Food Chemistry 238 (2018) 58–64

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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem

Chemical composition and antioxidant activities of some indigenous

spices consumed in Nigeria
Henrietta Ene-Obong a,⇑, NneOla Onuoha b, Lilian Aburime a, Obioma Mbah b
a
Department of Biochemistry (Human Nutrition and Dietetics Unit), Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Calabar, Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria
b
Department of Home Science, Nutrition and Dietetics, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The chemical compositions and antioxidant capacities of seven spices consumed in Southern Nigeria
Received 30 June 2016 were determined. They were purchased from majors markets in the study area. Edible portions of the
Received in revised form 6 December 2016 spices were ground into fine powder and their nutrient and phytochemical compositions determined
Accepted 20 December 2016
using standard methods. Antioxidant activity were determined on aqueous extract using standard assays,
Available online 22 December 2016
namely, 1,1-diphenyl-2picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical ability and ferric reducing antioxidant poten-
tial (FRAP). The spices were rich in macro-and micro-nutrients. Ricinodendron heudelotii had the highest
Keywords:
protein (30.6%) and fat (24.6%) contents. Tetrapleura tetraptera had the least fat content. The total phenol,
Nutrients
Phytochemicals
flavonoid and vitamin C contents differed significantly (p < 0.001) from each other. Aframomum citratum
Antioxidant activity had the highest amount of total phenol, flavonoid and DPPH scavenging ability, while Afrostyrax lepido-
Indigenous spices phyllus had the best FRAP. The spices have good nutrient profile and antioxidant potentials. Their
increased consumption is recommended and use as functional foods needs to be exploited.
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction could be obtained from any part of plant as fresh or dried seeds,
kernels, bulbs, stalk, roots, barks, leaves, pods or buds. They have
The double burden of disease in both developed and developing been used for thousands of centuries by many cultures to enhance
countries of the world has continued to pose serious health chal- the flavor and aroma of foods. Indigenous cultures recognized the
lenges. Apart from under nutrition, middle and low income coun- value of spices mainly in preserving foods and for their medicinal
tries have begun to experience an increase in the prevalence of value. Such knowledge has been handed down from one genera-
non-communicable diseases (NCDs). These conditions impose a tion to another; thus not much attention is given to their nutri-
lot of healthcare cost on individuals, households and nations; tional value. Spices also improve appetite and increase the flow
hence majority of the population are driven to look to food as of gastric juice. They are said to be useful in the management of
cheaper alternatives. Advances in food and nutritional sciences convulsion, leprosy, stomach ache, inflammation and rheumatoid
has shown that apart from nutrients, certain foods contain some pains, cough and loss of appetite (Valko et al., 2007).
bioactive substances which provide some health benefits; includ- Spices abound in Nigeria; some are specific to certain locations
ing reduction in cancer risk and modification of tumor behavior and usage is based on cultural food habits and preferences. Despite
(Kaefer & Millne, 2008). Spices are typical examples of such foods. their wide use in traditional cuisine, most of these spices are miss-
Spices are said to be pungent or aromatic substances which are ing in national and regional food composition databases/tables.
used as additives for the purpose of flavoring, colouring and pre- This may be attributed to the fact that spices were regarded as
serving foods (Abishek, Panchal, Poudyal, & Brown, 2009). In Africa, non-nutritive components of food (Kaefer & Millne, 2008). Consid-
especially in Nigeria most traditional and indigenous delicacies are erable amount of work has been done in Nigeria on spices, partic-
prepared with traditional and indigenous spices. These spices are ularly Monodora myristica and Piper guineense (Akinwumi &
used as additives or cures for certain ailments and diseases or just Oyedepo, 2013; Bassey, Johnny, & Okoro, 2011; Dike, 2010;
to add taste or flavor to food. They are also used as preservatives to Ekeanyanwu, Oge, & Nwachukwu, 2010; Faleyimu & Oluwalana,
kills harmful bacteria or prevent their growth (Dalby, 2002). Spices 2008; Okonkwo & Ogu, 2014; Uhegbu, Iweala, & Kanu, 2011), how-
ever there are issues of proper identification, varying values and
⇑ Corresponding author. units of expression. There is need for more studies to validate
E-mail addresses: nkeneobong@gmail.com, nkeneobong@yahoo.com existing work and to examine less researched spices for the
(H. Ene-Obong).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2016.12.072
0308-8146/Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 H. Ene-Obong et al. / Food Chemistry 238 (2018) 58–64 59

