Chapter 8:

Project Quality Management

Information Technology
Project Management,
Fifth Edition
 The Importance of Project Quality
Management

 Many people joke about the poor quality of IT products

 People seem to accept systems being down occasionally

or needing to reboot their PCs

 But quality is very important in many IT projects

 What Is Project Quality?
 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) defines

quality as “the degree to which a set of inherent characteristics

fulfills requirements” (ISO9000:2000)

 Other experts define quality based on:

 Conformance to requirements: the project’s processes

and products meet written specifications

 Fitness for use: a product can be used as it was

intended
What Is Project Quality Management?
 Project quality management ensures that the project will satisfy

the needs for which it was undertaken

 Processes include:

 Quality planning: identifying which quality standards are

relevant to the project and how to satisfy them

 Quality assurance: periodically evaluating overall project
performance to ensure the project will satisfy the relevant quality
standards
 Quality control: monitoring specific project results to ensure that they

comply with the relevant quality standards

Project Quality Management Summary
 Quality Planning
 Implies the ability to anticipate situations and prepare
actions to bring about the desired outcome

 Important to prevent defects by:

 Selecting proper materials
 Training and indoctrinating people in quality
 Planning a process that ensures the appropriate
outcome
 Design of Experiments
 Design of experiments is a quality planning technique that helps

identify which variables have the most influence on the overall outcome
of a process

 Computer chip designer would determine what combination of

materials and equipment will produce the most reliable chips at a
reasonable cost

 Also applies to project management issues, such as cost and schedule

trade-offs

 Junior programmers cost less than senior programmers but will not
produce the same level of work in the same amount of time
 Design of Experiments

 An appropriately designed experiment to compute` project costs

and durations for various combinations of staff can help determine

an optimal mix of personnel

 Involves documenting important factors that directly contribute to

meeting customer requirements

 It is often difficult for customers to explain exactly what they want in an

IT project.
 Important scope aspects of IT projects that affect quality include:

 Functionality is the degree to which a system performs its intended

function
 Features are the system’s special characteristics that appeal to users.
It is important to specify which are required and which are optional
 System outputs are the screens and reports the system generates.

Need to define clearly what they look like

 Scope Aspects of IT Projects

 Performance addresses how well a product or service performs the

customer’s intended use.

 Need to know volumes of data and transactions, number of
simultaneous users, required response time, etc.
 Reliability is the ability of a product or service to perform as

expected under normal conditions (customers must define expected

level of service)
 Maintainability addresses the ease of performing maintenance on a
product
 Quality Assurance
 Quality assurance includes all the activities related to satisfying the

relevant quality standards for a project

 Another goal of quality assurance is continuous quality

improvement

 Benchmarking generates ideas for quality improvements by comparing

specific project practices or product characteristics to those of other

projects or products within or outside the performing organization

 A quality audit is a structured review of specific quality management

activities that help identify lessons learned that could improve

performance on current or future projects

 Performed by in-house auditors or third parties

 Quality Control
 Although one of the main goals of QC is to improve quality, its

main outcomes are:

 Acceptance decisions- are the products/services

acceptable or should they be rejected and rework is then

necessary
 Rework – action taken to bring rejected items into

compliance with products specs. Can be very expensive

 Process adjustments – correct or prevent further quality

problems based on quality control measurements (purchase

faster server if response time is too slow)
 7 Tools & Techniques for Quality Control
 1. Cause-and-effect diagrams trace complaints about quality

problems back to the responsible production operations

 They help you find the root cause of a problem

 Also known as fishbone or Ishikawa diagrams

 Can also use the 5 whys technique where you repeat the question

“Why” (five is a good rule of thumb) to peel away the layers of

symptoms that can lead to the root cause
1. Why the users can not get into the system
2. Why they keep forgetting passwords
3. Why didn’t they reset their passwords
4. Why didn’t they check the box to save their password, etc.
Sample Cause-and-Effect Diagram
Sample Cause-and-Effect Diagram
Possible causes of staff leaving before the end of a project
They may include environment, ambition, career prospects,
satisfaction (variety, challenges, recognition), remuneration (basic
pay, benefits - car, health, pension).
 2. Quality Control Charts
 Graphic display of data that illustrates the results of a process over time

