paragraph).

Adjustment Letter
(Positive):

First paragraph:
Refer to background information and tell your decision to honor the claim.
Purpose (main point).

Second paragraph:
Explain how you will honor the claim.
Explanation.

1. Tell the time/dates the adjustment can be expected.

2. Give your contact information, with a professional statement to contact
Third paragraph:
you if there are further questions or concerns.
Closing.
3. Add a simple: Thank you. (The Thank you could be added as an
abbreviated paragraph).
 Adjustment Letter
(Negative):

First paragraph: Refer to background information and briefly make a disclaimer to soften the
Background/Disclaimer negative decision.

Second paragraph:
Tell the decision not to honor the claim and explain the decision.
Purpose/Explanation.

1. Give your contact information, with a professional statement to contact

Third paragraph: Closing. you if there are further questions or concerns.
2. Add a simple statement of apology.

Thank You Letter:

First paragraph: The first sentence expresses a simple thank you. This is followed by one or two
Purpose (main point). statements that tell how the gift will benefit its recipients.

Second paragraph:
Confirm your appreciation.
Closing.

Formats for Letters

Two popular formats for writing letters are the Block Format or the Modified Block Format. In a Block Format, the
entire letter is written on the left margin. See this file as an example:

https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/oerfiles/technical+writing/Example+Letter+Block+Format.docx

In Modified Block Format, the body of the letter is written on the left margin, but the date, closing, and the
signature line are just a little to the left of the center. See this file as an example:

https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/oerfiles/technical+writing/Example+Letter+Modified+Block+Format.docx

Note that neither letter is right margin justified. The right edges of both letters show a ragged edge.

We will write all letters in a block format.

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 EXAMPLE LETTERS

Thank You Letter

Safelife Shelter

123 XXX Street · Lincoln, NB 55555

Telephone 555-555-5555

May 10, 2013

Salvador Fuller

2330 XXXX Ave.

Norfolk, VA 55555

Mr. Fuller:

Thank for your donation to Safelife Shelter. Safelife Shelter provides a safe place for women to stay while they
make arrangements to relocate. Your generous donation will benefit many of our guests.

Again, we appreciate your thoughtful gift.

Sincerely,

Lisa Fox, Director

Transmittal Letter
Magnum Consulting Firm Inc.

2112 Caxton Ave.

Virginia Beach, VA. 55555-555

April 29, 2013

Jeff Newell

Teldon Facilities Corp.

207 Wigmar Drive

Norfolk, VA 23451

Dear Mr. Newell:

Enclosed is the feasibility report, completed April 24, 2013, regarding the theft and drug use concerns at your
company. This report includes the research, alternative solutions and recommendations following the problem
analysis dated April 2, 2013.

The facility inspection and interviews conducted on all personnel presently employed at your company were
beneficial to our research. The hiring of an off-site security team at the behalf of our firm’s request was significant
in determining the extent of the problem. Through research conducted by the security team and me, it was
discovered that the stealing of company property was a major concern. The drug screen test conducted by the
security team identified the personnel possibly involved in the theft. Internal research and external research
showed that an extensive background check on prospective employees and an installed security system will
greatly reduce possible theft within the company. In addition, a random drug screen at each quarter can be a
deterrent for further drug use by employees.

If you have any questions or concerns, please contact me at 555-555-5555.

Sincerely,

Salvador Fuller

Senior Consultant

Enclosure: Feasibility Report

Inquiry Letter
THE FOX PAPER AND PRINTING COMPANY

5555 EAST BOUND LANDING

LANDING MA 55555-5555

(555) 555-5555

May 13, 2013

Mr. Salvador Fuller

Shady Pine Construction Company

555 Shady Pine Lane

Richfield, Virginia 55555-5555

Dear Mr. Fuller:

Thank you for your recent order, dated May 9, 2013, for 100 boxes of business cards. Although you attached
company information to be printed on the cards, we need additional information on each employee in order fill
your order.

Please send us the following information on each employee:

• full name,
• position with the company,
• business telephone number,
• fax number,
• e-mail address.

We would appreciate your sending this information by May 21, 2013. We will print your business cards as soon as
we receive this information. If you have any question or concerns, please contact me.

Thank you.

Sincerely,

Elisa D. Fox

Director of Purchasing

Edf/bml
Claim Letter
1234 XXXX Road

Chesapeake VA 55555

May 15, 2013

Mr. Charles Darwin

Bass Pro Shops

4321 XXXX Road

Chesapeake VA 55555

DEFECTIVE GRILL

Dear Mr. Darwin:

I purchased a grill from Bass Pro Shops on May 2, 2013. Your employee XXXX XXXX assisted me and told me it
was the best one on the market. I bought the grill on his word and tried it out on our family camping trip on May 5,
2013. From the beginning I knew something was wrong. The installed starter would not light the grill. I had to light
a match and drop it in to light the grill. While grilling the hamburger, I realized the grill was not producing enough
heat to cook the meat thoroughly. It seemed that the grill was only producing enough gas in to keep a flame but
not enough to produce the heat needed to cook the meat.

When I bought the grill, I was told that it had a one year warranty on it. I would just like to exchange the grill for
one that works properly. If it is not a problem I would like to pick up my new grill next weekend.

I have enclosed copies of my receipts. Please contact me and let me know when I can return the defected grill
and pick up a new one. My phone number is 757-555-5555.

Thank you.

Sincerely,

XXX XXXX

Enclosed: Copies of receipts

Adjustment Letter – Positive
Computers “R” Us

123 XXX Street · Lincoln, NB 55555

Telephone 555-555-5555

April 3, 2013

Lisa Fox

2330 XXXX Ave.

Norfolk, VA 55555

IMPROPERLY ASSEMBLED COMPUTER

Dear Ms. Fox:

Our records indicate that you spoke with one of our Technical Representatives on March 26, 2013 concerning an
improperly assembled AA computer which caused the computer, you purchased from us on March 20, 2013, not
to operate. We have received the pictures that you e-mailed us. From these pictures and the troubleshooting
done by our technical representative, it was determined that some parts will need to be replaced.

We have ordered new parts to correct the problem. As soon as we receive the replacement parts, one of our
service technicians will contact you to make arrangements to come to your residence and make the necessary
repairs.

We apologize for any inconvenience that this has caused you. You are a valued customer, Miss Fox, and we
appreciate your business. Enclosed is a voucher for a 10 percent discount on your next purchase of computer
supplies.

Please contact us with any further concerns.

Sincerely,

Salvador Fuller, Manager

Enclosed: Discount voucher

Adjustment Letter – Negative
Computers “R” Us

123 XXX Street · Lincoln, NB 55555

Telephone 555-555-5555

April 3, 2013

Lisa Fox

2330 XXXX Ave.

Norfolk, VA 55555

IMPROPERLY ASSEMBLED COMPUTER

Dear Ms. Fox:

Our records indicate that you spoke with one of our Technical Representatives on March 26, 2013 concerning an
improperly assembled AA computer which caused the computer, you purchased from us on March 20, 2013, not
to operate properly. We appreciate your business and we apologize for the problem you are having with the
computer.

Although the pictures that you e-mailed us and the troubleshooting done by our technical representative show
that some parts will need to be replaced, we regret that we cannot replace the parts free of charge. It appears
that you purchased the AA computer on sale, without a warranty.

Again, we apologize for any inconvenience that this has caused you. Please contact us with any further

concerns. Sincerely,

Salvador Fuller, Manager

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PROFESSIONAL LETTERS

Beyond the cover letter, you will undoubtedly be faced with the need to write other professional correspondence,
be it by e-mail or envelope. These letters are just as important in that they can also become part of a file devoted
to all of your correspondence with a company or individual. Professional letters you write are likely to be kept in a
file along with your resume as part of your permanent record. Letters are also your opportunity to show
professional courtesy, impress companies with your knowledge of and interest in them, and allow readers to know
you as a person. Good letters humanize you. And employers tend to choose people they feel they know—not
strangers.

In addition to the cover letter, the other types of professional correspondence you are most likely to write include:
• A Query Letter, making a specific request for information.
• A Thank You Letter, expressing thanks for an interview or invited visit.
• An Acknowledgment Letter, acknowledging the receipt of a job offer or some materials.
• A Letter of Decline or Letter of Acceptance, declining or accepting a job offer.
While writing a letter for any of these circumstances, follow the same basic guidelines for tone, appearance,
mechanics, and format as you do for cover letters. However, keep these letters brief—just a few short paragraphs
—so they can be read in one-minute’s time. Using a gracious, professional tone, fill your letter with specifics
particular to the circumstances, for example:
• The date of your previous correspondence or interview.
• The names of any other individuals relevant to the correspondence.
• Details about what action, if any, you want your audience to take.
• Clarifications of any points worth repeating or open to potential misunderstanding.
• Carefully worded, warm, personal remarks, especially if you have had repeated contact with the
same person, and especially if you are asking for a favor.

Follow these guidelines carefully and you can be assured that your letter will inspire your reader to take
appropriate action, whether that is simply to place your letter into a file respectfully or perform a more involved
task that you requested professionally.

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MEMORANDUMS AND LETTERS

Learning Objectives
1. Discuss the purpose and format of a memo.
2. Understand effective strategies for business memos.
3. Describe the fifteen parts of a standard business letter.
4. Access sample business letters and write a sample business letter.

Memos

A memo (or memorandum, meaning “reminder”) is normally used for communicating policies, procedures, or
related official business within an organization. It is often written from a one-to-all perspective (like mass
communication), broadcasting a message to an audience, rather than a one-on-one, interpersonal
communication. It may also be used to update a team on activities for a given project, or to inform a specific
group within a company of an event, action, or observance.

Memo Purpose

A memo’s purpose is often to inform, but it occasionally includes an element of persuasion or a call to action. All
organizations have informal and formal communication networks. The unofficial, informal communication network
within an organization is often called the grapevine, and it is often characterized by rumor, gossip, and innuendo.
On the grapevine, one person may hear that someone else is going to be laid off and start passing the news
around. Rumors change and transform as they are passed from person to person, and before you know it, the
word is that they are shutting down your entire department.

One effective way to address informal, unofficial speculation is to spell out clearly for all employees what is going
on with a particular issue. If budget cuts are a concern, then it may be wise to send a memo explaining the
changes that are imminent. If a company wants employees to take action, they may also issue a memorandum.
For example, on February 13, 2009, upper management at the Panasonic Corporation issued a declaration that
all employees should buy at least $1,600 worth of Panasonic products. The company president noted that if
everyone supported the company with purchases, it would benefit all. [1]
While memos do not normally include a call to action that requires personal spending, they often represent the
business or organization’s interests. They may also include statements that align business and employee interest,
and underscore common ground and benefit.

Memo Format

A memo has a header that clearly indicates who sent it and who the intended recipients are. Pay particular
attention to the title of the individual(s) in this section. Date and subject lines are also present, followed by a
message that contains a declaration, a discussion, and a summary.

In a standard writing format, we might expect to see an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. All these are
present in a memo, and each part has a clear purpose. The declaration in the opening uses a declarative
sentence to announce the main topic. The discussion elaborates or lists major points associated with the topic,
and the conclusion serves as a summary.

Let’s examine a sample memo.

Figure 9.3

Five Tips for Effective Business Memos

Audience Orientation

Always consider the audience and their needs when preparing a memo. An acronym or abbreviation that is known
to management may not be known by all the employees of the organization, and if the memo is to be posted and
distributed within the organization, the goal is clear and concise communication at all levels with no ambiguity.

Professional, Formal Tone

Memos are often announcements, and the person sending the memo speaks for a part or all of the organization.
While it may contain a request for feedback, the announcement itself is linear, from the organization to the
employees. The memo may have legal standing as it often reflects policies or procedures, and may reference an
existing or new policy in the employee manual, for example.
Subject Emphasis

The subject is normally declared in the subject line and should be clear and concise. If the memo is announcing
the observance of a holiday, for example, the specific holiday should be named in the subject line—for
example, use “Thanksgiving weekend schedule” rather than “holiday observance.”

Direct Format

Some written business communication allows for a choice between direct and indirect formats, but memorandums
are always direct. The purpose is clearly announced.

Letters

Letters are brief messages sent to recipients that are often outside the organization. [2] They are often printed on
letterhead paper, and represent the business or organization in one or two pages. Shorter messages may include
e-mails or memos, either hard copy or electronic, while reports tend to be three or more pages in length.

While e-mail and text messages may be used more frequently today, the effective business letter remains a
common form of written communication. It can serve to introduce you to a potential employer, announce a product
or service, or even serve to communicate feelings and emotions. We’ll examine the basic outline of a letter and
then focus on specific products or writing assignments.

All writing assignments have expectations in terms of language and format. The audience or reader may have
their own idea of what constitutes a specific type of letter, and your organization may have its own format and
requirements. This chapter outlines common elements across letters, and attention should be directed to the
expectations associated with your particular writing assignment. There are many types of letters, and many
adaptations in terms of form and content, but in this chapter, we discuss the fifteen elements of a traditional block-
style letter.

Letters may serve to introduce your skills and qualifications to prospective employers, deliver important or
specific information, or serve as documentation of an event or decision. Regardless of the type of letter you need
to write, it can contain up to fifteen elements in five areas. While you may not use all the elements in every case
or context, they are listed in Table 9.1 “Elements of a Business Letter”.

Table 9.1 Elements of a Business Letter

Content Guidelines

This is your address where someone could send a reply. If your letter includes a letterhead
1. Return
with this information, either in the header (across the top of the page) or the footer (along the
Address
bottom of the page), you do not need to include it before the date.

The date should be placed at the top, right or left justified, five lines from the top of the page or
2. Date
letterhead logo.

3.
Like a subject line in an e-mail, this is where you indicate what the letter is in reference to, the
Reference
subject or purpose of the document.
(Re:)

Sometimes you want to indicate on the letter itself how it was delivered. This can make it clear
4. Delivery
to a third party that the letter was delivered via a specific method, such as certified mail (a legal
(Optional)
requirement for some types of documents).

5. Recipient
Note This is where you can indicate if the letter is personal or confidential.
(Optional)
Content Guidelines

A common salutation may be “Dear Mr. (full name).” But if you are unsure about titles (i.e.,
Mrs., Ms., Dr.), you may simply write the recipient’s name (e.g., “Dear Cameron Rai”) followed
by a colon. A comma after the salutation is correct for personal letters, but a colon should be
used in business. The salutation “To whom it may concern” is appropriate for letters of
6. recommendation or other letters that are intended to be read by any and all individuals. If this
Salutation is not the case with your letter, but you are unsure of how to address your recipient, make
every effort to find out to whom the letter should be specifically addressed. For many, there is
no sweeter sound than that of their name, and to spell it incorrectly runs the risk of alienating
the reader before your letter has even been read. Avoid the use of impersonal salutations like
“Dear Prospective Customer,” as the lack of personalization can alienate a future client.

This is your opening paragraph, and may include an attention statement, a reference to the
purpose of the document, or an introduction of the person or topic depending on the type of
letter. An emphatic opening involves using the most significant or important element of the
7.
letter in the introduction. Readers tend to pay attention to openings, and it makes sense to
Introduction
outline the expectations for the reader up front. Just as you would preview your topic in a
speech, the clear opening in your introductions establishes context and facilitates
comprehension.

If you have a list of points, a series of facts, or a number of questions, they belong in the body
of your letter. You may choose organizational devices to draw attention, such as a bullet list, or
simply number them. Readers may skip over information in the body of your letter, so make
8. Body sure you emphasize the key points clearly. This is your core content, where you can outline
and support several key points. Brevity is important, but so is clear support for main point(s).
Specific, meaningful information needs to be clear, concise, and accurate.

An emphatic closing mirrors your introduction with the added element of tying the main points
together, clearly demonstrating their relationship. The conclusion can serve to remind the
reader, but should not introduce new information. A clear summary sentence will strengthen
9. your writing and enhance your effectiveness. If your letter requests or implies action, the
Conclusion conclusion needs to make clear what you expect to happen. It is usually courteous to conclude
by thanking the recipient for his or her attention, and to invite them to contact you if you can be
of help or if they have questions. This paragraph reiterates the main points and their
relationship to each other, reinforcing the main point or purpose.

“Sincerely” or “Cordially” are standard business closing statements. (“Love,” “Yours Truly,” and
“BFF” are closing statements suitable for personal correspondence, but not for business.)
10. Close
Closing statements are normally placed one or two lines under the conclusion and include a
hanging comma, as in Sincerely,

11. Five lines after the close, you should type your name (required) and, on the line below it, your
Signature title (optional).

12.
If the letter was prepared, or word-processed, by someone other than the signatory (you), then
Preparation
inclusion of initials is common, as in MJD or abc.
Line

13. Just like an e-mail with an attachment, the letter sometimes has additional documents that are
Enclosures/ delivered with it. This line indicates what the reader can look for in terms of documents
Attachments included with the letter, such as brochures, reports, or related business documents.

14.
The abbreviation “CC” once stood for carbon copies but now refers to courtesy copies. Just
Courtesy
like a “CC” option in an e-mail, it indicates the relevant parties that will also receive a copy of
Copies or
the document.
“CC”
 Content Guidelines

15. Logo/
A formal business letter normally includes a logo or contact information for the organization in
Contact
the header (top of page) or footer (bottom of page).
Information

Strategies for Effective Letters

Remember that a letter has five main areas:

1. The heading, which establishes the sender, often including address and date
2. The introduction, which establishes the purpose
3. The body, which articulates the message
4. The conclusion, which restates the main point and may include a call to action
5. The signature line, which sometimes includes the contact

information A sample letter is shown in Figure 9.5 “Sample Business Letter”.

Figure 9.5 Sample Business Letter

Always remember that letters represent you and your company in your absence. In order to communicate
effectively and project a positive image,
• be clear, concise, specific, and respectful;
• each word should contribute to your purpose;
• each paragraph should focus on one idea;
• the parts of the letter should form a complete message;
• the letter should be free of errors.
Key Takeaways

• Memos are brief business documents usually used internally to inform or persuade
employees concerning business decisions on policy, procedure, or actions.
• Letters are brief, print messages often used externally to inform or persuade customers, vendors, or
the public.
• A letter has fifteen parts, each fulfilling a specific function.

Exercises
1. Find a memo from your work or business, or borrow one from someone you know. Share it with your
classmates, observing confidentiality by blocking out identifying details such as the name of the
sender, recipient, and company. Compare and contrast.
2. Create a draft letter introducing a product or service to a new client. Post and share with classmates.
3. Write a memo informing your class that an upcoming holiday will be observed. Post and share
with classmates.
4. Find a business letter (for example, an offer you received from a credit card company or a solicitation
for a donation) and share it with your classmates. Look for common elements and points of difference.
5. Now that you have reviewed a sample letter, and learned about the five areas and fifteen basic parts of
any business letter, write a business letter that informs a prospective client or customer of a new
product or service.

[1] Lewis, L. (2009, February 13). Panasonic orders staff to buy £1,000 in products.
Retrieved
fromhttp://business.timesonline.co.uk/tol/business/markets/japan/article5723942.ece

[2] Bovee, C., & Thill, J. (2010). Business communication essentials: a skills-based approach to vital
business English (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
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BUSINESS LETTERS

Business letters are written messages to a person or group within a professional setting. Business letters are
used when the writer would like to be formal and professional. Letters may vary in length depending on the
writer’s objective, purpose, and message of the letter. The letter can address anyone including, but not limited to:
clients and customers, managers, agencies, suppliers, and other business personnel or organizations. It is
important to remember that any business letter is a legal document between the interested parties. These
documents can be held for up to seven years, so it is important that all information is honest and legitimate.

The Difference Between a Business letter and other letters

The main thing that differentiates a business letter from other letters is that a business letter is a legal document.
The writer can be held liable for anything written in the letter. For example, if it is stated that a project will be
completed by a certain date in a business letter, the project legally must be completed by that date. However, if
the project can’t be completed by that date, another letter can be written stating that the project is behind
schedule and why. For this reason, business letters must be written differently than letters used for personal use.

A business letter is used primarily to request or provide information, to relate a deal, to bring or continue
conversation, and/or to discuss prior negotiations. A business letter can be classified as private, however, it is
typically not circulated to others, but rather meant for the eyes of the participants involved. Therefore, a business
letter needs to be clear, focused, and to the point. When writing a business letter, the author should avoid
interjecting personal stories.

A business letter needs to be concise and clear. Being too wordy is the biggest downfall in this form of writing.
Keep sentences short and precise. Avoid over using adjectives and adverbs that distract from the focus of the
message. Organize the letter from most important subjects to least. The content of the letter should be persuasive
and usable. The tone of the letter should be formal and professional.

Also, in a business letter, it is preferable to use personal singular pronouns like “I” and “you”. Avoid using plural
pronouns like “we” since it can mislead the audience to assume that the company supports the message of the
letter. In addition, personal pronouns are easier to understand, because it directly refers to the parties
involved.

Formatting Your Business Letter

• Use single spacing. NEVER use double spaces within the business letter.
• Use a simple format with font that is easy to read.
• For block, and modified block formats use single spaces.
• Leave a blank line between each paragraph. This makes it easier to follow the changes of topics
within the letter.

The Introduction
• This paragraph should introduce why you are writing the letter and sum up the key points in the
following paragraphs.
• Include a statement that shows you are knowledgeable of the audience to which your letter is directed.

The Body
• Provide background or history regarding the purpose of the letter.
• Talk about key points you are making.
• Include a justification of the importance of the main points.
• List any important dates, discussions, and conversations that are relevant.
• Ask questions, if necessary.

Conclusion
• Summarize the main points of the letter.
• Restate the problem and resolution if pertinent.
• Include deadlines.
• Provide contact information (Email, Phone Number, Fax, Etc…).

Closing Salutation

It is important to take into account your audience when ending any business document. Being both respectful and
professional are two important elements of your ending salutation. You must remember that each employer, boss,
or co-worker may have different expectations as to what is acceptable as a proper salutation. A few general
ending salutations deemed professional include:
• Sincerely,
• Respectfully yours,
• Yours truly,
• Best,

These should be used with individuals whom you do not have a relationship with, new co-workers, potential
clients, or a large email to a wide variety of individuals. When you are sending a business document to an
individual to whom you are accustomed, your salutation should change. Consider a professional salutation, which
is not too formal. Examples include:
• Kind regards,
• Best regards,
• Many thanks,
• With appreciation,
• Best wishes,
When in doubt about which type of salutation should be used, a simple “Thanks” or Thank you” is always
appropriate.

“Signature Block”
Always close a letter. ‘Sincerely’ would be the safest way to close out a business letter. On a typed business
letter, following the closing, you should leave a space to sign your name with a pen. This will allow for a more
personal touch on an otherwise bland letter. This is the only handwriting on the paper so make sure the signature
is clear. Below this personal signature should be your typed first and last name to allow for easy reading. After
this you can include anything else that the reader may need to know. This could include anything from job title,
identification, a notation that there are copies attached at the bottom of the document, or other contact
information, such as e-mail address or business phone number.

Tips on Writing Business Letters

• Address the reader formally (Mr., Miss, or Mrs.) unless otherwise directed.
• Address the letter to a specific person whenever possible, and not the company so it does not
get discarded.
• Use a colon after the salutation if using the reader’s last name and a comma if using their first name.
• Use company letterhead to make the document more professional, if the document is related
to company affairs.
• Use a subject line to inform the reader quickly of the documents content.
• Sign your name in ink neatly at the bottom, between the closing and the Electronic Signature of
the document.
• If a letter does not fill an entire page, put be sure the content of the letter is in the middle of is the
page and the document is balanced.
• Be sure to list the people on the letter that you are sending copies to so a certain individual is not left out.
• It is okay to use specific pronouns, such as “I” and “You”, but be careful when using “We”. This is
simply because it can commit your company to what you have written.
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 DESCRIPTIVE AND PRESCRIPTIVE
REPORTS

REPORTS OVERVIEW

In this learning unit, students will learn about writing 4 major kinds of reports:
• Instructional Descriptive Reports
• Instructional Prescriptive Reports
• Classification Reports
• Partition Reports

The Instructional Descriptive Report is a 2nd Person Instructional Report,

meaning that it is written using the 2nd person voice (the understood “you”)
and tells its reader how to do something.

The Instructional Prescriptive Report, on the other hand, is a 3rd person

Process Report. It is written using the 3rd person voice (employing the
pronouns he/ she/ it/ they) and tells how something is done.

A Classification Report classifies similar items into categories according to

related components.

A Partition Report divides a single item into categories.

The findings of reports are often presented through live interactions in a

workplace, and so this unit includes preparation for an informative/
instructional presentation as well.

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 COMPOSING BUSINESS REPORTS AND
PROPOSALS

Business reports are used as a way of communicating to other businesses and investors the successes and
future plans of the company. Therefore, business reports are
essential to every company. Typically, a business report will
start with a formal introduction that states a problem the
business aims to solve. Then, the body of the report gives
facts and hypothesis used to solve these problem/s. The
conclusion will tie up all loose ends and give goals to be
reached in future business ventures.

Writing A Business Report

When writing a business report, it is important to remember
the following tips:
• Know the audience that will be reading the report.
• Use a professional and objective business style.
• Include factual information that proves your statements.
• Organize this factual data in easy-to-read charts and graphs.
• Keep all sections well-organized and in an easy-to-navigate fashion.

Audience
The audience of the report should be identified early in the writing process. An audience’s background,
knowledge, and need for the information need to be characterized for the report to be usable. Further questions
as to why the audience needs this information should also be identified. What circumstances brought about the
need for this information? In answering these questions early in the writing process, the author will be able to
anticipate questions the reader might have.

Purpose
Remember when compiling a business report that it needs to hold the interest of the reader. To accomplish this
goal, one must be attentive to the overall design. There should be enough factual information to make the report
credible, but not so much dry, technical language as to lose the reader on the first page. By interspersing charts,
graphs, and pictures, the author will increase the likelihood that the report will hold the reader’s interest and focus.

It is always a beneficial to begin the report with an eye-catching picture or question. This can persuade the reader
to read further to find the answer or to see how the picture fits into the overall report. After this, it is important to
include factual data. If possible, ask questions of the reader throughout. This allows the reader to become more
involved in the overall process, which keeps their attention. A business report should be written assuming the
reader has little knowledge of the company because these reports are read by those in and out of the
organization. Business reports should have a cohesive message so readers to not draw incorrect conclusions.

Graphics
It is important to include graphics in a report. Graphics are visual descriptions of information that can be easily
understood by the reader. In many work settings the audience is a business professional with limited time.
Various graphics can help to convey the pertinent information quickly. It is important to take the reader centered
approach when creating graphics. Consider your audience and what information you want to convey. Examples of
graphics are:
• pie charts: Pie charts are useful for showing different portions or divisions of a whole. For
example, showing what percentages of expenses come from which department in a company.
• bar graphs: Bar graphs can be used to show the amounts or frequency of occurrence of
different characteristics of data.
• trend graphs: Trend graphs show how data is distributed over time. Trend graphs are also known as
X/Y scatter plots.
• pictures: Pictures and illustrations are useful in manuals or instructions to show the subject you
are writing about. They can also make a document more interesting and intriguing.

Graphics are powerful tools in report writing but they are not always appropriate. If there is not a place for a graph
or other graphic in the report do not try to force one in. Not only will an unnecessary graph clutter a report, it will
weaken your credibility. Take care to make sure that the graphic you choose delivers the message and
information you want.

Factual Detail
A good report includes factual details that support the purpose of the report. Keep the reader in mind when
selecting these details because too many technical details may be difficult to understand. The details should
support the purpose of the report and be necessary for the reader to be persuaded.

Research Methods
While composing a business report or any report requiring factual information it is important to conduct research.
By using credible information you will establish credibility, meet your reader’s needs, and persuade your
audience. The following are 5 methods of conducting research.

Using your memory and creativity to explore ideas

• Brainstorming, free writing, or creating flow charts, matrices, or cluster sketches

Internet
• Using search engines or internet directories. Be careful during this to ensure proper citation and the sights
you are getting information from are credible sources and not just a bloggers opinion.

Libraries

• Using indexes, references, government documents, or computerized full-text sources

Interviewing

• Conducting a face-to-face interview or telephone interview. Make sure you know something about the person
or have a reference. People are generally more willing to set up interviews when they are not “cold calls”

Surveys

• Conducting a survey to retrieve information from a large group of people. When dealing with the
results, remember who it is that you surveyed to see if there could be skewed results.

Documentation
Information borrowed from another source needs to be cited. Variations of citation methods can be used for the
report. The most important part is making sure to include citations. Not only will you lose credibility among
colleges for plagiarism, you can be sued and fined by the original author.

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PROCEDURE AND PROCESS REPORTS

Explanatory Reports
There are two types of explanatory reports: a Procedure Explanation (which is a 2 nd Person Instructional Report),
and a Process Explanation. These reports do not give opinions, only the explanation on how to do something or
how something is done.

A Procedure Explanation directly tells how to perform the steps, using the second-person you, whereas the
Process Explanation explains how the steps are/were performed, using either the first-person I / we, or third-
person he/she/it/they.

nd
Procedure Explanation/2 Person Instructional Report
As an example, if I were stranded on the interstate with a flat tire and needed to know how to change it, I might
call you and you would give me step-by-step instructions that I would need to follow. This would be a Procedure
Instructional Explanation, using the second person (understood you):

1. Open the trunk.

2. Remove the jack.

3. Etc.
Process Explanation
Process Explanations can be classified into three categories: Processes in which people are the agents of the action;
Processes in which machines are the agents of the action, and Processes in which nature is the agent of the
action. These reports are referred to as Third Person Instructional Reports.

Examples
Processes by People

If I knew you had been stranded on the interstate, I might ask how you fixed your flat tire. You would tell me step-by-
step how you did this (using the first person I), but never expect me to do it.

1. I opened the trunk.

2. I removed the jack.

3. Etc.
I might ask you how cars are assembled. You would tell me step-by-step how this is done (using the third person,
they), but never expect me to do it.

Processes by Machines

You may need to explain how a fax machine works. You would explain step-by-step how this machine works
(using the third person, it).

Processes by Nature

You may explain beach erosion, explaining the step-by-step process (using the third person, it).
Note that headings, subheadings, and visuals are important in instructional reports. Procedure reports (2 nd person
Instructional reports), will have major steps, followed by a sub steps and markers. Process reports will have
headings, subheading, and markers. Both reports will have visuals.

See the following example:

OER Example 2nd Person Instructional Report: https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/oerfiles/technical+writing/

Example+2nd+PERSON+Meter+Review+and+Update+Procedures+with+Notes+2.doc

(Note major headings that categorize the steps into 5 major categories, with each major category followed by
its steps and sub steps.

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INSTRUCTIONS AND PROCESS REPORTS

“Instructions & Process Reports” was written by Joseph Moxley

“How is this done? How can I do this?”– These questions guide authors as they describe
processes. Learn how to write instructions and processes so that readers know how to do
something or understand how something is done. By viewing sample process texts, note
the focus on the objective voice, numbered steps, visual rhetoric, and clever animations
or video. Write a descriptive or prescriptive process report.

There are three types of process texts:

1. Descriptive processes answer “How is this done?” These texts describe how a process occurs so
that readers can understand it better.
2. Prescriptive processes are instructions; they explain “How can I do this?” In other words, they
prescribe how something should be done so that readers can do it.
3. Blended descriptive and prescriptive processes make the main thrust of the document a descriptive
process while having a few call-out boxes summarizing how the readers can perform the process. In
other words, writers may address both “How can I do this?” and “How is this done?” in different parts of
one text. Alternatively, they might develop different versions of the same document for two audiences–
an audience of users and an audience of interested parties.

Go to this link for the video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MB_rcmmpC6s

Why Write About Processes?

Process texts are extremely common in school and professions. In school, teachers frequently assign process
assignments. For example, humanities professors may ask for a description of how an artistic or literary period
evolved; history professors, the contributions of a culture’s leaders over time; social science professors, the
chronology of inventions; engineering professors, explanations of how sound is changed into electrical signals;
business professors, how the Federal Reserve works or how to sell a product.