purpose of including them in the national Food Composition used in eating kola nuts or garden eggs (common items of enter-
Table (FCT) and exploiting them for other uses in human nutrition. tainment in parts of Southern Nigeria). Aqueous extract of the seed
This study was aimed at determining the nutrient and phyto- has been shown to contain pharmacological compounds such as,
chemical compositions as well as the antioxidant capacities of alkaloids, flavonoid, vitamin A and E (Eze-Steven, Ishiwu, Udedi,
the following spices commonly consumed in Southern Nigerian. & Ogeneh, 2013), essential oils (Susheela, 2000), while ethanolic
The image of these samples is shown in Fig. 1. extract showed presence of tannins and saponnins (Erukainure
Monodora myristica is a tropical tree of the family Annonaceae et al., 2012). Onyenibe, Fowokemi, and Emmanuel (2015) also
and popularly known as African/Calabash nutmeg. The local names found that it contains cholesterol lowering ability. A close relation
include: ‘‘Inwun” in efik; ‘‘ehuru” (Igbo), ‘‘ariwo” Yoruba, ‘‘gujiya- of Monodora myristica is ‘‘ehu” in Igbo. Its local name is used inter-
dan-miya” in Hausa; while other names include ‘‘ehiri”, ‘‘airama” changeable with Monodora myristica (‘‘ehuru”). It is used in
(Okafor, 1987). The fruits are collected from the wild and the seeds flavouring soups and sauces but has not been sufficiently
dried and sold as whole or shelled seed, which are then ground for characterized.
use in soups and other foods. The odour and taste mimic that of Aframomum citratum is commonly known as ‘‘mfong” (efik),
nutmeg and it is used as a popular spice in West African cuisine ‘‘olima” (Delta Ibo) and ‘‘erighoje” (Urobo). Its English name is
in stews, soups, and sauces. It is also used to flavor peanut butter grain of paradise. It belongs to the family Zingiberaceae (Ginger

Fig. 1. Pictorial presentation of the spices consumed in Nigeria.