 Main use is to prevent defects, rather than to detect or reject them

 Quality control charts allow you to determine whether a process is

in control or out of control

 When a process is in control, any variations in the results of the

process are created by random events; processes that are in control

do not need to be adjusted
 When a process is out of control, variations in the results of the process

are caused by nonrandom events; you need to identify the causes of

those nonrandom events and adjust the process to correct or eliminate
them
 The Seven Run Rule

 You can use quality control charts and the seven run rule to look for

patterns in data
 The seven run rule states that if seven data points in a row are all

below the mean, above the mean, or are all increasing or decreasing,
then the process needs to be examined for nonrandom problems
 Example: The following slide is a control chart for the manufacture

of 12” rulers
 Upper and lower specifications are 12.10” and 11.9” – this is the

range specified as acceptable by the customer for purchase

 The controls limits of 11.91” and 12.09” mean that the

manufacturing process is designed to produce rulers within that

range
 Sample Quality Control Chart

The rule violations indicate that a calibration device may need adjustment
 3. Run Chart
 A run chart displays the history and pattern of variation of a process

over time

 It is a line chart that shows data points plotted in the order in which

they occur

 Can be used to perform trend analysis to forecast future outcomes

based on historical patterns e.g., of defects

 4. Scatter Diagram
 A scatter diagram helps to show if there is a relationship between

two variables

 The closer data points are to a diagonal line, the more closely the two

variables are related

 5. Histograms

 A histogram is a bar graph of a distribution of variables

 Each bar represents an attribute or characteristic of a problem or

situation, and the height of the bar represents its frequency

 6. Pareto Charts
 A histogram that can help you identify and prioritize problem areas

 The variables are ordered by frequency of occurrence to help identify

the key contributors that account for most quality problems

(hopefully following the 80-20 rule)
 Pareto analysis is also called the 80-20 rule, meaning that 80 percent

of problems are often due to 20 percent of the causes

 In the following chart, Log-in Problems account for about 55% of

the complaints and together with System lock-ups accounts for about
80%
 Fixing these two problems can greatly reduce the volume of compalints

 Small problems should be investigated before addressing them in case

the user is in error

Sample Pareto Diagram
 7. Flowcharts
 Flowcharts are graphic displays

of the logic and flow of

processes that help you analyze
how problems occur and how
processes can be improved

 They show activities, decision

points, and the order of how

information is processed
 Statistical Sampling
 Statistical sampling involves choosing part of a

population of interest for inspection

 This is needed when the population is too large be to be

completely sampled
 The size of a sample depends on how representative you want the

sample to be
 Sample size formula:

Sample size = .25 X (certainty factor/acceptable error)2

Desired certainty Certainty factor Sample size

95% 1.960 384

90% 1.645 68

80% 1.281 10
 Six Sigma

 Six Sigma is “a comprehensive and flexible system for achieving,

sustaining, and maximizing business success.

 Six Sigma is uniquely driven by close understanding of customer

needs, disciplined use of facts, data, and statistical analysis, and

diligent attention to managing, improving, and reinventing business
processes.”
 Basic Information on Six Sigma

 The target for perfection is the achievement of no more than 3.4

defects per million opportunities

 The principles can apply to a wide variety of processes – design

and production of a product, a Help Desk or other customer-service

process
 Six Sigma projects normally follow a five-phase improvement

process called DMAIC

 DMAIC
 DMAIC is a systematic, closed-loop process for continued improvement that is

scientific and fact based

 Define: Define the problem/opportunity, process, and customer requirements.

Tool used include project charter, requirements, Voice of the Customer data.
 Measure: Define measures (in terms of defects per million), then

collect, compile, and display data

 Analyze: Scrutinize process details to find improvement opportunities;

seeks root cause of problems

 Improve: Generate solutions and ideas for improving the problem; pilot test

the solution
 Control: Track and verify the stability of the improvements and the

predictability of the solution

 How Is Six Sigma Quality Control Unique?