On a daily basis, we read descriptive processes. Intelligent people are inquisitive; they want to understand how
things work. Last year, for example, over three million readers a month accessed How Stuff Works, a Web site
containing thousands of process essays. We routinely read processes, including recipes, user manuals for new
software, or advice columns on how to lose weight or how to succeed in school or a profession. People are
always wondering about things, wondering how computers work, how grass grows, how heart disease occurs,
how far the human eye can see, and so on.
Instructions: Use the sections below, as directed by your instructor, to learn about writing processes. Read
sample process reports and write your own process-driven project.

Writers of process texts are practicing what specialists call “expository writing” or “explanatory writing.” These
texts focus on answering one of the following questions: “How is this done? How can I do this?”

Diverse Rhetorical Situations

Most prescriptive and descriptive processes are written to explain how something works. Most processes are
written in chronological order and most rely extensively on visuals. To promote clarity, writers often number
particular steps in a process. When the topic is learning a software program, writers use screenshots and call-
outs and screen movies to walk a user through the tutorial.

Nonetheless, other purposes and organizational schemes are available. Writers may speculate about whether a
process exists; they may argue a process exists with the intention of selling the reader something.

While the topics of process reports may be diverse, the rhetorical stance of most process reports tends to be
more uniform than the rhetorical stance of other projects, as illustrated below.
Process Texts Purposes Audiences Voices Media
Descriptive Process Analysis
• Explain, speculate, or argue about “How is this done?”
• Students
• Researchers
• Curious people
• Objective
• Imperative
• Authoritative
• Essays
• Newspapers
• Magazines
• Web sites
• Video

Prescriptive Process Analysis

• Explain “How can I do this?”
• Technicians
• Users
• Decision makers
• Objective
• Imperative
• Authoritative
• Essays
• User manuals
• Policy manuals
• Tutorials
• Web sites
• Videos

Rhetorical Analysis of Online Readings

Analyze the Web sites annotated below. Consider the context, audience, purpose, and media invoked by the
following readings. Also examine how ideas are developed in these texts. Are assertions grounded in personal
experience, interviews with authorities, questionnaires, Internet and library research, or empirical research?

1. Instruction Processes: Recipes and Physical Processes

• How Pencils Are Made:Using an objective voice and extensive graphics, this piece is written to
explain how pencils are made–not for future pencil makers but for interested readers.
• Yoga Postures Step-by-Step: Santosha.com provides a searchable database of yoga postures. The
description of each posture is supplemented by animations that show a figure doing the postures
correctly. Presumably, readers will do more than read about the postures: they will try them!

2. Instruction Processes: Software Tutorials

Do you have a question about how to use a software tool, such as Microsoft Word, FrontPage, DreamWeaver, or
HTML? As you can imagine, given the growth of the Internet and information technologies, tutorials and user
manuals are exceedingly commonplace on the Internet. Below are links to several worthwhile sites.
• ToolsforWriters: Authored by writing students at the University of South Florida, this e-zine includes
many tutorials on using software tools, including Microsoft Word, FrontPage, and Excel. Most of
these tutorials have screen shots and call-outs, highlighting important steps.
 • Catalyst: How To Documents. Authored by Center for Teaching, Learning and Technology at the
University of Washington, “Catalyst is an integrated collection of resources, training, tools,
templates, and support to help educators make effective use of technology in teaching.”

3. Instruction Processes: Personal Development

Do you ever have difficulties finding balance in your life–eating well, exercising regularly, balancing school with
work? The Internet provides many “development” Web sites that are designed to help you change your life:
• Zen: The Seat of Enlightenment. The Zen Mountain Monastery provides a description of Zen
meditation, including photographs and animated examples of breathing postures. From this site,
readers can learn about The Zen Mountain Monastery, perhaps becoming sufficiently interested to
enroll in some of the institute’s seminars.
• Ten Steps to Attract a Life Partner. Using a list form to organize her text, Katherin Scott, a personal
development coach, outlines strategies for finding a life partner. From this site, readers can purchase
coaching documents or inquire about workshops, so you could argue this text is written–in part–to
sell the author’s expertise.
• Don’t Ask Me Where I’m Going. I’m Busy Driving. Steve Kaye writes this six-step guide to
asserting control over your life for readers of Fluid Power Journal, a journal for engineers.

4. Instruction Processes: Academic Processes

Choosing majors, getting good grades, securing internships, researching topics–these topics are commonly
addressed on university Web sites. You can go to your college’s home page and search for career resources,
search the Internet, or consider the following examples to help you choose a career or do well in school:
• Undergraduate Advising at the University of Washington presents “How to Choose a Major and
Investigate a Career.” Written for students, this site provides links to University of Washington
resources as well as national resources.
• As a service to its students, Cornell University publishes ” The Seven Steps of the
Research Process,”employing a hypertextual format.
• Using a hypertextual format, Duke University provides a guide similar to Cornell’s guide to the
research process, also outlining seven steps: Guide to Library Research. In addition, the Duke guide
provides a drop-down menu that addresses specific questions students pose when facing research
assignments.
• Using internal hyperlinks, Athabasca University, a Canadian distance education university, provides The
AU Library Guide to the Research Process.

5. Theoretical Processes: Psychological or Educational Development

Educators and psychologists have propounded many models of cognitive, moral, social, and intellectual
development. Below are some links to some major theorists whose models of development have captured the
imagination of others.
• Lawrence Kholberg’s model of ethical development is well presented on the Internet.
• The University of Illinois at Chicago presents a brief introduction to Kholberg and other
developmental psychologists: Moral Development and Moral Education: An Overview.
• Kohlberg’s Moral Dilemmas (at Haverford College)
• William Perry’s Scheme of Intellectual and Ethical Development.
• Meet Your Students by Richard M. Felder.

*Some articles are used across multiple genres and disciplines.

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• Instructions & Process Reports. Authored by: Joseph Moxley. Provided by: Writing Commons. Located at: http://writingcommons.org/open-text/genres/professional-business-and-technical-writing/instructions-
process- reports. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives

All rights reserved content

• How to Use Aspirin in Unusual Ways. Authored by: Howcast. Located at: http://youtu.be/MB_rcmmpC6s. License: All Rights Reserved. License Terms: Standard YouTube License
 EXAMPLES OF INSTRUCTIONAL AND
PROCESS REPORTS

Prescriptive Process 3rd Person Instructional: How Pencils are Made

http://www.pencilpages.com/articles/make.htm

Blended Prescriptive 2nd Person Instructional with Prescriptive Explanation: The Salutation Pose

http://www.santosha.com/anjaneya.html

Blended Descriptive 2nd Person Instructional with Prescriptive Explanation: How to Find Resources

http://guides.library.cornell.edu/sevensteps
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 CLASSIFICATION AND PARTITION
REPORTS

CLASSIFICATION REPORTS AND PARTITION

REPORTS OVERVIEW

Of the seven common patterns of organization (Formal classification, informal classification,

comparison, partitioning, segmenting, cause/effect, and problem/solution) we will cover two: Formal
Classification and Partitioning.

Classification and Partition Reports are used to organize information into categories for easy analysis. While
a classification report or a partition report is usually a part of a report that organizes data into sections for
analysis, a classification analysis or a partition analysis can be a separate report, depending on the request.

The information presented in each section of the report must be parallel to other sections and exclusive to each
specific section of analysis. Information in any section is not to be compared with information in another section;
the information in any section must be able to stand alone. This is important to avoid complicated access to
information.

First, a parallel structure provides a pattern for a reader to follow. Second, information that is exclusive to each
section provides a reader access to the information from any section without having to take time scanning text in
other sections. Each section must present information on one item or part. Thus, categories in a classification
report or a partition report present information that is parallel, exclusive, non-overlapping, and complete. Do not
give opinions or use subjective words that suggest opinions, such as expensive, small, comfortable. Just offer the
facts.

A focused title provides a guide for the information needed in a classification or partition report. In addition, if the
classification or partition is a separate report, an outline prefaces the report, which includes the introduction. The
body of the report is formatted in sections, using headings, subheadings, and
a visual that presents an overview of the reported data. This visual is
presented after the introduction. A conclusion is usually not needed.

The difference between a Classification Report and a Partition Report is that

the Classification Report organizes many similar subjects into groups and
analyzes these subjects according to their specific parts. The Partition Report
organizes the parts of a single subject and analyzes these parts according to
their components.

Access the following file for an example of a Classification Report. Note that
the major headings, sub headings, markers, and content following a parallel
structure. In addition, note that only facts are presented. The report does
not use subjective wording or offer opinions.
https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/oerfiles/technical+writing/
Example+Classification+Report.doc

Access the following file for an examples of Partition Reports. Note that
the sub groups of a Classification Report details the contents of partition
reports for each group. Also note that the major headings, sub
headings, markers, and content of each partition follows a parallel structure.
In addition, note that only facts are presented. The reports do not use subjective wording or offer opinions.

https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/oerfiles/technical+writing/Example+Partition+Report.doc

The use of a diagram that visually details Classification Reports or Partition Reports add a reference for a report’s
text. These diagrams usually show contents in hierarchal structures, linear structures, or layout
mapping. When creating a visual that represents a report text, remember that the visual and text are mutually
exclusive. Although the visual and text complement each other, each can stand alone. Each presents the same
information in different formats.

See the following example of a Partition Report that details an Evacuation Plan. Note that both the diagram shows
the reader the exact same details the text explains to the reader.

https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/oerfiles/technical+writing/Example+Partition+Evacuation+Plan.docx

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• Image of paper leaves. Authored by: Borislav Dimitrov. Located at: https://flic.kr/p/9aVKsM. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
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ORGANIZATIONAL PATTERNS

There are seven different patterns that are commonly used to organize documents: Formal classification, informal
classification, comparison, partitioning, segmenting, cause/effect, and problem/solution. Which organizational
pattern is used will depend on the type of document that is being composed; however, the goal of effective
organizing is to make the document easier to use, and several organizational patterns are often used in a single
document.
Formal Classification
Formal classification is simply grouping facts together based on their common attributes. Each group is often
divided into subgroups enabling the facts to be precisely
classified. Formal classification requires that each fact can
only be present in one grouping, and each grouping must
follow the same principle. For example, to classify three
animals, each animal should only fit into one group. A tiger,
wolf, and zebra could be grouped into categories such as
feline, canine, and equine. Each grouping follows the same
principle of grouping the animals according to their biological
family. A faulty classification would be feline, canine, and
mammal because feline and canine are biological families
and mammal refers to a biological class. Still further, each
species can be broken up into subgroups and divisions like
in cattle, Herefords and Jerseys are both cattle, but one is a
beef animal and the other is a dairy animal.

Informal Classification
Informal classification can help you create a reader-centered communication when you need to organize
information about a large number of items but find it impossible or undesirable to classify them according to the
kind of objective characteristic that is necessary for formal classification.

Informal classification differs from formal classification because the groupings need not follow a consistent
principle of classification; however, like formal classification, each fact should still only fit into one grouping. For
example, a tiger, wolf, and zebra could be classified into canines and African mammals. The groupings do not
follow a consistent principle, but each animal can only be grouped into one category. Informal classification is a
valid organizational pattern and can be very useful to readers when properly used.

Partitioning
Partitioning refers to describing an object. If a document must be written about
a bicycle, a writer may divide the description into the smaller parts of the
bicycle. A writer may first describe the braking system, then the gear system,
then the frame, seat, and tires. By dividing the document into smaller parts,
information becomes easier to locate and the document becomes more useful
to the reader.

Guidelines for Describing an Object

1. Choose a principle of classification suited to your readers and purpose.

2. Use only one basis for partitioning at a time.
3. Arrange the parts of your description in a way your readers will find useful.
4. When describing each part, provide details that your readers will find useful.
5. Include graphics if they will help your readers understand and use your information about the object.

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 CLASSIFYING

Organize information into logical groups.

As with describing, narrating, defining, and comparing, classifying is a component of all writing genres. Just as
writers pause to describe ideas and events or define new concepts in most documents, they routinely classify
information–that is, show or tell readers how information can be grouped into categories.

Occasionally, an entire document focuses on explaining a taxonomy–that is, a scheme of classification.

Why Classify Information?

To make knowledge, we routinely categorize information. A biologist might refer to the periodic table. A musician
might speak about country music, new age music, jazz, or techno. A movie critic might talk about suspense,
thriller, drama, or comedic movies. A religious studies professor might discuss Christian religions, Muslim sects,
and Buddhist practices. As a college student, you might talk about specific colleges’ sports teams according to the
divisions their teams play in. Universities often subdivide areas of specialty according to the following categories:
1. Natural sciences
• Agriculture
• Geology
• Biology
• Zoology

2. Social sciences
• Psychology
• Political Science
• Sociology
• Anthropology
• Social work

3. Applied science
• Biomedicine
• Mathematics
• Chemistry
• Engineering
• Physics

4. Humanities
• English literature
• American studies
• History
• Interdisciplinary studies
• Modern languages
• Architecture
• Art history

5. Fine arts
• Painting
• Sculpture
• Ceramics
• Theater
 Licensing & Attributions
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COMPARING AND CONTRASTING

Define content by comparing and contrasting categories or classes of objects.

Comparing and contrasting issues can be a powerful way to organize and understand knowledge. Typically,
comparing and contrasting require you to define a class or category of objects and then define their similarities
and differences.

Comparing and contrasting are very natural processes, a

strategy we employ in our everyday lives to understand
ideas and events. We learn new ideas by comparing the
new ideas with what we’ve learned in the past. We
understand differences between people and events by
comparing new events and people to past people and
events. Comparisons are often conducted to prove that one
concept or object is superior to another. People selling a
grant idea or business proposal or people marketing a
product may compare and contrast one idea or product to
another, advocating their position. As consumers, we
routinely compare and contrast. For example, you could
compare MP3 players by going to an online site and noting
different brands, products, descriptions, prices, shipping
costs, dealer rankings, and the states of the dealers. You
could compare used cars by noting their make/model, cost,Consumer Reports ranking, and availability. Students
are frequently asked to compare and contrast topics for essay examinations. In fact, comparing and contrasting
are extremely common academic exercises.

How to Effectively Compare and Contrast Information

When comparing and contrasting, you can either chunk or sequence your analysis. When you chunk you
analysis, you first talk about Choice A, explicating whatever points you wish, and then discuss Choice B,
elaborating as necessary. For example, if you were comparing the Miami Hurricanes football team to the
Nebraska Cornhuskers, you could have a paragraph or so about the Hurricanes and then move on to
the Cornhuskers.

Alternatively, when sequencing, you flipflop your analysis, discussing one component of Choice A and Choice B,
then another component of Choice A and Choice B, and so on. For example, if you were arguing who would make
a better president, George W. Bush or Al Gore, you could discuss Bush and Gore’s views on the environment,
then their views on health care reform, taxation, and so on.

People seem to find texts that sequence information easier to follow than texts that chunk information, perhaps
because each unit of analysis is compared tit for tat. In other words, you don’t need to hold in your memory what
the writer said about Subject A, Topic 3 while reading Subject B, Topics 1 and 2.
 Chunking Sequencing

Choice A Choice B
I. Subject A I. Topic 1
A. Topic 1
A.
Subject A
B. Topic 2 B.

Subject A II. Topic 2

C. Topic 3
A.
II. Subject B
A. Topic 1 B.

Subject B III. Topic 3

A. Topic 1
A.
Subject B
A. Topic 1 B.

Example

• Fact Sheet: Airline security: Federalizing workers at issue for lawmakers by CNN.
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 INFORMATIVE PRESENTATIONS

INSTRUCTIONAL PRESENTATION
OVERVIEW

Oral Presentation

The format for the Instructional Oral Presentation is Introduction, Body and Conclusion.

In the introduction, you must

• tell the audience how the presentation is meaningful to them,
• show openness
• tell how the presentation relates to past experiences of the audience
• tell your expertise regarding the topic/issue.

The presentation of these steps is referred to as the MORE (+E) principle: Meaningful to audience, Openness of
speaker, Relates to past experiences, Expertise of the speaker on the subject, and the speaker Evaluated the
audience (knows what the level of the audience’s knowledge of the topic/issue is).

First, the speaker must make the presentation meaningful to the audience, so they want to listen. If the p
resentation is not meaningful, there is no reason to listen.
Second, the speaker must be open to show that he/she is
willing to have the audience be a part of the presentation in
order to win the confidence and support of the audience.
Third, the speaker must make the subject relative to the
audience’s experience, so the audience can draw parallels
in order to create interest in the subject and a better
understanding of the material. Fourth, the speaker must
relay expert knowledge to make him/her credible. Expert
knowledge can be personal experiences of the speaker and/
or researched information. The speaker must provide the
source of the expert information. Last, it is important that the
speaker evaluate the audience to judge how much the
audience may/may not know about the subject. It may be
necessary to revise slightly the presentation, leaving out
emphasis or adding emphasis, to keep the presentation relative to the audience’s understanding.

The body of the presentation begins with what you want the audience to know, and presents the instruction.

The conclusion of the presentation briefly summarizes the steps in the body.

An instructional report simply gives instruction. Do not add your opinion regarding benefits or consequences. Just
give the instructions on how to do something.

See the following example:

https://s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/oerfiles/technical+writing/
Example+Informative+Oral+Presentation+Installing+a+hard+drive.doc
 Licensing & Attributions
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FUNCTIONS OF THE PRESENTATION TO

INFORM

Learning Objectives
1. Describe the functions of the speech to inform.
2. Explain the difference between exposition and interpretation.

Informative presentations focus on helping the audience to understand a topic, issue, or technique more clearly.
You might say, “Is that all?” and the answer is both yes and no. An affirmative response underscores the idea that
informative speeches do not seek to motivate the audience to change their minds, adopt a new idea, start a new
habit, or get out there and vote. They may, however, inform audiences on issues that may be under consideration
in an election or referendum. On the other hand, a negative response reaffirms the idea that to communicate a
topic, issue, or subject clearly is a challenge in itself and shouldn’t be viewed as a simplistic process. There are
distinct functions inherent in a speech to inform, and you may choose to use one or more of these functions in
your speech. Let’s take a look at the functions and see how they relate to the central objective of facilitating
audience understanding.

Share

The basic definition of communication highlights the process of understanding and sharing meaning. An
informative speech follows this definition in the aspect of sharing content and information with an audience. You
won’t be asking the audience to actually do anything in terms of offering a response or solving a problem. Instead
you’ll be offering to share with the audience some of the information you have gathered relating to a topic. This
act of sharing will reduce ignorance, increase learning, and facilitate understanding of your chosen topic.

Increase Understanding

How well does your audience grasp the information? This should be a guiding question to you on two levels. The
first involves what they already know—or don’t know—about your topic, and what key terms or ideas might be
necessary for someone completely unfamiliar with your topic to grasp the ideas you are presenting. The second
involves your presentation and the illustration of ideas. A bar chart, a pie graph, and a video clip may all serve you
and the audience well, but how will each ingredient in your speech contribute to their understanding? The
audience will respond to your attention statement and hopefully maintain interest, but how will you take your
speech beyond superficial coverage of content and effectively communicate key relationships that increase
understanding? These questions should serve as a challenge for your informative speech, and by looking at your
speech from an audience-oriented perspective, you will increase your ability to increase the audience’s
understanding.

Change Perceptions

How you perceive stimuli has everything to do with a range of factors that are unique to you. We all want to make
sense of our world, share our experiences, and learn that many people face the same challenges we do. Many
people perceive the process of speaking in public as a significant challenge, and in this text, we have broken
down the process into several manageable steps. In so doing, we have to some degree changed your perception
of public speaking. When you present your speech to inform, you may want to change the audience member’s
perceptions of your topic. You may present an informative speech on air pollution and want to change common
perceptions such as the idea that most of North America’s air pollution comes from private cars, or that nuclear
power plants are a major source of air pollution. You won’t be asking people to go out and vote, or change their
choice of automobiles, but you will help your audience change their perceptions of your topic.

Gain Skills

Just as you want to increase the audience’s understanding, you may want to help the audience members gain
skills. If you are presenting a speech on how to make salsa from fresh ingredients, your audience may thank you
for not only the knowledge of the key ingredients and their preparation but also the product available at the
conclusion. If your audience members have never made their own salsa, they may gain a new skill from your
speech. In the same way, perhaps you decide to inform your audience about eBay, a person-to-person
marketplace much like a garage sale in which items are auctioned or available for purchase over the Internet. You
may project onto a screen in class the main Web site and take the audience through a step-by-step process on
how to sell an item. The audience may learn an important skill, clean out the old items in their garage, and buy
new things for the house with their newfound skills. Your intentions, of course, are not to argue that salsa is better
than ketchup or that eBay is better than Amazon, but to inform the audience, increasing their understanding of the
subject, and in this case, gaining new skills.

Exposition versus Interpretation

When we share information informally, we often provide our own perspective and attitude for our own reasons.
But when we set out to inform an audience, taking sides or using sarcasm to communicate attitude may divide
the audience into groups that agree or disagree with the speaker. The speech to inform the audience on a topic,
idea, or area of content is not intended to be a display of attitude and opinion. Consider the expectations of
people who attend a formal dinner. Will they use whatever fork or spoon they want, or are there expectations of
protocol and decorum? In any given communication context there are expectations, both implicit and explicit. If
you attend a rally on campus for health care reform, you may expect the speaker to motivate you to urge the
university to stop investing in pharmaceutical companies, for example. On the other hand, if you enroll in a
biochemistry course, you expect a teacher to inform you about the discipline of biochemistry—not to convince
you that pharmaceutical companies are a good or bad influence on our health care system.

The speech to inform is like the classroom setting in that the goal is to inform, not to persuade, entertain, display
attitude, or create comedy. If you have analyzed your audience, you’ll be better prepared to develop appropriate
ways to gain their attention and inform them on your topic. You want to communicate thoughts, ideas, and
relationships and allow each listener specifically, and the audience generally, to draw their own conclusions. The
speech to inform is all about sharing information to meet the audience’s needs, not your own. While you might
want to inform them about your views on politics in the Middle East, you’ll need to consider what they are here to
learn from you and let your audience-oriented perspective guide you as you prepare.

Exposition

This relationship between informing as opposed to persuading your audience is often expressed in terms of
exposition versus interpretation. Exposition means a public exhibition or display, often expressing a complex topic
in a way that makes the relationships and content clear. Expository prose is writing to inform; you may have been
asked to write an expository essay in an English course or an expository report in a journalism course. The goal is
to communicate the topic and content to your audience in ways that illustrate, explain, and reinforce the overall
content to make your topic more accessible to the audience. The audience wants to learn about your topic and
may have some knowledge on it as you do. It is your responsibility to consider ways to display the information
effectively.

Interpretation and Bias

Interpretation involves adapting the information to communicate a message, perspective, or agenda. Your insights
and attitudes will guide your selection of material, what you focus on, and what you delete (choosing what not to
present to the audience). Your interpretation will involve personal bias. Bias is an unreasoned or not-well-thought-
out judgment. Bias involves beliefs or ideas held on the basis of conviction rather than current evidence. Beliefs
are often called “habits of the mind” because we come to rely on them to make decisions. Which is the better,
cheapest, most expensive, or the middle-priced product? People often choose the middle-priced product and use
the belief “if it costs more it must be better” (and the opposite: “if it is cheap it must not be very good”). The
middle-priced item, regardless of actual price, is often perceived as “good enough.” All these perceptions are
based on beliefs, and they may not apply to the given decision or even be based on any evidence or rational
thinking.

By extension, marketing students learn to facilitate the customer “relationship” with the brand. If you come to
believe a brand stands for excellence, and a new product comes out under that brand label, you are more likely to
choose it over an unknown or lesser-known competitor. Again, your choice of the new product is based on a belief
rather than evidence or rational thinking. We take mental shortcuts all day long, but in our speech to inform, we
have to be careful not to reinforce bias.

Bias is like a filter on your perceptions, thoughts, and ideas. Bias encourages you to accept positive evidence
that supports your existing beliefs (regardless of whether they are true) and reject negative evidence that does
not support your beliefs. Furthermore, bias makes you likely to reject positive support for opposing beliefs and
accept negative evidence (again, regardless of whether the evidence is true). So what is positive and what is
negative? In a biased frame of mind, that which supports your existing beliefs is positive and likely to be
accepted, while that which challenges your beliefs is likely to be viewed as negative and rejected. There is the
clear danger in bias.
You are inclined to tune out or ignore information, regardless of how valuable, useful, or relevant it may be, simply
because it doesn’t agree with or support what you already believe.

Point of View

Let’s say you are going to present an informative speech on a controversial topic like same-sex marriage. Without
advocating or condemning same-sex marriage, you could inform your audience about current laws in various
states, recent and proposed changes in laws, the number of same-sex couples who have gotten married in
various places, the implications of being married or not being able to marry, and so on. But as you prepare and
research your topic, do you only read or examine information that supports your existing view? If you only choose
to present information that agrees with your prior view, you’ve incorporated bias into your speech. Now let’s say
the audience members have different points of view, even biased ones, and as you present your information you
see many people start to fidget in their seats. You can probably anticipate that if they were to speak, the first word
they would say is “but” and then present their question or assertion. In effect, they will be having a debate with
themselves and hardly listening to you.

You can anticipate the effects of bias and mitigate them to some degree. First, know the difference between your
point of view or perspective and your bias. Your point of view is your perception of an idea or concept from your
previous experience and understanding. It is unique to you and is influenced by your experiences and also factors
like gender, race, ethnicity, physical characteristics, and social class. Everyone has a point of view, as hard as
they may try to be open-minded. But bias, as we’ve discussed previously, involves actively selecting information
that supports or agrees with your current belief and takes away from any competing belief. To make sure you are
not presenting a biased speech, frame your discussion to inform from a neutral stance and consider alternative
points of view to present, compare and contrast, and diversify your speech. The goal of the speech to inform is to
present an expository speech that reduces or tries to be free from overt interpretation.

This relates to our previous discussion on changing perceptions. Clearly no one can be completely objective and
remove themselves from their own perceptual process. People are not modern works of minimalist art, where
form and function are paramount and the artist is completely removed from the expression. People express
themselves and naturally relate what is happening now to what has happened to them in the past. You are your
own artist, but you also control your creations.

Objectivity involves expressions and perceptions of facts that are free from distortion by your prejudices, bias,
feelings or interpretations. For example, is the post office box blue? An objective response would be yes or no,
but a subjective response might sound like “Well, it’s not really blue as much as it is navy, even a bit of purple,
kind of like the color of my ex-boyfriend’s car, remember? I don’t care for the color myself.” Subjectivity involves
expressions or perceptions that are modified, altered, or impacted by your personal bias, experiences, and
background. In an informative speech, your audience will expect you to present the information in a relatively
objective form. The speech should meet the audience’s need as they learn about the content, not your feelings,
attitudes, or commentary on the content.

Here are five suggestions to help you present a neutral speech:

 1. Keep your language neutral and not very positive for some issues while very negative for others.
2. Keep your sources credible and not from biased organizations. The National Rifle Association (NRA)
will have a biased view of the Second Amendment, for example, as will the American Civil Liberties
Union (ACLU) on civil rights.
3. Keep your presentation balanced. If you use a source that supports one clear side of an issue,
include an alternative source and view. Give each equal time and respectful consideration.
4. Keep your audience in mind. Not everyone will agree with every point or source of evidence, but
diversity in your speech will have more to offer everyone.
5. Keep who you represent in mind: Your business and yourself.

Key Takeaways

• The purpose of an informative speech is to share ideas with the audience, increase their
understanding, change their perceptions, or help them gain new skills.
• An informative speech incorporates the speaker’s point of view but not attitude or interpretation.

Exercises
1. Consider the courses you have taken in the past year or two, and the extent to which each class
session involved an informative presentation or one that was more persuasive. Do some disciplines lend
themselves more to informing rather than interpretation and attitude? Discuss your findings with your
classmates.
2. Visit a major network news Web site and view a video of a commentator such as Rachel Maddow or
Keith Olbermann (MSNBC) or Glenn Beck or Bill O’Reilly (Fox News). Identify the commentator’s
point of view. If you were giving a presentation to inform, would you express your point of view in a
similar style?
3. On the same network news Web site you used for Exercise no. 2, view a video reporting a news event
(as opposed to a commentator’s commentary). Do you feel that the reporter’s approach conveys a
point of view, or is it neutral? Explain your feelings and discuss with your classmates.
4. What is the difference between an informative presentation and a persuasive one? Provide an
example in your response.
5. Consider a sample speech to inform on a topic where you have a strong opinion. In what ways would
you adjust your key points so as not to persuade your listeners? Discuss your ideas with a
classmate.
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TYPES OF PRESENTATIONS TO INFORM

Learning Objective
1. Provide examples of four main types of speech to inform.

Speaking to inform may fall into one of several categories. The presentation to inform may be
• an explanation,
• a report,
• a description, or
• a demonstration of how to do something.

Let’s explore each of these types of informative speech.

Explanation

Have you ever listened to a lecture or speech where you just didn’t get it? It wasn’t that you weren’t interested, at
least not at first. Perhaps the professor used language and jargon, or gave a confusing example, or omitted
something that would have linked facts or concepts together. Soon you probably lost interest and sat there,
attending the speech or lecture in body but certainly not in mind. An effective speech to inform will take a complex
topic or issue and explain it to the audience in ways that increase audience understanding. Perhaps the speech
where you felt lost lacked definitions upfront, or a clear foundation in the introduction. You certainly didn’t learn
much, and that’s exactly what you want to avoid when you address your audience. Consider how you felt and
then find ways to explain your topic—visually, using definitions and examples, providing a case study—that can
lay a foundation on common ground with your audience and build on it.

No one likes to feel left out. As the speaker, it’s your responsibility to ensure that this doesn’t happen. Also know
that to teach someone something new—perhaps a skill that they did not posses or a perspective that allows them
to see new connections—is a real gift, both to you and the audience members. You will feel rewarded because
you made a difference and they will perceive the gain in their own understanding.

Report

As a business communicator, you may be called upon to give an informative report where you communicate
status, trends, or relationships that pertain to a specific topic. You might have only a few moments to speak, and
you may have to prepare within a tight time frame. Your listeners may want “just the highlights,” only to ask
pointed questions that require significant depth and preparation on your part. The informative report is a speech
where you organize your information around key events, discoveries, or technical data and provide context and
illustration for your audience. They may naturally wonder, “Why are sales up (or down)?” or “What is the product
leader in your lineup?” and you need to anticipate their perspective and present the key information that relates to
your topic. If everyone in the room knows the product line, you may not need much information about your best
seller, but instead place emphasis on marketing research that seems to indicate why it is the best seller.

Perhaps you are asked to be the scout and examine a new market, developing strategies to penetrate it. You’ll
need to orient your audience and provide key information about the market and demonstrate leadership as you
articulate your strategies. You have a perspective gained by time and research, and your audience wants to
know why you see things the way you do, as well as learn what you learned. A status report may be short or
long, and may be an update that requires little background, but always consider the audience and what common
ground you are building your speech on.

Description

Have you ever listened to a friend tell you about their recent trip somewhere and found the details fascinating,
making you want to travel there or visit a similar place? Or perhaps you listened to your chemistry teacher
describe a chemical reaction you were going to perform in class and you understood the process and could
reasonably anticipate the outcome. Describing information requires emphasis on language that is vivid, captures
attention, and excites the imagination. Your audience will be drawn to your effective use of color, descriptive
language, and visual aids. An informative speech that focuses description will be visual in many ways. You may
choose to illustrate with images, video and audio clips, and maps. Your first-person experience combined with
your content will allow the audience to come to know a topic, area, or place through you, or secondhand. Their
imagination is your ally, and you should aim to stimulate it with attention-getting devices and clear visual aids. Use
your imagination to place yourself in their perspective: how would you like to have someone describe the topic to
you?

Demonstration

You want to teach the audience how to throw a fast pitch in softball or a curveball in baseball. You want to
demonstrate how to make salsa or how to program the applications on a smartphone. Each of these topics will
call on your kindergarten experience of “show and tell.” A demonstrative speech focuses on clearly showing a
process and telling the audience important details about each step so that they can imitate, repeat, or do the
action themselves. If the topic is complicated, think of ways to simplify each step.