60 H. Ene-Obong et al. / Food Chemistry 238 (2018) 58–64

family) and a close relation of Aframomum melegueta (Alligator 2.2. Sample preparation
pepper). It is an aromatic plant cultivated for its spicy fruits (Iwu,
1993). It is popularly used to prepare ‘‘banga” (palm fruit pulp) The selected samples were thoroughly screened to remove
soup and ‘‘nsala” (white soup) soup in Delta State. It has also been spoilt ones, stones and other unwanted materials. The samples
found to serve as alternative strategy in managing risk factors and were prepared according to their usage pattern.
associated co-morbidities of diabetes mellitus (Etoundi, Kaute, & Monodora myristica (inwum): The seeds were toasted in a pan
Ngondi, 2010). It extracts have been found to have antifungal, cyto- over fire for 2 min. The hard shell was removed and the inner ker-
toxic, antibacterial, antihypercholesterolemic, antiviral and anti nel thoroughly grounded into powder with electric kitchen grinder.
plasmodial activities (Tane, Tatsimo, Ayimele, & Connolly, 2011). Aframomum citratum (mfong): The purchased seeds were
Afrostyrax lepidophyllus is also called Bush onion or Country sorted to remove all unwanted materials, washed and air-dried.
onion in English: This spice belongs to the family Huaceae. It is They were then grounded into fine powder using an electric
locally known as ‘‘oyim Efik”, meaning Efik onion, probably kitchen grinder.
because of its distinct strong odour similar to onion and garlic. It Afrostyrax lepidophyllus (oyim Efik): The dried shell was peeled
is best blended into bean dishes, meat, stews, roasted fish and off and the hard seeds were broken into pieces with hammer,
other spices (Iwu, 1993). The seed oil of A. lepidophyllus has been ground into fine powder and stored in an air tight container.
shown to exhibit a strong inhibitory effect on growth of human Ricinodendron heudelotii (Njangsang): The kernels were pur-
cancer cells, and a scavenging activity but with negligible antimi- chased as dried from the market. They were washed, sundried,
crobial effects (Fogang et al., 2014). ground into fine flour and stored in an air tight container.
Ricinodendron heudelotii belongs to the family Euphorbiaceae. It Piper guineense Schumach: The dried seeds as purchased from
is called ‘‘njangsang” (Efik), ‘‘okwe” (Igbo), ‘‘erinmado” (Yoruba), the market were picked and sorted to remove all unwanted mate-
and ‘‘wawangula kurmi” (Hausa). It is a perennial native tree in rials. The seeds were then rinsed in cold water, drained, sun dried
the tropic and sub-tropics. It is a very important plant because and ground into fine powder.
all parts of the tree are used for one purpose or the other. It is seen Tetrapleura tetraptera (Uyayak): The dried fruits as purchased
on compound farms in Nigeria. The colours range from red brown were cut into pieces and ground into powder.
to black, while the kernels are white and yellowish. Substantial All ground samples were stored in air-tight containers and kept
work has been done on its oil content which ranged from 44.7 to in the refrigerator until ready for analyses.
54.7% and containing mainly the polyunsaturated fatty acids a-
elaeostearic acid (Kapseu & Tchiegang, 1995) and eicosapentaenoic
2.3. Chemical composition
acid (Ezekwe, Besong, & Johnson, 2014).
Piper guineense Schumach (‘‘Ashanti pepper”, ‘‘Benin pepper”):
2.3.1. Proximate analysis
popularly known as ‘‘uziza” (Igbo), ‘‘odusa” (efik/Ibibio). It belongs
The proximate composition (moisture, crude protein, crude
to the family Piperaceae. The leaves and seeds are used in prepar-
fibre, lipid, and ash) were determined using the standard A.O.A.C
ing soups. The medicinal uses of this spice have been well docu-
(2006) methods. The nitrogen conversion factor used was 6.25.
mented by Echo, Osuagwu, Agbor, Okpako and Ekanem (2012).
Total carbohydrate was obtained by difference as follows:
Traditionally, the seeds are used as postpartum tonic for women
100 (moisture + protein + lipid + ash).
to stimulate uterine contraction which is assumed to clear the
womb of remains of the placenta and other remains after the birth
of the child. A recent review by Morufu et al. (2016) revealed the 2.3.2. Mineral analyses
many nutritional and non-nutritional benefits of various parts of Mineral elements were determined using the Atomic Absorp-
the plant. Aqueous extracts of the seed have also been shown to tion Spectrophotometer (Perkin–Elmer Model 3110, USA). Phos-
have cholesterol lowering effects (Manta, Saxena, Nema, Singh, & phorus was determined using the vanadomolybdate method,
Gupta, 2013) and significant increase in hemoglobin level, white while potassium and sodium were determined by flame photomet-
blood cell and red blood cell counts of albino Wistar rats ric method.
(Uhegbu, Chinedu, and Amadike (2015).
Tetrapleura tetraptera is known as ‘‘uyayaka” (Efik), ‘‘ushakir
2.3.3. Phytochemical determination and antioxidant activity
isha/oshosho” (Igbo), ‘‘aridan” (Yoruba), ‘‘ighimiaka” (Edo) and
2.3.3.1. Preparation of extract. To 1 g of each ground sample, 20 ml
‘‘oghokiriaho” (‘‘Urogbo”), ‘ikoho” (Nupe). It belongs to the family
of distilled water was added and left overnight. The mixtures were
leguminosae. It is one of the most valued forest spices in Nigeria
then sieved and centrifuged at 2000g for 3 min. The residues were
but is threatened by extinction as a result of deforestation
discarded and the supernatant labelled as the stock solutions; 1 ml
(Akachukwu, 1997). It adds good aroma and flavor to food and
of the stock solution was diluted with 9 ml of distilled water to
therefore increases the pleasure of eating. It is a major spice ingre-
give a 10 ml working solution which was subsequently used for
dient for ‘‘white soup” and ‘‘banga soup” (palm fruit palm) among
the antioxidant assay. The stock solution and the working solution
the Efiks and Ibibios of Southern Nigeria.
were preserved in a refrigerator after each assay.