 It requires an organization-wide commitment at all levels. Often huge

training investements but pay off in higher quality goods and services at
lower costs

 Training follows the “Belt” system as in a karate class

 Six Sigma organizations have the ability and willingness to adopt

contrary objectives: reducing errors and getting things done faster;

creative and rational; focus on the big picture and minute details; make
customers happy and make a lot of money

 It is an operating philosophy that is customer-focused and strives to

drive out waste, raise levels of quality, and improve financial

performance at breakthrough levels
 Six Sigma and Project Management
 Joseph M. Juran stated, “All improvement takes place project by project, and

in no other way”

 It’s important to select projects carefully, apply higher quality where it makes

sense; companies that use Six Sigma do not always boost their stock values

 Minimizing defects does not matter if an organization is making a product

that no one wants to buy. As Mikel Harry puts it, “I could genetically
engineer a Six Sigma goat, but if a rodeo is the marketplace, people are still
going to buy a Four Sigma horse.”

 Six Sigma projects must focus on a quality problem or gap between the

current and desired performance, not have a clearly understood problem,

the solution should not be predetermined and an optimal solution should
not be apparent
 Six Sigma Projects Use Project Management

 The training for Six Sigma includes many project management

concepts, tools, and techniques
 For example, Six Sigma projects often use business cases, project
charters, schedules, budgets, and so on
 Six Sigma projects are done in teams;

 the project manager is often called the team leader, and the sponsor is

called the champion

 Six Sigma projects are projects that focus on supporting the Six

Sigma philosophy by being customer-focused and striving to

drive out waste, raise levels of quality and improve financial
performance at breakthrough levels
 Six Sigma and Statistics

 The term sigma means standard deviation

 Standard deviation measures how much variation exists in a

distribution of data
 Standard deviation is a key factor in determining the acceptable

number of defective units found in a population.

 A small s.d. means the data clusters closely around the middle of a

distribution and there is little variability in the data.

 Six Sigma projects strive for no more than 3.4

defects per million opportunities, yet this number is confusing to many

statisticians
 Six Sigma Uses a Conversion Table

 Using a normal curve, if a process is at six sigma, there would be no

more than two defective units per billion produced

 Six Sigma uses a scoring system that accounts for time, an important

factor in determining process variations

 Yield represents the number of units handled correctly through

the process steps

3
 Six Sigma Uses a Conversion Table

 A defect is any instance where the product or service fails to meet

customer requirements
 Because most products or services have multiple customer

requirements, there can be several opportunities to have a defect

 Ex: a company is trying to reduce errors on their bills. There

could be several errors – misspelled name, wrong address,

calculation error, etc.
 Instead of measuring the number of defects per billing

statement, Six Sigma measures the number of defects based

on the number of opportunities

3
Normal Distribution and Standard Deviation
Normal Distribution and Standard Deviation
Specification Range % of Defective units
(in +/- Sigmas) population per billion
within range
1 68.27 317,300,000

2 95.45 45,400,000

3 99.73 2,700,000

4 99.9937 63,000

5 99.999943 57

6 99.9999998 2
Sigma Conversion Table
Sigma Yield Defects per
Million
Opportunities
1 31.0% 690,000

2 69.2% 308,000

3 93.3% 66,800

4 99.4% 6,210

5 99.97% 230

6 99.99966% 3.4
 Six 9s of Quality

 Six 9s of quality is a measure of quality control equal to 1 fault in 1

million opportunities
 In the telecommunications industry, it means 99.9999 percent

service availability or 30 seconds of down time a year

 This level of quality has also been stated as the target goal for the

number of errors in a communications circuit, system failures, or errors

in lines of code
 To achieve six 9s of quality requires continual testing to find and

eliminate errors or enough redundancy and back-up equipment to

reduce the overall system failure to that low a level
 Testing
 Many IT professionals think of testing as a stage that comes near the end

of IT product development
 Testing should be done during almost every phase of the IT product

development life cycle

 Types of Tests:

 Unit testing tests each individual component (often a program) to

ensure it is as defect-free as possible

 Integration testing occurs between unit and system testing to test

functionally grouped components

 System testing tests the entire system as one entity

 User acceptance testing is an independent test performed by end

users prior to accepting the delivered system

3
Testing Tasks in the Software Development Life Cycle

 One way of portraying

the systems life cycle

 Shows 17 main tasks

involved in a s/w
development project
and shows their
realtionship to each
other
 Testing Alone Is Not Enough
 Watts S. Humphrey, a renowned expert on software quality, defines a software

defect as anything that must be changed before delivery of the program

 Testing does not sufficiently prevent software defects because:

 As code gets more complex, the number of defects missed by testing increases

and becomes the problem of not just the testers but also of the paying
customers
 He estimates that finished code, after all testing, contains 5-6

defects per thousand lines of code

 The number of ways to test a complex system is huge

 Users will continue to invent new ways to use a system that its developers

never considered
 Humphrey suggests that people rethink the software development process to

provide no potential defects when you enter system testing; developers must be
responsible for providing error-free code at each stage of testing
 Modern Quality Management

 Modern quality management:

 Requires customer satisfaction

 Prefers prevention to inspection

 Recognizes management responsibility for quality

 Noteworthy quality experts include Deming, Juran, Crosby, Ishikawa,

Taguchi, and Feigenbaum

 Quality Experts

 Deming was famous for his work in rebuilding Japan after WWII and his 14

Points for Management

 His ideas were not accepted by US industry until Japan started producing

products that seriously challenged American products, particularly in the auto

industry

 Juran wrote the Quality Control Handbook and ten steps to quality improvement

 Stressed the difference between manufacturer’s view of quality focus on

conformance to quality) and the customer’s view (fitness for use).

 Crosby wrote Quality is Free and suggested that organizations strive

for zero defects

 He suggested that the cost of poor quality is so understated that companies

can profitably spend unlimited amounts of money on improving quality

 Quality Experts

 Ishikawa developed the concepts of quality circles and fishbone

diagrams
 Quality circles are groups of non-supervisors and work leaders in
a single company department who volunteer to conduct group
studies on how to improve the effectiveness of work in their
department
 In Japan quality is a company wide commitment while in the
US it is delegated to a few staff members
 Quality Experts

 Taguchi developed methods for optimizing the process of

engineering experimentation
 Quality should be designed into the product and not inspected into it
 Quality is best achieved by minimizing deviation from the target value
 Robust design methods – focus on eliminating defects by substituting
scientific inquiry for trial-and-error methods

 Feigenbaum developed the concept of total quality control

 Responsibility for quality should rest with the people who do the work
 Product quality is more important that production rates and workers
are allowed to stop production whenever a quality problem occurs
 Malcolm Baldrige Award
 The Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award originated in

1987 to recognize companies that have achieved a level of world-

class competition through quality management

 Given by the President of the United States to U.S. businesses

 Three awards each year in different categories

 Manufacturing

 Service

 Small business

 Education and health care

 ISO Standards

 ISO 9000 is a quality system standard that:

 Is a three-part, continuous cycle of planning, controlling,

and documenting quality in an organization

 Provides minimum requirements needed for an organization to

meet its quality certification standards

 Helps organizations around the world reduce costs and improve

customer satisfaction
 Improving Information Technology Project Quality

 Several suggestions for improving quality for IT projects include:

 Establish leadership that promotes quality

 Understand the cost of quality

 Focus on organizational influences and workplace factors that affect

quality
 Improving the organization’s overall maturity level in

software development and project management

 Leadership
 As Joseph M. Juran said in 1945, “It is most important that top management

be quality-minded. In the absence of sincere manifestation of interest at the

top, little will happen below.”
 A large percentage of quality problems are associated with management,

not technical issues

 Leadership
 As globalization increases and customers become more demanding,

creating quality products quickly at a reasonable price is essential for

staying in business
 In 1988, Motorola Corp. became one of the first companies to receive

the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award.

 One of Motorola's innovations that attracted a great deal of attention

was its Six Sigma program.