Consider the visual aids or supplies you will need. You may have noticed that cooking shows on television rarely
show the chef chopping and measuring ingredients during the demonstration. Instead, the ingredients are
chopped and measured ahead of time and the chef simply adds each item to the dish with a brief comment like,
“Now we’ll stir in half a cup of chicken stock.” If you want to present a demonstration speech on the ways to make
a paper airplane, one that will turn left or right, go up, down or in loops, consider how best to present your topic.
Perhaps by illustrating the process of making one airplane followed by example on how to make adjustments to
the plane to allow for different flight patterns would be effective. Would you need additional paper airplanes made
in advance of your speech? Would an example of the paper airplane in each of the key stages of production be
helpful to have ready before the speech? Having all your preparation done ahead of time can make a world of
difference, and your audience will appreciate your thoughtful approach.

By considering each step and focusing on how to simplify it, you can understand how the audience might grasp
the new information and how you can best help them. Also, consider the desired outcome; for example, will your
listeners be able to actually do the task themselves or will they gain an appreciation of the complexities of a
difficult skill like piloting an airplane to a safe landing? Regardless of the sequence or pattern you will illustrate or
demonstrate, consider how people from your anticipated audience will respond, and budget additional time for
repetition and clarification.

Informative presentations come in all sizes, shapes, and forms. You may need to create an “elevator speech”
style presentation with the emphasis on brevity, or produce a comprehensive summary of several points that
require multiple visual aids to communicate complex processes or trends. The main goal in an informative
presentation is to inform, not to persuade, and that requires an emphasis on credibility, for the speaker and the
data or information presented. Extra attention to sources is required and you’ll need to indicate what reports,
texts, or Web sites were sources for your analysis and conclusions.

Here are additional, more specific types of informative presentations:

• Biographical information
• Case study results
• Comparative advantage results
• Cost-benefit analysis results
• Feasibility studies
• Field study results
• Financial trends analysis
• Health, safety, and accident rates
• Instruction guidelines
• Laboratory results
• Product or service orientations
• Progress reports
• Research results
• Technical specifications

Depending on the rhetorical situation, the audience, and the specific information to be presented, any of these
types of presentation may be given as an explanation, a report, a description, or a demonstration.

Key Takeaway

An informative speech may explain, report, describe, or demonstrate how to do something.

Exercises
1. Watch a “how-to” television show, such as one about cooking, home improvement, dog training, or crime
solving. What informative techniques and visual aids are used in the show to help viewers learn the skills
that are being demonstrated?
2. Prepare a simple “how-to” presentation for the class. Present and compare your results.
3. Compare and contrast two television programs, noting how each communicates the meaning via
visual communication rather than words or dialogue. Share and compare with classmates.
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GETTING STARTED WITH AN INFORMATIVE

PRESENTATION

After all, the ultimate goal of all research is not objectivity, but truth. -Helene Deutsch

Getting Started

Introductory Exercises

1. Please make a list of five activities you have participated in recently. Choose one and create a time
order list, from start to finish, of at least five major steps involved in accomplishing the activity.
2. From the list of five activities above, please consider which of the activities the audience (or your class)
has probably had the least experience with. Now make a list from that activity of at least three things
you would explain to them so that they could better understand it. From that new list, consider how you
might show those three things, including visual aids.

Storytelling is a basic part of human communication. You’ve probably told several short stories just today to relate
to friends what the drive to school was like, how your partner has been acting, what your boss said to a customer,
or even what your speech teacher did in class. With each story you were sharing information, but is sharing the
same as informing? At first you might be tempted to say “sure,” but consider whether you had a purpose for telling
a friend about another friend’s actions, or if the words you used to discuss your boss communicated any attitude.

At some point in your business career you will be called upon to teach someone something. It may be a
customer, coworker, or supervisor, and in each case you are performing an informative speech. It is distinct from
a sales speech, or persuasive speech, in that your goal is to communicate the information so that your listener
understands. For example, let’s say you have the task of teaching a customer how to use a remote control (which
button does what) to program a DVD/R to record. Easy, you say? Sure, it’s easy for you. But for them it is new, so
take a moment and consider their perspective. You may recommend this unit versus that unit, and aim for a sale,
but that goal is separate from first teaching them to be successful at a task they want to learn to perform. You
may need to repeat yourself several times, and they may not catch on as fast as you expect, but their mastery of
the skill or task they want to learn can directly lead to a sale. They will have more confidence in you and in
themselves once they’ve mastered the task, and will be more receptive to your advice about the competing
products available.

While your end goal may be a sale, the relationship you form has more long-term value. That customer may tell a
friend about the experience, show their family what they learned, and before you know it someone else comes in
asking for you by name. Communicating respect and focusing on their needs is a positive first step. The
informative speech is one performance you’ll give many times across your career, whether your audience is one
person, a small group, or a large auditorium full of listeners. Once you master the art of the informative speech,
you may mix and match it with other styles and techniques.
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 PREPARING YOUR INFORMATIVE SPEECH

Learning Objectives
1. Discuss and provide examples of ways to incorporate ethics in a speech.
2. Construct an effective speech to inform.

Now that we’ve covered issues central to the success of your informative speech, there’s no doubt you want to
get down to work. Here are five final suggestions to help you succeed.

Start with What You Know

Are you taking other classes right now that are fresh in your memory? Are you working on a challenging
chemistry problem that might lend itself to your informative speech? Are you reading a novel by Gabriel García
Márquez that might inspire you to present a biographical speech, informing your audience about the author?
Perhaps you have a hobby or outside interest that you are excited about that would serve well. Regardless of
where you draw the inspiration, it’s a good strategy to start with what you know and work from there. You’ll be
more enthusiastic, helping your audience to listen intently, and you’ll save yourself time. Consider the audience’s
needs, not just your need to cross a speech off your “to-do” list. This speech will be an opportunity for you to take
prepared material and present it, gaining experience and important feedback. In the “real world,” you often lack
time and the consequences of a less than effective speech can be serious. Look forward to the opportunity and
use what you know to perform an effective, engaging speech.

Consider Your Audience’s Prior Knowledge

You don’t want to present a speech on the harmful effects of smoking when no one in the audience smokes. You
may be more effective addressing the issue of secondhand smoke, underscoring the relationship to relevance
and addressing the issue of importance with your audience. The audience will want to learn something from you,
not hear everything they have heard before. It’s a challenge to assess what they’ve heard before, and often a
class activity is conducted to allow audience members to come to know each other. You can also use their
speeches and topic selection as points to consider. Think about age, gender, and socioeconomic status, as well
as your listeners’ culture or language. Survey the audience if possible, or ask a couple of classmates what they
think of the topics you are considering.

In the same way, when you prepare a speech in a business situation, do your homework. Access the company
Web site, visit the location and get to know people, and even call members of the company to discuss your topic.
The more information you can gather about your audience, the better you will be able to adapt and present an
effective speech.

Adapting Jargon and Technical Terms

You may have a topic in mind from another class or an outside activity, but chances are that there are terms
specific to the area or activity. From wakeboarding to rugby to a chemical process that contributes to global
warming, there will be jargon and technical terms. Define and describe the key terms for your audience as part of
your speech and substitute common terms where appropriate. Your audience will enjoy learning more about the
topic and appreciate your consideration as you present your speech.

Using Outside Information

Even if you think you know everything there is to know about your topic, using outside sources will contribute
depth to your speech, provide support for your main points, and even enhance your credibility as a speaker.
“According to ” is a normal way of attributing information to a source, and you should give credit
where credit is due. There is nothing wrong with using outside information as long as you clearly cite your
sources and do not present someone else’s information as your own.

Presenting Information Ethically

A central but often unspoken expectation of the speaker is that we will be ethical. This means, fundamentally, that
we perceive one another as human beings with common interests and needs, and that we attend to the needs of
others as well as our own. An ethical informative speaker expresses respect for listeners by avoiding prejudiced
comments against any group, and by being honest about the information presented, including information that
may contradict the speaker’s personal biases. The ethical speaker also admits it when he or she does not know
something. The best salespersons recognize that ethical communication is the key to success, as it builds a
healthy relationship where the customer’s needs are met, thereby meeting the salesperson’s own needs.

Reciprocity

Tyler [1] discusses ethical communication and specifically indicates reciprocity as a key principle. Reciprocity, or a
relationship of mutual exchange and interdependence, is an important characteristic of a relationship, particularly
between a speaker and the audience. We’ve examined previously the transactional nature of communication, and
it is important to reinforce this aspect here. We exchange meaning with one another in conversation, and much
like a game, it takes more than one person to play. This leads to interdependence, or the dependence of the
conversational partners on one another. Inequality in the levels of dependence can negatively impact the
communication and, as a result, the relationship. You as the speaker will have certain expectations and roles, but
dominating your audience will not encourage them to fulfill their roles in terms of participation and active listening.
Communication involves give and take, and in a public speaking setting, where the communication may be
perceived as “all to one,” don’t forget that the audience is also communicating in terms of feedback with you. You
have a responsibility to attend to that feedback, and develop reciprocity with your audience. Without them, you
don’t have a speech.

Mutuality

Mutuality means that you search for common ground and understanding with the audience, establishing this
space and building on it throughout the speech. This involves examining viewpoints other than your own, and
taking steps to insure the speech integrates an inclusive, accessible format rather than an ethnocentric one.

Nonjudgmentalism

Nonjudgmentalism underlines the need to be open-minded, an expression of one’s willingness to examine diverse
perspectives. Your audience expects you to state the truth as you perceive it, with supporting and clarifying
information to support your position, and to speak honestly. They also expect you to be open to their point of view
and be able to negotiate meaning and understanding in a constructive way. Nonjudgmentalism may include taking
the perspective that being different is not inherently bad and that there is common ground to be found with each
other.

While this characteristic should be understood, we can see evidence of breakdowns in communication when
audiences perceive they are not being told the whole truth. This does not mean that the relationship with the
audience requires honesty and excessive self-disclosure. The use of euphemisms and displays of sensitivity are
key components of effective communication, and your emphasis on the content of your speech and not yourself
will be appreciated. Nonjudgmentalism does underscore the importance of approaching communication from an
honest perspective where you value and respect your audience.
Honesty

Honesty, or truthfulness, directly relates to trust, a cornerstone in the foundation of a relationship with your
audience. Without it, the building (the relationship) would fall down. Without trust, a relationship will not open and
develop the possibility of mutual understanding. You want to share information and the audience hopefully wants
to learn from you. If you “cherry-pick” your data, only choosing the best information to support only your point and
ignore contrary or related issues, you may turn your informative speech into a persuasive one with bias as a
central feature.

Look at the debate over the U.S. conflict with Iraq. There has been considerable discussion concerning the
cherry-picking of issues and facts to create a case for armed intervention. To what degree the information at the
time was accurate or inaccurate will continue to be a hotly debated issue, but the example holds in terms on an
audience’s response to a perceived dishonestly. Partial truths are incomplete and often misleading, and you don’t
want your audience to turn against you because they suspect you are being less than forthright and honest.

Respect

Respect should be present throughout a speech, demonstrating the speaker’s high esteem for the audience.
Respect can be defined as an act of giving and displaying particular attention to the value you associate with
someone or a group. This definition involves two key components. You need to give respect in order to earn from
others, and you need to show it. Displays of respect include making time for conversation, not interrupting, and
even giving appropriate eye contact during conversations.

Trust

Communication involves sharing and that requires trust. Trust means the ability to rely on the character or truth of
someone, that what you say you mean and your audience knows it. Trust is a process, not a thing. It builds over
time, through increased interaction and the reduction of uncertainty. It can be lost, but it can also be regained. It
should be noted that it takes a long time to build trust in a relationship and can be lost in a much shorter amount
of time. If your audience suspects you mislead them this time, how will they approach your next presentation?
Acknowledging trust and its importance in your relationship with the audience is the first step in focusing on this
key characteristic.

Avoid Exploitation

Finally, when we speak ethically, we do not intentionally exploit one another. Exploitation means taking
advantage, using someone else for one’s own purposes. Perceiving a relationship with an audience as a means
to an end and only focusing on what you get out of it, will lead you to treat people as objects. The temptation to
exploit others can be great in business situations, where a promotion, a bonus, or even one’s livelihood are at
stake.

Suppose you are a bank loan officer. Whenever a customer contacts the bank to inquire about applying for a
loan, your job is to provide an informative presentation about the types of loans available, their rates and terms. If
you are paid a commission based on the number of loans you make and their amounts and rates, wouldn’t you
be tempted to encourage them to borrow the maximum amount they can qualify for? Or perhaps to take a loan
with confusing terms that will end up costing much more in fees and interest than the customer realizes? After all,
these practices are within the law; aren’t they just part of the way business is done? If you are an ethical loan
officer, you realize you would be exploiting customers if you treated them this way. You know it is more valuable
to uphold your long-term relationships with customers than to exploit them so that you can earn a bigger
commission.

Consider these ethical principles when preparing and presenting your speech, and you will help address many of
these natural expectations of others and develop healthier, more effective speeches.
Sample Informative Presentation

Here is a generic sample speech in outline form with notes and suggestions.

Attention Statement

Show a picture of a goldfish and a tomato and ask the audience, “What do these have in common?”

Introduction

1. Briefly introduce genetically modified foods.

2. State your topic and specific purpose: “My speech today will inform you on genetically modified
foods that are increasingly part of our food supply.”
3. Introduce your credibility and the topic: “My research on this topic has shown me that our food
supply has changed but many people are unaware of the changes.”
4. State your main points: “Today I will define genes, DNA, genome engineering and genetic
manipulation, discuss how the technology applies to foods, and provide common examples.”

Body

1. Information. Provide a simple explanation of the genes, DNA and genetic modification in case there
are people who do not know about it. Provide clear definitions of key terms.
2. Genes and DNA. Provide arguments by generalization and authority.
3. Genome engineering and genetic manipulation. Provide arguments by analogy, cause, and principle.
4. Case study. In one early experiment, GM (genetically modified) tomatoes were developed with
fish genes to make them resistant to cold weather, although this type of tomato was never
marketed.
5. Highlight other examples.

Conclusion

Reiterate your main points and provide synthesis, but do not introduce new content.

Residual Message

“Genetically modified foods are more common in our food supply than ever before.”

Key Takeaway

In preparing an informative speech, use your knowledge and consider the audience’s knowledge, avoid
unnecessary jargon, give credit to your sources, and present the information ethically.

Exercises
1. Identify an event or issue in the news that interests you. On at least three different news networks or
Web sites, find and watch video reports about this issue. Compare and contrast the coverage of the
issue. Do the networks or Web sites differ in their assumptions about viewers’ prior knowledge? Do
they give credit to any sources of information? To what extent do they each measure up to the ethical
principles described in this section? Discuss your findings with your classmates.
2. Find an example of reciprocity in a television program and write two to three paragraphs describing
it. Share and compare with your classmates.
3. Find an example of honesty in a television program and write two to three paragraphs describing
it. Share and compare with your classmates.
4. Find an example of exploitation depicted in the media. Describe how the exploitation is
communicated with words and images and share with the class.
 5. Compose a general purpose statement and thesis statement for a speech to inform. Now create
a sample outline. Share with a classmate and see if he or she offers additional points to consider.

[1] Tyler, V. (1978). Report of the working groups of the second SCA summer conference on
intercultural communication. In N. C. Asuncio-Lande (Ed.), Ethical Perspectives and Critical Issues in
Intercultural Communication (pp. 170–177). Falls Church, VA: SCA.
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CREATING AN INFORMATIVE PRESENTATION

Learning Objectives
1. Discuss the parts of an informational presentation.
2. Understand the five parts of any presentation.

An informational presentation is common request in business and industry. It’s the verbal and visual equivalent of
a written report. Information sharing is part of any business or organization. Informative presentations serve to
present specific information for specific audiences for specific goals or functions. The type of presentation is often
identified by its primary purpose or function. Informative presentations are often analytical or involve the rational
analysis of information. Sometimes they simply “report the facts” with no analysis at all, but still need to
communicate the information in a clear and concise format. While a presentation may have conclusions,
propositions, or even a call to action, the demonstration of the analysis is the primary function.

A sales report presentation, for example, is not designed to make a sale. It is, however, supposed to report sales
to date and may forecast future sales based on previous trends.

An informative presentation does not have to be a formal event, though it can be. It can be generic and
nonspecific to the audience or listener, but the more you know about your audience, the better. When you
tailor your message to that audience, you zero in on your target and increase your effectiveness. The emphasis is
on clear and concise communication, but it may address several key questions:
• Topic: Product or Service?
• Who are you?
• Who is the target market?
• What is the revenue model?
• What are the specifications?
• How was the information gathered?
• How does the unit work?
• How does current information compare to previous information?

Table 13.2 “Presentation Components and Their Functions” lists the five main parts or components of any
presentation. [1]

Table 13.2 Presentation Components and Their Functions

Component Function

Attention Statement Raise interest and motivate the listener

Introduction Communicate a point and common ground

 Component Function

Body Address key points

Conclusion Summarize key points

Residual Message Communicate central theme, moral of story, or main point

You will need to address the questions to establish relevance and meet the audience’s needs. The five parts of
any speech will serve to help you get organized.

Sample Speech Guidelines

Imagine that you have been assigned to give an informative presentation lasting five to seven minutes. Follow the
guidelines in Table 13.3 “Sample Speech Guidelines” and apply them to your presentation.

Table 13.3 Sample Speech Guidelines

Choose a product or service that interests you, research it, and report your findings in your
1. Topic
speech.

Your general purpose, of course, is to inform. But you need to formulate a more specific
2. Purpose purpose statement that expresses a point you have to make about your topic—what you hope
to accomplish in your speech.

Think about what your audience might already know about your topic and what they may not
3. Audience know, and perhaps any attitudes toward or concerns about it. Consider how this may affect the
way that you will present your information.

4. Using the information gathered in your search for information, determine what is most
Supporting worthwhile, interesting, and important to include in your speech. Time limits will require that
Materials you be selective about what you use. Use visual aids!

1. Write a central idea statement that expresses the message, or point, that you hope
to get across to your listeners in the speech.
5.
2. Determine the two to three main points that will be needed to support your
Organization
central idea.
3. Finally, prepare a complete sentence outline of the body of the speech.

Develop an opening that will

6. 1. get the attention and interest of your listeners,
Introduction 2. express your central idea or message,
3. lead into the body of your speech.

7. The conclusion should review and/or summarize the important ideas in your speech and bring
Conclusion it to a smooth close.

The speech should be delivered extemporaneously (not reading but speaking), using
8. Delivery speaking notes and not reading from the manuscript. Work on maximum eye contact with your
listeners. Use any visual aids or handouts that may be helpful.
Key Takeaway

Informative presentations illustrate, explain, describe, and instruct the audience on topics and processes.

Exercises
1. Write a brief summary of a class or presentation you personally observed recently; include what you
learned. Compare with classmates.
2. Search online for an informative speech or presentation that applies to business or industry. Indicate
one part or aspect of the presentation that you thought was effective and one you would improve.
Provide the link to the presentation in your post or assignment.
3. Pick a product or service and come up with a list of five points that you could address in a two-
minute informative speech. Place them in rank order and indicate why.
4. With the points discussed in this chapter in mind, observe someone presenting a speech. What
elements of their speech could you use in your speech? What elements would you not want to use?
Why? Compare with a classmate.

[1] McLean, S. (2003). The basics of speech communication. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
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 RESEARCH

RESEARCH OVERVIEW

The next few modules of the course address one problem (the same problem). You will learn how to investigate
and solve a problem by researching the problem, reporting the data, and offering solutions.

The problem must be a practical problem, one in which you have a personal impact on solving. First, you will
collect analysis and recommend solutions to the problem. Second, you will gather external research on how
companies like yours solved similar problems and report your findings. Third, you will compile the findings from
your investigation into a Feasibility Report or Proposal on solving the problem. Fourth and last, you will write a
Persuasive PowerPoint Presentation that outlines your research solutions.

Remember that this is not a typical research paper, where you research an issue and simply report the research.
Therefore, do not choose issues like changing laws, fighting wars, drug usage, or global warming, among others.
While these are important issues and you can certainly offer solutions, they are too broad for you to have a
personal effect on their changing. They would fit the definition of writing a typical research paper to research the
issue and write a research paper reporting you findings.

Your problem for this course needs to be a practical problem, one in which you will have a personal effect on
changing. The problem does not need to be a real problem. You can create a scenario and work from that. We
will develop and narrow our problems together as the course progresses.

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 TEXTUAL RESEARCH

“Textual Research” was written by Joseph M. Moxley

Research is defined by many academic disciplines, such as

English or History, as primarily a textual process. In other
words, some researchers (commonly called “scholars”)
focus on texts—that is, on responding to them, critiquing
them, or in rereading them with a particular theory in mind,
such as Capitalism, Marxism, Psychoanalysis, Behaviorism,
Deconstruction, Modernism, Postmodernism. Additionally,
scholars can develop their work in response to everyday
experiences, issues in the popular culture, the media, and
the Internet. Beyond debate and logic, scholars lack a way
to prove one idea or approach is superior to any other.

Trained in the traditions and methods of Western humanism, scholars rely on dialectic, seeking knowledge via the
deliberate confrontation of opposing viewpoints. This emphasis on dialectic is sometimes referred to as the
ceaseless debate, a cycle of interpretation and reinterpretation. The knowledge scholars generate is often about
the meaning of texts, derived from the act of reading, articulated as critical analysis, and refined by dialectic. For
example, historians argue about the best ways to interpret a body of texts. Critics argue about which theory
provides the most worthwhile reading of the canon—that is, a privileged set of texts. Philosophers argue about a
philosopher’s ideas or about a body of texts that advocate a particular philosophical position.

In addition to focusing on texts—what they mean, how they should be read—

scholars develop ideas by responding to, and drawing on, their personal
experiences as well as ideas found in the media. In other words, scholars
can address topics that emerge from their everyday experiences as a
member of a culture. Rather than relying on observations of the empirical
world and developing or testing hypotheses, scholars are engaged in the
great debate—a never-ending dialectic about ideas. Unlike the
methodologies informed by Positivism, scholars lack a way to prove or
disprove their positions. Ultimately, scholars are more concerned with
participating in the great debate, the scholarly exchange of ideas, as
opposed to presuming that truth will one day be found so the debate will
need to come to an end. Scholars make meaning by discussing texts and by
applying theories to create new readings of texts.

At modern research universities, scholars tend to reside in departments in

such departments as English, American Studies, Philosophy, and History.
However, all disciplines rely on a scholarly methodology when they conduct
debates about ideas, texts, and events. Additionally, some of the activities of
scholars appear within the methodologies of other research communities that
appear within writingcommons.com — especially the ability to summarize and
paraphrase the work of others and the ability to dissect and critique the
reasoning of other writers.

Across academic disciplines, scholars have developed unique ways to contribute knowledge. Historians, for
example, practice a different version of scholarship than philosophers or critics. Historians tend to use a narrative
structure, while philosophers and critics prefer an argumentative structure. In contrast to historians and
philosophers, critics are concerned with establishing a body of texts (i.e. a canon) for interpretation, interpreting
those texts, and generating theories about both of these activities.
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APA DOCUMENTATION OVERVIEW

In this course, we will use the APA style of documentation. Technical writers usually write in the APA style of
documentation.

See the following APA rules for reporting research:

APA Style of Documentation Guidelines

1. You must document all information that you use from any source regardless of how you report
the information.
2. By documenting sources of information, you respect the recorded ideas, or intellectual property,
of others.
3. Research writers use a specific format to indicate from where they obtained their information.
These formats are called styles of documentation.
4. Two types of documentation styles are MLA, which is the Modern Language Association, and
APA, which is the American Psychological Association.
5. Technical writers use the APA style of documentation.
6. The APA style of documentation requires that the entire paper is doubled spaced.
7. The APA style of documentation requires that the page with references is titled as “References,” not
“Works Cited.”

Referencing in-text citations

1. Parenthetical documentation for APA requires the author and the date for all information cited.
Every sentence in the research section needs a reference to its source, followed by it date of
publication.
2. If a direct quotation is cited, APA in-text citation/parenthetical documentation requires the author, the
date, and page number or paragraph number must be cited. Paragraph numbers are cited for
internet sources. The exception to this rule is citing pdf documents. Page numbers are referenced for
sources published as pdf files.
3. When referencing a page number, the number must be identified as a page, for one page (p. 24) or
as pp. for multiple pages. (pp. 24-30).
4. When referencing a paragraph number, the number must be identified as a paragraph, for
one paragraph (¶ 4) or as (¶ 4-7), for multiple paragraphs.
5. When citing articles with a considerable number of paragraphs, preface the paragraph with
the heading of the sub section of the article (Various Models of Reports, ¶ 12).

Citing Sources on the Reference Page

1. APA Does not use quotation marks around titles of articles.
2. APA only capitalizes the initial letter of the first word of a title of an article or book and the initial
letter of the first word after a colon in a title of an article or book. And of course, the initial letters of all
proper nouns in titles of articles or books are capitalized.
3. APA cites the date (year) after the author’s name.
4. The entries in an APA Reference can be list alphabetically or by location in the paper.
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BASIC GUIDELINES FOR CITING RESOURCES

Sources are cited in the body of the text as well as at the end of the document. The APA and MLA styles differ in
how to format these citations.

• In-text citations must clearly show what information the citation is referring to, which is why they must be put
in parenthesis and written inside the period.

Example: On November 8, 2009, the world’s largest cookie was made (Smith, 2009).

•To clearly show that a citation is for multiple sentences, it should be put at the end of the first sentence (inside
the period). This clearly introduces the citation at the same time the information is introduced.

Example: The topic of cookies and their origins has been studied by John Smith (2009). Cookies are thought to
have come from… They were originally used for…

•Citations at the end of a writing should be well organized, and follow all the rules of the citation style. For
example, APA style requires citations to be in alphabetical order.

•If information is not available for a complete citation, just skip the part of the citation that you can’t find, filling in
all areas of information that are available. You should try your hardest to find all information, however, to make
your writing most credible.

Example: Author’s name is missing and there is not an organization name mentioned, write citation as follows:
“The Preparation of Bacterial and Oral Smears, and the Use of Simple Stains.” Microbiology Laboratory. New
Jersey: Pearson Education Inc, 2003. 21-30.
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APA STYLE DOCUMENTATION

American Psychological Association Style (APA) is most commonly used to cite sources within the social
sciences.

Title page:
• Contains title
• Is double spaced
• Contains author name
◦ First name, middle initial(s), last name
◦ Do not use titles (Dr.) or degrees (Ph.D.)
• Contains name of institutional affiliation
◦ Location author conducted research (if applicable)
• Has a page header with title flush to the left and page number flush to the right
◦ Should be no more than 12 words
 ◦ Emit all abbreviation or words that contain no purpose

Essay body:
• Is typed and double spaced on 8.5″ by 11″ paper
• Has one inch margins
• Is written with 10-12 pt. font
• Is written in Times New Roman font, or a similar style
• Includes a page header containing title of your page in all capital letters
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APA STYLE IN-TEXT CITATIONS

When citing an APA source from your bibliography in the text, the author’s name and publication year are put in
parentheses in the normal sentence punctuation. A comma is placed between the name of the author and the
date. For the citing of a specific page in the cited publication, p. with the page number following is used. If more
than one page is being referred to, use pp. with the referred pages listed afterward.

Example: English Springer Spaniels originated in England in the year 1802 (Harris, 1977, p.28).

• Harris is the author and the information came from a book he wrote that was published in 1977. The
information was found on page 28.

Example: English Springer Spaniels were used for hunting (Harris et al., 1977).

• Harris and three or more others are the authors of the cited information. “et al” is an abbreviation for the
Latin phrase, et alii, which means “and others”.

Example: English Springer Spaniels come in black and white colors (AKC Dog Book, 1977).

• The information came from a book call the “AKC Dog Book” that was published in 1977.

• If more than one source by the same author published in the same year is used, differentiate the citations
as seen in the following example:

Example: (Smith, 1989a) and (Smith, 1989b)

• Consult publication manual of the American Psychological Association for more referencing examples.

Example: According to Keith, Snowboarding had progressed enormously in the past 20 years (2010, pp. 25-28).

• If the Author’s name is incorporated into the sentence written itself, only the year and the page numbers
are necessary in the parentheses.
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APA STYLE REFERENCE LISTS

Types of sources are usually put in the category of printed, electronic, or other. Within these categories are many
sub-categories. Each of these sub-categories should be cited slightly differently in the APA format. Below explains
the proper ways to list these different sources in the reference list, which should be attached at the end of a
document.

The reference list should be formatted as follows:

•Double spaced

•Second and following lines of all citations indented about a half inch

•Times New Roman 12 point font

•In alphabetical order

•If the author’s name is not available, the organization name can be substituted

Printed Sources
• Book, One Author

-Give the author’s last name followed by a comma and

initials (don’t put the author’s full first or middle name).

-Place the copyright date in parentheses, followed by a

period.

-Italicize or underline the title, and capitalize only the first

work of the title, the first word of the subtitle, and any proper
nouns.

-Follow the city of publication with a comma and the two-

letter postal abbreviation for the state. You do not have to
give the state of large for well known cities such as New
York and Boston.

-Indent the second and subsequent lines by five spaces.

Example: Smith, F. (2008). AKC Dog Book. Boston: Dawg Books

• Book, Two or More Authors –Add as many authors as the publication has using the “&” symbol between.
Example: Smith, F. & Harris, S. (2008). AKC Dog Book. Boston: Dawg Books

• Anthology or Essay Collection

– If there is one editor, use: (Ed.).

Example: Black, S. (Ed). (1989). The Origin of Dogs. New York: Dawg Press

• Government Report

– If the report doesn’t list an author, use the name of the agency that published it as the author. If it is a
United States government agency, use “U.S”

– If the report has an identifying number, place it immediately after the title.

Example: Smith, F. (2009). Effects of Bombs on America (U.S. Bomb Survey- Report 12-3456). Las Vegas, NV:
U.S. Bomb Survery.

• Corporate Report

– List the names of the individual authors rather than the corporation if the names are given on the title page.

– If the names of the authors aren’t given on the title page, list the corporation as the author.

– When the author and publisher are the same, use the word “Author” as the name of the publisher.

Example: PetSmart, Inc. (2009). Dog Toy Report 2009. Minneapolis, MN: Author.

• Essay in a Book

Example: Smith, F. (2009). Dog behavior at night. In S. Harris (Ed.), Dog Behavior (pp. 30-33). Boston: Dawg
Books.

• Pamphlet or Brochure

– When the author and publisher are the same, use the word “Author” as the name of the publisher.

Example: American Kennel Club. (2009). Adding a New Puppy to Your Family. [Brochure]. Raleigh, NC: Author.

• Article in Popular Magazine

– Give the full date of the issue, placing the year first.

– Provide the volume number but not the issue number.

– Be sure to italicize the magazine name as well as the issue number.

Example: Smith, F. (2009, May 8). Border Collies. AKC Gazette, 28, 16-20.

• Newspaper Article

– In front of the page number for newspapers, write p. if there is one page, and pp. for a range of pages.

Example: Smith, F. (1989, May 8). Dog chokes from eating chicken bones. Star Tribune, p.B9.
Electronic Sources
• Report Available Only Through World Wide Web

– Because the site doesn’t give the date this page

was published on the web, use “n.d.” meaning “no
date”.

Example: English Springer Spaniels. (n.d). Springer Spaniel

Facts. Retrieved May 8, 2008, from www.ess.com/facts
• CD-ROM

–Include the title (in italics), the date (in parenthesis), the
title of the series in italics, the electronic type and the city,
state and manufacturer.

Example: “Dogs.” (2008). Encarta 2008. CD-ROM.

Redmond, WA: Microsoft.

• Email

– References to e-mails are only in parentheses in the text

and are not included in the Reference list in APA. The
citation in the text includes the author’s initials as well as
his or her last name and an exact date.

Example: (F. Smith, personal communication, May 8, 2008)

Other Sources
• Letter

– Letters are treated in the same manner as e-mails in APA.

• Interview

– Interviews are treated in the same manner as e-mails in APA.

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QUESTIONS TO EVALUATE THE AUTHORITY

OF THE RESEARCHER'S METHODS

“Questions to Evaluate the Authority of the Researcher’s Methods” was written by Joseph M. Moxley

Here are some of the standard questions that academic readers ask when reviewing research reports:
1. Is the source a first-hand or second-hand account? That is, are the authors reporting results of their own
research or reviewing someone else’s work?
 2. Is the source of publication credible? (For example, an essay in the New England Journal of Medicine
would influence most physicians’ opinions about a surgical procedure far more easily than an essay in
a biweekly community newspaper.)
3. Do the authors work for research institutes, publications, private companies, or universities? Are
they well-known authorities? Can you identify any hidden agendas?
4. Have the authors followed traditional research methods?