2.3.3.2. Chemicals and reagents. Chemicals and reagents used such

2. Materials and methods as 1,10-phenanthroline, deoxyribose, gallic acid, Folin–Ciocalteau’s
reagent were procured from Sigma-Aldrich, Inc., (St Louis, MO), tri-
2.1. Sample collection chloroacetic acid (TCA) was sourced from Sigma-Aldrich, Chemie
GmbH (Steinheim, Germany), hydrogen peroxide, methanol,
Seven (7) spices were purchased from five vendors each in Mar- sodium nitroprusside, griess reagent, acetic acid, hydrochloric acid,
iam market in Calabar, Cross River State and Ogboete market, sodium carbonate, aluminum chloride, potassium acetate, sodium
Enugu, Enugu State, Nigeria. The samples were pooled and taken dodecyl sulphate, iron (II) sulfate, potassium ferricyanide and ferric
for identified by Taxonomists in two Nigerian Universities, namely chloride were sourced from BDH Chemicals Ltd., (Poole, England).
the University of Calabar, Calabar and the University of Nigeria, Except stated otherwise, all other chemicals and reagents were of
Nsukka. analytical grades and the water was glass distilled.
 H. Ene-Obong et al. / Food Chemistry 238 (2018) 58–64 61

2.3.3.3. Determination of total phenol content. The total phenol con- 3. Results and discussion
tent was determined according to the method of Singeleton,
Orthofer, and Lamuel-raventos (1999). Briefly, appropriate dilu- The proximate composition of the spices is shown in Table 1.
tions of the extracts were oxidized with 2.5 ml 10% Folin- The moisture content of the spices were all <10% except for Tetra-
Ciocalteau’s reagent (v/v) and neutralized by 2.0 ml of 7.5% sodium pleura tetraptera (‘‘uyayak”) which was 13.5%. The high moisture
carbonate. The reaction mixture was incubated for 40 min at 45 °C could be an indication of its freshness. The relatively low moisture
and the absorbance was measured at 765 nm in the spectropho- content of these spices guarantees longer shelf life and makes them
tometer. The total phenol content was subsequently calculated as safe for consumption as they are sold under normal room temper-
gallic acid equivalent (GAE). ature, without any form of refrigeration. High moisture level will
encourage the growth of microorganism.
The protein content ranged from 5.0% in Piper guineense to
2.3.3.4. Determination of total flavonoid content. The total flavonoid 30.6% in Ricinodendron heudelotii (‘‘ngangsang”). The 10.5% protein
content of the extracts was determined using a slightly modified reported for T. tetraptera in this study was above the range of val-
method reported by Meda, Lamien, Romito, Millogo, and ues (5.48–7.84%) reported by Uyoh, Ita, and Nwofia (2014) who
Nacoulma (2005). Briefly, 0.5 ml of appropriately diluted sample worked on twenty accessions collected from different parts of
extract was mixed with 0.5 ml methanol, 50 ll 10% AlCl3, 50 ll Cross River State, Nigeria. This may probably be due to seasonal
1 M potassium acetate and 1.4 ml water and allowed to incubate variation/time of harvest. The protein content of Ricinodendron
at room temperature for 30 min. The absorbance of the reaction
heudelotii (30.0%) was higher than all the other spices (ranging
mixture was subsequently measured at 415 nm and the total flavo-
from 5 to 13.3%) and compares very well with that of soybean,
noid content calculated as quercetin equivalent (QE).
while the protein contents of the other spices compared favourably
with those of cereals grains. Ash values did not vary much except
2.3.3.5. Determination of vitamin C content. Vitamin C content of the for Monodora myristica with 2.0% and Piper guineense with a value
polar extracts was determined using the method of Benderitter of 4.9%; other spices had values ranging from 3.0 to 3.6%. The rel-
et al. (1998). Briefly, 75 ll DNPH (2 g dinitrophenyl hydrazine, atively high ash content indicates presence of mineral constituents
230 mg thiourea and 270 mg CuSO4
5H2O in 100 ml of 5 mol L 1 in the spices. Crude fibre values varied from 4.4% to 10.3%; Mon-
H2SO4) were added to 500 ll reaction mixture (300 ll of an appro- odora spp. (‘‘ehu”) had the highest value followed by Ricinodendron
priate dilution of the polar extract with 100 ll 13.3% (TCA) and heudelotii. These nutrient values are high relative to several food
water).The reaction mixtures were subsequently incubated for groups. Unfortunately, most of these spices are not consumed in