 Top management stressed the need to develop and use quality

standards and provided resources (training, staff, customer input) to

help improve quality
 The Cost of Quality
 The cost of quality is the cost of conformance plus the cost of
nonconformance
 Conformance means delivering products that meet
requirements and fitness for use
 Cost of nonconformance means taking responsibility for failures or
not meeting quality expectations
 A 2002 study reported that software bugs cost the
U.S. economy $59.6 billion (6% of GDP) each year and that one-third of
the bugs could be eliminated by an improved testing infrastructure
 Gartner Research estimated that the cost of downtime for
computer networks is about
$42,000/hour.
 A worse than average system with a downtime of 30 minutes per day
can cost more than $7 million per year.
 Five Cost Categories Related to Quality
 Prevention cost: cost of planning and executing a project so it is error-free

or within an acceptable error range

 Appraisal cost: cost of evaluating processes and their outputs to ensure

that a project is either error-free or within an acceptable error range

 Internal failure cost: cost incurred to correct an identified defect before

the customer receives the product (rework, inventory costs due to

defects, premature failure of products)
 External failure cost: cost that relates to all errors not detected and

corrected before delivery to the customer (warranty costs, product liability

suits, future business losses)
 Measurement and test equipment costs: capital cost of equipment used

to perform prevention and appraisal activities

 Five Cost Categories Related to Quality

 Demarco found that the average large company devoted more than

60% of its s/w development efforts to maintenance

 Around 50% of development costs are typically spent on testing

and debugging software

 Top management is primarily responsible for the high cost of

nonconformance in IT
 Top managers often rush their organizations to develop new systems

and do not give project teams enough time ot resources to do a project

right the first time
 Top management must create a culture that embraces quality
 Organizational Influences, Workplace Factors, and Quality

 Study by DeMarco and Lister showed that organizational issues had a

much greater influence on programmer productivity than the technical

environment or programming languages
 Programmer productivity varied by a factor of one to ten across all

participants across all organizations, but only by 21% within the same
organization
 Study found no correlation between productivity and programming

language, years of experience, or salary

 A dedicated workspace and a quiet work environment were key factors

to improving programmer productivity

 Organizational Influences, Workplace Factors, and Quality

 Major problems in with work performance and project failures are

sociological, not technological, in nature

 They suggest minimizing office politics and giving smart people

physical space, intellectual responsibility and strategic direction

and then just letting them work
 Manager should not make people work, but make it possible for

people to work by removing political roadblocks

 Expectations and Cultural Differences in
Quality
 Project managers must understand and manage stakeholder

expectations

 Expectations also vary by:

 Organization’s culture – even within the organization

 Geographic regions
 Maturity Models
 Maturity models are frameworks for helping organizations improve

their processes and systems

 An evolutionary path of increasingly organized and systematically

more mature processes

 The Software Quality Function Deployment Model focuses on

defining user requirements and planning software projects resulting in

a set of measurable technical product specifications and their priorities
 Clearer requirements can lead to fewer design changes, increased

productivity and ultimately s/w products that are more likely to

satisfy stakeholder requirements
 Maturity Models
 The Software Engineering Institute’s Capability Maturity Model

Integration is a process improvement approach that provides

organizations with the essential elements of effective processes
 Companies may not get to bid on government projects unless they

have a CMMI Level 3

 CMMI Staged Representation
Optimizing
5 Focus on process
improvement

Quantitatively
4 Process measured Managed
and controlled

Defined
3 Process characterized
for the organization
and is proactive

Managed
2 Process characterized for
projects and is often Improvement
reactive
Performed planning, execution
1 Process unpredictable, and measurement is
poorly controlled and
reactive sequential through
the CMMI levels
 PMI’s Maturity Model
 PMI released the Organizational Project Management Maturity

Model (OPM3) in December 2003

 Model is based on market research surveys sent to more than 30,000

project management professionals, and incorporates 180 best

practices and more than 2,400 capabilities, outcomes, and key
performance indicators

 Addresses standards for excellence in project, program, and

portfolio management best practices and explains the capabilities

necessary to achieve those best practices