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DEMYSTIFY RESEARCH METHODS

“Demystify Research Methods” was written by Joseph M. Moxley

Critique research myths that may be impairing your ability to locate, evaluate, and use
information.

If you are like most people, you have some definite ideas about what
research is. You may envision a pale figure in a white lab coat bent over a
microscope or a beaker of bubbling liquid. Perhaps you imagine this
isolated and humorless figure engaged in tedious procedures, carefully
recorded on graph paper or reduced to inscrutable formulas scrawled in
notebooks. Given a few moments, you might expand this vision of research
to include a khaki-clad archaeologist digging for relics in the desert or a
tweed-jacketed professor studying musty manuscripts in a dusty corner of
the library.

These visions of imaginary researchers probably seem disconnected from

your personal experience with research. Your first encounter with the term
“research” may have been in the form of an English class assignment that
required you to write a paper of a specified number of words in which you
referenced a minimum number of sources using correct bibliographic
citations. You may have spent a few uncomfortable hours in the library
searching for material that had some bearing on the topic of your paper,
then tried to collect bits and pieces from these sources into a more-or-less
coherent whole without committing an obvious act of plagiarism. As you
struggled with the apparently contradictory requirements to base your
paper on the work of others but say something new, you probably
wondered what this assignment had to do with “research.”

Five Misconceptions About Research

None of these visions accurately represent the research process. Most people have a distorted picture of what
researchers do. They tend to view research as tedious, repetitious, dull, and irrelevant to most of our immediate
practical concerns. In fact, research should be the opposite. In order to envision research as interesting, exciting,
and fun, you may need to dispel some common misconceptions about where research is done, who does it, and
what it entails.
• Misconception #1: Research is conducted in a laboratory.
• Misconception #2: Research is for eggheads.
• Misconception #3: Research has little to do with everyday life.
• Misconception #4: Researchers across disciplines agree about what constitutes effective research.
• Misconception #5: Researchers think, research, and then write.

Misconception #1: Research Is Conducted In A Laboratory

Whether we realize it or not, most of us have acquired our understanding of research from the images presented
by popular culture. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, for example, has provided one of the most dramatic and
enduring representations of laboratory research. Contemporary films like Outbreaksuggest an updated version of
the researcher, still white-coated but now isolated from normal social contact by the need for extraordinary
anticontamination precautions. Perhaps because it is unfamiliar and, therefore, potentially dangerous, the
laboratory offers a more dramatic setting for fictional accounts than other, more accessible research
environments.

Of course, some kinds of research require the controlled environments that laboratories provide. The medical
research that developed the antibiotics and pain relievers your doctor prescribed that last time you had the flu was
conducted in a laboratory. And most of the commercially produced consumer products you use every day–from
paint to cereal to hand lotion–undergo testing and refining in some sort of laboratory. But laboratory research is
only one particular kind of research.

In reality, research is conducted everywhere. You may have noticed an amiable young person with a clipboard
stopping shoppers in the local mall to ask questions about their buying preferences. That person was conducting
research. The best-selling account of Lewis and Clark’s explorations is the result of research, as is the Thursday
night lineup of your favorite TV shows, the design of your computer desk, the pattern of the traffic flow through
your neighborhood, and the location of the nearest restaurant. None of the research that produced these results
was conducted in a laboratory.

If, for example, you are interested in investigating how people behave in natural situations and under normal
conditions, you cannot expect to gather information in a laboratory. In other words, the questions researchers are
trying to answer and the methods they select for answering these questions will determine where the research is
conducted. Research is carried out wherever researchers must go to collect the information they need.

Misconception #2: Research Is for Eggheads

Just as images from popular culture have influenced our ideas about where research is conducted, pop culture
has also created some persistent stereotypes of researchers. In addition to the rather demonic Dr. Frankenstein,
you may also think of friendlier, if slightly addled eggheads like the professor on Gilligan’s Island, the Jerry Lewis
or Eddie Murphy version of The Nutty Professor, or the laughable Disney character, Professor Ludwig von Drake.
These images all reinforce the notion of researchers as absentminded eccentrics, engrossed in highly technical,
specialized projects that most of us cannot understand.

However, just as research can be carried out almost anywhere, anyone can be a researcher. Asking questions
about your friend’s new romance, gathering evidence of who she was seen with, making deductions based on her
new style of dress, and spreading the word about your conclusions is a form of research. These activities don’t
sound like research to most people because they have not been expressed in academic language. But what if the
activities were organized into a research project titled “The Psychosocial Determinants of Gender Relations in
Postmodern Dating Culture: A Psychoanalytic Approach”? The point, of course, is not to suggest that gossip
qualifies as legitimate research but rather that everyone employs the investigative and exploitative elements of
research to make sense of their lives. Research is not just for “eggheads.”

Misconception #3: Research Has Little to Do with Everyday Life

While the first two misconceptions concern where research is done and who does it, the third misconception
misrepresents the subject matter of research. Because some research focuses on very narrow questions and
relies on highly technical knowledge, people often assume that all research must be hard to understand and
unrelated to everyday concerns.

However, research need not be difficult to understand, and research is an activity that is defined by its
method, not by its subject. In other words, it is true that some significant research is difficult for nonspecialists
to understand. Yet all research is valuable to the extent that it affects everyday life.

Go to this link for the video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MSShNSgOAR0

Research takes many forms, but it always entails a search, conducted carefully and diligently, aimed at the
discovery and interpretation of new knowledge. Thus, how you go about gathering information, analyzing data,
drawing conclusions, and sharing results determines whether your activities qualify as research. Sometimes these
activities will be informal, spontaneous, and intuitive, as when you infer that your friend has a new romance or
when you read reviews in a computer magazine before purchasing new software. In school and in the workplace,
where results are disseminated and evaluated by others, research is likely to be more formal. Regardless of its
final form, however, whenever you systematically gather information for the purpose of generating new
knowledge, you are conducting research.
Misconception #4: Researchers Across Disciplines Agree About What Constitutes Effective Research

Academic disciplines—for example, mathematics, psychology, physics, engineering, or business—have different

ways of conducting and evaluating research. An anthropologist’s account of kinship patterns in a tribe of Native
Americans bears almost no resemblance to a cognitive psychologist’s investigation of sensory responses to light
stimuli. Even within a particular academic discipline, researchers may disagree over what makes good research.

Not only do people disagree about appropriate methods of research, but their ideas may change over time.
Conceptions about knowledge, available technologies, and research practices influence each other and change
constantly. For example, capturing gorillas and studying them in cages might have been considered good
research in the 1920s. The work of later researchers like Dian Fossey, however, demonstrated how animals might
be better understood in their natural environment. Today, research based on observations of wild animals in
captivity would gain little support or interest.
Because no one way of doing research is equally acceptable to all researchers in all academic disciplines,
researchers must select the methodology that will be most persuasive to their readers.

Misconception #5: Researchers Think, Research, and Then Write

When you first begin a research project, you are wise to integrate writing activities with research activities.
Unfortunately, many people wrongly separate the research process from the writing process. They naively
assume they should first think about a topic, identify a research question, research it, and then—after all of the
excitement is drained from the project—write it up. Rather than using the generative power of writing (that is, our
ability to generate new ideas by writing) to help define and energize a research project, some people delay writing
until after they have completed the research. Waiting to write about a research project until you’re done
researching may waste your time and can result in dull, listless prose.

You can save time and ensure that your research is focused by writing summaries of others’ research, by writing
drafts of your research goals, and by writing about the
results you hope to find before you find them. In the
process, you will eliminate vague or contradictory ideas you
may have about your project.

Incorporating writing into your research activities helps you

identify your rhetorical situation and define your readers’
priorities. Writing about your project in its early stages gives
you time to develop ways of describing your research that
are comprehensible and interesting to your audience. As
you redraft and revise, your writing—and your thinking—will
become clearer, more precise, and thus more credible.

We can all take a lesson in the importance of making your

research your own from Gary Starkweather, who built a laser
printer that made billions of dollars for Xerox and helped change the way business is done all over the world. The
experience taught him several things:

It’s better to try and fail than to decide something can’t be done and not try at all. Research is a place where
failure should be, if not encouraged, at least viewed as a sign that something’s happening. Uncertainty is bad for
manufacturing, but essential for research.

Believe in your own ideas and don’t trim your sails just to be popular with your colleagues. Howard Aiken, inventor
of the first digital computer, said: “If it’s truly a good idea, you’ll have to jam it down their throats.”

Be open to suggestion. Often someone who hasn’t stared at a problem until they went cross-eyed has the fresh
view that can solve it. The best way to a breakthrough is constant small improvement — those waiting for the big
break are just lazy; they’re waiting to be teleported to the top of the hill instead of walking.

Source: Gary Starkweather Profile

You might want to try some of the following:

In a couple of paragraphs describe a research project or a paper you have written in the past that you felt was
interesting, fun, or successful. Try to identify what made the project appealing. Why did it spark your interest? Did
you develop the idea yourself, did someone help you, or was it assigned? How did your readers respond to your
work? Why do you think they acted that way? Do you feel it might be worthwhile to build on the work you
completed earlier by digging deeper into the subject? In what ways did your attitude influence the way you
conducted and wrote your research? How can you take advantage of your experience in order to enjoy future
projects? What additional misconceptions about research can you identify?

To develop a better understanding of the research process, maintain a journal of your activities and thoughts
while you conduct a research project.
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INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY

“Intellectual Property” was written by Joseph M. Moxley

Identify the ethical responsibilities of authors. Understand

intellectual property and copyright.

In order to avoid inadvertent plagiarism or academic

dishonesty, you must understand intellectual property and
copyright. In our digital age, where users can easily
download information, we must consider these issues from
an ethical perspective as well.

Intellectual Property

“The ease of saving images off of the web has caused a very real problem for artists and content providers alike.
If you have placed your intellectual property on the web chances are that sooner or later someone is going to
‘borrow’ a little bit of it… without your permission.” -Linda Cole

Intellectual Property (IP) refers to a document or ideas owned by authors, publishers, and corporations. IP is
anything that reflects an original thought that is written down or expressed in any media, such as word-processed
documents, emails, Web sites, and music. Simply put, what you create is your “intellectual property.” Graphics,
songs, poems, pictures, and essays are examples of “properties” that are owned by their creators, properties that
are subject to U.S. and international copyright laws.

Intellectual Property Resources

Copyright

Copyright refers to the laws that protect your ownership of property (whether or not you file a formal copyright
application). Plagiarism refers to the theft of someone’s intellectual property. According to the U.S. Copyright
Office,

Copyright is a form of protection provided by the laws of the United States (title 17, U.S.Code) to the authors of
“original works of authorship” including literary, dramatic, musical, artistic, and certain other intellectual works.
(U.S. Copyright Office, Copyright Basics, Circular 1).

Copyright refers to the laws that protect the creator’s intellectual property. Copyright laws allow you (as the
creator) certain rights. You can:
1. Reproduce the work in copies such as books or CDs.
2. Prepare a derivative work. For example, if you write a book or short story, only you can create a play
or movie from that story. (Of course, you can sell these rights if you so desire.)
3. Distribute copies of your work to the public by sales or other methods. You get to perform or display
the work publicly (e.g., plays, music, or dance performances).
Copyright Resources

Go to this link for the video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TzV8GAtK0A0

• iCopyright : “Our goal is to put the iCopyright icon on every Web page—and give it intelligence. It will
“know” about the content it sits on. It will help publishers protect, license, and track their intellectual
property. It will give credit to the people who created it. It will help Internet users obtain the proper
license to reprint or reuse copyrighted works in the format they desire.”
• Privacy in the Online Classroom: Article that explores reasons to limit access and restriction methods
• Chilling Effects Clearinghouse : Written by students at UC Berkeley’s Boalt Hall School of Law, “These
pages will help you understand the protections intellectual property laws and the First Amendment
give to your online activities. We are excited about the new opportunities the Internet offers individuals
to express their views, parody politicians, celebrate their favorite movie stars, or criticize businesses.”
• Copyright : Intellectual Property in the Information Age: A Classroom Guide to Copyright from
Janice Walker, University of South Florida, Dept. of English.
• Intellectual Property Law: This site “provides information about intellectual property law including
patent, trademark and copyright. Resources include comprehensive links, general information, space
for professionals to publish articles and forums for discussing related issues.”
• Gigalaw.com : Excellent resource for information on intellectual property and copyright.
• Copyright Myths : Wonderful, easy-to-understand, rich essay on copyright. If you’re going to read just
one essay on copyright, read this one!
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 PROBLEM ANALYSIS

PROBLEM ANALYSIS OVERVIEW

A Problem Analysis investigates a situation/problem in order to allow the researcher to understand more fully
the problem, in order to recommend practical solutions for solving it.

In addition, a Problem Analysis determines the degree of the problem and if the problem is a genuinely related to
the specific site under investigated. For example, a workplace can request that a study be conducted to estimate
the cost and time involved in installing a new lighting system
because a number of employees have filed insurance claims
because of eye problems. Before investigating the cost of
lighting, a problem analysis would determine the degree that
the lighting is affecting employees or if the lighting is not
actually the problem. It may be that, after reviewing records,
the eye problems are isolated to workers in one particular
shop. In this case, the problem analysis study would
recommend solutions related to this particular area.

However, it could also be determined, after further

investigation focused on interviewing the workers in the
shops, that the lighting was not the cause of the problem.
Instead, the interviews determined that the workers were
staying up all night studying for classes that they were
taking. Thus, the problem analysis would report that the lighting was not the cause of the problem, saving the
company time and money. (This may be the case when you investigate your problem. However, if it is, you will
need to choose another problem in order to complete the research portion of this class.)

Problem Analysis Procedure (with Format Used to write A Problem

Analysis Report)
PROBLEM

Identify the problem. State and describe the Problem.

BACKGROUND

Begin by identifying the name and position of the person requesting the Problem Analysis. The person requesting
the Problem Analysis needs be an administrator or a person who holds a position in the company that can
approve your collecting of internal data, such as conducting interviews with employees, reviewing company
records, or conducting an onsite investigation. Give some background of the company/agency that is
experiencing the problem, such as the company’s type of business, how long they have been in business, how
many employees the company employs, etc. End the section with a rationale of why the person suspects there is
a specific problem.

RESEARCH
The research section opens with a brief introduction to the internal investigation of detailed areas of research.
The introduction must reference all areas of detailed research, in the exact order that they are discussed in the
detailed section. One area of the investigation must be employee interviews. Other areas may include items such
as reviewing company records, investigating supply rooms, or conducting site investigations.

FINDINGS

Report the results of your investigation. Discuss each area of research, in the same order that you investigated
specific areas. You must have parallel order, so the reader has easy access to reference the information.
CONCLUSIONS

From your findings, discuss the outcomes, what you determine are facts. Emphasize that there is a problem, identify
the problem and how your investigation supports your decision, or emphasize that there is not a problem, identify the
suspected problem and how your investigation supports you decision. Note that you need to have a problem for this
assignment. Therefore, if you determine that there is not a problem, you will need to do another Problem Analysis.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Identify 3 recommendations that you believe will solve the problem. Your Recommendations section will begin with a
preface statement. Next you will identify the recommendations. Identify the number of each recommendation,
followed by the recommendation. Be sure to begin each recommendation with an action verb (using the understood
you).

See the following example of a Problem Analysis document: Problem Analysis Report for Teldon Facilities

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PLANNING REPORTS (ANNOTATED)

Notes have been added to the following reading in order to show how the selection relates to the Problem
Analysis Report Assessment Project. See markers at the end of sentences to access the added notes. The
markers identify the notes that are presented at the end of the reading.

Planning Reports
The first task to be completed before starting a report is to determine what needs to be addressed. According to
Paul V. Anderson’s text, Technical Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach, the basic superstructure for a
report and the questions to be answered in each section are the following (p. 541):
• Introduction – What will the readers gain from reading the report?
• Method of obtaining facts – Are the facts reliable?
 • Facts – What have you found that is useful for the readers?
• Discussion – How do the facts work from
the reader’s point of view?
• Conclusions – Why are the facts significant to
the readers?
• Recommendations – What do you think the
readers should do?
• Attachments

This is a basic superstructure, not an outline. Some of these

elements may be in a different order, addressed together,
or completely omitted. An effective report includes these
elements to improve the usability and usefulness of the report. If the report isn’t easy to navigate,
the persuasiveness of the report will be lost and/or it will be thrown out.

Introduction
For some reports, the introduction may only need to be a sentence or two, but for longer more extensive reports it
may take multiple pages. The introduction is where the objective of research is stated and briefly explained. An
introduction should tell the reader what the main focus of the report is and in doing so tell the reader why the
research and report is important for them to read. Essentially we answer the question “What will we gain from
reading this report?” [b1] The introduction should explain the problem that the report is aiming to solve.[b2]

For longer reports, your introduction may take multiple pages. Such things such as 1) What problem your report
solves, 2) what activities you performed toward solving that problem and 3) how your readers can apply your
information to their own efforts towards solving the problem should be answers within the introduction. Also,
ensure that within your introduction your main points are stated.

The main points within most introductions will include your major conclusions and recommendations. Although
you should discuss these fully at the end of your report, your readers will appreciate a brief summary of your main
points in your introduction.

Examples:
• Beginning of report:”In this report, I present the information you wanted to have before deciding
whether to place new university stables on next year’s list of major funding drives.” (Anderson, 2007,
p.542)
• Summarizing main points: “Overall it seems that the stables would make a good fundraiser project
because of the strength of the current programs offered there, the condition of the current facilities, and
the existence of a loyal core of alumni who used the facilities while undergraduates.” (Anderson,
2007,p. 543)

In addition, the introduction may explain how the report is organized, outline its scope, encourage openness to
your message, and provide important background information for your readers to understand the rest of the
report.

Method of Obtaining Information

The purpose of this section is to show the readers how you obtained your information. Stating where you obtained
your information will help to tell the readers if your research is reliable. Your method will help readers to
understand the uses and limitations of your research.[b3] A good, descriptive method section will allow anyone
else to recreate your experiment exactly and obtain the same result. Be very detailed in the method section and
reread it as if you were trying to do this experiment for the first time based on your method section. [b4]
Results
The results section is the most valuable part of the report to readers. The
whole point of research is to find the results so they need to be conveyed
clearly and effectively.[b5] A results section may likely contain tables, graphs,
text, and pictures. Include anything that is important in showing the reader
what was found through research. Do not include extraneous information as it
will only clutter the results section. Make sure you check the date of your
information, where it comes from, and who the source was. Keep the prose
simple and descriptive in this section, leave the analysis of the results for the
discussion section.

Discussion
The discussion section is where you interpret your results.[b6] Your results
section may be nothing but tables and graphs with a few accompanying
sentences. Your discussion section is where you make sense of those tables
and graphs and explain how they relate to the problem or question the report
is trying to research. The discussion also explains what the results mean to
the company. In some reports, mainly shorter ones, the discussion and facts
sections may be put into one to make reading the report shorter and easier.

Conclusion
The conclusion section explains why the results are important and how they affect the reader. It is a good practice
to summarize your facts and restate the problem so the reader clearly understands the importance of your
findings. This is your chance to tell the reader how they or the company will benefit from your findings. The
conclusion usually does not make recommendations for action but will inevitably get the reader thinking about it.
[b7]

Recommendation
Here is where you state the purpose of the report and what you want to be accomplished after the readers are
done with your report.[b8] This section may not be in some reports because the decision to be made may be
beyond your knowledge and power.

Reader’s Six Basic Questions

When reading your report, readers will ask six questions that revolve around one goal: does the information and
ideas that you provide offer a guide for future action? Examine these questions while pretending you are the
audience you’re writing to. Ensure your report answers the questions in order to create a well written report.
• What will we gain from reading your report?

Readers in the workplace only want to read information relevant directly to them. Therefore, you need to make
sure that you explain how this information is relevant to the readers responsibility, interests and goals.
• Are your facts reliable?

Readers want to ensure that the facts you provide will give a sound basis for their decisions or actions.
• What do you know that is useful to us?
The readers are not interested in all the information you know about a given subject. They only want to know
information that is pertinent to them. Especially ones they can put directly to use (Example: The most important
sales figures for this quarter are as follows:….”)
• How do you interpret those facts from our point of view?

Facts within relevancy are meaningless. in order to make facts meaningful, people must interpret them and
identify the relationships or patterns among them. Usually Readers want you to do this form them, rather than
leaving the work up to them.
• How are those facts significant to us?

Readers also want you to go beyond just the interpretation of the facts, they want you to explain what these facts
mean in terms of their responsibilities, interests and goals.
• What do you think we should do?

Because you have studied the facts you’re presenting in detail, readers will make the assumption that you are
qualified to make a recommendation.

These questions are general in order to be applicable to a variety of reports. Some reports will take very little to
answer these questions, however in larger reports writers often need to take hundreds of pages to answer these
question. Readers often seek answers to these basic questions by asking multiple more specific questions.
However, these six questions are the general ones that can be applied to your work.

Revision Checklist
Once you have written your report review it using the checklist.

Introduction
1. Does it clearly state the topic of the report?
2. Does it tell your reader why you are writing about this topic?
3. Does it persuade the reader to continue reading?
4. Does it provide background information for the reader?

Method
1. Does it explain the process of obtaining the facts and ideas within the report?

Facts
1. Does it present clear and specific facts?

Discussion
1. Does it present the generalizations from the facts that will be meaningful to the reader?

Conclusions
1. Does it explain the significance of the facts?

Recommendations
1. Does it tell your reader what they should do next and why?

References
Anderson, Paul V. Technical Communication: A Reader-Centered Approach. 2008. Thompson Wadsworth
Publishers. 2008. Pages 541-545.
[b1]This information relates to the Background section of the Problem Analysis Report.
[b2]This is the Problem that you identify at the Beginning of your Problem Analysis.
[b3]This refers to the introductory paragraph that begins the Research Section of the
Problem Analysis Report.
[b4]This is refers to the Detailed Research that is presented in the Problem Analysis
Report.
[b5]This refers to the Findings Section of the Problem Analysis Report.
[b6]This refers to the Findings Section of the Problem Analysis Report.
[b7]This refers to the Conclusion Section of the Problem Analysis Report.
[b8]This refers to the Recommendations Section of the Problem Analysis Report.
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 SUMMARIES AND RESPONSES

SUMMARIES AND RESPONSES OVERVIEW

Note: The Summaries/Responses are on the same problems as the Problem Analysis.

Guidelines for Writing Summaries/Responses

Use bibliography title for the title of a summary/response that reports research form a single source. A
bibliography title is the exact same reference to the source you would cite on a reference page. By using a
bibliography title you let your reader know immediately where they can find the source.

Use the 6th edition of the APA style of referencing.

Avoid the use of pronouns. This may not be practical at times; however, choose those times wisely. Before you
decide to use a pronoun, exhaust all possible ways to avoid the use of a pronoun. At times, readers get lost in
pronouns. Also, pronouns do not always refer to their intended noun. Unintended pronoun references send
confusing messages or incorrect information.

Use correct grammar, punctuation, sentence structure, and paragraph structure.

A response/evaluation follows the summary.

Usually, a summary is one, single-spaced paragraph and the evaluation/response is one, single-spaced
paragraph. The paragraphs are separated by a double space.

The following details the content of a Summary-Response/Evaluation.

The Bibliography Title

INTRODUCTION
 The introduction references the author of the article, where he went to school, where he works, his affiliations,
etc. If the article does not have an author, reference the company, presenting the company’s background,
how long has the company been in business, what service the company sells or offers, how many employees
the company employs, etc. You may not be able to address all of these areas. However, address as many as
possible to add credibility to your research.
SUMMARY
Do not put your opinion in any part of the summary. The information in the summary is only what the author
states. The evaluation/response is for your opinion. Be sure to evidence your opinion from the information in
the summary.
In the first statement of the summary, you must reference the author, using the author’s full name and the title
of the work being summarized and evaluated. Use the last name of the author for all other references.
Reference every statement in the summary, followed by the article’s year of publication. You can use a lead
in reference, put the reference after an introductory phrase, or put the reference at the end of the statement.
If a direct quote is cited, identify the paragraph number of the quote, immediately after the year of publication.
Use the paragraph symbol (¶ ) or the abbreviation for paragraph to identity the number as a paragraph
number. If the source is a pdf file use the page number to identify the page; cite p. for one page or pp. for
multiple pages.
Reference every statement in the summary and every statement that supports your opinion in the evaluation/
response.
When summarizing a report, do not use reference phrases such as Milgram feels or Baumrind enjoys. Use
Milgram reports that he feels or Baumrind states that she enjoys.
RESPONSE
The evaluation must address the work it evaluates. The evaluation is your opinion as it relates to the essay,
report, article, etc.
In the evaluation/response, clearly state the following in a paragraph format.
• the author’s purpose for writing,
• if the author accomplished the purpose,
• if you agree or disagree,
• the reason you agree or disagree, and Why.
• How the article relates to your problem.
See Example Summary-Response Teldon for a model.

Note: The Summaries/Responses are on the same problem as the Problem Analysis
report.

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SUMMARIES AND RESPONSES

To learn about writing effective summary and response essays, read this article from Colorado State:

http://writing.colostate.edu/guides/teaching/rst/pop5i.cfm
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 PROPOSAL

THE PROPOSAL OVERVIEW

Components of a Proposal
A basic Research Proposal has seven sections: Problem, Solution, Research, Implementation, Method
of Operation, Costs, and Benefits. These different sections are presented as follows:

Problem section
Introduce the problem. State and discuss the problem. In the discussion, define and detail the 5 W’s (who, what,
where, when, and why).

Solution section: discuss the solution. Since your problem is unique, the research will not present the solution to
your problem. However, the research will discuss similar problems and the solutions to these problems. This
research will provide you information with which to formulate a solution that is relative to your specific problem.

Research section: Research your topic. Your sources must be current, within the last 2 or 3 years. Therefore,
you need to research journals or newspapers for published articles, published interviews, published speeches,
etc.
You cannot use books. Information in books is usually outdated.

You will need at three (3) or four (4) documents that address a problem similar to the one you have chosen.
Although you will not find your exact situation/problem, you will find documents that refer to similar problems.
These documents will have similar populations, environments, workforces, etc. For example, if you propose to
implement a shuttle bus service from the parking lot to work places for a more efficient and effective way for
people to report to work, you may find documents from other workplaces, with circumstances similar to yours,
which experienced similar problems and solved them by providing shuttle bus services.

The research will provide you with information that validates your topic as a problem and your solution, as well as
validating your proposed implementation, methods of operation, costs, and benefits as credible.

Note that you need at least three (3) references/sources for your proposal.
Implementation section: Tell when, why, and how the solution will be used for the first time. The implementation
period is usually a trial period to see if the solution is feasible as planned. Thus, you will pick a time that does not
impact the normal operation of existing programs/patterns of operation/etc. In addition, describe the location of
implementation, who will be involved, costs of implementation, what is expected to happen, the date and time of
implementation, the duration of implementation, etc. Explain also why you chose this time for implementing the
solution. State that during this time you will note what works and what needs to be changed.

Methods of Operation section: This section will tell how the

solution will fit into and be used as a functional part of the
day to day operation of the company/business, etc. Detail
the date you expect to launch the solution into the operation
the company, the place from where the solution will operate,
how it will operate, and who will be involved (identify their
responsibilities, duties, and any titles, certifications, degrees,
etc, needed).

Costs section: This section tells how much the solution

will cost. Detail the cost. Report costs in dollar amounts.

Benefits section: This section explains the benefits of the

solution. There is little reason why your proposal should be
accepted if there are not meaningful benefits. Thus, be sure
to show that your solution will result in substantial benefits
for the organization, company, etc.

Reference page: The reference page is a separate page that references your research. Remember to use the
APA style of documentation.

Appendices: The Appendices include the full summaries and responses, the Problem Analysis, and any
information that is meaningful to the proposal.

See the following example of a Proposal: Sample Student Proposal

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PREPARING BUSINESS PROPOSALS

A business proposal is a statement that is meant to persuade the reader.

Objective
In a proposal, you make an offer in attempt to persuade the reader to accept
it. In exchange for money, time, or some other consideration, you will give the
reader something they want, create something they desire, or do something
they wish to have done.

Business proposals have two objectives: To persuade and to protect.

1. Persuasion comes from the wording of the proposal. By definition, a
proposal is an offer that needs to be accepted by the reader in
order to succeed. If the proposal is not persuasive, you will not get
what you want.
2. Proposals serve metaphorically and often legally as a contract,
so they need to protect you. If they are worded vaguely or they
exaggerate promises, clients can take legal action if you do not
perform the expectations stated. You also need to make sure you
comply with any state laws when writing a proposal.

Expertise in writing proposals requires two things: you must be able to

present your offer in the most appealing way possible, while carefully defining
the limits of your offer so that no one thinks you are promising more than you
can offer.

Making a proposal appealing without promising more than you can offer can be difficult, since you need to set
limits on your persuasiveness.

Variety
There are many different kinds of proposal situations.
1. You may need to write for a reader who is employed in your own organization.
2. Your proposal may be your own idea, or the idea of your reader.
3. Your proposal may stand alone or compete with other proposals.
4. Your company/group may have to proofread and approve of your proposal before you submit it to
your readers, or you may have to send it directly to them.
5. Your proposal may be heavily regulated for content and structure, or you may have free range on
what you think it should sound like.
6. Finally, the proposal can be evaluated in a plethora of ways.

Readers
When you write a proposal, you are representing yourself, your idea, and your company. You are asking your
readers to invest something (time, money, other resources), because you can not provide it yourself. The readers
will review the proposal with caution because they may have limited supplies and if your idea does not seem well
thought out or effective, they will not consider it. If your business proposal is competing against others, the
readers will need to consider each one in order to pick the best.

Point: If your business proposal is not convincing, respectful, or well-written, it will not be considered.

Writing a Business Proposal

Business proposals need to be organized. There are many different ways to write a business proposal. Asking
the reader to make a decision whether to invest in you or not is a very important aspect and should be
incorporated in every business proposal. For the reader, investing in you takes their limited resources and puts
them in your
hands. Therefore, business proposals should be precise and address many different issues the reader might have
such as money, time, space, etc.

Frequently Asked Questions

Most of the time, readers want to know three things when
they consider a proposal: Problem, solution, and cost.

The problem, need, or goal of your proposal should be

clearly addressed in order to let the reader know why the
proposal was written and why they should be interested in it.
A properly written problem/need/goal will add clarity to your
proposal.

If you provide a problem, be sure to describe what actions

you plan on taking to solve the problem. The reader wants to
make sure that your solution will work effectively and if it is
worth investing in.

Cost is also important. The reader will consider the problem

and solution and determine their answer on what their
financial situation is. A good business proposal can flounder
because the cost may be too high.

Capability can be considered as well, if you agree to perform some work. If you are being paid, readers want to
make sure that you will work hard.

Strategy of Conventions
A business proposal needs to have a framework. Usually, there are ten topics that need to be addressed.
However, all proposals need to have the following:

Introduction, Problem, Solution, and Cost

The following is a detailed description of the ideal sequence of thought you should lead your reader through:

• In the introduction, the reader should learn what you want to do.

• You should present a problem, need, or goal to the reader. This should persuade the reader that the problem
is important to them.

• The plan of action to solve the problem, meet the need, or achieve the goal should give objectives and
solutions in order to persuade the reader that the plan of action is effective.

• Giving methods, providing a schedule, showing resources, and describing qualifications should persuade
the reader that you are capable of planning, managing, and completing the proposed solution.

• Explaining how the benefit exceeds the cost will persuade the reader that the proposed action is reasonable.

By including at least these four sections, you are leading the reader through a persuasive argument on why your
proposal deserves to be considered. If you divide the proposal up into several sections, it is more efficient for the
reader to concentrate on the sections that are more important and skim through the other sections, instead of
having to read the whole thing and look for key points.
Superstructure
The superstructure provides a framework for writers to
organize their proposal. Writers can use it as a guideline,
but note that it is not mandatory for writers to include every
single element listed below in their proposal. Sections can
be combined or even briefly stated in other sections.