3 h at 37 °C, then 0.5 ml of 65% H2SO4 (v/v) was added to the med- large quantities and so their contribution to nutrient intake may
ium; their absorbance was measured at 520 nm and the vitamin C not be very significant; however, the protein content of Ricinoden-
content of the samples was subsequently calculated. dron heudelotii cannot be overlooked. The high protein value
obtained from this study is comparable with the value reported
by Ezekwe and Besong (2014). It is therefore not surprising to note
2.3.3.6. Determination of reducing property (FRAP). The reducing that R. heudelotii is used as a thickening agent for soups and incor-
properties of the spice samples were determined by assessing the porated into baby cereals and cakes or used as substitute for pea-
ability of the extracts to reduce FeCl3 solution as described by nuts in the Cameroon (Leakey, 1999). The fat content ranged from
Oyaizu (1986). A 2.5 ml aliquot was mixed with 2.5 ml 200 mM 8.5% in Tetrapleura tetraptera to 24.5% in Ricinodendron heudelotii,
sodium phosphate buffer (pH 6.6) and 2.5 ml 1% potassium ferri- and so all the spices could be classified as oily seeds and this can
cyanide. The mixture was incubated at 50 °C for 20 min. and then account for their relatively high energy values. Energy value was
2.5 ml 10% trichloroacetic acid was added. This mixture was cen- lowest for Tetrapleura tetraptera (1583 kJ/379 kcal) and highest in
trifuged at 650 rpm for 10 min. 5 ml of the supernatant was mixed Ricinodendron heudelotii (2000 kJ/480 kcal).
with an equal volume of water and 1 ml 0.1% ferric chloride. The The fat content reported in this study was lower than the values
absorbance was measured at 700 nm. The ferric reducing antioxi- reported by some authors (Ezekwe & Besong, 2014; Faleyimu &
dant property was subsequently calculated. Oluwalana, 2008; Manga, Fondoun, Kengue, & Thiengang, 2000).
The fat value reported for Monodora myristica was lower than val-
ues obtained by Ekeanyanwu et al. (2010) and Bassey et al. (2011),
2.3.3.7. Determination of 1,1-diphenyl-2 picrylhydrazyl free radical
while value for Piper guineense was similar to the one reported by
scavenging ability (DPPH⁄). The free radical scavenging ability of
Okonkwo and Ogu (2014). The observed differences may be attrib-
extracts of the spices against DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2 picrylhydrazyl)
uted to location, maturity, time of harvest, soil type/pH and other
free radical were evaluated as described by Gyamfi, Yonamine, and
conditions. Most of the spices have been shown to contain essen-
Aniya (1999). Appropriate dilutions of the extracts (1 ml) were
tial oils (Kiin-Kabari, Barimalaa, Achinewhu, & Adeniji, 2011;
mixed with 1 ml, 0.4 mM methanolic solution containing DPPH
Susheela, 2000); for example, Ezekwe and Besong (2014) showed
radicals, the mixture was left in the dark for 30 min and the absor-
that the fat of Ricinodendron heudelotii contains high levels of
bance was taken at 516 nm. The DPPH free radical scavenging abil-
ity was subsequently calculated as percentage of the control. polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and rich with substantial
amounts of omega-3 fatty acids, especially eicosapentaenoic acid
(EPA), making it a potential alterative to fish oil. A review by
2.4. Analysis of data Swanson, Block, and Mousa (2012) showed that EPA and docohex-
aenoic acid (DHA) are important for proper fetal development,
The proximate and mineral compositions were performed in including neuronal, retinal and immune function and may affect
duplicates, while the total phenol, flavonoid, vitamin C and the many aspects of cardiovascular functions.
antioxidant activities were carried out in triplicates. Means of For minerals, calcium values ranged from 415 to 660 mg/100 g;
duplicate and triplicate determinations were calculated. One way 220 to 715 mg/100 g for potassium, 130 to 690 mg/100 g for phos-
analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Duncan Multiple range test phorus, 230 to 690 mg/100 g for magnesium, 210 to 323 mg/100 g
was used to compare the means. The EC50 was calculated using for sodium and 5.85 to 19.5 mg/100 g for manganese. The iron con-
non-linear regression. tent ranged from 11.8 to 24.3 mg/100 g, being highest in Afrostyrax
62 H. Ene-Obong et al. / Food Chemistry 238 (2018) 58–64

Table 1
Proximate (%), energy value (kJ/kcal) content of spices consumed in Nigeria.

Spice Moisture Protein Fat Ash Fibre Total CHO⁄ Energy kJ/kcal
Monodora myristica: ‘‘ehuru” 6.9 13.3 13.1 2.0 8.2 64.7 1810/433
Monodora spp.: ‘‘ehu” 9.1 11.1 9.0 3.6 10.3 67.8 1674/400
Aframomum citratum: ‘‘mfong/olima” 9.2 9.2 9.6 3.4 7.4 68.6 1678/401
Afrostyrax lepidophyllus: ‘‘oyim efik” 7.8 7.7 13.2 3.0 4.4 68.3 1780/426
Ricinodendron heudelotii: ‘‘njangsang” 7.2 30.6 24.5 3.6 9.5 34.1 2006/480
Piper guineense: ‘‘Uziza/odusa” 8.8 5.0 8.8 4.9 4.5 72.4 1642/393
Tetrapleura tetraptera: ‘‘uyayak” 13.5 10.5 8.5 3.4 7.5 64.1 1583/379

CHO⁄ = Total Carbohydrate calculated by difference with crude fibre included: 100 (moisture + protein + lipid + ash).

lepidophyllus, followed by Monodora spp (20.2 mg/100 g). Similar tration at which 50% of free radical were scavenged was 10.3 lg/
high value (21.7 mg/100 g) has been reported for Monodora myris- ml. This was followed by Monodora myristica (72.0%) with EC50
tica (Ekeanyanwu et al., 2010). Copper values ranged from 0.93 to of 10.58 lg/ml. Ricinodendron heudelotii had the least DPPH scav-
3.22 mg/100 g, while selenium and iodine ranged from 0.01 to enging ability (56.1%) with EC50 of 12.81 lg/ml. Using the classifi-
0.09 mg/100 g and 1.74 to 3.68 mg/100 g, respectively. Generally, cation of Kaur and Kapoor (2002), Aframomum citratum and
Tetrapleura tetraptera showed the least values for most of the min- Monodora myristica had high antioxidant activity (>70%), Afrostyrax
erals except for zinc (Table 2) where it had similar value of lepidophyllus had medium and Ricinodendron heudelotii low (<60%)
6.78 mg/100 g with Aframomum citratum (‘‘mfong”). Apart from antioxidant activity.
Tetrapleura tetraptera all the spices proved to be potential sources The high DPPH of A. citratum could be attributed to its higher
of macro- and micro minerals. Calcium deficiency is likely in Nige- amounts of phenolic acid and flavonoids compared to the other
ria especially with the low intake of rich calcium containing foods, spices. Phenolic acids and flavonoids have been shown to be very
e.g. milk and milk products, and vegetables. Even though spices are important group of bioactive compounds in plants that have natu-
not consumed in large quantities, some of the spices, e.g., Ricin- ral antioxidants important in human health (Dai & Mumper, 2010;
odendron heudelotii could serve as a potential source of calcium Kim, Jeond, & Lee, 2003). M. myristica exhibited high antioxidant
which could make substantial contribution to the intakes of popu- activity using both DPPH and FRAP as parameters. In addition to
lation groups if consumed on a more regular basis. Their high cal- having substantial amount of phenolic acids, it had the highest
cium and potassium contents need to be exploited in view of their amount of vitamin C which is also known to be a potent antioxi-
importance in heart and bone health (Weaver, 2013). They could dant. Ricinodendron heudelotii, with the lowest amount of phenolic
also be exploited in tackling micronutrient deficiencies, e.g., iron, acid and vitamin C had the lowest DPPH and FRAP ability despites
zinc and copper and iodine. the fact that its flavonoid content was second to that of Aframo-
The total phenol and flavonoid and vitamin C content of the mum citratum. It has been shown that the capacity of flavonoids
spices are shown in Fig. 2. Total phenol of Aframomum citratum to act as powerful antioxidant and free radical scavenger will
(13.47 mg/GAE/g) was significantly (p < 0.001) higher than the depend on the position of the hydroxyl groups and other features
other three spices. The total phenol content of Ricinodendron in the chemical structure (Formica & Regelson, 1995). These may
heudelotii (‘‘njangsang”) was the least (3.64 mg/GAE/g). Similarly, include liquid/aqueous phase partitioning properties of the oxida-
flavonoid content of R. citratum (1.47 mgQE/g) was significantly tion condition and the physical state of the oxidation substrate or
(p < 0.001) the highest, while Afrostyrax lepidophyllus of the antioxidant (Frankel & Mayer, 2000). This may also account
(0.12 mg QE/g) had the least. The vitamin C content varied from for the high FRAP value obtained from Afrostyrax lepidophyllus
each other (Table 2); from 2.03 mg AAE/g in Ricinodendron heude- despite its low flavonoid content. Fogang et al. (2014) have also
lotii to 7.14 mg AAE/g in Monodora myristica. The lower phenolic reported a good DPPH () and ABTS (+)-scavenging activity of the
content of Monodora myristica compared to Aframomum citratum oil of Afrostyrax lepidophyllus.
and Afrostyrax lepidophyllus has been reported by other researchers Aqueous extracts were deliberately used in this study rather
(Duthie, Gardiner, & Kyle, 2003; Etoundi et al., 2010. than methanoic extracts in order to mimic their use in human
The ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of the selected nutrition. Several authors have also used aqueous extract and
spices is shown in Fig. 3. Afrostyrax lepidophyllus (‘‘Oyim Efik”/ found them containing potent bioactive compounds. Onyenibe
country onion) showed a significantly (p < 0.001) higher FRAP et al. showed that aqueous extract of Monodora myristica had the
value (7.88 mg AAE/L). This was followed by Monodora myristica ability of significantly reducing total cholesterol (TC), triglycerides
(5.80 mg AAE/L). R. heudelotii (1.77 mg AAE/L) had the least FRAP. (TG) and low-density lipoprotein–cholesterol (LDL-C) and
The free radical scavenging abilities of the selected spices are increased high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) in Wistar
shown in Fig. 4. DPPH was significantly (p < 0.001) highest for rats. Dada, Ifesan, and Fashakin (2013) working with five local
Aframomum citratum (73.3%). EC50 which is the effective concen- spices found that water extracts (58–77.5%) yielded the highest