Introduction
In the introduction, you want to focus on what you are
announcing. Although you may want to reveal the full
description in the beginning, it may be better to make the
introduction brief and allow the full description to be revealed
throughout the letter. This way, readers can get a glimpse of
what you will be talking about without you explaining it
several times (in the beginning and later on).

Problem
After the introduction, you should present your readers with a problem, need, or goal that is significant to them. It
is important to summarize the problem from the readers’ point of view, otherwise they may think that it doesn’t
affect them and become disinterested. Stating a problem can take some research. Sometimes, readers may
provide a problem for you (like when a firm writes your company a letter explaining a problem and how you should
solve it). Other times, readers may still give you a problem, but be vague. Other times, you may have to define the
problem yourself, based on your own frustration or helplessness. Before you consider something to be a problem,
try to talk about it with a potential reader to see if it is worth writing a business proposal about. If the feedback is
positive, you will know you have more means for continuing the proposal.

Objectives
After you describe your problem and before you state your solution, tell your reader what the goals of the solution
are. The objectives help to connect the problem and solution together. Objectives should be brief or listed, and
should tell how the action of the solution solves the problem.

Solution
How do you want to achieve the objectives that you have listed? Your solution should answer this question. To do
this, you must address each objective and persuade your readers that your solution is the best way to achieve
the objectives. These statements are only necessary when they are not obvious to the readers. This can be the
case when your readers are coworkers and are aware of problems around the workplace.

The solution’s description can be tricky because you may find that you are promising more than you can deliver.
The best way to counter that is to be very specific (i.e., what are the limits of the program, what are the
capabilities, etc.) Make sure that everything you are not sure you can perform is clearly noted as a possibility, not
a promise.

Method
After you propose a solution to the problem, readers will want to know the steps you will take to make sure the
solution is carried out. How will you produce the result? These are the aspects that most readers will look for:
1. Facilities
2. Equipment
3. Your schedule
 4. Your qualifications
5. A plan for managing the proposed project

Sometimes, explaining the method is superfluous. If everyone is already familiar with your methods, you do
not have to give a detailed explanation. However, make sure your readers know what you are talking about
before you assume that they will know everything about your project.

Resources
If your plan requires equipment, facilities, or other resources this section should be included. Tell your readers
what you need and why it is needed. If no special resources are required, you do not need to include this section
in your proposal.

Schedule
Schedules help provide readers with three things. First, they give readers a deadline so they know when to
expect a final result. Second, schedules can be critiqued by readers to make sure they are feasible. Third, a
schedule is a good way to keep track of how a project is proceeding.

In addition to project deadlines, schedules should also include due dates for drafts, resources, and other
information that is needed to assist you with your project goal.

Qualifications
A qualifications section is a good place to explain the talent and experience of yourself and your team members.
Depending on your readers, this section may be small or large. As with all business documents, you need to be
honest when you write your qualifications. If you think that you need to learn new programs, remember that the
time and money spent gaining experience can take away from the project’s completion.

Management
A project’s success depends on its management team, and readers are impressed if you can describe your
project management structure in your proposal. By identifying each person on your team and explaining what
their tasks and responsibilities are, you can coordinate your work efficiently. It is very helpful for each person to
know what they will be doing beforehand so there won’t be many problems concerning leadership and time
management further into the project.

Costs
Since your readers are investing their money and time into your project, it helps to know how much it will cost. A
budget statement is good for organizing your expenses, but you should also think about the amount of time you
and your team members will spend on the project. You may also include how much money your project will
save the readers to make it seem more appealing.

Design
Believe it or not, design DOES matter when writing a business proposal. You want to make the proposal
appealing to the readers. If the reader is looking at two proposals and one has graphics and color on the front
cover and one has just text, which one do you think they will want to read first?
Revision Checklist
Now that you know what information is required, you can
prepare a checklist to make sure that everything is covered
and you are not missing something that may be essential.

Introduction
1. Does it state the purpose clearly?
2. Does it provide sufficient background information?
3. Does it foreshadow the rest of the proposal to
help guide the reader?

Problem
1. Does it explain the proposed action’s need or goal?
2. Does it persuade the reader that the problem
is important to them?

Objectives
1. Do your objectives relate directly to the problem?
2. Can you present them without going into the solution?

Solution
1. Is it understandable when it is being described?
2. Is it persuasive in saying that it will achieve the objectives?
3. Does it effectively show that it is the most desirable way to achieve the objectives?
4. Does it offer protection to you and your team members/employer by only promising things that you
can deliver?

Method
1. Are the steps in the method described clearly?
2. Is it persuasive enough for your readers to be convinced that it will work?

Resources
1. Can you persuade the readers that you have them or can attain them?
2. Can you clearly identify all of the resources you can supply, protecting you and your employer?

Schedule
1. Does it say when the project will be completed?
2. Has your work been reasonably scheduled?
3. Does the schedule clearly state what you must do to meet your deadlines, protecting you and
your employer?
4. Have you included a schedule chart (if it makes your proposal more

persuasive?) Qualifications
1. Can you persuade your readers that you can complete the project successfully?

Management
1. Can you persuade your readers that your team is organized effectively?
2. Have you included an organizational chart that illustrates the hierarchy of your team members and
their responsibilities?

Costs
 1. Have you presented all of them?
2. Are they reasonable?
3. Are all of your costs included, protecting you and your employer?
4. Do you have a budget table?

Conclusion
1. Are all of your key points summarized?
2. Have you ended on a positive note?
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FRONT MATTER: CONTENTS, LISTS, AND MORE

Front matter is an extremely important element to writing any report. Whether its for a specific company research
or for other personal reports. Specifics such as the size of the font, font type, formatting, and organization also
need to be taken into consideration when creating the front matter of your report.

The first few pages of a report are essential. An abbreviated abstract will assist the reader in finding what the
main points of the report will be about.

These elements are often referred to as “Book Elements”, as they are commonly found in larger works.

Important considerations should be made on how your publication will be used. To increase usability, you should
consider how your readers will be using the report, and what they will be looking for, and focus on making this
easy to find.

Covers
A cover page is a very simple, precise, brief way to introduce your report to the reader. This should contain:
• A large specific title
• Company name
• Name of the author(s)
• Date of the report
• Relevant picture

The use of a relevant picture or two can help reinforce the subject of the report. One goal of the cover page is to
be informative and scalable because once it is filed, it will need to be easy to pick out of a stack of other reports.
A second goal is to make the report stand out. If the report cover looks bleak and dull, the reader will start reading
with a negative outlook. Think of the cover page of a report like what is worn to an interview. The cover page is
the first thing that is seen. It will be the foundation for first impressions, for better or worse. One easy way to make
the report stand out is to use a theme for the report that your audience can connect to. For example, if a report is
written to McDonald’s, the cover page will be in yellow and red with the golden arches as a picture. It is important
that the reader believes that he or she is the most important aspect of the report.
 Title Page
A title page will be very similar to your front cover and it repeats the information on the cover, but adds more
important details. This may include a report number, date, title, the names and addresses of authors, specific
contract information, the name and address of the supervisor, and the name and address of the organization who
supported the report (Technical Communications, p.312)

The title page is an opportunity to provide specific, detailed information about the document and its authors to its
intended audience.

Sample Draft
(Document number) 10-1 (Date) March 7, 2010 (Title) The Madden Project
By (Author) John Manning Brett Peterson 1234 Touch Down Lane Miami, Fl 57897 Madden Inc And
(Place to Contact) Madden Inc. No. 54321 Project officer
(Who’s in charge) Ari Washington Manager of Exploratory Research 6667 Prime Time Court Mendota Heights, MN 55178
(Who paid for the project) Football Cooperation The Department of Research and Development 1812 Legacy Drive Columbus, OH 99121

Sample Draft

Executive Summary or Abstract

Abstracts are an important element in the business world. This will help a manager learn the main points of your
document, and help the reader determine if the entire report is relevant to what they are looking for. Charts and
graphs that show factual data are helpful visuals that can be implemented into this section of the document.

Major topics should be mentioned, but not the main points of each. This will be where most of the key words of
your report are used, and will be a preview of the information to be covered. Often, summaries are used when
representing a report in a database, so illustrating the main topics of your report in this segment can be useful.

The abstract should always be a page or less, especially in informative situations. Typically an abstract should not
be more than 15 percent of the total report.

According to the Technical Communications text,

• Identify the intended audience
• Describe Contents
• Tell the reader how the information is presented

Table of Contents
In any report or analysis, a table of contents is helpful to navigating the report. Some lengthy reports may also
include a table of graphs and/or a table of figures.

In addition to the summary, this will allow the reader to quickly scan the topics you have covered. This will also
help if they are looking for something particular. Use of proper headings and sub-headings give readers a good
overview of all the information contained in your document.

Table of contents are usually extremely generic and similar to each other. This is for ease of navigation to the
user. Table of contents can be formatted from Microsoft Word.
EXAMPLE:Chicago Manual of Style: Table of Contents: Formatting

Lists of Figures and Tables

This is a useful section to include because your images or tables are referred to repeatedly throughout your text.
Include Figures and Tables lists when your article is over about 15 pages. This also allows for easy comparison
between images when they are grouped together.
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ETHICS AND TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION

As you put together professional documents and begin working in the “real” world, you must understand what
could easily lead to your downfall in your professional workplace. The Paul Anderson text claims that at work in a
professional setting, there at least three major “sources of guidance”:
1. The code of ethics already developed by your field’s professionals,
2. The ethical code set in place by your company, and
3. Your own personal ethics.

Some companies have decided to have employees keep their personal ethics at home. In reality, companies that
try to keep personal ethics at home find that employees are occasionally asked to perform actions that they do not
condone at home. In professional settings we would like to assume that companies would not act unethically, so
why should we even pay attention?

The truth is, companies do act unethically whether it is disposing of toxic waste incorrectly or price gouging to
name a few. The same goes for writing professional documents. You should keep them clean and standardized to
save yourself from damaging a possible job opportunity and the name you represent.

Stakeholders

When writing any professional document, it is important to identify the potential stakeholders. A stakeholder is
anyone who will be affected by what you are intending on writing. How you choose to word your document or
even the choice to write the document becomes an ethical matter to stakeholders. It is crucial to consider your
main objective(s) before writing. If you are writing a document that would be used to harm other living things (like
writing a manual for a handgun) you have to weigh the implications to all stakeholders impacted. According to the
Paul Anderson text, there are three types of stakeholders: direct, indirect, and remote.

Direct
The direct stakeholders are those initially impacted by what you write. For instance, if you are writing about
opening a new waste disposal area, the stakeholders clearly include the company you are writing to. However,
disposal companies that might use this waste area in the future are also considered direct stakeholders. Their
future business will be impacted based on whether your proposal is accepted or declined.

Indirect
The indirect stakeholders are those that are not impacted until a later time. Using the previous example of the
waste disposal, citizens in the area would be indirect stakeholders. The stakeholders don’t necessarily need to be
people. The nearby eco-systems would be indirect stakeholders to this same proposal. If toxic waste is dumped
there, it would harm the animals, rivers and plant life nearby.

Remote
Finally, the remote stakeholders are not affected until far into the future. One example following our hypothetical
waste disposal area, is future generations. While it may seem far-fetched, historically, there have been instances
where toxic or poisonous things have been disposed of incorrectly and the run-off that went into lakes and
streams caused birth defects. While this is remote, it must be considered when writing a document.

Ethical Writing
Once on the job, you will be assigned to create many documents throughout your professional career. Some
may be simple and straightforward, some may be difficult and involve questionable objectives. Overall, there are
a few basic points to adhere to whenever you are writing a professional document:
• Don’t mislead
• Don’t manipulate
• Don’t stereotype

Don’t mislead
This has more than one meaning to the professional writer. The main point is clear. When writing persuasively, do
not write something that can cause the reader to believe something that isn’t true. This can be done by lying,
misrepresenting facts, or just “twisting” numbers to favor your opinion and objectives. This is clearly different from
the resume ethics. Once you are on the job, you cannot
leave out numbers that show you’re behind or over-budget
on a project, no matter how well it may work once it is
completed. Facts are facts and they must be represented in
that way. Be cautious when using figures, charts and tables,
making sure they are not misleading. While this may seem
easy to read about, when the pressure is on and there are
deadlines to meet, taking shortcuts and stretching the truth
are very common.

The other, less frequently used component is plagiarizing.

While it may seem like this is something students learn to
avoid after they graduate, it remains an important guideline
for all professionals. Plagiarizing is misrepresenting the
source or facts, most commonly when you claim the ideas
you are writing about are yours. When you are researching
professional documents, make sure you are using material with permission. If you are writing about what you’ve
researched, make sure you are citing the sources of your information and giving credit to all the necessary
researchers. This rule also extends beyond writing to what is referred to as intellectual property. Intellectual
property includes the following:
• Patents – Items whose credit for creation is protected
• Trademarks – Company names (WalMart), logos (the Target bulls-eye), or slogans (I’m lovin’ it)
• Copyright law – Items whose distribution is protected by law (books, movies, or software)

None of these things can be used without proper recognition of or approval from the appropriate company or
individual involved.

This law extends beyond the major companies. Any written document in your own company is copyrighted by law
once produced. That means if you are borrowing a good idea from a friend at another company, you must cite
them as a source. Also, although not required by law, it is a good idea to cite sources from inside your own
company as well. You wouldn’t want some one else taking credit for your ideas. Why should you treat others any
differently?

The legal consequences are most notable when one considers writing in the professional world. While plagiarizing
may give you a failing grade in a class, plagiarizing in the workplace can not only get you fired, but could result in
a costly lawsuit or possibly even jail time. It is not only ethical to follow these rules, it is an enforced law. Make
sure you properly document all sources so as not to mislead a reader.

Don’t manipulate
If you are holding a professional job, it is understood that you have a decent ability to write persuasively, even if
your first persuasive document was your resume. Do not use your ability to persuade people to do what is not in
their best interest. While this may not always seem easy, a good writer with a bad motive can twist words to make
something sound like it is beneficial to all parties. The audience may find out too late that what you wrote only
benefited you and actual ended up hurting them. This goes back to the stakeholders. Make sure they are not only
considered and cared for when writing a persuasive document. It is easy to get caught up in the facts and forget
all the people involved. Their feelings and livelihood must be considered with every appropriate document you
create.

Don’t stereotype
Most stereotyping takes place sub-consciously now since work places are careful to not openly discriminate. It is
something we may not even be aware we are doing, so it is always a good idea to have a peer or coworker
proofread your documents to make sure you have not included anything that may point to discriminatory
assumptions.

Addressing Unethical Practices

Many times in the professional setting, workers find it difficult to deal with unethical practices in their company.
First, begin by bringing the unethical practice to the surface, which is usually the hardest part. Paul Anderson’s
text reviews three ways that you can bring your company’s practices to the surface. It is easiest to first start
asking questions. Asking questions may seem too simple but it is an effective way of bringing attention to your
company’s problems. Ask questions about who their decisions are affecting and why they are making those
decisions. This will not put you on the spot for being the bad guy, but it will allow you to voice your opinion.

The second idea Anderson describes as being helpful in revealing unethical practices is to use facts or reason,
instead of accusation. Before you raise questions about your company’s unethical practices, make sure you have
cold hard facts instead of accusations. Many times accusations are made about situations where people truly do
not know the reason those decisions were being made. If you base your thoughts around true facts, your
company will assume you looked into the situation and will take your thoughts more seriously.

The third helpful way to bring your company’s unethical practices to the surface is to remain open to others ideas.
What this allows you to do is base a solution around many different sides instead of just your own. Since people
usually have different ethical values, your own stance may not coincide with everyone elses’. Make sure you
identify possible values of others when considering possible solutions.

Employing Ethical Techniques

In professional writing, ethical dimensions begin to surface especially in persuasive writing. When you are trying
to persuade other people to make a certain decision or to take action, stay clear of manipulation and
misconceptions. At times, you may be misleading someone unintentionally. In persuasive writing, you must
respect the readers values and viewpoints. Do not use false or skewed facts or argue from such premises
because you may deceive the reader(s) and cause them to make an unlawful decision.

Avoiding manipulation when writing persuasively is also key. Sometimes you may be aware of the readers point.
If so, you must make sure not to use this personal information against them in your writing. It is unethical to
persuade readers to make a decision that benefits yourself and not them. Most times, people try to manipulate
others to receive some type of reward or gain.

To avoid using misleading or manipulating words and phrases, it is important to be open to alternative viewpoints.
In preparing any type of persuasive writing, you will come across conflicting viewpoints, so being aware of other
views should not be hard. Keep your readers’ ideas and goals in mind and consider what lies behind their
concerns. To help solve these problems it may also be good to make statements based on human values.
Discussing several opinions and ideas on the subject will make you more persuasive, because most viewpoints
will be included to prevent you from appearing biased.

Legal Issues and Communication

This section presents information about legal aspects of communication which will help ensure that your writing is
free of legal concerns.

Appreciating Different Cultures

This section discusses the importance of considering diversity when writing because our world is multicultural,
and your writing needs to reflect our world in that regard.

Ethics Decision Checklist

• What is the nature of the ethical dilemma?
• What are the specific aspects of this dilemma that make you uncomfortable?
• What are your competing obligations in this dilemma?
• What advice does a trusted supervisor or mentor offer?
• Does your company’s code of conduct address this issue?
• Does your professional association’s code of conduct address this issue?
• What are you unwilling to do? What are you willing to do?
• How will you explain or justify your decision?
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 FEASIBILITY REPORT

FEASIBILITY REPORT OVERVIEW

A Feasibility Report is presented to the company that requested recommendations to solve a particular problem.
This report gives a rationale of the feasibility of the recommendations determined by the Problem Analysis.

The investigator will research each solution that the analysis recommended and present the economic (how much
will the solution cost), structural (how will the solution fit into
the existing physical structure of the company), and
operational (how will the solution fit into the existing
operation of the company) feasibility of each
recommendation. The investigator will rank these according
to his/her priority, but presenting the feasibility of all
recommendations, giving the pros and cons of each
recommendation. This gives the decision makers a choice to
choose the solution they believe is right for the company.

Feasibility Research Report

Note: Except for the cover page and the transmittal letter,
the headings will be formatted as shown below.

Cover Page
Use an APA cover page.

Transmittal Letter
A transmittal letter is sent to the company who requested the feasibility report. Although this letter is sent under
separate cover than the Feasibility Report, it is a courtesy to include a copy of the transmittal letter in the Report.

This letter tells the need for the feasibility report and the date of completion of the report. The letter includes the
background of the project, a reference to the Problem Analysis, and outlines the procedure used to determine the
recommendations presented from the feasibility report.

Table of Contents
Identify the sections and their corresponding pages.

Executive Summary
Briefly explain the problem, the three solutions, and the recommendations.
For example:

The purpose of this feasibility research report was to address the problem of . This report
offered three alternative solutions to this problem: , , .
In addition, the report ranked the alternative solutions, according to its strengths and its benefits. Solution #3,
was the first recommendation. Solution # 1 was the second recommendation.
Solution #2, was the third recommendation. (Of course this order depends on your rankings.)

The following format begins the body of the feasibility report.

Introduction
Write a brief introduction: This section will be from the Problem Analysis. Tell the why you conducted an
investigation and the

Background
Explain the problem. This section explains how you know there is a problem. This section will explain why you
did the investigation, the findings and conclusion from the Problem Analysis.

Purpose
State the specific purpose of the Feasibility Report. For example: The purpose of this report is to address the
problem that (the requester is experiencing with state the problem). This report will accomplish this by
investigating three alternative solutions to this problem.

Research
From the analyses of the articles (Summaries/Responses), copy and paste the summarized sections here. Only
paste the summarized sections. You will attach the entire analyses to the end of the report, as appendices.

NOTE:

Again, this research is not the same research you did for the Problem Analysis Report. The is the summarized
sections of your Summaries/Responses. For this research (the Feasibility Report research) you investigated
outside source for the solutions to the problem, whereas for the Problem Analysis your research explored internal
sources to reinforce the validity of the problem.

Your Summaries/Responses conduct the research of the feasibility of the problem’s solution by examining
various sources that addressed the feasibility of solutions to the problem. You may have looked into the
recommendations you proposed for your Problem Analysis Report. This will provide research specific to solutions
since the recommendations were a result of a previous investigation pertaining to the same problem.

In this Research Section, restate the information from your summaries. Be sure to use in-text citations that
reference the source of information. APA requires that each statement in the research is cited, according to its
source, followed by the sources year of publication. If you cite a direct quotation, in the in-text citation, follow the
source and year of publication with the number of the paragraph from where you fond the quotation. (See the
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association 6th ed. for the proper format.) Citations can be
presented as lead-in references or put at the end of the statements. (See the example in the Research Overview.)

The entire documents (your summaries/responses) are attached to the end of the Feasibility Report as
appendices. This allows your reader access not only to the summarized information but also to your analysis of
the information.
Alternative Solutions
Explain each solution according to technical, operational, and economic feasibilities.

The format will be as follows:

Solution #1

The first solution is . Further explain the solution.

Economic Feasibility
The economic feasibility is the cost of the solution. This includes all the costs involved: the amount for
materials, pay for extra staff, costs of contractors, operating cost, etc. Be sure to report the cost in
dollars. For example: $5,000.

Structural Feasibility
The structural feasibility is how the solution will fit into the existing structure. Will the solution require
more space, such as adding other rooms, constructing partitions, putting in heating systems, etc.

Operational Feasibility
The operational feasibility addresses how the solution will fit into the existing operation. Will more staff
need to be hired; will the job descriptions of the existing staff need to be redefined; etc.

Solution #2

The second solution is . Further explain the solution.

Economic Feasibility
The economic feasibility is the cost of the solution. This includes all the costs involved: the amount for
materials, pay for extra staff, costs of contractors, operating cost, etc. Be sure to report the cost in
dollars. For example: $5,000.

Structural Feasibility
The structural feasibility is how the solution will fit into the existing structure. Will the solution require
more space, such as adding other rooms, constructing partitions, putting in heating systems, etc.
 Operational Feasibility
The operational feasibility addresses how the solution will fit into the existing operation. Will more staff
need to be hired; will the job descriptions of the existing staff need to be redefined; etc.

Solution #3

The third solution is . Further explain the solution.

Economic Feasibility
The economic feasibility is the cost of the solution. This includes all the costs involved: the amount for
materials, pay for extra staff, costs of contractors, operating cost, etc. Be sure to report the cost in
dollars. For example: $5,000.

Structural Feasibility
The structural feasibility is how the solution will fit into the existing structure. Will the solution require
more space, such as adding other rooms, constructing partitions, putting in heating systems, etc.

Operational Feasibility
The operational feasibility addresses how the solution will fit into the existing operation. Will more staff
need to be hired; will the job descriptions of the existing staff need to be redefined; etc.

Recommendations
This section prioritizes the recommendations according to the investigator’s interpretation of the most effective
solutions.

Report your recommendations, beginning with your first choice (however, use the
number from the order it appeared in the alternative solution section). Explain why
you prioritized each choice by elaborating on the strength of each feasibility:
economical, structural, and operational. Also, emphasize the solutions benefits.
Remember you can suggest that you do not recommend a particular alternative
solution. However, you need to explain why you do not recommend the solution,
according to the technical, operational, and economic feasibilities.

For example, if you determined that the third solution was the most effective, the
first solution was the next best, and the second solution was the least effective, the
format would be as follows:

Solution #3

My first recommendation is Solution #3. Solution #3 is to .

Elaborate on why you ranked the solution as your first recommendation. End with the benefits of the
solution.

Solution #1

My second recommendation is Solution #1. Solution #1 is to .

Elaborate on why you ranked the solution as your second recommendation. End with the benefits of the
solution.

Solution #2
My third recommendation is Solution #2. Solution #2 is to .

Elaborate on why you ranked the solution as your third recommendation. End with the benefits of the
solution.

Note: Each recommendation begins with the same sentence structure: My recommendation is Solution # .
Do not change sentence structure.

Conclusion
Write a brief conclusion.

Reference Page
Be sure to use the APA style of documentation.

Appendices
Attach Appendices to the back of the paper after the reference page. These appendices should include at least
four separate appendices, which are labeled Appendix A, Appendix B, Appendix C, and Appendix D. These
appendices should include the following:

Appendix A

First complete analysis (Summaries/Response) from article.

Appendix B

Second complete analysis (Summaries/Response) from article.

Appendix C

Third complete analysis (Summaries/Response) from article.

Appendix D

The complete Problem Analysis Report

See the following example of the Feasibility Report: Student Sample of Feasibility Report
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PREPARING FEASIBILITY STUDIES

What is a Feasibility Report/Study?

What you should include when putting together a feasibility study/report:
• A feasibility report is a testimony that attempts to create some sort of action. Feasibility reports are
created to persuade/help the decision makers to choose between available options. Remember that
your
 option is not the only one, the decision makers will probably have many to choose from. A feasibility
report also determines whether or not the investigated task can be done with the amount of resources
available OR how many resources will be necessary in order to complete the task. A feasibility may be
useful in a lot of different situations such as event planning, finances, or even remodeling your home.

What is a feasibility study?

A feasibility study is a way to evaluate the practicality and desirability of a project. Before a company invests time
and money into a project, they need to know how successful the project will be before investing. Sometimes
companies want to understand input costs, the amount of research that will need to be done, or even the
marketability of a project. With input prices, it is essential that companies understand, (even before they put time
and research into the project), how much it would cost to go through with their product. Companies also like to
know if they put time into research and go through with their change or promotion of a product, how the public/
people will react to the change. Will people be fighting over the new product or will it fall through? The purpose of
feasibility studies is to provide companies information and analysis on whether or not you or your company should
pursue this course of action.

Feasibility reports are usually used to sway decision makers towards one direction or the other. Many times there
is only one course of action but, there needs to be a second course of action.

Questions to Consider for Your Report:

What to consider in creating feasibility studies/reports?

It remains important to consider alternatives when you are creating a feasibility study. Decision makers in
companies want to understand why they have to make a choice, and
then why they should choose this certain option. Feasibility reports need
to include detailed information on the problem that has presented itself to
provide decision makers with a reason to consider further options.

Is your argument important and appropriate?

When deciding on whether or not your feasibility study is important you
must first recognize the target audience or reader. For professional
organizations people want your argument or study to be based around
needs or aims of the organization and their future. In professional
settings, it is believed that those guiding points or criteria should be
known by the people judging your study. In other words, make the study
reasonable and have it relate to what you are looking at implementing or
the change you want to see happen.

Facts can make your argument important. However, decision makers

want to know that your sources are reliable. They want to be assured
that the information they are receiving is from a credible source in the
industry. This may turn out to be the most important aspect of any
feasibility study and report. Due simply to the fact that any information
you gather, no matter the presentation, can be ruined if you’re lacking information about your sources or in the
worst case if your sources are not credible.

What to consider about your alternatives?

It is important to understand how your alternatives compare to the criteria you set in place. In most cases your
readers will want to understand how your results compared to others. This allows them to make an educated
decision based simply around facts and results. Anderson considers this to be the heart of any feasibility report.
What have you found against your alternatives?
Based on experiments and finding results about possible alternatives and how they fare, it is important to draw
conclusions about the alternatives. This is not made to bash other options or products, but is made to set your
product or idea apart. You should include general knowledge or conclusions about what each product does well.
This remains an important part because once again decision makers need a basis for comparison, they need a
reason to select your idea compared to the alternatives and may already be set in place, or in the near future.

What should you throw into a conclusion?

Include in your conclusion how you’re going to go implement your ideas for the company and how it will enrich the
company. Explain why the company should choose your course of action. Compare statistics and data and help
the readers understand the logical choice and the course of action that would aid in selecting one option over the
other. Explain your expertise on the subject matter and help them realize that your idea is the choice they are
looking for. Based on your experiences they will most likely take your side if you present the argument efficiently.
The company will select your course of action, based on the key points you outline in your feasibility study.

Important Features of a Basic Feasibility Report

Below are the seven elements of a feasibility report:
• Introduction – You need to persuade the decision maker to even consider any sort of alternative.
You need to convince them to even read your report first. Tell them what they will gain personally or
as an organization by considering your work.
• Criteria/Constraints – You must specifically map out the criteria of what the ideal outcomes are. This
will allow you to make practical and logical decisions. You can present the criteria in your feasibility
report in one of two ways. First, you can separate the criteria into its own section. This is best when you
have a extensive report and you need to go in-depth with the explanation. Second, you can incorporate
the criteria throughout your report as the criteria become relevant. However, it is important to realize
that whichever strategy you chose make sure that the criteria is introduced early in the report. It is also
very important to map out the constraints of your suggested solutions. This will show the audience that
you understand and acknowledge the fact that no solution is perfect. This will also make sure that the
audience makes the decision in their best interest.
• Method – It is very important to present facts that are accurate and relevant. You should state the
reliable sources you used and what method they came from (internet,interview, book, etc.). Without
a credible research method or credible sources your document itself will lack credibility.
• Overview of Alternative Options – You must underline the key features of each possible option.
Make sure they are easy to understand and presented in a friendly layout. Keep in mind that the goal
is to allow your audience to make the best decision.
• Evaluation – This should be the bulk of your report, you must evaluate the options using the criteria
you created. Add graphs, charts, etc. to show that you have studied your options, and have come up
with statistics that back up your reasons as to why your alternative beats the competition.
• Conclusions – You need to state the conclusion you have came up with. How did you evaluate
the alternatives? And then from there, which alternative best fit your organization.
• Recommendations – You need to use your experience and knowledge in order to state which option
you think should be adopted.
• Note: All seven element outlined do not need to be included in the feasibility report depending on
audience, circumstance, mission, etc. Also the elements do not need to be in the exact order outlined
above. Specifically the conclusion should be mentioned more than just at the end of the report. It
should also be summarized in the beginning of the report and in the case the the feasibility report is
long, it can be mentioned in the middle as well.
Executive Summary
An executive summary should be included at the beginning of the report. In 2-3 pages, the main points of the
feasibility study are summarized for a quick review by busy
administrators and school board members. The executive
summary provides the reader with an overview of the
feasibility study and will help them see the entire picture
before they read the details. Some decision-makers may
only read the executive summary. Thus, the executive
summary should be concise and include the major findings
of the study followed by a recommendation.

Introduction
The purpose of the introduction of a feasibility report is
two- fold:
• To answer the readers’ question: “Why do we need to look into these alternatives-do they matter?”

In order to answer this question, it is necessary to identify the problem that your report will help resolve or
what your report is aimed at accomplishing.
• To talk about the other options that you have looked at and analyzed, as well as to tell how you
went about researching and analyzing them.

Note: Usually, the introduction to a feasibility report briefly discloses some of the important conclusions and
the most feasible options for change. Other elements of a report of this nature, such as the criteria, method, or
any other kind of general background, may also be concisely noted and mentioned in this portion of the report.

Criteria/Constraints
What to consider in your feasibility study/report. As you begin formulating what you would like to consider you
should realize that usually criteria works around one or more of the following questions.

Will your plan or course of action really do what is desired?

This is often seen on the technical sides. What you have to ask yourself is whether or not your implementation or
change really makes that much of a difference. Lets say you are looking to improve an aspect of your company.
Will your change really improve the proficiency and speed of what their trying to do. Or will you find in your study
that the change actually slows down production or the efficiency of the company’s workers. This is important to
predict beforehand because sometimes an improvement in the workplace is not always an improvement in how a
company works. But many of these factors you will not notice until after you complete your study. And in the worst
case you may not see negative ailments until after the plan is implemented.

What will it take to implement your course of action?

Even though your plan of action may seem correct and efficient on paper, it may not be practical towards your line
of work. You must take into account the circumstances that arise in every aspect of a professional setting. What
you may find is that in one field your plan may be extremely successful, but in another may be a bust. This can
also take place from company to company. As you work at different companies along the same field, you will
begin to understand what can be successful in one workplace that may not work in another. Sometimes you have
to take into account the amount of changes that will need to be implemented for your plan. Do you need to go
through extensive changes in operations, or make upgrades to current equipment or materials that are currently
in use or in stock? Sometimes the amount of money that needs to be put into a new project may be much more
than the actual amount of benefit that would be received from the changes. You must consider your plan as a
cost- benefit analysis.

Cost of implementation.
This may become the biggest factor in any business
decision. How much will it cost? In not only business, but
any professional field, the benefits must outweigh the costs
in any decision. This is even the case when deciding to
work on one aspect of a project compared to the other.
When forming criteria for a feasibility report, you must
understand the costs if all went as planned. Then you might
even want to find out what the cost would be if you had
minor or major setbacks. It is important to understand the
costs because unless the benefits outweigh the costs, a
company will most likely not go through with your proposed
plan of action. Also it is important to look into the future of
the company. Maybe your plan of action will not be
beneficial for the first year in existence, but what about the
years following that? This must be considered because like
any other decision in
business, the original fixed cost may be high but the marginal gains may be high. In that case it may be a good
decision for the company to make a change if it is beneficial for the future. Think about health care companies.
Would it be beneficial for a company to invest in new equipment even though the upright payment is very
high?

Is your idea/product desirable?

This is as simple as is your plan going to sell. Will people want to overextend themselves for change, or will they
reject what you are trying to do? Sometimes a change or solution must be more than just effective and affordable.
You must consider the consumers and people that will be changing. Sometimes many feasible courses of action
do not succeed simply because they create effects that drive the consumers away. Because of this, the product or
plan does not sell. These undesirable side effects can be as simple as tearing away employee morale.
Sometimes even though a plan is promoting and expected to increase productivity, how will the employees react?
Many times companies overlook how their employees are going to react to change. But the fact of the matter is
that the only way to increase production is to keep employees happy. If they are not pushed to improve the
company and their own status then they simply will not find change necessary.

Method
Things to keep in mind:

This section of your feasibility report is one of substantial magnitude and importance. This part of your paper
demonstrates to the reader what you discovered, through your research, actually matters and has reliability. By
telling your audience how you came to know what you have found out and know now, you are demonstrating to
them that your results are trustworthy and that they truly hold significance in meaning. With strong methods for
finding out your facts, your readers will then feel comfortable and confident to make the necessary changes.

It’s all about the source

The question of what sources to use completely varies from study to study. There are several different types of
sources that you could use to find your facts-it all just depends on what you are trying to find answers to. Sources
can include (but are not limited to):
• Academic journals or reports
• Library research
• Phone calls
• Face-to-face interviews
• Meetings with those who are knowledgeable about the topic or are in your company/organization
• Surveys (Survey Monkey!)
• Usability Testing
• Lab testings
How much is enough?

The length and density of content will vary from each report to the next. You should take into consideration your
audience as well as the context and purpose, for which your paper is written. The main goal is to purely get the
point across to the readers that what you are reporting has validity, by describing how the means of attaining
your information are sound and secure. Make sure that your writing is reader-centered and that they would be
satisfied. Doing thus will ensure that your method is long and descriptive enough.

Where does it fit?

The placement of this section of your report will also depend on the type of report that you are writing. If there are
only a couple of different methods used throughout your research, it might be a good idea to fit them into the
beginning of your report, writing a paragraph for each technique. If you have several, unrelated methods,
however, it would be good to place those paragraphs throughout the report, where they would best accompany
your analysis or data.

Important note

Sometimes, if it is really obvious how you went about your research, then there might not even be a need to talk
about your methods. It is key, though, that your readers always have a clear understanding of the way you
obtained your facts and that they are worth trusting.

Revision Checklist
Once your feasibility study is complete analyze the checklist to ensure every topic has been addressed.

Introduction
1. Does it tell your readers why you conducted this study?
2. Does it provide background information the readers will need or want?
3. Does it identify the action or alternatives you investigated?
4. Does it persuade readers to use this study as a valid document?

Criteria
1. Does it identify the standards by which the action or alternatives were evaluated?

Method
1. Does it explain the way you obtained the facts and ideas presented in the report?
2. Does it persuade the readers that this method would produce reliable results?

Overview of Alternatives
1. Does it present a general description of each alternative?

Evaluation
1. Does it evaluate the action or alternative in terms of criteria?
2. Does it present the facts and evidence that supports each evaluative statement?

Conclusions
1. Does it explain the significance from the reader’s viewpoint of your facts?
2. Does it state the conclusion plain and simple?

Recommendations
 1. Does it advise which course of action or alternative you recommend?
2. Does it present recommendations which stand out?
3. Does it suggest specific steps your readers may take to act on each of your recommendations?
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FRONT MATTER: CONTENTS, LISTS, AND MORE

Front matter is an extremely important element to writing any report. Whether its for a specific company research
or for other personal reports. Specifics such as the size of the font, font type, formatting, and organization also
need to be taken into consideration when creating the front matter of your report.

The first few pages of a report are essential. An abbreviated abstract will assist the reader in finding what the
main points of the report will be about.

These elements are often referred to as “Book Elements”, as they are commonly found in larger works.

Important considerations should be made on how your publication will be used. To increase usability, you should
consider how your readers will be using the report, and what they will be looking for, and focus on making this
easy to find.

Covers
A cover page is a very simple, precise, brief way to introduce your report to the reader. This should contain:
• A large specific title
• Company name
• Name of the author(s)
• Date of the report
• Relevant picture

The use of a relevant picture or two can help reinforce the subject of the report. One goal of the cover page is to
be informative and scalable because once it is filed, it will need to be easy to pick out of a stack of other reports.
A second goal is to make the report stand out. If the report cover looks bleak and dull, the reader will start reading
with a negative outlook. Think of the cover page of a report like what is worn to an interview. The cover page is
the first thing that is seen. It will be the foundation for first impressions, for better or worse. One easy way to make
the report stand out is to use a theme for the report that your audience can connect to. For example, if a report is
written to McDonald’s, the cover page will be in yellow and red with the golden arches as a picture. It is important
that the reader believes that he or she is the most important aspect of the report.

Title Page
A title page will be very similar to your front cover and it repeats the information on the cover, but adds more
important details. This may include a report number, date, title, the names and addresses of authors, specific
contract information, the name and address of the supervisor, and the name and address of the organization who
supported the report (Technical Communications, p.312)

The title page is an opportunity to provide specific, detailed information about the document and its authors to its
intended audience.
 Sample Draft
(Document number) 10-1 (Date) March 7, 2010 (Title) The Madden Project
By (Author) John Manning Brett Peterson 1234 Touch Down Lane Miami, Fl 57897 Madden Inc And
(Place to Contact) Madden Inc. No. 54321 Project officer
(Who’s in charge) Ari Washington Manager of Exploratory Research 6667 Prime Time Court Mendota Heights, MN 55178
(Who paid for the project) Football Cooperation The Department of Research and Development 1812 Legacy Drive Columbus, OH 99121

Sample Draft

Executive Summary or Abstract

Abstracts are an important element in the business world. This will help a manager learn the main points of your
document, and help the reader determine if the entire report is relevant to what they are looking for. Charts and
graphs that show factual data are helpful visuals that can be implemented into this section of the document.

Major topics should be mentioned, but not the main points of each. This will be where most of the key words of
your report are used, and will be a preview of the information to be covered. Often, summaries are used when
representing a report in a database, so illustrating the main topics of your report in this segment can be useful.

The abstract should always be a page or less, especially in informative situations. Typically an abstract should not
be more than 15 percent of the total report.

According to the Technical Communications text,

• Identify the intended audience
• Describe Contents
• Tell the reader how the information is presented

Table of Contents
In any report or analysis, a table of contents is helpful to navigating the report. Some lengthy reports may also
include a table of graphs and/or a table of figures.

In addition to the summary, this will allow the reader to quickly scan the topics you have covered. This will also
help if they are looking for something particular. Use of proper headings and sub-headings give readers a good
overview of all the information contained in your document.

Table of contents are usually extremely generic and similar to each other. This is for ease of navigation to the
user. Table of contents can be formatted from Microsoft Word.

EXAMPLE:Chicago Manual of Style: Table of Contents: Formatting

Lists of Figures and Tables

This is a useful section to include because your images or tables are referred to repeatedly throughout your text.
Include Figures and Tables lists when your article is over about 15 pages. This also allows for easy comparison
between images when they are grouped together.
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ETHICS AND TECHNICAL COMMUNICATION

As you put together professional documents and begin working in the “real” world, you must understand what
could easily lead to your downfall in your professional workplace. The Paul Anderson text claims that at work in a
professional setting, there at least three major “sources of guidance”:
1. The code of ethics already developed by your field’s professionals,
2. The ethical code set in place by your company, and
3. Your own personal ethics.

Some companies have decided to have employees keep their personal ethics at home. In reality, companies that
try to keep personal ethics at home find that employees are occasionally asked to perform actions that they do not
condone at home. In professional settings we would like to assume that companies would not act unethically, so
why should we even pay attention?

The truth is, companies do act unethically whether it is disposing of toxic waste incorrectly or price gouging to
name a few. The same goes for writing professional documents. You should keep them clean and standardized to
save yourself from damaging a possible job opportunity and the name you represent.

Stakeholders

When writing any professional document, it is important to identify the potential stakeholders. A stakeholder is
anyone who will be affected by what you are intending on writing. How you choose to word your document or
even the choice to write the document becomes an ethical matter to stakeholders. It is crucial to consider your
main objective(s) before writing. If you are writing a document that would be used to harm other living things (like
writing a manual for a handgun) you have to weigh the implications to all stakeholders impacted. According to the
Paul Anderson text, there are three types of stakeholders: direct, indirect, and remote.

Direct
The direct stakeholders are those initially impacted by what you write. For instance, if you are writing about
opening a new waste disposal area, the stakeholders clearly include the company you are writing to. However,
disposal companies that might use this waste area in the future are also considered direct stakeholders. Their
future business will be impacted based on whether your proposal is accepted or declined.

Indirect
The indirect stakeholders are those that are not impacted until a later time. Using the previous example of the
waste disposal, citizens in the area would be indirect stakeholders. The stakeholders don’t necessarily need to be
people. The nearby eco-systems would be indirect stakeholders to this same proposal. If toxic waste is dumped
there, it would harm the animals, rivers and plant life nearby.

Remote
Finally, the remote stakeholders are not affected until far into the future. One example following our hypothetical
waste disposal area, is future generations. While it may seem far-fetched, historically, there have been instances
where toxic or poisonous things have been disposed of incorrectly and the run-off that went into lakes and
streams caused birth defects. While this is remote, it must be considered when writing a document.

Ethical Writing
Once on the job, you will be assigned to create many documents throughout your professional career. Some
may be simple and straightforward, some may be difficult and involve questionable objectives. Overall, there are
a few basic points to adhere to whenever you are writing a professional document:
• Don’t mislead
• Don’t manipulate
• Don’t stereotype

Don’t mislead
This has more than one meaning to the professional writer. The main point is clear. When writing persuasively, do
not write something that can cause the reader to believe something that isn’t true. This can be done by lying,
misrepresenting facts, or just “twisting” numbers to favor your opinion and objectives. This is clearly different from
the resume ethics. Once you are on the job, you cannot
leave out numbers that show you’re behind or over-budget
on a project, no matter how well it may work once it is
completed. Facts are facts and they must be represented in
that way. Be cautious when using figures, charts and tables,
making sure they are not misleading. While this may seem
easy to read about, when the pressure is on and there are
deadlines to meet, taking shortcuts and stretching the truth
are very common.

The other, less frequently used component is plagiarizing.

While it may seem like this is something students learn to
avoid after they graduate, it remains an important guideline
for all professionals. Plagiarizing is misrepresenting the
source or facts, most commonly when you claim the ideas
you are writing about are yours. When you are researching
professional documents, make sure you are using material with permission. If you are writing about what you’ve
researched, make sure you are citing the sources of your information and giving credit to all the necessary
researchers. This rule also extends beyond writing to what is referred to as intellectual property. Intellectual
property includes the following:
• Patents – Items whose credit for creation is protected
• Trademarks – Company names (WalMart), logos (the Target bulls-eye), or slogans (I’m lovin’ it)
• Copyright law – Items whose distribution is protected by law (books, movies, or software)
None of these things can be used without proper recognition of or approval from the appropriate company or
individual involved.

This law extends beyond the major companies. Any written document in your own company is copyrighted by law
once produced. That means if you are borrowing a good idea from a friend at another company, you must cite
them as a source. Also, although not required by law, it is a good idea to cite sources from inside your own
company as well. You wouldn’t want some one else taking credit for your ideas. Why should you treat others any
differently?

The legal consequences are most notable when one considers writing in the professional world. While plagiarizing
may give you a failing grade in a class, plagiarizing in the workplace can not only get you fired, but could result in
a costly lawsuit or possibly even jail time. It is not only ethical to follow these rules, it is an enforced law. Make
sure you properly document all sources so as not to mislead a reader.

Don’t manipulate
If you are holding a professional job, it is understood that you have a decent ability to write persuasively, even if
your first persuasive document was your resume. Do not use your ability to persuade people to do what is not in
their best interest. While this may not always seem easy, a good writer with a bad motive can twist words to make
something sound like it is beneficial to all parties. The audience may find out too late that what you wrote only
benefited you and actual ended up hurting them. This goes back to the stakeholders. Make sure they are not only
considered and cared for when writing a persuasive document. It is easy to get caught up in the facts and forget
all the people involved. Their feelings and livelihood must be considered with every appropriate document you
create.

Don’t stereotype
Most stereotyping takes place sub-consciously now since work places are careful to not openly discriminate. It is
something we may not even be aware we are doing, so it is always a good idea to have a peer or coworker
proofread your documents to make sure you have not included anything that may point to discriminatory
assumptions.

Addressing Unethical Practices

Many times in the professional setting, workers find it difficult to deal with unethical practices in their company.
First, begin by bringing the unethical practice to the surface, which is usually the hardest part. Paul Anderson’s
text reviews three ways that you can bring your company’s practices to the surface. It is easiest to first start
asking questions. Asking questions may seem too simple but it is an effective way of bringing attention to your
company’s problems. Ask questions about who their decisions are affecting and why they are making those
decisions. This will not put you on the spot for being the bad guy, but it will allow you to voice your opinion.

The second idea Anderson describes as being helpful in revealing unethical practices is to use facts or reason,
instead of accusation. Before you raise questions about your company’s unethical practices, make sure you have
cold hard facts instead of accusations. Many times accusations are made about situations where people truly do
not know the reason those decisions were being made. If you base your thoughts around true facts, your
company will assume you looked into the situation and will take your thoughts more seriously.

The third helpful way to bring your company’s unethical practices to the surface is to remain open to others ideas.
What this allows you to do is base a solution around many different sides instead of just your own. Since people
usually have different ethical values, your own stance may not coincide with everyone elses’. Make sure you
identify possible values of others when considering possible solutions.

Employing Ethical Techniques

In professional writing, ethical dimensions begin to surface especially in persuasive writing. When you are trying
to persuade other people to make a certain decision or to take action, stay clear of manipulation and
misconceptions. At times, you may be misleading someone unintentionally. In persuasive writing, you must
respect the readers values and viewpoints. Do not use false or skewed facts or argue from such premises
because you may deceive the reader(s) and cause them to make an unlawful decision.

Avoiding manipulation when writing persuasively is also key. Sometimes you may be aware of the readers point.
If so, you must make sure not to use this personal information against them in your writing. It is unethical to
persuade readers to make a decision that benefits yourself and not them. Most times, people try to manipulate
others to receive some type of reward or gain.

To avoid using misleading or manipulating words and phrases, it is important to be open to alternative viewpoints.
In preparing any type of persuasive writing, you will come across conflicting viewpoints, so being aware of other
views should not be hard. Keep your readers’ ideas and goals in mind and consider what lies behind their
concerns. To help solve these problems it may also be good to make statements based on human values.
Discussing several opinions and ideas on the subject will make you more persuasive, because most viewpoints
will be included to prevent you from appearing biased.

Legal Issues and Communication

This section presents information about legal aspects of communication which will help ensure that your writing is
free of legal concerns.

Appreciating Different Cultures

This section discusses the importance of considering diversity when writing because our world is multicultural,
and your writing needs to reflect our world in that regard.

Ethics Decision Checklist

• What is the nature of the ethical dilemma?
• What are the specific aspects of this dilemma that make you uncomfortable?
• What are your competing obligations in this dilemma?
• What advice does a trusted supervisor or mentor offer?
• Does your company’s code of conduct address this issue?
• Does your professional association’s code of conduct address this issue?
• What are you unwilling to do? What are you willing to do?
• How will you explain or justify your decision?
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 PERSUASIVE PRESENTATIONS

PERSUASIVE PRESENTATION OVERVIEW

Remember the introduction of a persuasive presentation must begin with the MORE+E Principle:

M=Meaningful. Tell the audience how the speech is

meaningful to them.

O=Open. Make a statement that shows you are

approachable.

R=Relates to the past. Refer to a past experience that

relates to your topic.

E=Expertise. Tell the audience what qualifies you to make

your recommendations.

+E=Evaluate your audience. Always know your audience.

See the following detailed guidelines to

help you write your Persuasive Presentation:
EVALUATION CRITERIA FOR A PERSUASIVE ORAL PRESENTATION

Does the speaker follow the format for a persuasive oral presentation?

I. Introduction
• Tell how the topic is meaningful.
• Tell how the tropic relates to the past.
• Express your openness.
• Establish your credibility.
• Set up the topic.

II. Body
• Discuss the topic.
• Discuss the benefits of accepting the suggestions.
• Discuss the consequences of rejecting the suggestions.

III. Conclusion
• Restate the topic.
• Emphasize the main points of the discussion.
• Emphasize the benefits and the consequences.
• Ask for commitment.

Evaluation:
 1. What is the Topic?
2. What type of problem does the speech present?
3. How does the speaker relate the speech to the audience?
4. What are the reasons for the proposal?
5. What is the solution?
6. What are the facts and opinions that support the reasons for the proposal and the solution?
7. What is the motivation? Does the speaker emphasize the benefits of action and consequences of
action or non-action?
8. How does the conclusion tie the speech together?
9. What is the audience asked to do? What is the request for action? Is it a firm request for action? Is it
the last statement?

See the following example of a Persuasive Presentation PowerPoint: Student Example Powerpoint with Detailed
Outline Notes.
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FUNCTIONS OF THE PRESENTATION TO

PERSUADE

Learning Objective
1. Identify and demonstrate the effective use of five functions of speaking to persuade.

What does a presentation to persuade do? There is a range of functions to consider, and they may overlap or you
may incorporate more than one as you present. We will discuss how to
• stimulate,
• convince,
• call to action,
• increase consideration, and
• develop tolerance of alternate perspectives.

We will also examine how each of these functions influences the process of persuasion.

Stimulate

When you focus on stimulation as the goal or operational function of your speech, you want to reinforce existing
beliefs, intensify them, and bring them to the forefront. Perhaps you’ve been concerned with global warming for
quite some time. Many people in the audience may not know about the melting polar ice caps and the loss of
significant ice shelves in Antarctica, including part of the Ross Ice Shelf, an iceberg almost 20 miles wide and 124
miles long, more than twice the size of Rhode Island. They may be unaware of how many ice shelves have
broken off, the 6 percent drop in global phytoplankton (the basis of many food chains), and the effects of the
introduction of fresh water to the oceans. By presenting these facts, you will reinforce existing beliefs, intensify
them, and bring the issue to the surface. You might consider the foundation of common ground and commonly
held beliefs, and then introduce information that a mainstream audience may not be aware of that supports that
common ground as a strategy to stimulate.
Convince

In a persuasive speech, the goal is to change the attitudes, beliefs, values, or judgments of your audience. If we
look back at the idea of motive, in this speech the prosecuting attorney would try to convince the jury members
that the defendant is guilty beyond reasonable doubt. He or she may discuss motive, present facts, all with the
goal to convince the jury to believe or find that his or her position is true. In the film The Day After Tomorrow,
Dennis Quaid stars as a paleoclimatologist who unsuccessfully tries to convince the U.S. vice president that a
sudden climate change is about to occur. In the film, much like real life, the vice president listens to Quaid’s
position with his own bias in mind, listening for only points that reinforce his point of view while rejecting points
that do not.

Audience members will also hold beliefs and are likely to involve their own personal bias. Your goal is to get them
to agree with your position, so you will need to plan a range of points and examples to get audience members to
consider your topic. Perhaps you present Dennis Quaid’s argument that loss of the North Atlantic Current will
drastically change our climate, clearly establishing the problem for the audience. You might cite the review by a
professor, for example, who states in reputable science
magazine that the film’s depiction of a climate change has a
chance of happening, but that the timetable is more on the
order of ten years, not seven days as depicted in the film.
You then describe a range of possible solutions. If the
audience comes to a mental agreement that a problem
exists, they will look to you asking, “What are the options?”
Then you may indicate a solution that is a better alternative,
recommending future action.

In this speech, you are calling your audience to action. You

are stating that it’s not about stimulating interest to reinforce
and accentuate beliefs, or convincing an audience of a
viewpoint that you hold, but instead that you want to see
your listeners change their behavior. If you were in sales at Toyota, you might incorporate our previous example
on global warming to reinforce, and then make a call to action (make a purchase decision), when presenting the
Prius hybrid (gas-electric) automobile. The economics, even at current gas prices, might not completely justify the
difference in price between a hybrid and a nonhybrid car. However, if you as the salesperson can make a
convincing argument that choosing a hybrid car is the right and responsible decision, you may be more likely to
get the customer to act. The persuasive speech that focuses on action often generates curiosity, clarifies a
problem, and as we have seen, proposes a range of solutions. They key difference here is there is a clear link to
action associated with the solutions.

Solutions lead us to considering the goals of action. These goals address the question, “What do I want the
audience to do as a result of being engaged by my speech?” The goals of action include adoption,
discontinuance, deterrence, and continuance.

Adoption means the speaker wants to persuade the audience to take on a new way of thinking, or adopt a new
idea. Examples could include buying a new product, voting for a new candidate, or deciding to donate blood. The
key is that the audience member adopts, or takes on, a new view, action, or habit.

Discontinuance involves the speaker persuading the audience to stop doing something what they have been
doing, such as smoking. Rather than take on a new habit or action, the speaker is asking the audience member to
stop an existing behavior or idea. As such, discontinuance is in some ways the opposite of adoption.

Deterrence is a call action that focuses on persuading audience not to start something if they haven’t already
started. Perhaps many people in the audience have never tried illicit drugs, or have not gotten behind the wheel of
a car while intoxicated. The goal of action in this case would be to deter, or encourage the audience members to
refrain from starting or initiating the behavior.

Finally, with continuance, the speaker aims to persuade the audience to continue doing what they have been
doing, such as reelect a candidate, keep buying product, or staying in school to get an education.
A speaker may choose to address more than one of these goals of action, depending on the audience analysis. If
the audience is largely agreeable and supportive, you may find continuance to be one goal, while adoption is
secondary.

These goals serve to guide you in the development of solution steps. Solution steps involve suggestions or ways
the audience can take action after your speech. They often proceed from national to personal level, or the
inverse. Audience members appreciate a clear discussion of the problem in a persuasive speech, but they also
appreciate solutions. You might offer a national solution that may be viewed as unworkable, but your solution on
a personal level may be more realistic, such as considering an alternate point of view or making a small donation
to a worthy cause.

Increase Consideration

Perhaps you know that your audience is not open to emotional appeals that involve the fear of global warming,
so you choose to base your persuasive speech on something they are more open to: the economic argument
and the relative cost of car ownership. In this speech, you want to increase consideration on the part of the
audience whose members either hold hostile views or perhaps are neutral and simply curious. You might be able
to compare and contrast competing cars and show that the costs over ten years are quite similar, but that the
Prius has additional features that are the equivalent of a bonus, including high gas mileage. You might describe
tax incentives for ownership, maintenance schedules and costs, and resale value. Your arguments and their
support aim at increasing the audience’s consideration of your position. You won’t be asking for action in this
presentation, but a corresponding increase of consideration may lead the customer to that point at a later date.

Develop Tolerance of Alternate Perspectives

Finally, you may want to help your audience develop tolerance of alternate perspectives and viewpoints.
Perhaps your audience, as in the previous example, is interested in purchasing a car and you are the lead
salesperson on that model. As you listen, and do your informal audience analysis, you may
learn that horsepower and speed are important values to this customer.
You might raise the issue of torque versus horsepower and indicate that
the “uumph” you feel as you start a car off the line is torque. Many hybrid
and even electric vehicles have great torque, as their systems involve
fewer parts and less friction than a corresponding internal combustion-
transaxle system. You goal is to help your audience develop tolerance, but
not necessarily acceptance, of alternate perspectives. A traditional way of
measuring speed has always been how fast a car can go from zero to sixty
miles per hour.

You are essentially indicating that there are two relevant factors to consider
when discussing speed (horsepower and torque), and asking the customer
to consider the alternate perspective. Lots of horsepower might be all right
for high speeds, but by raising the issue of their normal driving, they might
learn that what counts day in and day out for driving is torque, not
horsepower. By starting from common ground, and introducing a related idea, you are persuading your audience
to consider an alternate perspective.

Key Takeaway

A persuasive speech may stimulate thought, convince, call to action, increase consideration, or develop
tolerance of alternate perspectives.

Exercises
1. Select a commercial for a product or service you do not believe you would ever buy. Evaluate the
commercial according to the principles of persuasion described in this section. Does it use more than
one principle? Is any principle effective on you as an audience member? If you could change the
commercial to increase its persuasive appeal to yourself as a customer, what changes would you
make? Discuss your findings with your classmates.
 2. Which do you think is a more difficult challenge, discontinuance or deterrence? Why? Give
some examples and discuss them with your classmates.
3. Do you think persuasion by continuance is necessary? Or would people continue a given behavior
regardless of any persuasive messages? Think of an example and discuss it with your
classmates.

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PRINCIPLES OF PERSUASION

Learning Objective
1. Identify and demonstrate how to use six principles of persuasion.

What is the best way to succeed in persuading your listeners? There is no one “correct” answer, but many
experts have studied persuasion and observed what works and what doesn’t. Social psychologist Robert Cialdini
[1]
offers us six principles of persuasion that are powerful and effective:
1. Reciprocity
2. Scarcity
3. Authority
4. Commitment and consistency
5. Consensus
6. Liking

You will find these principles both universal and adaptable to a myriad of contexts and environments. Recognizing
when each principle is in operation will allow you to leverage the inherent social norms and expectations to your
advantage, and enhance your sales position.

Principle of Reciprocity

Reciprocity is the mutual expectation for exchange of value or service. In all cultures, when one person gives
something, the receiver is expected to reciprocate, even if
only by saying “thank you.” There is a moment when the
giver has power and influence over the receiver, and if the
exchange is dismissed as irrelevant by the giver the
moment is lost. In business this principle has several
applications. If you are in customer service and go out of
your way to meet the customer’s need, you are appealing to
the principle of reciprocity with the knowledge that all
humans perceive the need to reciprocate—in this case, by
increasing the likelihood of making a purchase from you
because you were especially helpful. Reciprocity builds trust
and the relationship develops, reinforcing everything from
personal to brand loyalty. By taking the lead and giving, you
build in a moment where people will feel compelled from
social norms and customs to give back.
Principle of Scarcity

You want what you can’t have, and it’s universal. People are naturally attracted to the exclusive, the rare, the
unusual, and the unique. If they are convinced that they need to act now or it will disappear, they are motivated to
action. Scarcity is the perception of inadequate supply or a limited resource. For a sales representative, scarcity
may be a key selling point—the particular car, or theater tickets, or pair of shoes you are considering may be sold
to someone else if you delay making a decision. By reminding customers not only of what they stand to gain but
also of what they stand to lose, the representative increases the chances that the customer will make the shift
from contemplation to action and decide to close the sale.

Principle of Authority

Trust is central to the purchase decision. Whom does a customer turn to? A salesperson may be part of the
process, but an endorsement by an authority holds credibility that no one with a vested interest can ever attain.
Knowledge of a product, field, trends in the field, and even research can make a salesperson more effective by
the appeal to the principle of authority. It may seem like extra work to educate your customers, but you need to
reveal your expertise to gain credibility. We can borrow a measure of credibility by relating what experts have
indicated about a product, service, market, or trend, and our awareness of competing viewpoints allows us insight
that is valuable to the customer. Reading the manual of a product is not sufficient to gain expertise—you have to
do extra homework. The principal of authority involves referencing experts and expertise.

Principle of Commitment and Consistency

Oral communication can be slippery in memory. What we said at one moment or another, unless recorded, can
be hard to recall. Even a handshake, once the symbol of agreement across almost every culture, has lost some
of its symbolic meaning and social regard. In many cultures, the written word holds special meaning. If we write it
down, or if we sign something, we are more likely to follow through. By extension, even if the customer won’t be
writing anything down, if you do so in front of them, it can appeal to the principle of commitment and consistency
and bring the social norm of honoring one’s word to bear at the moment of purchase.

Principle of Consensus

Testimonials, or first person reports on experience with a product or

service, can be highly persuasive. People often look to each other when
making a purchase decision, and the herd mentality is a powerful force
across humanity: if “everybody else” thinks this product is great, it must
be great. We often choose the path of the herd, particularly when we
lack adequate information. Leverage testimonials from clients to attract
more clients by making them part of your team. The principle of
consensus involves the tendency of the individual to follow the lead of
the group or peers.

Principle of Liking

Safety is the twin of trust as a foundation element for effective communication. If we feel safe, we are more likely
to interact and communicate. We tend to be attracted to people who communicate to us that they like us, and who
make us feel good about ourselves. Given a choice, these are the people with whom we are likely to associate.
Physical attractiveness has long been known to be persuasive, but similarity is also quite effective. We are drawn
to people who are like us, or who we perceive ourselves to be, and often make those judgments based on
external characteristics like dress, age, sex, race, ethnicity, and perceptions of socioeconomic status. The
principle of liking involves the perception of safety and belonging in communication.
Key Takeaway

A persuasive message can succeed through the principles of reciprocity, scarcity, authority, commitment and
consistency, consensus, and liking.

Exercises
1. Think of a real-life example of the principle of scarcity being used in a persuasive message. Were
you the one trying to persuade someone, or were you the receiver of the scarcity message? Was the
message effective? Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.
2. Do you think the principle of consensus often works—are people often persuaded to buy things
because other people own that item, or are going to buy it? Are you susceptible to this kind of
persuasion? Think of some examples and discuss them with classmates.
3. Do people always use reason to make decisions? Support your opinion and discuss it with classmates.
4. Make a list of five or six people you choose to associate with—friends, neighbors, and coworkers, for
example. Next to each person’s name, write the characteristics you have in common with that person.
Do you find that the principle of liking holds true in your choice of associates? Why or why not?
Discuss your findings with your classmates.

[1] Cialdini, R. (1993). Influence. New York, NY: Quill.

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MEETING THE LISTENER'S BASIC NEEDS

Learning Objective

1. Identify and describe several basic needs that people seek to fulfill when they communicate.

In this section we will examine why we communicate, illustrating how meeting the listener’s basic needs is central
to effective communication. It’s normal for the audience to consider why you are persuading them, and there is
significant support for the notion that by meeting the audience’s basic needs, whether they are a customer,
colleague, or supervisor, you will more effectively persuade them to consider your position.

Not all oral presentations involve taking a position, or overt persuasion, but all focus on the inherent relationships
and basic needs within the business context. Getting someone to listen to what you have to say involves a
measure of persuasion, and getting that person to act on it might require considerable skill. Whether you are
persuading a customer to try a new product or service, or informing a supplier that you need additional
merchandise, the relationship is central to your communication. The emphasis inherent in our next two
discussions is that we all share this common ground, and by understanding that we share basic needs, we can
better negotiate meaning and achieve understanding.

Table 14.1 “Reasons for Engaging in Communication” presents some reasons for engaging in communication.
As you can see, the final item in the table indicates that we communicate in order to meet our needs. What are
those needs? We will discuss them next.

Table 14.1 Reasons for Engaging in Communication

 Review Why We Engage in Communication

We engage in communication to gain information. This information can involve directions to

Gain
an unknown location, or a better understanding about another person through observation
Information
or self-disclosure.

Understand We also want to understand the context in which we communication, discerning the range
Communication between impersonal and intimate, to better anticipate how to communicate effectively in
Contexts each setting.

Understand Through engaging in communication, we come to perceive ourselves, our roles, and our
Our Identity relationships with others.