Table 2
Mineral composition of the spices consumed in Nigeria (mg/100 g).

Spice Ca K P Na Mn Mg Fe Cu Zn Se I
Monodora myristica: ‘‘ehuru” 590 310 680 254 7.14 540 11.79 1.07 3.09 0.06 2.35
Monodora spp.: ‘‘ehu” 660 715 ND 225 5.85 ND 20.20 1.19 4.84 0.09 3.68
Aframomum citratum: ‘‘mfong/olima” 495 550 690 264 19.5 690 19.76 0.99 6.78 ND ND
Afrostyrax lepidophyllus: ‘‘Oyim efik” 415 710 230 323 7.77 230 24.26 1.71 5.65 0.01 2.86
Ricinodendron heudelotii: ‘‘njangsang” 627 645 460 210 10.29 460 15.28 3.22 5.79 0.02 2.18
Piper guineense: ‘‘Uziza/odusa” 445 220 ND 280 9.9 ND 16.25 1.49 4.98 ND ND
Tetrapleura tetraptera: ‘‘uyayak” 24 ND 130 18 3.68 180 2.32 0.93 6.78 0.16 1.74

ND = Not determined.
 H. Ene-Obong et al. / Food Chemistry 238 (2018) 58–64 63

Fig. 2. Vitamin C, total phenol and flavonoid content of selected spices consumed in Southern Nigeria.

Fig. 3. Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) of selected spices.

Fig. 4. DPPH radical scavenging ability of the selected spices.

DPPH scavenging activity followed by hexane extracts (44.5–74%)

and ethanol extracts (23–47%) and therefore suggested that water 4. Conclusion
extracts of the spices studied may be good antioxidants, while
ethanol extracts may be better antimicrobial agents. Furthermore, Although these spices are consumed in small quantities, they
Etoundi et al. (2010) also suggested that aqueous extract of A. citra- could make substantial contribution to nutrient intake if used
tum and other spices studied could be offered as teas, foods and/or more frequently. Mild flavored spices like R. heudelotii could be
dietary supplements because of the anti-enzymes (amylase and exploited for other uses. The high antioxidant and free radical
lipase) activities which could be exploited in the management of reducing abilities of the spices justify their use for medicinal pur-
chronic diseases, e.g., diabetes mellitus. The aqueous extracts were poses. Proper description and classification of Nigerian foods is still
also found to have high antioxidant activities. a major challenge. Awareness of their availability, nutritional and
64 H. Ene-Obong et al. / Food Chemistry 238 (2018) 58–64

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medicinal herbs from Ghana Thonningia sanguinea on experimentally-induced
tion. This is why they should be included in the national FCT/-
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