Meet Our
We meet our needs through communication.
Needs

Maslow’s Hierarchy

If you have taken courses in anthropology, philosophy, psychology, or perhaps sociology in the past, you may
have seen Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. Psychologist Abraham Maslow [1] provides seven basic categories for
human needs, and arranges them in order of priority, from the most basic to the most advanced.

In this figure, we can see that we need energy, water, and air to live. Without any of these three basic elements,
which meet our physiological needs (1), we cannot survive. We need to meet them before anything else, and will
often sacrifice everything else to get them. Once we have what we need to live, we seek safety (2). A defensible
place, protecting your supply lines for your most basic needs, could be your home. For some, however, home is a
dangerous place that compromises their safety. Children and victims of domestic violence need shelter to meet
this need. In order to leave a hostile living environment, people may place the well-being and safety of another
over their own needs, in effect placing themselves at risk. An animal would fight for its own survival above all else,
but humans can and do acts of heroism that directly contradict their own self-interest. Our own basic needs
motivate us, but sometimes the basic needs of others are more important to us than our own.

We seek affection from others once we have the basics to live and feel safe from immediate danger. We look for
a sense of love and belonging (3). All needs in Maslow’s model build on the foundation of the previous needs,
and the third level reinforces our need to be a part of a family, community, or group. This is an important step that
directly relates to business communication. If a person feels safe at your place of business, they are more likely to
be open to communication. Communication is the foundation of the business relationship, and without it, you will
fail. If they feel on edge, or that they might be pushed around, made to feel stupid, or even unwanted, they will
leave and your business will disappear. On the other hand, if you make them feel welcome, provide multiple ways
for them to learn, educate themselves, and ask questions in a safe environment, you will form relationships that
transcend business and invite success.

Once we have been integrated in a group, we begin to assert our sense of self and self-respect, addressing our
need for self-esteem (4). Self-esteem is essentially how we feel about ourselves. Let’s say you are a male, but
you weren’t born with a “fix-it” gene. It’s nothing to be ashamed of, but for many men it can be hard to admit. We
no longer live in a time when we have to build our own houses or learn about electricity and plumbing as we grow
up, and if it is not part of your learning experience, it is unreasonable to expect that you’ll be handy with a wrench
from the first turn.

The do-it-yourself chain Home Depot may have recognized how this interest in home repair is paired with many
men’s reluctance to admit their lack of experience. They certainly turned it into an opportunity. Each Saturday
around the country, home repair clinics on all sorts of tasks, from cutting and laying tile to building a bird house,
are available free to customers at Home Depot stores. You can participate, learn, gain mastery of a skill set, and
walk out of the store with all the supplies you need to get the job done. You will also now know someone (the
instructor, a Home Depot employee) whom you can return to for follow-up questions. Ultimately, if you don’t
succeed in getting the job done right, they will help you arrange for professional installation. This model reinforces
safety and familiarity, belonging to a group or perceiving a trustworthy support system, and the freedom to make
mistakes. It’s an interactive program that squarely addresses one of customers’ basic of human needs.
Maslow discusses the next level of needs in terms of how we feel about ourselves and our ability to assert control
and influence over our lives. Once we are part of a group and have begun to assert ourselves, we start to feel as
if we have reached our potential and are actively making a difference in our own world. Maslow calls this self-
actualization (5). Self-actualization can involve reaching your full potential, feeling accepted for who you are, and
perceiving a degree of control or empowerment in your environment. It may mean the freedom to go beyond
building the bird house to the tree house, and to design it yourself as an example of self-expression.

As we progress beyond these levels, our basic human curiosity about the world around us emerges. When we
have our basic needs met, we do not need to fear losing our place in a group or access to resources. We are free
to explore and play, discovering the world around us. Our need to know (6) motivates us to grow and learn. You
may have taken an elective art class that sparked your interest in a new area, or your started a new sport or
hobby, like woodworking. If you worked at low-paying jobs that earned you barely enough to meet your basic
needs, you may not be able to explore all your interests. You might be too exhausted after sixty or seventy hours
a week on a combination of the night shift and the early morning shift across two jobs. If you didn’t have to work
as many hours to meet your more basic needs, you’d have time to explore your curiosity and address the need to
learn. Want to read a good book? You’d have the time. Want to take a watercolor class? Sounds interesting. If,
however, we are too busy hunting and gathering food, there is little time for contemplating beauty.

Beyond curiosity lies the aesthetic need to experience beauty (7). Form is freed from function, so that a wine
bottle opener can be appreciated for its clever design that resembles a rabbit’s head instead of simply how well it
works to remove the cork. The appreciation of beauty transcends the everyday, the usual; it becomes
exceptional. You may have walked in a building or church and become captivated by the light, the stained-glass
windows, or the design. That moment that transcends the mundane, that stops you in your tracks, comes close to
describing the human appreciation for the aesthetic, but it’s really up to you.

We can see in Maslow’s hierarchy how our most basic needs are quite specific, and as we progress through the
levels, the level of abstraction increases until ultimately we are freed from the daily grind to contemplate the
meaning of a modern painting. As we increase our degree of interconnectedness with others, we become
interdependent and, at the same time, begin to express independence and individuality. As a speaker, you may
seek the safety of the familiar, only to progress with time and practice to a point where you make words your own.

Your audience will share with you a need for control. You can help meet this need by constructing your speech
with an effective introduction, references to points you’ve discussed, and a clear conclusion. The introduction will
set up audience expectations of points you will consider, and allow the audience to see briefly what is coming.
Your internal summaries, signposts, and support of your main points all serve to remind the audience what you’ve
discussed and what you will discuss. Finally, your conclusion answers the inherent question, “Did the speaker
actually talk about what they said they were going to talk about?” and affirms to the audience that you have
fulfilled your objectives.

Social Penetration Theory

The field of communication draws from many disciplines, and in this case, draws lessons from two prominent
social psychologists. Irwin Altman and Dalmas Taylor articulated the social penetration theory, which describes
how we move from superficial talk to intimate and revealing talk. [3] Altman and Taylor discuss how we attempt to
learn about others so that we can better understand how to interact. [4] With a better understanding of others and
with more information, we are in a better position to predict how they may behave, what they may value, or what
they might feel in specific situations. We usually gain this understanding of others without thinking about it
through observation or self-disclosure. In this model, often called the “onion model,” we see how we start out on
superficial level, but as we peel away the layers, we gain knowledge about the other person that encompasses
both breadth and depth.

Figure 14.4 Altman and Taylor’s Social Penetration Model

 [5]
Source: Adapted from Altman and Taylor’s social penetration model.

We come to know more about the way a person perceives a situation (breadth), but also gain perspective into
how they see the situation through an understanding of their previous experiences (depth). Imagine these two
spheres, which represent people, coming together. What touches first? The superficial level. As the two start to
overlap, the personal levels may touch, then the intimate level, and finally the core levels may even touch. Have
you ever known a couple—perhaps your parents or grandparents—who have been together for a very long time?
They know each other’s stories and finish each other’s sentences. They might represent the near overlap, where
their core values, attitudes, and beliefs are similar through a lifetime of shared experiences.

Figure 14.5 American Foreign Service Manual Iceberg Model

We move from public to private information as we progress from small talk to intimate conversations. Imagine
an onion. The outer surface can be peeled away, and each new layer reveals another until you arrive at the
heart of the onion. People interact on the surface, and only remove layers as trust and confidence grows.

Another way to look at it is to imagine an iceberg. How much of the total iceberg can you see from the surface of
the ocean? Not much. But once you start to look under the water, you gain an understanding of the large size of
the iceberg, and the extent of its depth. We have to go beyond superficial understanding to know each other, and
progress through the process of self-disclosure to come to know and understand one another. See Figure 14.5
“American Foreign Service Manual Iceberg Model” for an illustration of an “iceberg model” adapted from the
American Foreign Service Manual. [6] This model has existed in several forms since the 1960s, and serves as a
useful illustration of how little we perceive of each other with our first impressions and general assumptions.
Key Takeaway

We are motivated to communicate in order to gain information, get to know one another, better understand our
situation or context, come to know ourselves and our role or identity, and meet our fundamental interpersonal
needs.

Exercises
1. Consider your life in relation to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. To what degree do you feel you have
attained the different levels in the hierarchy? Two or three years ago, were you at the same level
where you currently are, or has your position in the hierarchy changed? In what ways do you expect it
to change in the future? Discuss your thoughts with your classmates.
2. Think of someone you have met but do not know very well. What kinds of conversations have you had
with this person? How might you expect your conversations to change if you have more opportunities
to get better acquainted? Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.
3. Think of a conversation you have had within the past day. What were the reasons for having
that conversation? Can you relate it to the reasons for engaging in conversation listed in Table
14.1 “Reasons for Engaging in Communication”? Discuss your thoughts with a classmate.
4. Write a brief paragraph about getting to know someone. Discuss whether, in your experience, it
followed the social penetration theory. Share and compare with classmates.

[1] Maslow, A. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Harper & Row.
[2] Maslow, A. (1970). Motivation and personality (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Harper & Row.

[3] Altman, I., & Taylor, D. (1973). Social penetration: The development of interpersonal relationships. New
York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.

[4] Altman, I., & Taylor, D. (1973). Social penetration: The development of interpersonal relationships. New
York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.

[5] Altman, I., & Taylor, D. (1973). Social penetration: The development of interpersonal relationships. New
York, NY: St. Martin’s Press.

[6] American oreign Service Manual. (1975)\

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 PRESENTATIONS TO PERSUADE, GETTING
STARTED

We are more easily persuaded, in general, by the reasons that we ourselves discovers than by those which are
given to us by others.-Pascal

For every sale you miss because you’re too enthusiastic, you will miss a
hundred because you’re not enthusiastic enough.-Zig Ziglar

Getting Started

Introductory Exercises
1. Please list three things that you recently purchased, preferably in
the last twenty-four hours—the things can be items or services.
Decide which purchase on your list stands out as most important to
you and consider why you made that purchase decision. See if you
can list three reasons. Now pretend you are going to sell that same
item or service to a friend—would the three reasons remain the
same, or would you try additional points for them to consider?
Compare your results with a classmate.
2. Please think of one major purchase you made in the past year. It
should be significant to you, and not a daily or monthly purchase.
Once you made the purchase decision and received the item (e.g.,
a car), did you notice similar cars on the roads? Did you pay
attention
to details like color, modifications, or reports in the popular press about quality? Did you talk to your
friends about it? What kind of information did you pay attention to—information that reinforced your
purchase decision, or information that detracted from your appreciation of your newly acquired
possession? Discuss your responses with classmates.

No doubt there has been a time when you wanted something from your parents, your supervisor, or your friends,
and you thought about how you were going to present your request. But do you think about how often people—
including people you have never met and never will meet—want something from you? When you watch
television, advertisements reach out for your attention, whether you watch them or not. When you use the
Internet, pop-up advertisements often appear. Living in the United States, and many parts of the world, means
that you have been surrounded, even inundated, by persuasive messages. Mass media in general and television
in particular make a significant impact you will certainly recognize.

Consider these facts:

• The average person sees between four hundred and six hundred ads per day—that is forty million to
fifty million by the time he or she is sixty years old. One of every eleven commercials has a direct
message about beauty. [1]
• By age eighteen, the average American teenager will have spent more time watching television—
25,000 hours—than learning in a classroom. [2]
• An analysis of music videos found that nearly one-fourth of all MTV videos portray overt violence,
with attractive role models being aggressors in more than 80 percent of the violent videos. [3]
• Forty percent of nine- and ten-year-old girls have tried to lose weight, according to an ongoing
study funded by the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute. [4]
• A 1996 study found that the amount of time an adolescent watches soaps, movies, and music videos
is associated with their degree of body dissatisfaction and desire to be thin. [5]
• Identification with television stars (for girls and boys), models (girls), or athletes (boys)
positively correlated with body dissatisfaction. [6]
 • At age thirteen, 53 percent of American girls are “unhappy with their bodies.” This grows to 78 percent
by the time they reach seventeen. [7]
• By age eighteen, the average American teenager will witness on television 200,000 acts of
violence, including 40,000 murders. [8]

Mass communication contains persuasive messages, often called propaganda, in narrative form, in stories and
even in presidential speeches. When President Bush made his case for invading Iraq, his speeches incorporated
many of the techniques we’ll cover in this chapter. Your local city council often involves dialogue, and persuasive
speeches, to determine zoning issues, resource allocation, and even spending priorities. You yourself have
learned many of the techniques by trial and error and through imitation. If you ever wanted the keys to your
parents’ car for a special occasion, you used the principles of persuasion to reach your goal.

[1] Raimondo, M. (2010). About-face facts on the media. About-face. Retrieved from http://www.about-face.org/
educate-yourself/get-the-facts/

[2] Ship, J. (2005, December). Entertain. Inspire. Empower. How to speak a teen’s language, even if you’re
not one. ChangeThis. Retrieved from http://changethis.com/manifesto/show/20.02.TeensLanguage

[3] DuRant, R. H. (1997). Tobacco and alcohol use behaviors portrayed in music videos: Content
analysis. American Journal of Public Health, 87, 1131–1135.

[4] Body image and nutrition: Fast facts. (2009). Teen Health and the Media. Retrieved
from http://depts.washington.edu/thmedia/view.cgi?section=bodyimage&;page=fastfacts

[5] Tiggemann, M., & Pickering, A. S. (1996). Role of television in adolescent women’s body: Dissatisfaction
and drive for thinness. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 20, 199–203.

[6] Hofschire, L. J., & Greenberg, B. S. (2002). Media’s impact on adolescent’s body dissatisfaction. In D. Brown,
J. R. Steele, & K. Walsh-Childers (Eds.), Sexual Teens, Sexual Media. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

[7] Brumberg, J. J. (1997). The body project: An intimate history of American girls. New York, NY:
Random House.

[8] Huston, A. C., et al. (1992). Big world, small screen: The role of television in American society.
Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
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PERSUASIVE PRESENTION ASSESSMENT

Submit a PowerPoint Persuasive Presentation.

This presentation will be on the Research Report you chose to do: the Proposal or the Feasibility Report.

Either report will follow the same guidelines for writing the Persuasive Presentation.

See the Persuasive Presentation Overview and the example of the PowerPoint Persuasive Oral Presentation to
help you.

An additional example of a student PowerPoint can be found here.

Note: Although the example of the PowerPoint Persuasive Presentation is not on the Teldon Facilities Corporation
Feasibility Report, Your PowerPoint Persuasive Presentation must be on the same problem as your Feasibility
Report or your Proposal.

The presentation must not take more than 7-10 minutes to present. The presentation must follow the format in the
lecture notes on the EVALUATION of the Persuasive Oral Presentation link.

Make sure the Persuasive Oral Presentation is on the your Feasibility Report or Proposal.
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 RULES OF WRITING

RULES OF WRITING OVERVIEW

This section is for you to find answers to your questions on punctuation, grammar, word usage, and sentence
structure.

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BASIC RULES OF PUNCTUATION

1. Subordinating Conjunction – If a sentence begins with a SC, comma after the

clause. Example: After I go home, I will watch TV.

If the SC is in the second part of the sentence, do not use a comma.

Example: I will watch TV after I go home.

2. Conjunctive Adverb – Comma immediately after the CA.

Example: Last night we went to the movies. However, we will stay home tonight.
Comma on both sides of the CA if it interrupts a sentence.

Example: Last night we went to the movies. We will, however, stay home tonight.

3. Prepositional Phrase – If a sentence begins with a PP, comma after the phrase.

Example: After Monday, I will sleep late. If the PP comes in the second part, do not use a comma.

Example: I will sleep late after Monday.

4. Coordinating Conjunction – (FANBOYS_For- And -Nor –But- Or -Yet –

So) If there is a subject after the CC, comma before the CC.

Example: I went to the store, and I bought bread.

If there is no subject after the CC (FANBOY), do not add comma before the CC.

Example: I went to the store and bought bread.

5. Semicolon – Is used as a period in order to connect two main ideas.

Example: Last night we went to the movies; however, we will stay home

tonight. Last night we went to the movies; we will stay home tonight.

Last night we went to the movies; we will, however, stay home tonight.

Semicolon – Is used to separate items in a series when one or more than one of the items has a comma.

We will order the following: pencils, for the tutoring center; paper; and pens.

6. Colon – Signals the beginning of a list.

Example: We will order the following: pencils, paper, and pens.

7. Correlative Conjunctions – Is a relationship between items in a specific part of

speech. Example: Not only Sally but also Henry will go.

I will do it for either Sally or Bill.

I will do it for not only Sally but also for Bill.

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EDIT FOR ECONOMY

Be concise. Once you have written a solid draft, a document that has been well researched, take a step back and
question whether or not you can delete half of the words. In a world where billions of instant messages and emails
are sent daily, brevity is a virtue. People love conciseness. They respect writers and leaders who can explain
difficult matters simply.
Tips for Pruning Your Sentences

The following paragraph hurts the eyes and ears of a successful writer:

“Writing that is redundant and states the obvious and says the same thing over and over again is
irritating for readers who want writers to get to the point right away. On the other hand, as I am sure you
can understand, it is equally important for writers
to avoid confusion when they write and to put
down as much information–that is, as many
words–as the reader needs in order to understand
what the writer means when he or she says what
he or she says. Also, of course, when you are
writing, it is important for you to remember that
readers are reading your words and that you need
to be somewhat entertaining–even when the
subject is technical when conveying information,
so that your readers will keep reading and not go
off and do something else like play ice hockey.”

Writers abhor wordiness. All of the empty phrases in

the above can be translated into one sentence:

“Balance conciseness with the reader’s need for information and voice”

Go to this link for the video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BTqjOLXhmT0

No matter how much you appreciate the sounds of the words you have used, editing for economy may mean
cutting the length of your document in half! By using the editing strategies already discussed, you have begun to
chip away needless abstractions, unnecessary jargon, awkward passive constructions, weak verbs, tangled
sentence patterns, unnecessary nouns, and strings of prepositional phrases. Yet by evaluating the content in
light of your audience and the tone that you hope to establish, you can still find ways to eliminate unnecessary
transitions, definitions, references, and examples. In your search for precision and persuasive appeal, you should
also delete unnecessary repetitions–redundant adjectives, repeated phrases, and synonyms. Remember, you
add clarity and grace by presenting an idea simply. Cutting away unnecessary “deadwood” can eliminate much
that interferes with communication.

Go to this link for the video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iLzOvQUQEM4

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PUNCTUATION, MECHANICS, CAPITALIZATION,

AND SPELLING INTRODUCTION

Habits in writing as in life are only useful if they are

broken as soon as they cease to be advantageous.
—W. Somerset Maugham

This chapter is about habit. As Samuel Beckett once noted, “Habit is the ballast that chains the dog to his vomit.”
It is amazing how consistently we repeat the exact same little errors out of mere habit. However, we can tackle
these habits by identifying them as patterns and writing with an eye for them. As a graduate student, I once
misspelled the word “separate” (using an “e” in the middle) 16 times on an exam. My professor circled the
offending letter each time and glibly noted, “I wish you could spell better.” His chiding cured me, and (knock
wood) I have not misspelled “separate” since. Many students find that they have picked up the habit of putting
commas in automatically before prepositions or even after conjunctions rather than before. Once such habits are
identified, however, they can be addressed effectively.

No matter how niggling they may seem, details about punctuation, mechanics, capitalization, and spelling are
important to master. Even with the spell checker and grammar checker eternally activated, we can make plenty of
tiny mistakes that deeply affect sentence meaning. I know of an engineer who has repeatedly reported inaccurate
dollar amounts to clients because of his sloppy proofreading. I have read government reports by well-published
scientists where the colon was misused more than a dozen times in a single report. Even capitalization rules can
be highly important to meaning: a student in geology, for example, must be aware of whether or not to capitalize
“ice age” (yes when you mean the specific glacial epoch; no when you mean any of a series of cold periods
alternating with periods of relative warmth). Finally, small mechanical errors (such as abbreviating a term or
acronym improperly) reflect a general sloppiness and disregard for convention.

So work on the little things. Seek to understand punctuation marks as units affecting grammar and meaning, and
accept proper spelling, capitalization, and mechanics as professional necessities. This chapter will help you to
do so without immersing you into a grammatical swamp.

Self-Study
For further lessons on punctuation, visit these pages:

“A Brief History of Punctuation” article from about.com

“Brief Overview of Punctuation” article from Purdue’s Online Writing Lab (OWL)

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HYPHENS

A wise writer once said, “If you take hyphens seriously you will surely go mad.” Hyphens belong to that category
of punctuation marks that will hurt your brain if you think about them too hard, and, like commas, people disagree
about their use in certain situations. Nevertheless, if you learn to use hyphens properly, they help you to write
efficiently and concretely, and you will have to use them regularly because of the nature of technical writing.
Because concepts in science and engineering frequently rely on word blends and complex word relationships, the
best writers in these fields master the use of the hyphen.

The Hyphen’s Function

Fundamentally, the hyphen is a joiner. It joins:

• two nouns to make one complete word (kilogram-meter);
• an adjective and a noun to make a compound word (accident-prone);
• two words that, when linked, describe a noun (agreed-upon sum, two-dimensional object);
• a prefix with a noun (un-American);
• double numbers (twenty-four);
• numbers and units describing a noun (1000-foot face; a 10-meter difference)
• “self” and “well” words (self-employed, well-known);
• ethnic labels (Irish-American);
 • new word blends (cancer-causing, cost-effective);
• prefixes and suffixes to words, in particular when the writer wants to avoid doubling a vowel or tripling
a consonant (anti-inflammatory; shell-like).

The rule of thumb I apply when using the hyphen is that the resulting word must act as one unit; therefore, the
hyphen creates a new word—either a noun or a modifier—that has a single meaning. Usually, you can tell
whether a hyphen is necessary by applying common sense and mentally excluding one of the words in question,
testing how the words would work together without the hyphen. For example, the phrases “high-pressure system,”
“water-repellent surface,” and “fuel-efficient car” would not make sense without hyphens, because you would not
refer to a “high system,” a “water surface,” or a “fuel car.” As your ears and eyes become attuned to proper
hyphenation practices, you will recognize that both meaning and convention dictate where hyphens fit best.

Self-Study
The following websites offer exercises on using the hyphen properly, as well as the correct answers to the
exercise questions:

Hyphenation exercises from the Little, Brown Handbook

Hyphen practice from the Chicago-Kent College of Law

Examples of Properly Used Hyphens

Some examples of properly used hyphens follow. Note how the hyphenated word acts as a single unit carrying a
meaning that the words being joined would not have individually.

small-scale
study two-prong
plug
strength-to-weight
ratio high-velocity flow
well-known
example frost-free
lawn
self-employed worker
one-third majority
coarse-grained wood
decision-making
process blue-green
algae
air-ice interface
silver-stained
cells
protein-calorie malnutrition
membrane-bound vesicles
phase-contrast
microscope long-term-
payment loan cost-

When Hyphens Are Not Needed

By convention, hyphens are not used in words ending in -ly, nor when the words are so commonly used in
combination that no ambiguity results. In these examples, no hyphens are needed:

finely tuned engine blood pressure sea level

 real estate census taker atomic energy

civil rights law public utility plant carbon dioxide

Prefixes and Suffixes

Most prefixes do not need to be hyphenated; they are simply added in front of a noun, with no spaces and no
joining punctuation necessary. The following is a list of common prefixes that do not require hyphenation when
added to a noun:

after anti bi bio co

cyber di down hetero homo

infra inter macro micro mini

nano photo poly stereo thermo

Common suffixes also do not require hyphenation, assuming no ambiguities of spelling or pronunciation arise.
Typically, you do not need to hyphenate words ending in the following suffixes:

able less fold like wise

Commonly Used Word Blends

Also, especially in technical fields, some words commonly used in succession become joined into one. The
resulting word’s meaning is readily understood by technical readers, and no hyphen is necessary. Here are some
examples of such word blends, typically written as single words:

blackbody groundwater airship

downdraft longwall upload

setup runoff blowout

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APOSTROPHES

As you already know, apostrophes are used to form both contractions—two words collapsed into one—and
possessives. Handily, we can virtually ignore the issue of contractions here, since they are so easily understood
and are rarely used in technical writing. With possessives, the apostrophe is used, typically in combination with an
“s,” to represent that a word literally or conceptually “possesses” what follows it.
 a student’s paper the county’s borders
a nation’s decision one hour’s passing

Apostrophes with Words ending in “s”

Although practices vary, for words that already end in “s,” whether they are singular or plural, we typically indicate
possession simply by adding the apostrophe without an additional “s.”

Illinois’ law Student Affairs’ office

Mars’ atmosphere interviewees’ answers

Apostrophes with Acronyms and Numbers

In technical writing, acronyms and numbers are frequently pluralized with the addition of an “s,” but there is
typically no need to put an apostrophe in front of the “s.” Therefore, “SSTs” (sea surface temperatures) is more
acceptable than “SST’s” when your intention is simply to pluralize. Ideally, use the apostrophe before the “s” with
an acronym or a number only to show possession (i.e., “an 1860’s law”; “DEP’s testing”) or when confusion would
otherwise result (“mind your p’s and q’s”).

Possessives without the Apostrophe

Convention, frequency of usage, and—to be honest—the economy of advertising, sometimes dictate that the
apostrophe is dropped. In proper names that end in “s,” especially of geographic locations and organizations, the
apostrophe is often omitted. And in everyday combinations where possession is automatically understood, the
apostrophe is often dropped.

United States government Hells Canyon

Veterans Highway Harpers Ferry
mens room Johns Hopkins University

Self-Study
For the confused and curious, here are some “Apostrophes for Dummies” websites:

“Guidelines for Using Apostrophes Correctly” page from about.com

“Using Apostrophes to Show Possession” page from dummies.com

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QUOTATION MARKS

Despite what you may see practiced—especially in advertising, on television, and even in business letters—the
fact is that the period and comma go inside the quotation marks all of the time. Confusion arises because the
British system is different, and the American system may automatically look wrong to you, but it is simply one of
the frequently broken rules of written English in America: The period and comma go inside the quotation marks.

Correct: The people of the pine barrens are often called “pineys.”
 Incorrect: The people of the pine barrens are often called “pineys”.

However, the semicolon, colon, dash, question mark, and exclamation point fall outside of the quotation marks
(unless, of course, the quoted material has internal punctuation of its own).

This measurement is commonly known as “dip angle”; dip angle is the angle formed between a normal
plane and a vertical.

Built only 50 years ago, Shakhtinsk—“minetown”—is already seedy.

When she was asked the question “Are rainbows possible in winter?” she answered by examining
whether raindrops freeze at temperatures below 0 °C. (Quoted material has its own punctuation.)

Self-Study
More advice on quotation marks, including conventions for using them with direct and indirect quotations, is
available online at:

Advice on using quotation marks from Purdue’s Online Writing Lab (OWL)

Advice on using quotation marks from St. Cloud State University

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SEMICOLONS, COLONS, AND DASHES

Punctuation marks: terribly powerful in the right hands. Punctuation marks are silent allies, and you can train
yourself to exploit them as such. Punctuation marks do not just indicate sound patterns—they are symbols that
clarify grammatical structure and sentence meaning. And, as I demonstrate in the writing of this paragraph,
punctuation marks showcase your facility with the language. What follows are some basics about three of the
most powerful and most commonly misused punctuation marks.

The Semicolon

The semicolon is often misused in technical writing; in fact, it is often confused with the colon. Grammatically, the
semicolon almost always functions as an equal sign; it says that the two parts being joined are relatively equal in
their length and have the same grammatical structure. Also, the semicolon helps you to link two things whose
interdependancy you wish to establish. The sentence parts on either side of the semicolon tend to “depend on
each other” for complete meaning. Use the semicolon when you wish to create or emphasize a generally equal or
even interdependent relationship between two things. Note the interdependent relationship of the two sentence
parts linked by the semicolon in this example:

The sonde presently used is located in the center of the borehole; this location enables the engineer to
reduce microphonics and standoff sensitivity.

Here, we see how the second half of the sentence helps to explain a key detail (the sonde location) of the first
half. The semicolon, along with the repetition of the word “location,” helps to draw our attention to the explanation.

The semicolon is also handy for linking a series of parallel items that could otherwise be confused with each
other. One savvy student used the semicolon in a job description on her resume as follows:
 As an engineering assistant, I had a variety of duties: participating in pressure ventilation surveys;
drafting, surveying, and data compilation; acting as a company representative during a roof-bolt pull
test.

The Colon

The colon: well-loved but, oh, so misunderstood. The colon is not just used to introduce a list; it is far more
flexible. The colon can be used after the first word of a sentence or just before the final word of a sentence. The
colon can also be used to introduce a grammatically independent sentence. Thus, I call it the most powerful of
punctuation marks.

The colon is like a sign on the highway, announcing that something important is coming. It acts as an arrow
pointing forward, telling you to read on for important information. A common analogy used to explain the colon is
that it acts like a flare in the road, signaling that something meaningful lies ahead.

Use the colon when you wish to provide pithy emphasis.

To address this problem, we must turn to one of the biologist’s most fundamental tools: the Petri dish.

Use the colon to introduce material that explains, amplifies, or summaries what has preceded it.

The Petri dish: one of the biologist’s most fundamental tools.

In low carbon steels, banding tends to affect two properties in particular: tensile ductility and yield
strength.

The colon is also commonly used to present a list or series, which comes in handy when there is a lot of similar
material to join:

A compost facility may not be located as follows: within 300 feet of an exceptional-value wetland; within
100 feet of a perennial stream; within 50 feet of a property line.

The Dash

The dash—which is typically typed as two hyphens or as one long bar (available on your word processor’s
“symbol” map)—functions almost as a colon does in that it adds to the preceding material, but with extra
emphasis. Like a caesura (a timely pause) in music, a dash indicates a strong pause, then gives emphasis to
material following the pause. In effect, a dash allows you to redefine what was just written, making it more explicit.
You can also use a dash as it is used in the first sentence of this paragraph: to frame an interruptive or
parenthetical-type comment that you do not want to de-emphasize.

Jill Emery confirms that Muslim populations have typically been ruled by non-Muslims—specifically
Americans, Russians, Israelis, and the French.

The dissolution took 20 minutes—much longer than anticipated—but measurements were begun as
soon as the process was completed.

Finally, the dash we typically use is technically called the “em dash,” and it is significantly longer than the hyphen.
There is also an “en dash”—whose length is between that of the hyphen and the em dash, and its best usage is to
indicate inclusive dates and numbers:

July 6–September 17 pp. 48–56.

Like the em dash, the en dash is typically available on your word processor’s symbol map, or it may even be
inserted automatically by your word processor when you type inclusive numbers or dates with a hyphen between
them. When you type the hyphen, en dash, and em dash, no spaces should appear on either side of the
punctuation mark.
Self-Study
For more good-natured advice on using semicolons, colons, and dashes, visit these two fun sites:

“Semicolons, Colons, and Dashes” webpage from about.com

Writing tips from the “Punctuation Junction”

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COMMAS

These little demons compound and trivialize the nightmares of many a professor after an evening of reading
student papers. A sure way to irritate educated readers of your work is to give them an overabundance of
opportunities to address your comma problems. It is easy but dangerous to take the attitude that Sally once did in
a Peanuts comic strip, asking Charlie Brown to correct her essay by showing her “where to sprinkle in the little
curvy marks.”

You have probably heard the common tips on using commas: “Use one wherever you would naturally use a
pause,” or “Read your work aloud, and whenever you feel yourself pausing, put in a comma.” These techniques
help to a degree, but our ears tend to trick us and we need other avenues of attack. However, it seems
impossible to remember or apply the 17 or so grammatical explanations of comma usage that you were probably
introduced to way back in 8th grade. (For example: “Use commas to set off independent clauses joined by the
common coordinating conjunctions. Put a comma before the coordinating conjunction in a series.”) Perhaps the
best
and most instructive way, then, for us to approach the comma is to remember its fundamental function: it is a
separator. Knowing this, it is useful to determine what sorts of things generally require separation. In sum,
commas are used to separate complete ideas, descriptive phrases, and adjacent items, and before and after most
transition words.

Comma Rules

Complete ideas need to be separated by a comma because, by definition, they could be grammatically
autonomous, but the writer is choosing to link them. Complete ideas are potentially whole sentences that the
writer chooses to link with a conjunction such as “and” or “but.”

Digital recordings made it possible to measure the nuclear magnetic signal at any depth, and this
allowed for a precise reading to be taken at every six inches.

Note how the second half of this sentence contains both a subject (“this”) and a verb (“allowed”), indicating that a
second complete idea is presented, and thus a comma is required.

Descriptive phrases often need to be separated from the things that they describe in order to clarify that the
descriptive phrases are subordinate (i.e., they relate to the sentence context, but are less responsible for creating
meaning than the sentence’s subject and verb). Descriptive phrases tend to come at the very beginning of a
sentence, right after the subject of a sentence, or at the very end of a sentence.

Near the end of the eighteenth century, James Hutton introduced a point of view that radically changed
scientists’ thinking about geologic processes.

James Lovelock, who first measured CFCs globally, said in 1973 that CFCs constituted no conceivable
hazard.
 All of the major industrialized nations approved, making the possibility a reality.

In each of these cases, note how the material separated by the comma (e.g., “making the possibility a reality”) is
subordinate—i.e., it carries context in the sentence, but the primary sentence meaning is still derived from the
subject and verb. In each example, the phrase separated by the comma could be deleted from the sentence
without destroying the sentence’s basic meaning.

Adjacent items are words or phrases that have some sort of parallel relationship, yet are different from each other
in meaning. Adjacent items are separated so that the reader can consider each item individually.

Weathering may extend only a few centimeters beyond the zone in fresh granite, metamorphic rocks,
sandstone, shale, and other rocks.

The river caught fire on July 4, 1968, in Cleveland, Ohio.

This approach increases homogeneity, reduces the heating time, and creates a more uniform
microstructure.

In the first sentence, the commas are important because each item presented is distinctly different from its
adjacent item. In the second example, the dates (July 4, 1968) and places (Cleveland, Ohio) are juxtaposed, and
commas are needed because the juxtaposed items are clearly different from each other. In the third example, the
three phrases, all beginning with different verbs, are parallel, and the commas work with the verbs to demonstrate
that “This approach” has three distinctly different impacts.

Finally, transition words add new viewpoints to your material; commas before and after transition words help to
separate them from the sentence ideas they are describing. Transition words tend to appear at the beginning of or
in the middle of a sentence, and, by definition, the transition word creates context that links to the preceding
sentence. Typical transition words that require commas before and after them include however, thus, therefore,
also, and nevertheless.

Therefore, the natural gas industry can only be understood fully through an analysis of these recent
political changes.

The lead precursor was prepared, however, by reacting pure lead acetate with sodium isopropoxide.

Self-Study
There are plenty of websites devoted to exercises on comma usage for those who wish to self-study. Here are
two I recommend:

Comma quiz from myenglishlessons.net

A 10-question comma quiz from the Pearson Longman Lab Manual Online

Using a Comma Before “And”

It is true that commas are sometimes optional, depending on sentence meaning and the writer’s taste, and many
writers choose not to put a comma before the “and” in a series (also known as the “serial comma”) involving a
parallel list of words. For example, some would write the sentence “I am industrious, resourceful and loyal,” using
no comma before the “and.” This practice is fine as long as you are consistent in applying it. However, I, and the
grammar handbooks I consult, recommend a comma even in these circumstances, because—even in the
example provided—there is a slight pitch and meaning change between the terms “resourceful” and “loyal.”

Most importantly, if the “and” is part of a series of three or more phrases (groups of words) as opposed to single
words, you should use a comma before the “and” to keep the reader from confusing the phrases with each other.

Medical histories taken about each subject included smoking history, frequency of exercise, current
height and weight, and recent weight gain.
By always using a comma before the “and” in any series of three or more, you honor the distinctions between
each of the separated items, and you avoid any potential reader confusion. The bottom line is this: When you use
a comma before the “and” in a series of three or more items or phrases, you are always correct.

That noted, be aware that some professors and many journals will not favor the use of the comma before an “and”
in a series (for the journals, it is literally cheaper to print fewer commas).

Self-Study
Plenty of online debate is devoted to the serial comma issue. Here are some related thoughts from “Punctuation
Man” and the “Grammar Girl”:

Punctuation Man endorsing the serial comma

Grammar Girl weighing in on the serial comma

Comma Overuse

Perhaps the best way to troubleshoot your particular comma problems, especially if they are serious, is to identify
and understand the patterns of your errors. We tend to make the same mistakes over and over again; in fact,
many writers develop the unfortunate habit of automatically putting commas into slots such as these:
• between the subject and verb of a sentence
• after any number
• before any preposition
• before or after any conjunction

Thus, incorrect sentences such as these appear in papers:

The bushings, must be adjusted weekly, to ensure that the motor is not damaged.

Many botanists still do not fully appreciate these findings even after 22 years, following the publication
of the discovery paper.

Other manufactured chemicals that also contain bromine are superior for extinguishing fires in
situations where people, and electronics are likely to be present.

The price of platinum will rise, or fall depending on several distinct factors.

If the commas above look fine to you, then you may be in the habit of using commas incorrectly, and you will need
to attack your specific habits, perhaps even in a routine, repetitive fashion, in order to break yourself of them.
Similarly, it is common for someone to have to look up the same tricky word dozens of times before committing its
proper spelling to memory. As with spelling, commas (or the absence of commas) must be repeatedly challenged
in your writing. As you perfect your comma usage you are also recognizing and reevaluating your sentence
patterns, and the rewards are numerous. There is no foolproof or easy way to exorcise all of your comma
demons, but reminding yourself of the comma’s basic function as a separator and justifying the separation of
elements whenever you use the comma is a good beginning. I often recommend to students with comma
problems that they re-read their work one last time, just focusing on their comma use, before turning in a paper as
a final version. In the end, you simply must make a habit of reading, writing, and revising with comma correctness
in mind, and remember that commas have much to do with sentence wording, which is always in the control of
the writer.

To demonstrate this last point, Lewis Thomas, a clever essayist as well as a physician and poet, shows us how to
use commas effectively—as well as how to word a long sentence so that commas are not overused—in this
excerpt from “Notes on Punctuation”:

The commas are the most useful and usable of all the stops. It is highly important to put them in place as you
go along. If you try to come back after doing a paragraph and stick them in the various spots that tempt you you
will discover that they tend to swarm like minnows into all sorts of crevices whose existence you hadn’t realized
and
before you know it the whole long sentence becomes immobilized and lashed up squirming in commas. Better to
use them sparingly, and with affection, precisely when the need for one arises, nicely, by itself.
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THE PERIOD

Though a seemingly trivial punctuation mark, the period does present some knotty challenges, especially
in technical writing. We all know to place a period to signal the termination of a simple sentence that makes
a statement. However, here are a few more specialized rules:
• Do not use a period in combination with other punctuation marks unnecessarily, especially when a
quotation is involved. In such an instance, end the sentence naturally on whatever punctuation mark
is logical (e.g., a question mark).
• Avoid using periods at the ends of abbreviated units of measure, except when the period might
be confused with another word. (Therefore, so that it’s not confused with the word “in,” use “in.” to
abbreviate “inches.”)
• When using a period in conjunction with parentheses, the period comes after the parentheses are
closed if the parenthetical comment itself is part of the larger sentence (as in the first bulleted sentence
above, and this one). The period comes inside the parentheses only when the parentheses themselves
contain a complete independent sentence. (See the example in the second bulleted sentence above, as
well as this sentence.)
• By convention, if an abbreviated word (such as “etc.”) ends a sentence, let a single period signal
the sentence’s end—two periods in a row would be incorrect.
• In acronyms commonly understood or commonly used in your field (ASTM, EPA, US, GIS), do not
use periods after the capital letters.
• Do use periods after abbreviations and acronyms that are forms of address, initials within proper
names, earned degrees, and when expressing measures of time (Dr. Bauer; M.S. degree; Steven S.
Wilson, Jr.; 5:00 p.m.; 10 B.C.).

Self-Study
For everything you always wanted to know about the period, but neglected to ask, visit these sites:

Punctuation rules from infoplease.com

“English 101: Punctuation: Periods” website from thinkouthere.com

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for Students Online. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

PARENTHESES

We are used to using parentheses to identify material that acts as an aside (such as this brief comment) or to
add incidental information, but in technical writing the rules for using parentheses can be more nuanced. Some
more specialized functions of parentheses include:
 • To introduce tables or figures within a sentence:

In pulse-jet collectors (Figure 3), bags are supported from a metal cage fastened onto a cell
plate at the top of the collector.

• To represent converted units:

The funnel used for this experiment was 7 in. (17.8 cm) in length.

• When enumerating:

The system has three principal components: (1) a cleaning booth, (2) an air reservoir, and (3)
an air spray manifold.

• To indicate product manufacturer names:

The filtering process involves a 10-mm Dorr-Oliver cyclone (Zefon International).

• To introduce an acronym after it has been written out:

Units will be expressed in cubic feet per minute

(cfm).

Finally, it should be noted that punctuation used alongside parentheses needs to take into account their context. If
the parentheses enclose a full sentence beginning with a capital letter, then the end punctuation for the sentence
falls inside the parentheses. For example:

Typically, suppliers specify air to cloth ratios of 6:1 or higher. (However, ratios of 4:1 should be used for
applications involving silica or feldspathic minerals.)

If the parentheses indicate a citation at the end of a sentence, then the sentence’s end punctuation comes after
the parentheses are closed:

In a study comparing three different building types, respirable dust concentrations were significantly
lower in the open-structure building (Hugh et al., 2005).

Finally, if the parentheses appear in the midst of a sentence (as in this example), then any necessary punctuation
(such as the comma that appeared just a few words ago) is delayed until the parentheses are closed.
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

Abbreviations (the shortened form of a word or phrase) and acronyms (words formed from the initial letters of a
phrase) are commonly used in technical writing. In some fields, including chemistry, medicine, computer science,
and geographic information systems, acronyms are used so frequently that the reader can feel lost in an alphabet
soup. However, the proper use of these devices enhances the reading process, fostering fluid readability and
efficient comprehension.

Some style manuals devote entire chapters to the subject of abbreviations and acronyms, and your college library
no doubt contains volumes that you can consult when needed. Here, I provide just a few principles you can apply
in using abbreviations and acronyms, and in the next section I offer a table of some of the forms most commonly
used by student writers.
Abbreviations

• Typically, abbreviate social titles (Ms., Mr.) and professional titles (Dr., Rev.).
• In resumes and cover letters, avoid abbreviations representing titles of degrees (e.g., write out
rather than abbreviate “Bachelor of Science”).
• Follow most abbreviations with a period, except those representing units of measure (“Mar.” for
March; “mm” for millimeter). See the table that follows for further guidance.
• Typically, do not abbreviate geographic names and countries in text (i.e., write “Saint Cloud” rather
than “St. Cloud”; write “United States” rather than “U.S.”). However, these names are usually
abbreviated when presented in “tight text” where space can be at a premium, as in tables and figures.
• Use the ampersand symbol (&) in company names if the companies themselves do so in their
literature, but avoid using the symbol as a narrative substitute for the word “and” in your text.
• In text, spell out addresses (Third Avenue; the Chrysler Building) but abbreviate city addresses that
are part of street names (Central Street SW).
• Try to avoid opening a sentence with an abbreviation; instead, write the word out.
• When presenting a references page, follow the conventions of abbreviation employed by a journal
in your field. To preserve space, many journals commonly use abbreviations, without periods, in
their references pages (e.g., “J” for Journal; “Am” for “American”).

Acronyms

• Always write out the first in-text reference to an acronym, followed by the acronym itself written in
capital letters and enclosed by parentheses. Subsequent references to the acronym can be made just
by the capital letters alone. For example: Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is a rapidly
expanding field. GIS technology . . .
• Unless they appear at the end of a sentence, do not follow acronyms with a period.
• Generally, acronyms can be pluralized with the addition of a lowercase “s” (“three URLs”); acronyms
can be made possessive with an apostrophe followed by a lowercase “s” (“the DOD’s mandate”).
• As subjects, acronyms should be treated as singulars, even when they stand for plurals; therefore,
they require a singular verb (“NIOSH is committed to . . .”).
• Be sure to learn and correctly use acronyms associated with professional organizations or
certifications within your field (e.g., ASME for American Society of Mechanical Engineers; PE for
Professional Engineer).
• With few exceptions, present acronyms in full capital letters (FORTRAN; NIOSH). Some acronyms, such
as “scuba” and “radar,” are so commonly used that they are not capitalized. Consult the table that
follows in the next section to help determine which commonly used acronyms do not appear in all capital
letters.
• When an acronym must be preceded by “a” or “an” in a sentence, discern which word to use based on
sound rather than the acronym’s meaning. If a soft vowel sound opens the acronym, use “an,” even if
the acronym stands for words that open with a hard sound (i.e., “a special boat unit,” but “an SBU”). If
the acronym opens with a hard sound, use “a” (“a KC-135 tanker”).

Click here to download a pdf of a table of commonly used abbreviations and acronyms.

Self-Study
For comprehensive online acronyms dictionaries, especially for technical fields such as chemistry and medicine, I
recommend these sites:

Online acronyms dictionary

Searchable acronyms database, sorted by discipline

Table of commonly used abbreviations and acronyms:

Use this table to check the proper spelling, capitalization, and punctuation of commonly used abbreviations and
acronyms. For a much more detailed listing of abbreviations and acronyms, you can check in the back pages of
many dictionaries, or consult the Chicago Manual of Style (also available online to subscribers) or the free online
version of the United States Government Printing Office Style Manual.
A or amp ampere

a.m. ante meridiem, before noon

Assembler Assembler computer language

atm standard atmosphere

Ave. avenue

B.A. Bachelor of Arts

BASIC BASIC computer language

Blvd. boulevard

BP boiling point

B.S. Bachelor of Science

Btu British thermal unit

oC degrees Celsius

cd candela

CDC Centers for Disease Control

CFR Code of Federal Regulations

CIA Central Intelligence Agency

cm centimeter

COBOL COBOL computer language

Corp. corporation

D darcy

DEP Department of Environmental Protection

DOD Department of Defense

DOT Department of Transportation

engg. engineering

engr. engineer

e.g. exempli gratia, for example

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

et al. et alii, and others

etc. et cetera, and so forth

oF degrees Fahrenheit

FBI Federal Bureau of Investigation

FCC Federal Communications Commission

FDA Food and Drug Administration

fig. figure

FORTRAN FORTRAN computer language

ft foot

gal. gallon

ha hectare

h hour

HP horsepower

HTML hypertext markup language

Hz hertz

i.e. id est, that is

in inch

Inc. incorporated

K Kelvin

kg kilogram

kw kilowatt

kWh kilowatt-hour

l or L liter

LAFTA Latin American Free Trade Association

lb pound

m meter

mHz megahertz

min. minute

mol mole
M.S. Master of Science

NASA National Aeronautics and Space Administration

neg negative

NIH National Institutes of Health

National Institute for Occupational Safety and

NIOSH
Health

NM nautical mile

NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration

NSF National Science Foundation

OPEC Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Administration

p. page

Pascal Pascal computer language

Ph.D. Philosophiae Doctor, Doctor of Philosophy

p.m. post meridiem, after noon

pos positive

pp. pages

pt. pint

qt. quart

radar radio detecting and ranging

RPM revolutions per minute

scuba self-contained underwater breathing apparatus

sec. or s second

sq square

STP standard temperature and pressure

temp temperature

Univ. university

URL uniform resource locator

USGS United States Geological Survey

 vol. volume

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EXPRESSING TEMPERATURES AND

NUMBERS

Style manuals, professional societies, and journals specific to your field publish thorough guidelines about how to
handle small matters of mechanics. For instance, Suggestions to Authors of the Reports of the United States
Geological Survey addresses such issues as whether to use the chemical name or symbol in writing; the
American Meteorological Society’s Authors’ Guide dictates how one should express time, time zone, day, month,
and year in writing. Chase down such sources within your field for specifics on matters of mechanics.

Two especially noteworthy issues of mechanics that arise regularly in technical writing are how to handle
temperature measurements and numbers. Some guidelines on these matters follow.

Referring to Temperature Measurements

Degree measures of temperature are normally expressed with the ° symbol rather than by the written word, with a
space after the number but not between the symbol and the temperature scale:

The sample was heated to 80 °C.

Unlike the abbreviations for Fahrenheit and Celsius, the abbreviation for Kelvin (which refers to an absolute scale
of temperature) is not preceded by the degree symbol (i.e., 12 K is correct).

Writing about Numbers

The rules for expressing numbers in technical writing are relatively simple and straightforward:

All important measured quantities—particularly those involving decimal points, dimensions, degrees, distances,
weights, measures, and sums of money—should be expressed in numeral form (e.g., 1.3 seconds, $25,000, 2
amperes).
Unless they appear as part of a string of larger related numbers, counted numbers of ten or below should be
written out.
If possible, a sentence should not begin with a number, but if it does the number should be written out.
Treat similar numbers in grammatically connected groups alike.

Following these rules, here are some examples of properly expressed numbers:

The depth to the water at the time of testing was 16.16 feet.

For this treatment, the steel was heated 18 different times.

Two dramatic changes followed: four samples exploded and thirteen lab technicians resigned.

Self-Study
Check out these handy resources related to expressing numbers and numerals in text:
 Technical writing tips for using numbers from a company president offering online technical writing
courses

“Using Numbers, Writing Lists” advice from Capital Community College website

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CAPITALIZATION

As a technical writer, who must often refer to such things as geographic locations, company names, temperature
scales, and processes or apparatuses named after people, you must learn to capitalize consistently and
accurately. What follows are ten fundamental rules for capitalization. Check out the first rule. It gets fumbled in
papers all the time.

Capitalize the names of major portions of your paper and all references to figures and tables. Note: Some journals
and publications do not follow this rule, but most do.

my Introduction Airshaft 3

see Figure 4 Table 1

Appendix A Graph

Capitalize the names of established regions, localities, and political divisions.

Wheeling Township the French Republic

Lancaster County the United Kingdom

the Wheat Belt the Arctic Circle

Capitalize the names of highways, routes, bridges, buildings, monuments, parks, ships, automobiles, hotels, forts,
dams, railroads, and major coal and mineral deposits.

Highway 13 Route 1

Michigan Avenue the White House

Alton Railroad the Statue of Liberty

Herrin No. 6 seam the Queen Elizabeth

Capitalize the proper names of persons, places and their derivatives, and geographic names (continents,
countries, states, cities, oceans, rivers, mountains, lakes, harbors, and valleys).

Howard Pickering Great Britain

 Chicago British

New York Harbor Gulf of Mexico

Rocky Mountains Florida

Aleutian Islands the Aleutian low

Capitalize the names of historic events and documents, government units, political parties, business and fraternal
organizations, clubs and societies, companies, and institutions.

the Second Amendment the Civil War

Congress Bureau of Mines

Republicans Ministry of Energy

Capitalize titles of rank when they are joined to a person’s name, and the names of stars and planets. Note: The
names earth, sun, and moon are not normally capitalized, although they may be capitalized when used in
connection with other bodies of the solar system.

Professor Walker President Spanier

Milky Way Venus

Capitalize words named after geographic locations, the names of major historical or geological time frames, and
most words derived from proper names. Note: The only way to be sure if a word derived from a person’s name
should be capitalized is to look it up in the dictionary. For example, “Bunsen burner” (after Robert Bunsen) is
capitalized, while “diesel engine” (after Rudolph Diesel) is not. Also, referring to specific geologic time frames, the
Chicago Manual of Style says not to capitalize the words “era,” “period,” and “epoch,” but the American
Association of Petroleum Geologists says that these words should be capitalized. I choose to capitalize them, as
those who write in the geological sciences should by convention.

Coriolis force Fourier coefficients

English tweeds Walker Circulation

Hadley cell Petri dish

Boyle’s law Russell volumeter

Planck’s constant Klinkenberg effect

Middle Jurassic Period Mesozoic Era

the Industrial Revolution the Inquisitio

Capitalize references to temperature scales, whether written out or abbreviated.

10 oF Fahrenheit degrees

22 oC Celsius degrees
Capitalize references to major sections of a country or the world.

the Near East the South

Capitalize the names of specific courses, the names of languages, and the names of semesters.

Anatomy 20 Russian

Spring semester 2009 Fall term, 2006

Common Capitalization Errors

Just as important as knowing when to capitalize is knowing when not to. Below, I set forth a few instances where
capital letters are commonly used when they should not be. Please review this advice carefully, in that we all have
made such capitalization errors. When in doubt, simply consult a print dictionary.

Do not capitalize the names of the seasons, unless the seasons are personified, as in poetry (“Spring’s breath”).
(It is, of course, highly unlikely that you would personify a season in a technical paper.)

spring winter

Do not capitalize the words north, south, east, and west when they refer to directions, in that their meaning
becomes generalized rather than site-specific.

We traveled west. The sun rises in the east.

In general, do not capitalize commonly used words that have come to have specialized meaning, even though
their origins are in words that are capitalized.

navy blue india ink

pasteurization biblical

Do not capitalize the names of elements. Note: This is a common capitalization error, and can often be found in
published work. Confusion no doubt arises because the symbols for elements are capitalized.

tungsten nitrogen

oxygen californium

Do not capitalize words that are used so frequently and informally that they have come to have highly generalized
meaning.

north pole big bang theory

arctic climate midwesterner

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 SPELLING

To understand the limited power of the spell checker, enjoy the following poem, which has an intriguing literary
history:

I have a spelling checker

It came with my PC;
It plainly marks four my revue
Mistakes I cannot sea.
I’ve run this poem threw it,
I’m sure your pleased too no,
Its letter perfect in it’s weigh,
My checker tolled me sew.

Just as so many of us rely on calculators to do all our math for us—even to the point that we do not trust
calculations done by our own hand—far too many of us use spell checkers as proofreaders, and we ultimately use
them to justify our own laziness. I once received a complaint from an outraged professor that a student had
continually misspelled “miscellaneous” as “mescaline” (a hallucinogenic drug). The student’s spell checker did not
pick up the error, but the professor certainly did, and he told me that he even speculated privately that the student
who wrote the paper did so while on mescaline.

So proceed with caution when using spell checkers. They are not gods, and they do not substitute for meticulous
proofreading and clear thinking. There is an instructive moment in a M*A*S*H episode, when Father Mulcahy
complains to Colonel Potter about a typo in a new set of Bibles—one of the commandments reads “thou shalt
commit adultery.” Father sheepishly worries aloud that “These lads are taught to follow orders.” For want of a
single word the intended meaning is lost. Always proofread a hard copy, with your own two eyes.

Six Rules for Spelling

I have a crusty old copy of a book called Instant Spelling Dictionary, now in its third edition but first published in
1964, that I still use frequently. I adapted the six basic spelling rules that appear below from that dictionary. Even
without memorizing the rules, you can improve your spelling simply by reviewing them and scanning the
examples and exceptions until the fundamental concepts begin to sink in. When in doubt, always look up the
word. And do not forget that desktop dictionaries work just as well as electronic ones.

Rule 1. In words ending with a silent “e,” you usually drop the “e” before a suffix that begins with a vowel.

survive + al = survival

divide + ing = dividing

fortune + ate = fortunate

Common Exceptions:

manageable singeing mileage

advantageous dyeing acreage

peaceable canoeing lineage

Rule 2. In words ending with a silent “e,” you usually retain the “e” before a suffix than begins with a consonant.

arrange +
= arrangement
ment

forgive +
= forgiveness
ness

safe + ty = safety

Common Exceptions:

argument (from
ninth (from nine)
argue)

wisdom (from
wholly (from whole)
wise)

Rule 3. In words of two or more syllables that are accented on the final syllable and end in a single consonant
preceded by a single vowel, you double the final consonant before a suffix beginning with a vowel.

refer + ing = referring

regret + able = regrettable

However, if the accent is not on the last syllable, the final consonant is not doubled.

benefit + ed = benefited

audit + ed = audited

Rule 4. In words of one syllable ending in a single consonant that is preceded by a single vowel, you double the
final consonant before a suffix that begins with a vowel. (It sounds more complex than it is; just look at the
examples.)

big + est = biggest

hot + er = hotter

bag + age = baggage

Rule 5. In words ending in “y” preceded by a consonant, you usually change the “y” to “i” before any suffix that
does not begin with an “i.”

beauty + ful = beautiful

accompany +
= accompaniment
ment

accompany + accompanying (suffix begins

=
ing with i)
If the final “y” is preceded by a vowel, however, the rule does not apply.

journeys obeying essays

buys repaying attorneys

Rule 6. Use “i” before “e” except when the two letters follow “c” and have an “e” sound, or when they have an “a”
sound as in “neighbor” and “weigh.”

i before e (e e before i (a
sound) sound)

shield vein

believe weight

grieve veil

mischievous neighbor

Common Exceptions:

weird foreign forfeit

either ancient neither

sovereign siege height

seize surfeit leisure

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Spelling. Authored by: Joe Schall. Provided by: College of Earth and Mineral Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University. Located at: https://www.e-education.psu.edu/styleforstudents/c2_p12.html. Project: Style
for Students Online. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike

EVERYDAY WORDS THAT ARE COMMONLY

MISSPELLED

If you do find yourself over-relying on spell checkers or misspelling the same word for the 17th time this year, it
would obviously be to your advantage to improve your spelling. One shortcut to doing this is to consult the
following list of words that are frequently used and misspelled. Many smart writers even put a mark next to a word
whenever they have to look it up, thereby helping themselves identify those fiendish words that give them the
most trouble. To improve your spelling, you must commit the words you frequently misspell to memory, and
physically looking them up until you do so is an effective path to spelling perfection.

A C F M S

abandon calendar fallacy magazine saccharine

abandoned camouflage familiar maintenance sacrifice
abundant candidate family manageable safety
absence career fascinate maneuver satellite
academic careful fascism manner schedule
academically category favorite manual scientists
accelerator ceiling February marriage scintillate
accept challenge fiery mathematics separate
acceptable channel finally meant sergeant
accessible chaos financial medicine shepherd
accidentally character financially medieval shining
accommodate characteristics fission mileage shrubbery
accompanied chief fluorine millennium similar
accompanying chiefly foreign miniature sincerely
accomplish choose foresee miscellaneous sophomore
accumulate chose foreseeable mischievous souvenir
accuracy chosen forfeit missile specifically
accustomed clothes forty misspelled statistics
achievement clothing forward mortgage strenuous
acknowledge coarse fourth muscle stretch
acknowledgment column frantically N stubbornness
acquaintance coming friend subtle
acquire commercial fulfill narrative subtly
acquit commission G naturally succeed
acre commitment necessary success
acreage committee generally necessity succession
across communism genius nineteen succinct
actually communists government ninety sufficient
address compel grammar ninth summary
admission compelled grammatically noticeable summation
admittance competition grandeur noticing summed
adolescent completely Great Britain nuclear supersede
adolescence concede grievance nuisance supposed
advantageous conceivable guarantee numerous suppress
advertisement condemn guerrilla O surely
aerial condemned guidance surprise
against conferred H occasion surrounding
aggravate confused occasionally syllable
aggressive connoisseur handicapped occur symmetry
aisle conscience happily occurred symmetrical
a lot (never alot) conscientious harass occurring T
allotting conscious heard occurrence
almost consists height official tariff
already continuous here omission technique
always controlled hindrance omit temperament
amateur controlling hoping omitted temperature
among controversial hopeless oneself their
amount convenient humorous operate therefore
analysis coolly hundred opinion thorough
analyze criticism hurriedly opponent though
ancestry crowded hygiene opportunity through
announcement cruelty hypocrisy opposite tobacco
annual curiosity hypocrite oppression tomorrow
apparatus curriculum I ordinarily tragedy
apparent D originally transferred
apparently ideally P trespass
appearance dealt ignorant truly
appreciate deceive illogical pamphlet Tuesday
appropriate decision imagine paraffin twelfth
appropriately deferred imitate parallel tyranny
 definite
definitely parliament
definition particular
immediately
descend particularly
immense
description pastime
impossible
desirable peaceable
incidentally
desperate peculiar
independent U
develop perceive
individually
different permissible
ingenious unanimous
approximate dilemma perseverance
initially unconscious
approximately disagree persistence
initiative uncontrollable
arctic disappear pollute
innocent undoubtedly
arguing disappoint pollution
innocuous unforeseen
argument disapprove population
inoculate unmistakably
article disaster possess
intellectual unnatural
artistically disastrous possession
intelligence unnecessary
association discern possible
intelligent until
athlete discipline possibly
insistent usable
athletic discussion practically
interest useful
attendance dispel preference usually
interfered
attitude disservice preferred V
interference
awful dissipate prejudice
interrupt
awkward distinct prejudiced vacuum
iridescent
B duly primitive valuable
irrelevant
during privilege various
balance E irreplaceable
probably vegetable
bankruptcy J
proceed vehicle
bargain echoes procedure
jewelry vengeance
basically efficiency profession
judgment villain
battalion efficient professor
judicial violence
beautiful eighth publicly
K vicious
becoming eliminate purpose visible
before ellipse Q
knowledge W
beginning embarrass
knowledgeable
believe eminent quantify warring
L
beneficial empty quantity weather
benefited endeavor laboratory quiet Wednesday
biased enemy quite
later weird
biggest enthusiastically R
lenient where
boundary entirely
liable whether
Britain entrance realize
liaison whistle
bulletin environment rebellion
library wholly
bureaucratic equipment recede
lightning whose
business equipped receive
likely writing
especially recession
listening written
essential recommend
literature
except reference
loneliness
excellent referring
loose
excess remembrance
lose
existence lying reservoir
experience rhythm
explanation ridiculous
extremely

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Everyday Words that are Commonly Misspelled. Authored by: Joe Schall. Provided by: College of Earth and Mineral Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University. Located at: https://www.e-
education.psu.edu/ styleforstudents/c2_p13.html. Project: Style for Students Online. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
 TERMS THAT ARE COMMONLY MISSPELLED
IN TECHNICAL WRITING

S
A
salinity
D
abrasive seismic
N
absorption side band
data base H
aggregate sinusoidal
deposition Newton’s law
Aleutian solenoid
desiccant half-life nucleation
algae solid state
diffraction halogen nucle
algorithm soluble
diffusion hatchable O
alkali space-time
discrete heat-treat
alkyl spectrometer
dissymmetry histogram opaque
analogous spectroscopy
divisible histology operable
angular steam-distilled
Doppler effect horsepower optical
anomalous stochastic
Doppler radar hybridization orogeny
anomaly strata
drainage hydraulic oscillation
aperture stratigraphic
E hysteresis P
aquatic stratigraphy
I
aqueous parameter subsidence
ebullient
aquifer T
ebullition in situ peninsula
asbestos
eigenfunction incandescent permeability
asymmetry terranes
eigenvalue infinitesimal Petri dish
B test tube
emission inflection phosphorus
tidal
emissivity infrared photo-ionization
bandwidth tonnage
end point interference photocell
base line tornadoes
equilibrium isotropic piezoelectric
blackbody transit time
equinox isotropism Planck’s constant
brackish transmissible
evaporation L plateau
buoyancy transmissivity
eyepiece polarization
buoyant transmittance
F least squares polygon
C troposphere
logarithm polymerization
facies change trough
luminance porosity
capacitance typhoon
Fahrenheit luminescence precipitation
Celsius U
feedback luminescent predominant
cetacean
ferromagnetism luminosity R
chromatography unionized
ferrous luminous
clear-cut V
filterable M radiant
climatology
flow chart radio frequency
coaxial valence
fluorescence manganese radioactive
combustible viscometer
fluorescent mean life radiocarbon
condensation viscosimeter
Fourier series measurable refractive
conductivity viscosity
Fresnel equations metallurgical resistant
configuration viscous
G metallurgy resistivity
corollary visible
midpoint retardance
corrosion W
geyser monetar reversible
crustacean
glacial rock salt
crustal wave front
gradient
crystalline wave packet
crystallography wave system
wave theory
 wavelength
wettability
X

xenolith

Self-Study
Word lists of additional commonly misspelled technical terms appear at these sites:

Extensive list of commonly misspelled technical terms

“A Short Guide to Technical Writing” page from the University of Utah

Licensing & Attributions

CC licensed content, Shared previously
• Terms that are Commonly Misspelled in Technical Writing. Authored by: Joe Schall. Provided by: College of Earth and Mineral Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University. Located at: https://www.e-
education.psu.edu/ styleforstudents/c2_p14.html. Project: Style for Students Online. License: CC BY-NC-SA: Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike