People’s Democratic Republic of Algeria

Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research

Mohammed Kheidar University, Biskra
Faculty of Arts and Languages
Department of Foreign Languages
Branch of English Studies

Students’Approachto the Translation of the

Present Perfect from English into Arabic

A Case Study of First-Year Master’s Students, University of Biskra

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the master degree
inscience of language

Submitted by: Supervised by:

Bilal BOULTIAH Mrs. Nachoua HASSINA
Haidar BOULEGROUN
Examined by:
Mr. Ahmed BACHER
Mrs. Djamila LADJALI

2011- 2012
 Appendix

Students’ Test

Translate the followings into Arabic.

1. John: Has anybody seen my fountain pen?

………………………………………………………………………………

2. Peter: I haven’t, anyway. Why? What’s the matter?

………………………………………………………………………………

3. John: I’ve lost it.

………………………………………………………………………………

4. John: I haven’t seen it since yesterday afternoon.

………………………………………………………………………………

5. John: No, I’m sure I haven’t.

………………………………………………………………………………

6. George and Mary have moved into a new apartment .

……………………………………………………………………………

7 . I have gained five pounds since I started my diet. At the same time I have gained a

craving for Milky Way bars.

……………………………………………………………………………

8 .Bernard Show says:"Few people think more than two or three times a year. I have made

an international reputation for myself by thinking once or twice a week".

……………………………………………………………………………

9.We have reached the period when the Arabic language has become the vehicle for fresh

and original work in the newly introduced sciences like medicines, astronomy, chemistry,

geography and mathematics.

……………………………………………………………………………

10.Russell Davies became a freelance writer and a broadcaster soon after leaving

Cambridge University in 1969. He has been a television critic of the Sunday times, and

lately has been writing a column about sport for the Sunday telegraph. For television and

radio, he has presented many literary and political features, a history of radio comedy.

……………………………………………………………………………
 General Introduction

Throughout history, translation has occupied an important status in the field of

human sciences .Translating across languages is only the most obvious from of an activity

which is perhaps the most common of human activity. This may be the explanation why

people usually take translation for a granted, as something does not require any effort and

that the same time, why translation is so challenging matter and full of possibilities. There

is nothing easy or simple about translation, even there is nothing easy or simple about any

human activity. There are hindrances that appear during this process because every

language describes the world in different ways and has its own grammar structure and

grammar rules and so on. Therefore, these hindrances cause many problems to the students

during translating tenses particularly the present tense. The present study examines the

status of tenses as a part of the English curriculum in the department of English, University

of Biskra; and the way it is perceived and dealt with by students of English. It explores

mainly the way tenses are practiced, and points out and draw the main problems

confronting students in dealing with it.

2. Research Questions

-Why do students think that the present perfect is a present tense not a past one?

- What are the hindrances that a first master students may face when translating the present

perfect from English into Arabic?

- Are there techniques that students follow to find an equivalent to the present perfect in

Arabic really effective?

- Does the Mother tongue interfere or influence the use of present perfect?

3. Hypothesis

To answer these questions, we formulated the following hypothesis:

1
-First year master students face hindrances when rendering the present perfect from

English into Arabic because of lack of an exact Linguistic equivalence between Arabic and

English at the level of tenses.

-First year master students face hindrances when translating the present perfect because of

Arabic mother tongue interference.

4. Statement of the problem

Translating grammatical rules is much more a complex process than it seems

because there are several constructions of grammar that could not be clearly understood,

in the sense that it is not clear how they should be represented , or what rules should be

used to describe them in the target language. However, it is not a coincidence that there are

many cultural issues which rising in parallel with the linguistic level. Tenses occupies quite

an important status in the field of English grammar, one fundamental topic is to match an

accurate and a suitable equivalents in Arabic for English tenses and particularly “The

Present Perfect”.

The study attempts to investigate the difficulties and the confusions which first master

students of English face and the techniques they may follow when translating the present

perfect from English into Arabic. This tense is of a great importance in the English

language but it is not in the Arabic language which causes problems to first year master

students.

5. Aims of the study

According to Abdullah, translation is ultimately a human activity which enables

human beings to exchange ideas and thoughts regardless of the different tongues used. It

requires complete knowledge of the structure and make-up of the two languages involved.

It necessitates artistic talent to reconstruct the original text in the form of a product that is
2
presentable to the reader who is not supposed to be familiar with the original. It is also a

skill because it includes the ability to smooth over any difficulty in the translation, and the

ability to provide the translation of something that has no equivalent in the target language.

(2007:1). This research aims to carefully examine translation from English into Arabic in

terms of tenses and more particularly the present perfect tense. It is focused on assessing

tense spot in both languages. Primary research aims and purposes can be stated as follows:

a- Reveal some insights about the students’ awareness of tenses that are probably to affect

the quality, of the work; their problems and the possible factors drawing their translation

task.

b- Make students realize the complex differences at the grammatical level between English

and Arabic in terms of tenses.

c- Investigate the most appropriate and suitable tense in Arabic that matches the English

present perfect.

6. Literature review

There are various studies conducted to investigate the notion of translation and its

problematic area for reaching the equivalence at the linguistic and cultural level.

First we will investigate the concept of translation according to many scholars who

were interested in the field of translation as the first definition is presented by Catford

(1965, p.20). He states that translation is the replacement of textual material in one

language by equivalent textual material in another language. In this definition, the most

important thing is equivalent textual material. Yet, it is still vague in terms of the type of

equivalence. Thus, culture is not taken into account.

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 However, it has already been propounded by many other scholars such as Mona

Baker (1992) and Peter Newmark (1988) that the notion of equivalence is problematic in

the study of translation, and to overcome this problem, diverse translation techniques have

been suggested by various scholars within the field of translation. Although it is not easy to

accomplish exact textual equivalence, one may hint that equivalence could be

accomplished when a translation comprises the meaning that is similar, or as close as

possible to that of the source text. For this to happen, it is important for translators to have

a thorough grasp of semantics, which is “the study of the meanings of words” (Walpole,

1941, p. 20).

Next, Nida and Taber (1969) explain the process of translating as follows:

Translating comprises of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural

equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms

of style.

In Translation: Applications and Research, Brislin (1976, p.1) defines translation as:

“The general term referring to the transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language (source) to
another (target), whether the languages are in written or oral form; whether the languages have
established orthographies or do not have such standardization or whether one or both languages is
based on signs, as with sign languages of the deaf”.

Another definition of Newmark (1981, p. 7) who stated definition to translation as

"Translation is a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or

statement in one language by the same message and/or statement in another language".

Which focus on the linguistic aspect which is a necessary condition, but not yet sufficient

for the professional practice of translation. In other hand Mona Baker defines equivalence

4
as the relationship between a source text (ST) and a target text (TT) that has allowed the

TT to be considered as a translation of the ST in the first place (1998,p.77).

Nida suggested that there are many problems of correspondence that the translators

may face in finding the equivalent from the source text to the target text.

These problems may differ depending on the closeness and remoteness in the relation with

the linguistic and cultural between two or more languages concerned, she argues that

"differences between cultures may cause more severe complications for the translator than

do differences in language structure" (1964,p.130).

Consideration of the grammatical equivalences and the different grammatical rules

among languages that leads to problems in the process of translation will be discussed to as

it was suggested by different scholars such as Mona Baker and Peter Newmark.

According to Jacobson (1959, p.233) There exist three types of translation:

Intralingual translation, Interlingual translation, and Intersemiotic translation.

According to Baker “Grammar is the set of rules which determine the way in which units

such as words and phrases can be combined in a language and the kind of information

which has to be made regularly explicit in utterances”(2002,p.83).

Ivir (1981), stated that "languages are differently equipped to express different real

world relations, and they certainly do not express all aspects of life with the same equal

ease; finding a notional category which is regularly expressed in all languages is

difficult"(p.56).

Jarvie states that “the word tense is from Latin tempus, ‘time’ and it is used to show

the time when the action of a verb takes place” (1993,p.37).Also he investigated the notion

5
of aspect and he claims that “Aspect is a category indicating the point from which an

action is seen to take place.

With the aim of accomplishing suitable translation for the target system, Mona

Baker (1992) provides certain techniques that can be used during the process of translation.

These techniques are intended to deal with instances where there is a lack of suitable

equivalence between the two languages at word, sentence and textual levels.

Firstly, Baker refers to is that a translator may translate applying a more general

word, or what we also refer to as a super ordinate. She says, is “one of the commonest

strategies for dealing with many types of non-equivalents, specifically in the area of

propositional meaning” (Baker, 1992, p.26). Secondly, she emphasizes that a translator

may use “a more neutral\less expressive word” (ibid.). Thirdly, a translator may recourse to

translation by cultural substitution, and fourthly, a translation applying a claque word or

loan word plus explanation could be applied. The fifth technique is to render by

paraphrasing applying a related word, and the sixth one is to render by paraphrasing

applying unrelated words (ibid.). The seventh technique is to render by omission (ibid).

With this technique, the translator excludes either a word or an expression from the source

text in his or her translation. There are diverse explanations for this to occur, for example,

when the omission of such a word or expression does not hinder the meaning of the source

text. Finally, the last technique is to render by demonstrating. According to Baker, this is

“a useful option if the word which lacks an equivalent in the target language refers to a

physical entity which can be illustrated, particularly if there are restrictions on space and if

the text has to remain short, concise, and to the point” (ibid. p.42).The proper applications

of the previous techniques, can provide us with appropriate meaning in the target language.

In accordance with Baker’s techniques presented above, some of these techniques

are also propounded by Newmark (1981).Those comprise paraphrasing, omission, which

6
he refers to as deletion, and the use of loan word plus explanation, which he refers to as

translation couplet.

However, the application of all the translation techniques has to comply with

certain factors that may prove essential as far as meaning is concerned. For example,

Geoffrey Finch states that “in working out the meaning of what is said to us we have to

take into account not only the words themselves as individual items, but also the

circumstances in which they are uttered, the medium used, and the person who is

addressing us” (1998,p.134). He further assumes that the relationship between the

addressor and addressee is also very essential as it has an effect on the meaning related

with certain words. He illustrated his idea by giving the argument which is the declaration

“I love you”. This sentence has a distinct meaning when spoken by someone to his or her

lover compared to when spoken by a child to his or her parent. For this reason, Finch states

that “it is not enough to know what words mean in isolation. We have to be able to

interpret them in concrete situations” (ibid, p.35). That’s to say, in order to get the real

meaning you have to explain these items in their real situations.

7. Methodology

The material which is intended to be used in this research is a test given to the

subject. A test is given to first year master degree of English students at Biskra University

to know their understanding of the present perfect and to what extent they will be able to

use translation of the present perfect tense approppriately .In addition, the test is given to

know the exact equivalence of the present perfect into Arabic in order to provide support to

the hypothesis.

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 Chapter One

Translation

1.1. Definition of Translation

Introduction

Throughout at least recent history of translation studies, there have been different

answers to the questions: what is a translation? And what is its central notion, otherwise

named equivalence? This later is the common goal of the translators tend to reach. The

different explanations of the word Translation refers to its birth and its development at

different periods. Back to history of translation, various changes have been occurred that

differ from one place to another. For instance, in the western world, translation has taken

not the same paths as those in the Arab world, as each of them have particular theories

depending on the different events and era. In fact, it is important to define translation

because it is sometimes a bigger obstruction to many scholars, as many of them have

controversial definitions on the concept of translation.

Nida and Taber gave a classical definition of translation: “translating consists in

reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent of the source-language

message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of style” (1969, p.12). The

meaning is much more important rather than style.

Ghazala (1995, pp.1-2) defined translation:

“As a subject, translation is generally used to refer to all the processes and methods used to

convey the meaning of the source language into the target language. That is, the use of: (1) words

which already have an equivalent in Arabic language; (2) new words for which no equivalent was

available in Arabic before; (3) foreign words written in Arabic letters: and (4) foreign words

changed to suit Arabic pronunciation, spelling and grammar.”

8
He provides us with some examples:

1-“Speak”………. "‫"ﯾﺘﻜﻠﻢ‬

2-“Satellite” ………."‫"ﻗﻤﺮ ﺻﻨﺎﻋﻲ‬

3-“Aspirin” ………."‫"أﺳﺒﺮﯾﻦ‬

4-“Democracy” … "‫( "دﯾﻤﻘﺮاطﯿﺔ‬1995, p.2)

Another definition was set by Reiss who describes translation as "a bilingual

mediated process of communication, which ordinarily aims at the production of a TL text

that is functionally equivalent to an SL text" (2000,p.160).Therefore, in translation process

,the speaker’s intention and the listener interpretation should be identical in order to

understand each other .

Consequently, it is clear to mention the more the message in Source Language is

understood, the more appropriate interpretation in Target Language would be; that’s to say;

understanding is the basis for producing a correct translation of any written or oral

products.

In accordance with those definitions, Newmark considers that translation is a way

of transmitting message from the author of the SL into TL. He states that translation as

“rendering the meaning of a text into another language in the way that the author intended

the text” (1988, p.5).

In the definitions appearing above, some similarities have been found:

1. Translation occurs only between tow linguistic expressions.

2. There is a replacement of the linguistic expressions from SL into TL,

3. The meaning is conducted to TL,

4. The translator’s focus is to achieve the appropriate equivalent in the TL.

9
 Nevertheless, there is no indication that culture is taken into account except in that of

Nida and Taber (1969). Actually Nida and Taber themselves do not mention this point very

explicitly. Following their explanation on "closest natural equivalent", however, we can

deduce that cultural consideration is considered. They insist that the equivalent firmly

sought in every effort of translating is the one that is not remote that the meaning or

message can be well transferred accurately. In addition to Nida and Taber’s definition,

Newmark (1981, p.134) clearly wrote: "the more the translator understands the linguistic

meaning and the referential [socio-cultural] meaning the more easily he can translate

"transfer" it to the target language». More clearly, the translator should have a deep

knowledge to both linguistic and cultural of source language and target language, in order

to transmit significantly the equivalent meaning of the intended message.

1.2. Translation Taxonomy

Presenting Translation types has been always seen from different point of view in

the sense that you find diverse categories suggested by many researchers. Each one reflects

a particular perspective in which scholars seek to identify and clarify these types in order

to make the translator’s task easier and to fill in the gap between different languages. In

accordance to Jacobson taxonomy of translation , the vast majority of people expect that

the translation process occurs only between tow linguistic products , however , translation

also may occurs from and into a non-linguistic products .

According to Jacobson’s (1959/2000, p.261) famous taxonomy of translation he

considers three classification of Translation. Translation is the process of substitution of a

source text with the target text. The process is usually an interlingual translation in that the

message in the source language is rendered as target message in a different language.

Intralingual translation, a process which a text in one variety of the language or in one

dialect is reworded into another. Whereas intersemiotic which belongs to translation , it

10
means the translation involves not another language but another, on-linguistic ,in other

words translating the verbal signs by non verbal signs as translating thoughts or emotions

into an art work or translating these non-linguistic products into a different semiotic system

such as translating an opera to a film.

What all these three processes have in common is that they involve the replacement

of one expression of a message or unit of meaningful content by another in different form.

Translation does not concern only the linguistic products, but also non-linguistic

expression.

Another classification has been suggested by Ghazala stating that the two main

types of translation are literal and bound translations. He explained the two concepts as

follows (1995, pp.4-13):

1.2.1. Literal Translation

Literal translation is an old method which has a range of diverse uses; it is made up

of three subtypes which are as follows:

1.2.2.1. Literal Translation of Words: Word-for-Word Translation. Basically this type

consists of translating English words counterpart that fit Arabic words following the same

order as in English.

Example:

A-Mary wanted to take tea

‫ﺷﺎي ﺗﺄﺧﺬ أن أرادت ﻣﺎري‬

(‫)ﻣﺎري أرادت أن ﺗﺄﺧﺬ ﺷﺎي‬

B - That child is intelligent.

‫ذﻛﯿﺎ ً ﯾﻜﻮن اﻟﻄﻔﻞ ذاك‬

(ً ‫( )ذاك اﻟﻄﻔﻞ ﯾﻜﻮن ذﻛﯿﺎ‬1995, p.4)

11
 This subtype of literal translation chooses each word apart without taking

consideration the grammar, word order, or context .In addition, the whole focus is devoted

for the source language; in other words, the target language is a mirror of the SL .that is

why it is a widespread method used by most of the students. However, this method leads to

detours because it ignores totally the target language. Hence, Arabic and English language

belong to different families that both Arabic and English have different grammar.

Furthermore, this method neglects both languages word order. This method also does not

take context into account which is basic in understanding. Similarly, it disregards the

metaphorical use of words which expresses or describes the culture of language.

Eventually, this method cannot reach equivalents which do not exist in the target language.

So, the two examples (a) and (b) above can be corrected as illustrated below:

‫أرادت ﻣﺎري أن ﺗﺸﺮب )ﺗﺘﻨﺎول( ﺷﺎﯾﺎ‬

‫ذاك اﻟﻄﻔﻞ ذﻛﻲ‬ (1995,p.6)

1.2.2.2. One - to –One Literal Translation

This type of translation comprises of translating a word into a word and a phrase

into a phrase. So, a noun is translated into a noun, tow adjectives into tow adjectives, a

proverb into a proverb, an idiom into an idiom, a collocation into a collocation, and a

metaphor into a metaphor. This translation acknowledges the context.

Example:

a - Let us shake hands. ‫دﻋﻨﺎ ﻧﺘﺼﺎﻓﺢ ﺑﺎﻷﯾﺪي‬

b-He is a young man. He is kind-hearted. .‫ھﻮ ﯾﻜﻮن طﯿﺐ اﻟﻘﻠﺐ‬.‫ھﻮ ﯾﻜﻮن ﺷﺎﺑﺎ طﯿﺐ اﻟﻘﻠﺐ‬

c-This mission is a can of worms. ‫ھﺬه اﻟﻤﮭﻤﺔ ﺗﻜﻮن ﺣﻔﻨﺔ ﻣﺸﺎﻛﻞ‬

(1995, p.7)

This method of translation is the same as the first one in two basic aspects:

(1) It respects the source language word order.

12
(2) It consists of having the same grammatical class and number of words. However, it

distinguishes from it in two points:

1- It considers the context.

2- It discovers collocation meanings, metaphorical equivalents in the target language. To

conclude, this method of literal translation is much more better than the first one. The

examples shown above can be corrected as:

(a) ‫ ﻓﻠﻨﺘﺼﺎﻓﺢ‬or ‫دﻋﻨﺎ ﻧﺘﺼﺎﻓﺢ‬

(b )‫ھﻮ ﺷﺎب طﯿﺐ اﻟﻘﻠﺐ‬

(c) ‫ ﺑﺎﻟﻐﺔ اﻟﺼﻌﻮﺑﺔ‬or ‫ھﺬه اﻟﻤﺸﻜﻠﺔ ﻋﻮﯾﺼﺔ‬

1.2.2.3. Literal Translation of Meaning: “Direct Translation”

Concerning this method, it is the most appropriate method because it insists on

having a near, an accurate, and clear meaning in the TL. It is called a direct or close

translation since it translates meaning in its right context. It takes into account the grammar

and the word order of the TL. Furthermore, it considers the metaphorical and the

exceptional use of the TL. Ghazala describes this method as “full translation of meaning”

(1995, p.9). It is the best method of literal translation since it views the literal meaning as

distinctive meanings of a word which can occur in different contexts and diverse

structures. This can be exemplified through the word “run” which does not always mean

“‫ "ﯾﺠﺮي‬in all contexts and structures. “‫ "ﯾﺠﺮي‬is the most frequent (common) meaning of

this word but it is not its literal meaning. “Run” reflects diverse meanings in various

contexts, and each meaning is considered to be a literal meaning as shown in the following

examples:

1- “To run in the race” (‫ ﯾﺮﻛﺾ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﺒﺎق‬/ ‫)ﯾﺠﺮي‬

2- “To run a company” (‫)ﯾﺪﯾﺮ اﻟﺸﺮﻛﺔ‬

3- “In the long run” (‫)ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﺪى اﻟﺒﻌﯿﺪ‬

13
4- “To run short of money (‫)ﯾﻨﻔﺬ ﻣﺎ ﻋﻨﺪه ﻣﻦ ﻣﺎل‬

5- “To run round” (‫ﯾﻘﻮم ﺑﺰﯾﺎرة ﺧﺎطﻔﺔ‬/‫)ﯾﻄﻮف‬

6- “To run to fat” (‫)ﯾﻤﯿﻞ إﻟﻰ اﻟﺴﻤﻨﺔ‬

7- “To run through” (‫ﯾﺘﺼّﻔﺢ ﻣﺮور اﻟﻜﺮام‬/‫) ﯾﻢ ر‬

8- “To run wild” ((‫ﯾﺘﯿﮫ ﻋﻠﻰ ھﻮاه‬/‫)ﯾﺴﯿﺮ‬

9- “To run across” (‫)ﯾﺼﺎدف‬

10- “To run back” (‫)ﯾﻌﻮد ﺑﺬاﻛﺮﺗﮫ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻮراء‬

11- “To run into” ( (‫)ﯾﻠﻘﻰ ﻣﺼﺎدﻓﺔ‬

12- “To run on” (‫)ﯾﺴﺘﻤﺮ‬

13- “To run out” (‫ﯾﻨﻔﺪ ﻓﻲ اﻟّﺘﻨﺎُﻗﺺ‬/‫)ﯾﺄﺧﺬ‬

14- “To run dry” (‫)ﯾﻨﻀﺐ‬

15- “To runs” (‫( )إﺳﮭﺎل‬Ghazala, 1995, p.10)

Relevantly, Najib presents another example concerning the changeable meaning

according to its particular context:

“The teacher asked the student to draw a right angle ‫زاوﯾﺔ ﻗﺎﺋﻤﺔ‬,but insisted that the student

draw it with his right hand ‫ﯾﺪه اﻟﯿﻤﻨﻰ‬while the student was left handed. Of course he didn’t

draw it right ‫ﻟﻢ ﯾﺮﺳﻤﮭﺎ ﻣﻀﺒﻮطﺔ‬and the teacher gave him low marks. Right away ‫ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻔﻮر‬the

student went to the headmaster and complained that it was his right ‫ﺣﻘﮫ‬to draw with

whatever hand he liked.The headmaster who was an upright man ‫رﺟﻞ ﻋﺎدل‬agreed that he

was right ‫ﻋﻠﻰ ﺣﻖ‬and that the teacher did not treat him right ‫ ﯾﻌﺎﻣﻠﮫ ﺑﺎﻟﻌﺪل أو ﻛﻤﺎ ﯾﻨﺒﻐﻲ‬and

ordered the teacher to right ‫ ﯾﺼﺤﺢ‬the student’s mark.” He stated that the word’s meanings

is defined by its context “(2005, p.26).

Ghazala stated that “Literal translation is committed to the real meaning or

meanings of a word or a phrase available in language….literal meaning is both the

metaphorical as well as the non-metaphorical use of a word” (1995,p.12).Thus, this

14
indicates that the literal meaning in this type of translation is both the denotative and the

connotative meanings.

1.2.2.4. Free Translation

This method is based on translating the given written or oral products freely

because the translator is not bounded to the constraints of text or context or the denotative

meaning , but he exceeds words and phrases denotative meanings and out of texts and

outside of contexts. So, it does not mean the way he likes but only the way he

comprehends. The substitution of free can be found as dynamic, communicative,

pragmatic, and creative are used in the current studies in order to refer to the same concept.

Furthermore, free translation has subtypes chiefly:

1.2.2.4.1. Bound Free Translation

This type of free translation comes directly from the context even if it goes beyond

it in some ways, simply the way of describing, exaggeration and emphatic language.

Consider the following examples:

1- He got nothing at the end.‫ﻋﺎد ﺧﺎﻟﻲ اﻟﻮﻓﺎض‬

2- Swearing is a bad habit. ‫ﺳﺒﺎب اﻟﻤﺴﻠﻢ ﻓﺴﻮق‬

3-She was sad deep down ‫ أﺻﺒﺢ ﻓﺆادھﺎ ﻓﺎرﻏﺎ‬/ ‫ﺗﻔﻄﺮ ﻗﻠﺒﮭﺎ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺤﺰن‬

4- She had a new baby ‫رزﻗﮭﺎ ﷲ ﺑﻤﻮﻟﻮد ﺟﺪﯾﺪ‬

(Ghazala, 1995, p.14)

These translations have a frequent point which is the use of a very formal Arabic.

So, the used expressions are extracted from:

a- The Holy Quran as in (1).

b- The prophet’s sayings (i.e., from “Sunna”) as in (2).

c- Collocations (3).

d- Popular religious expressions as in (4).

15
 Moreover, there are other examples which may be expressed through proverbs,

collocations, and strong expressions. As a result, these translations have exceeded the

context but, they are extracted from the original in one way or another. Nonetheless, this

free translation is not appropriate because of its strangeness to the context.

1.2.2.4.2. Loose Free Translation

This type does not have direct relationship to the original, yet it is a conclusion

which the translator can deduce for different personal reasons, as these examples show:

1- “Thank you Mr. Wilson. Next please”.

‫ ﻋﻨﺪﻧﺎ ﻏﯿﺮك‬،‫ﺗﻔﻀﻞ ﺑﺎﻻﻧﺼﺮاف ﯾﺎ ﺳﯿﺪ وﯾﻠﺴﻮن‬

2- “It is half past nine”. ‫ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ اﻧﺘﮭﻰ‬/ ‫اﻟﺤﺼﺔ اﻧﺘﮭﺖ‬

3- “Thank you, thank you ladies and gentlemen” ‫ھﺪوء أﯾﮭﺎ اﻟﺴﺎدة‬

4- “I am frightened” ‫اﺑﻖ ﻣﻌﻲ‬

5- “Why are you making mouths?” ‫أﻧﺖ وﻗﺢ‬

6- “No bacon with my breakfast, please” ‫أﻧﺎ ﻣﺴﻠﻢ‬

(Ghazala, 1995, p.15)

What these translations have in common that they are indirect and pragmatic ones

because of having implied meaning of the speaker intention through what is interpreted of

his/her saying. Hence, in example (1), “thank you” implies meaning of (you may leave)

rather than telling it explicitly. Example (2) is said to indicate that the time of a meeting or

a class is finished, i.e., we can leave or do something else. Furthermore, example (3)

indicates that the speaker intended to be respectful and courteous with people, so he uses

“thank you” rather than “quiet” or “silence, please” to attract to pay attention. In example

(4), the speaker intends that she / he cannot stay in her / his own because she / he is scared,

so she / he asks the listener to stay with her / him. In addition, making mouths in example

16
(5) expresses despicable behavior. So, the Arabic equivalent sentence is the result of this

implication.

Eventually, “no bacon” in example (6) expresses that the speaker is a Muslim since

in Islam pig’s meat is strictly forbidden. Thus, Arabic translation takes religion into

account. These translations are loose since they left their direct contexts totally. Farther,

they let the translator to realize the original version in order to translate his personal

conclusion deduced from it neglecting both the source language and its context. (Ghazala,

1995, p.14)

Thus, these translations are beating about the bush because they are

misinterpretations of the original source language. Hence, the translator’s main job is to

give an equivalent to the ST in the TL. Moreover, it is not the responsibility of the

translator to deduce the implied meaning of these sentences, but this is the task of the

readers themselves to tackle with. To sum up, it is inadvisable for translators to use this

type of free translation because it is far from the original text. The third method of literal

translation (direct translation) is most appropriate, practical, convincing and orderly used

type of translation (Ghazala, 1995).

1.3. Problems of Translation

Equivalence is the core of the translation process .Translators and learners face

difficulties in order to find grammatical, stylistic, or cultural equivalence.

1.3.1. Grammatical Problems

According to Baker “Grammar is the set of rules which determine the way in which

units such as words and phrases can be combined in a language and the kind of information

which has to be made regularly explicit in utterances (2002 ,p.83).That’s to say ,any

language is the mirror which reflects the information its interlocutors need to express and
17
the grammatical system is the one which demonstrates and bounds certain notions such as

gender, number or time …Greek and Romans believed that notional concepts are

generally universal and that languages vary only in the way of expressing grammatical

concepts.

The matter that languages distinguish leads translators to make big efforts with

exposure to the languages concerned in the task of translation in order to find an

appropriate solutions for translating grammatical concepts which differ across languages .

Expressing some grammatical concepts such as number and time is not an easy

task. Sometimes they are not described in the same way across languages or even they do

not exist in other languages. Some of these grammatical concepts are mentioned by Baker

(2002) who indicated the problems of rendering these concepts from the source language

into the target language because of the variety across languages in terms of these

grammatical categories.

As far as English and Arabic are concerned , they are two systems that belong to

two different language families .While English originated from Indo-European languages ,

Arabic is a part of Semitic languages .Thus, there are diverse difficulties confronted by

students and translators when translating from one language to another due to the fact that

there is no absolute equivalence that exist between these two different systems at the level

of grammatical rules .for example, most English tenses do not have a suitable grammatical

equivalent in Arabic , more particularly the present perfect which does not have an

equivalent tense in Arabic grammar . For the sake of imparting and preserving the spirit of

source language meaning, translators try to seek for an appropriate solution for such

problems they encounter. For example Ghazala provides us with some examples and

18
solution of rendering English tenses which correspondent to only one Arabic version as

following:

1.” We heard the news”(past simple)

2.”We have heard the news”(present perfect)

3.”We had heard the news”(past perfect)

(‫ﻟﻘﺪ ﺳﻤﻌﻨﺎ( اﻻﺧﺒﺎر‬/‫) ﺳﻤﻌﻨﺎ )ﻗﺪ‬

(Ghazala,1995,p.61)

In support with Ghazala solution concerning translating tenses which have no

equivalent in the Target language , Baker states that “…in translation, grammar often has

the effect of a straitjacket, forcing the translator along a certain course which may or may

not follow that of the source text as closely as the translator would like it to.” (2001, p. 85).

Basically, this indicates that the translator is not often in an obligation to follow the source

language grammatical rules because grammatical rules vary across languages.

Moreover, syntactic English sentences should be all verbal that should contain only

one verb, whereas, in Arabic, they are not only verbal, but also nominal excluding verbs

“I am student “ (‫)أﻧﺎ طﺎﻟﺐ‬

(Ghazala:1995:28)

One another particularly interesting feature of English grammatical structure is

from the point of view of word order which has Subject-first word order followed by verb ,

while Arabic sentences tend to start mainly with Verb-First followed by subject word order

.For example:

1-“The sky was cloudy” (‫)ﺗﻠﺒﺪت اﻟﺴﻤﺎء ﺑﺎﻟﻐﯿﻮم‬

19
(Ghazala: 1995, p.49)

1.3.2.Stylistic problem

Back to Nida’s definition of translation (1969, p.12), Style occupies second priority

as a fundamental aspect in affecting strongly the conveyance of meaning of any translated

message from source language into target language. It surely stands very high in

importance. It is obvious that a poor form results in transmitting the message in insufficient

and inadequate way .Since the quality of the translated message is relevant to degree of

understanding in way or another to the style, it is very important to set a definition of style

according to some scholars .Traditionally speaking, style is seen as a manner or way that

somebody presents or performs something.

Lynch provides us with more or less what is traditionally defined. He states that

broadly, it means everything about your way of presenting yourself in words, including

grace, clarity, and a thousand indefinable qualities that separate good writing from bad. (As

cited in Zainurrahman, 2009).

In that He added, for example, regardless to the similar theme, one writer tends to

utilize simple words and straightforward sentences grammatical structure, while another

tends to utilize difficult vocabulary and complex sentence grammatical structures. Thus,

the differences in the authors’ styles make the experiences of understanding the two works

distinct. So, misunderstanding results from using a bad style and sometimes leading to

comprehend or to guess a different meaning of the same conveyed message .Therefore, a

translator and students should be aware to control overproducing a clear and an appropriate

style in both source and the target language.

Students and translators face difficulty concerning the functional notion which is

called Style. Ghazala (1995,p.222) provides us with the following examples that show us

20
how the style which neglects clarity makes a translated text nonsense and how it is

connected to the meaning .The following sentences express the similar notion of death :

a.Her father died yesterday.

b.Her father was killed yesterday.

c.Her father licked/bit the dust yesterday.

d.Her father kicked the bucket yesterday. ‫ﻣﺎت واﻟﺪھﺎ أﻣﺲ‬

e.Her father passed away yesterday.

f.Her father was martyred in the battelfield yesterday.

g.Her father slept his last sleep yesterday.

h.Her father was hanged yesterday. (1995,p.222)

According to these statements from a-to-g , they all mention a commen idea which

is death of “her father”, and this is the important thing to it .However , they are all

translated into one sentence and the unique version in Arabic (e.g., ‫ ) ﻣﺎت واﻟﺪھﺎ أﻣﺲ‬.It is

not worthy the cause behind his death , whether “her father died” naturally ,unnaturally ,

got killed , out of illness ,or in car accident .What matters is that he is dead now.

Notably, it is an unacceptable argument since the cause of death is absolutely

crucial to concerned people .Therefore, natural death is quite acceptable to people, whereas

an unnatural death caused by killing is quite serious and unacceptable to them. It makes a

big difference by describing him as just killed or dead .Hence, it is not agreed to translate

all these different statement into one and the same Arabic version of translation, as above.

Differently speaking, each statement expresses a particular semantic meaning with its own

style, as showed below:

"a.Her father died yesterday.

.‫ﻣﺎت واﻟدھﺎ أﻣس‬

b.Her father was killed yesterday.

21
 .‫ﻗﺗل واﻟدھﺎ اﻣس‬

c.Her father licked/bit the dust yesterday.

. ‫ﺧرر واﻟدھﺎ ﺻرﯾﻌﺎ أﻣس‬

d.Her father kicked the bucket yesteday.

. ‫ ﺗوﺳد واﻟدھﺎ أﻣس‬/ ‫ودع‬

e.Her father passed away yesterday.

. ‫رﺣل واﻟدھﺎ أﻣس‬

f.Her father was martyred in the battelfield yesterday.

. ‫اﺳﺗﺷﮭد واﻟدھﺎ أﻣس‬

g.Her father slept his last sleep yesterday.

.‫ﻧﺎم واﻟدھﺎ أﺧر ﻧوم أﻣس‬

h.Her father was hanged yesterday.

.‫"اﻋدم واﻟدھﺎ أﻣس‬

(Ghazala,1995,p.223)

Remarkably , there are significant stylistic differences among these versions.(a) is

normal death ;(b) is abnormal death ;(c)is amurder from behind ;(d)is unfavourable ;(e) is

acceptable and respectful of the death ;(f) is religious ;and (g) is

disagreeable.Therefore,these differences are differences of meaning and have to be taken

into consideration in translation.

1.3.3. Cultural problems

In our relevant discussion appearing above , we notice that the major points

concerning translation’s definitions , except of that of Newmark’s definition (1981,p. 134)

22
who do mention frankly and clearly the concept of culture as crucial aspect in translation

process to bear in mind , are devoted exclusively to linguistic aspects . In addition to those

of linguistic problems discussed above, culture poses another acute problem to both

translators and learners of foreign languages. Culture plays indisputable role in the process

of translation, and it a controversial point that many scholars tend to explain.

According to the divergences to numerous definitions that have been propounded to

describe culture as concept, thus the obstacle here that there is no very often an agreement

upon definition of culture. As provided by Oxford advanced Learner’s Dictionary , the

notion of culture mediates wide range of intermediary notions such as customs , art ,and

way of life and so on .More specifically which interested with language and translation ,

Newmark defines culture as “the way of life and its manifestations that are peculiar to a

community that uses a particular language as its means of expression” (1988,p.94), thus

recognizing that each language group shares its own culturally particular characteristics .

According to him (pp.94-103), there are five major classes of culture:

1) Ecology: plants, animal, hills, local winds, plains, ice, etc.).

2) Material Culture: food, clothes, houses and towns, communications, etc.).

3) Social Culture: (work and leisure).

4) Organizations, Customs, Ideas (political and administrative, religious, artistic).

5) Gestures and Habits (Paralinguistic features).

Similarly, House stated that” Culture refers to a group’s shared values and

conventions which act as mental guidelines for orienting people’s thoughts and behaviors”

(2009, p.12). However, what matters here how such distinct cultural habits and views are

expressed and represented to others in the social group. He further clearly added that the

23
translators should be more aware when shifting a text from one culture to another in both

kind and degree of ” the conventionalization meaning” in the source and target cultures

(ibid).That’s to say what can be considered acceptable in one culture , could be regarded

as totally offensive or strange to another particular social group. In other word, the more a

translator is aware of complexities of distinctions between cultures, the successful

translation will be.

Aziz stated that “Translation across cultures results in ideological shifts. The shifts

are greater where the gap between the source culture and the target culture is wider” (1999,

p.29). The more distant between the source culture and target culture the more unenviable

challenge would be for the learners and translators. In the same way, the degree of

difficulty depends on whether the languages involved are close or remote culturally. As

matter of fact, Arabic and English settings are geographically distant communities, thus it

certainly leads to be culturally distant.

According to Ilyas (1989,p.124), when the translator encounters difficulty of not

finding a corresponding Target Language equivalent for the Source Language item, the

translator most often recourses to a non-corresponding equivalent item, which may have an

equivalent function in the Target Language culture. Ilyas (1989,p.124) supported this

point by an example saying that translating the phrase as white as snow into a language

whose people do not experienced the snow can be carried out effectively by seeking a

non-corresponding but functionally equivalent Target Language expression that would fit

the SL. This can be accomplished by translating it like: as white as cotton for instance,

since both fulfill the same function of emphasizing the feature of whiteness in descriptive

way. This is very much similar to what is mentioned as "Functional Equivalence" (de

Waard and Nida, 1986).The awareness of Intercultural competence rise out of experience

24
of culture, are far more complicated fact than it may seem to the translator and learners of

foreign languages.

1.4. Pedagogical uses of translation as a technique

As we have seen, translation can be looked at from different points of view, and can

operate at different levels of language, and these depend to a considerable extent on what

you need to use translation for. Translation may be needed to facilitate communication

between speakers of different languages.

Another important purpose to which translation has been used for a long time is

pedagogical tool: translation has been proposed as an activity for learning and teaching a

foreign language. However, this suggestion has been at the center of ongoing controversy

about the role of grammar and the mother tongue in foreign language learning and

teaching.

A current argument is that translation as a pedagogical means is not useful .Lado

(1964, p. 53) strongly states that translation is distinct from language practice, the real aim

of language teaching. Similarly, Gatenby asserted that translation is seen as a

counterproductive means. Mainly, because it makes the learning process more difficult by

the intervention of the mother tongue, which certainly augments its interference or what is

called negative transfer (1950/1967,p. 2). For instance, he named the use of translation in

this way as ‘bad pedagogy’ because it pushes students to think in their first language when

they should think directly in foreign language ‘‘without having to think” (ibid). He clearly

added that ‘Why use two languages when the time allowed for learning one is so short?”

(1948/1967, p.70).

25
 Despite this overwhelmingly negative view, translation both into the foreign

language and from the foreign language has always been widely employed in learners’

foreign language learning process. Also, it is employed as a teaching and learning

technique in foreign language departments; for example, grammatical translation method

which obtained significant importance in Europe from the early nineteenth century

onwards. Both translation and grammar are key feature of this method (House, 2009, p.62).

Through the study of the grammar of the target language, Freeman argued that, students

would become more familiar with the grammar of their native language and this familiarity

would help them to translate successfully (1986, p.4). Also, Chamot described the

translation technique as ‘using the first language as a base for understanding and/or

producing the second language’ (1987, p.77).Following his view, translation promotes an

explicit knowledge about the foreign language and helps in developing and rising

awareness of differences and similarities that exist between the native and the foreign

language systems at various linguistic-cultural levels.

Furthermore, it is important to mention that many scholars, who favored the use of

translation as a pedagogical tool, do not belong to the grammar translation method.

Therefore, translation was exclusively a dominant means in the grammar translation

method; Malmkaejer said that translation is just one of diverse means in teaching and

learning a foreign language (1998, p.9).Moreover, Sewell added that translating

strengthens learner’s linguistic knowledge (1996, p.142).By translation, we draw and shape

the similarities and dissimilarities across languages; in other words, translation is a tool to

deepen the linguistic knowledge of the target language.

26
Conclusion

Summing up the previous discussion, translation is an essential tool in

communicating across different cultures and communities. Besides, it is a naturally

occurring cognitive phenomenon which is inseparable in learning foreign language

context. The translators and learners of foreign languages may encounter with difficulties

during the process of translation in which they must be aware of the differences and

similarities that exist between given languages. These differences rise at diverse levels

such as linguistic and cultural levels which make the translators task a more complex

matter. English and Arabic, for instance are two distinct languages. Each language has its

independent system .Hence; the purpose of this research is to accommodate one’s language

who learns English as a foreign language. Therefore, these two languages have no absolute

equivalents in terms of grammar and particularly in terms of tenses which cause problems

to learners who are in the process of translating tenses from English into Arabic and

particularly in translating the present perfect Consequently, these difficulties require to

have a deep knowledge in both SL and TL at linguistic and cultural levels as well as some

effective techniques to cope with.

27
 Chapter Two

Tenses

2.1. English Tense and Aspect

Introduction

This chapter attempts to spot light on both tenses (English, Arabic), and more

particularly the present perfect tense. This theoretical chapter is divided into two parts. The

first part deals with English tense and aspect in details i.e., definition of both tense and

aspect, and the formation or the structure of the twelve tenses, and finally the formation of

both present and past simples which are the structure of the present perfect, then English

perfect tense. The second part deals with the same elements as mentioned above but

concerning Arabic as well as some distinctions between English and Arabic in terms of

tenses.

The use of verb form is one of the most difficult areas for English language learners

to master. New research shows that several factors are responsible for the difficulties in

learning to use appropriate and exact verb forms. In order to understand the difficulties and

how to deal with them, we first have to examine basic concepts of tense and aspect

underlying these forms and their uses. The two concepts are used to describe time and

action in verbs- tense and aspect. In what follows, we look at each in turn.

2.1.1. Tense

Jarvie states that “the word tense is from Latin tempus, ‘time’ and it is used to show

the time when the action of a verb takes place” (1993, p.37). According to the Oxford

Learner’s Pocket Dictionary, tense means “verb form that shows the time of the action or

28
state: the present/ past/ future ~” (2003, p.445).Moreover, Jarvie added that tense is

marked by inflation in English especially for past and present tenses. So, we should make a

careful distinction between ‘tense’ and ‘time’. “Time is an extra linguistic category”

(Bernd Kortmann; Elizabeth Closs Traugott, 2006, p.22). That is, it exists independently of

language. “Tense is a linguistic concept: it denotes the form taken by the verb to locate the

situation referred to in time” ( ibid), i. e. to mention the temporal relation between the time

of the situation in question and an ‘orientation time’ which may be either the ‘temporal

zero-point’ which is usually the time of speech. The term tense is used to show the relation

between the action or state described by the verb and the time.

Besides, Declerk (2006) defines a tense as a linguistic concept which is interested

with the different forms of the verb according to different time of the situation. However, it

differs from one language to another.

In addition to Declerk, Suzanne Fleischman defines, by her turn, the term tense as

“grammaticalization of location in time.”(1990, p.15). More particularly, she clarifies that

it involves “the location of situations predicted in sentence or discourse relative to a

reference time” (ibid, p.16). This reference time is usually the particular moment of speech

or conventionally established by the discourse.

According to Ron Cowan, tense in verbs indicates the time that an action happens

in reference to speaking moment. It has three divisions: present, past, and future .Cowan

presented these divisions of time in English as in the diagram below (A):

(A) past future

Present
(Moment of speaking)
Fig.A: Main divisions of time in English (Cowan, 2008, p.350)

29
 As a matter of fact, however, among these three dimensions (A), only two are

expressed in English by changes on main verb as in the present and the past. Thus, present

time, for third person singular, is expressed by adding (s ) to a regular verb, as in (B1), and

past time is expressed by adding (ed) to a regular verb, as in (B2), or inflecting the form of

an irregular verb such as go, as in (B3). Many languages also express future time with the

modal auxiliary verb (will), shown in (B4), or the semi modal be +going to, in (B5).

(B) 1. He helps her. present tense

2. He helped her. past tense regular verb
3. He went to the game. past tense irregular verb
4. He will help her. future time
5. He is going to help her. future time (Cowan, 2008, p.351)

In addition to verb form, Cowan added that time is also indicated by time adverbs,

such as yesterday, today, tomorrow, at noon, etc…, and by prepositional phrases, such as

for two years, and since three o’clock (ibid, p.351).

To conclude, verb forms are tense forms if they relate a situation time directly or

indirectly to the zero-point. There is a broader use of the word tense: a form of the ‘verb

phrase’ which gives information about ‘aspect’.

2.1.2. Aspect

In discussing tense, we focused on the location of a situation whereas in aspect, we

have to look inside the situation. “In terms of its internal dimensions, a situation may be

represented as fixed or changing, it may be treated as lasting for only a moment or having

duration, and it can be viewed as complete or as ongoing” (George, Yule, 1998,p.62).

30
 Besides, Ron Cowan (2008, p.351) states that “aspect expresses how the speaker

views the action of the verb. For instance, an action that is seen as limited and complete is

perfect in aspect.”as it is shown in the following example:

- John has written only one novel since 1998. “Complete- perfect aspect” (ibid).

Moreover, Jarvie claims that “Aspect is a category indicating the point from which

an action is seen to take place. Two contrasts of aspect are marked in English: progressive

aspect and perfect (or perfective) aspect. The former states that the action is in progress,

ongoing or continuous at the point of time; the latter states that the action is retrospective

or has been completed (1993, p.39).

There are 12 tenses in English which have resulted from the combination of both

tense and aspect system (Celce, 1999).

According to Celce, there are “four aspects simple (sometimes called zero aspect),

perfect, progressive, and their combination perfect progressive.” (1999, p.110). Here Celce

focuses on four main types of aspect which can be defined as follows:

2.1.2.1. Simple aspect: Unlike progressive aspect which meant to be incomplete or

imperfective, simple aspect expresses the events which are understood to be complete. This

simple aspect comprises three main simple tenses which are: simple present tense, simple

past tense, and simple future tense with will (or contracted‘ll’ (ibid).

Example:

"She works" ( simple present tense)

"She worked"(simple past tense)

"She will work" (simple future tense) (Cowan ,2008 ,p.356)

31
2.1.2.2. Perfect aspect: It expresses the meaning that this aspect covers is “prior”, which

implies that it is used through connecting it with some other point in time. This aspect

consists of the present perfect, the past perfect, and the future perfect (ibid).

Example:

"He has read the book ." (perfect aspect, present)

" He had read the book." (perfect aspect , past)

"He will have read the book" (perfect ,future) (Cowan,2008 ,p.355).

2.1.2.3. Progressive aspect: It is said to be imperfective because it shows an incomplete

event or a limited one. This aspect comprises of the present progressive or continuous, the

past progressive, and the future progressive (Celce, 1999, p.110).

Example:

"He is writing a letter." (progressive aspect , present)

"He was writing a letter."(progressive aspect , past)

" He will be writing a letter"(progressive aspect , future) (Cowan ,2008,p.354).

2.1.2.4. Perfect Progressive Aspect: This aspect is formed with the combination of

perfect, i.e., prior and progressive, (incomplete). It is composed of three tenses which are:

present perfect progressive, past perfect progressive, and future perfect progressive (Celce

ibid.).

Example:

"She will have been working "( Cowan ,2008,p.351).

We can conclude that both tense and aspect are categories associated with the verb, and

they do exist only in certain languages.

32
2.2. English Tenses

In English, the aspect terms progressive, or continuous, and perfect are combined

with the three times – past, present, and future – to produce, along with each time on its

own, the 12 so-called tenses of English as shown in the following:

2.2.1. Past tense

The simple past tense is sometimes called the preterite tense. We can use several

tenses to talk about the past, but the simple past tense is the one we use most often. It is

represented by the (ed) inflection on regular verbs and by other changes in the case of

irregular verbs, for example; I bought a new car. Ron Cowan (2008,p.359) states that "the

simple past tense frequently occurs with expressions that indicate a specific point in time

when the action was carried out, such as yesterday, a week ago, last Monday, in the

morning, and so on."

Example:

"He built that house a long time ago."

2.2.2. Past perfect

“The past perfect tense is formed with the auxiliary have i.e., (had) and the past

participle form." (Cowan, 2008, p.369). The past perfect simple is formed with the

auxiliary “had” and the past participle form. It is used to describe an event that was

completed before another took place (Declerk, 2006). This tense talks about “past in the

past”. For example, I had a car. In addition, it expresses a past action completed prior to

another event or time in the past. For example: He had already mailed the letter when John

called him.

33
2.2.3. Past continuous

According to Parrott (2000, p.198), the past continuous tense is formed with the

structure of (was/were + verb + ing).For example, “they were dancing”.

The past continuous describes an action that was ongoing in the past time that is an event

which is still in progress during a certain time in the past. The past progressive, or past

continuous, tense is formed with a past form of verb (be) (was or were) and a present

participle. Its basic meaning is ongoing action in the past; for example: He was playing

football.

2.2.4. Past perfect continuous

The past perfect continuous tense is like the past perfect tense, but it expresses

longer actions in the past before another action in the past. It is formed with had + been +

the present participle. For Ron Cowan (2008, p.373) The Past perfect continuous

“expresses an ongoing action in the past that is related to another past action which is often

expressed in the simple past tense”. For example:

I had been driving two weeks.

2.2.5. Present tense

The simple present tense talks about now and it indicates that the action is general,

happens all the time, or habitually and the statement is always true; for example: I live

here. In addition, Cowan (2008, p.357) added that “it is represented by the third person

singular -s inflection on verbs; for instance: he seems happy.”

2.2.6. Present perfect

As a matter of fact, the present perfect tense, the core of this research, is the most

difficult for English learners therefore is given more attention. It is consist of the auxiliary

“have” in the present tense preceded by the past participle form. (Declerk, 2006, p.270).
34
 In addition to Declerk, Cowan (2008, p.367) stated, “The present perfect tense is

formed with a present form of have (i.e., has or have) and a past participle of the main verb

.It occurs with a time expression of duration, e.g., for six years, since 1999, over the last

six months, and so on.”

2.2.7. Present continuous

We often use the present continuous tense in English. It is very different from the

simple present tense both in structure and use. It is formed with be and the present

participle of the main verb (verb + ing).We use the present continuous to talk about action

happening now and action in the future. For example: She is working with her mother. It

also describes “changing or developing states” as in: “modal standards are declining”

(Parrott, 2000, p.158).

2.2.8. Present perfect continuous

The present perfect continuous describes past activity that extends to the present. It

is formed with has or have + been + the present participle, for instance:

- He has been going to that health club since February. (Cowan, 2008, p.372).

2.2.9. Future tense

According to Cowan (2008,p.361),the future tense describes an action that will

happen at sometime in the future time .It can be expressed in a number of ways in English ,

but the tow most common with the modal (will) and semi modal (be going to ).

Example:

1- He will go to the ball.

2-He is going to go to the ball.

The future tense is quite an easy tense to understand and to use.

35
2.2.10. Future perfect

The future perfect is formed with (will) preceded by (have + past participle of the

verb).It is generally used to indicate an action that will be completed prior to or by

specified future time. For example:

I will have finished grading the papers (before/by) 4:00 pm. (Cowan, 2008, p.370).

The future perfect tense talks about the past in the future. It expresses action in the future

before another action in the future. This is the past in the future.

2.2.11. Future continuous

The future continuous tense consists of (will) followed by (be) and a present

participle. Its basic meaning is an action that will be ongoing in the (often near) as

illustrated below:

1-The president will be meeting with his staff (at ten o’clock/all morning) tomorrow.

(Cowan, 2008, p.365).

2.2.12. Future perfect continuous

“The future perfect continues is formed with (will + have + been and a present

participle), expresses an action that will continue into the future up to a specific time. The

duration of the action is usually indicated in a time expression with (for).The point at

which the action will be complete often is stated in the simple present tense in a

subordinate clause introduced by (when) or by the time (that) as exemplifying below:

1- He will have been studying and practicing medicine for over ten years when he finally

completes his residency next month.

2-By March, we will have been using the new system for a full year.”(Cowan, 2008,

p.373).

36
 •Since our work is concerned with the present perfect only, details are given about

this tense only. The present perfect simple tense is one of the most important tenses in

English as it expresses the relation between present and past tenses. Here are the

formations of both tenses, past and present which are the combination of the present

perfect:

2.3.1. The formation of the past tense

The regular past tense indicative form consists of the stem of the verb and a

suffix usually written as -ed. The fact that the addition of the suffix is sometimes

accompanied by a minor spelling adjustment to the stem is not considered as relevant.

Verbs that form their past tense this way are called weak verbs or regular verbs.

play _ played; love _ loved; cry _ cried; equip _ equipped; picnic _ picnicked

However, there are quite a few verbs in English that are irregular verbs or strong verbs.

These verbs do not form their past tense by the addition of a suffix (mostly written as -ed)

to the stem, but by various other means, most of which are illustrated by the following

examples:

lend _ lent, send _ sent, keep _ kept, , weep _ wept , feed _ fed, blow _ blew, grow _ grew,

know _ knew, throw _ threw , find _ found, drink _ drank, shrink _ shrank, hang _ hung,

swear _ swore, tear _ tore, set _ set, cut _ cut, etc..

2.3.2. The formation of the present tense

As mentioned before, we use the present tense to talk about things in general. “We

use it to say that something happens all the time or repeatedly or that something is true in

general”. (Murphy 2000, p.4). The forms of the present tense of all verbs except be and

have are homophonous with the stem of the verb (e. g. write), except in the third person

37
singular (e. g. writes). The stem is that part of the verb that remains constant in the

different forms of the verb, e. g. think in thinks, thought, thinking.)

2.3.3. The Present Perfect Simple

“Perfect aspect formed with have and the past participle (verb + -ed), expresses

completed action. The three tenses formed by the combination of time and perfect aspect

are the present, past, and future perfect. Of these, the present perfect is the most difficult

for English learners to correctly use. ” (Cowan ,2008,p.367) .The present perfect simple

tense is one of the most important tenses in English as it expresses the relation between

present and past tenses. Its time extends from the past till the moment of speaking.

Moreover, he added (2008, pp.367-368), the present perfect describes a number of distinct

meaning which are due basically to the lexical aspect of verbs. He provides us with four

cases of expressing the present perfect as shown below:

1- Expressing a situation that started in the past and continues to the present.
The duration of the situation is marked by phrases with either for or since, as shown

in (A).

(A) 1- They have lived in Chicago since 1976.

2- My father has been a Cubs fan for over 30 years.

3-I have loved her since the day I first saw her.

4- She has worked for that company for 15 years.

Sentences (A1), (A2), and (A3) consist of stative verbs, and (A4) restrains an activity verb

.Recall that both of these lexical aspect have possibly unlimited duration .We therefore

explain these sentences as describing past states or activities (situations) that have lasted up

to the moment of speaking and may last into the future. The time phrases with for and

since absolutely indicate the past duration of the state or activity.

38
2- Expressing a recently completed action.
(B) 1- The Japanese climbers have reached the peak of Mount Everest.

2- Her plane has arrived.

3- Alan has recently written an article on that very subject.

4- She has just drawn a circle on the board.

Sentences (B1) and (B2) include accomplishment verbs, which mark actions that happen

immediately ,for this reason the meaning recently completed action is conveyed by the

lexical aspect of these verbs. With achievement verbs, this meaning is rather less

important, but can be enhanced by adverbs such as recently and just as in (B3) and (B4).

3-Expressing an action that occurred at an unspecified time and has current

relevance.
The notion of “current relevance” is also phrased as the action’s being regarded by

the speaker significant, as illustrated in (C).

(C) 1- He has read all of Shakespeare’s plays.

2- John le Carré has written a new novel.

3- I have already seen that movie.

These sentences comprise achievement verbs. The lexical aspect of the verbs hence

accounts for the actions’ having being completed .In fact, they have current relevance or

are significant is determined by sentence’s content (e.g., for example, reading all of

Shakespeare’s plays is definitely noteworthy accomplishment ) and the discourse context

(e.g., having seen a movie is relevant when someone proposes going to see it).

4-Describing an action that happened over a period of time that is complete at the
time of speaking.
Sentences illustrating this meaning are presented in (D):

(D) 1- The value of his house has doubled over the past two years.

2- He has grown over two inches in the past six months.

39
 3- His condition has improved considerably in the last three days.

These sentences comprise activity verbs that describe actions entailing inherent change

over time .The sense of change is enhanced by the time expressions of duration. The

perfect aspect conveys the meaning of completion, thus the interpretation that the evolving

change is now complete.

Hence, we notice that the lexical aspect of the verbs combines with the basic

meaning of the present perfect to make different semantic interpretations such as “started

in the past time and continues to the present time,” “happened over a period of time that is

completed at the moment of speaking ,”and so on.

When we use the present perfect, there is a connection with now. The action in the past has

a result now:

-He told me his name, but I’ve forgotten it. (i.e., I can’t remember it now.)

- I can’t find my purse. Have you seen it? (i.e., do you know where it is now?)

We often use the present perfect to give new information or to announce a recent

happening:

-The road is closed. There’s been an accident.

Some authors consider that the English present perfect is not a separate tense, but is

rather a combination of another tense (present or past) and “an aspectual meaning

component of current relevance”. ( Bernd Kortmann, Elizabeth Closs Traugott, 2006,pp.

108-109).In addition, both Bernd K. and Elizabeth C. T, claim that the present perfect

locates a situation in the pre-present zone while the past tense locates it in the past zone.

The claim that the present perfect has a different temporal structure from the past tense is

supported by the fact that the two tenses behave differently with certain adverbs.

40
2.4. Arabic tense and Aspect

Elmoukatari (2007, p.118), states that there are three tenses of verbs in Arabic: the

past, the present, and the imperative. For instance: ْ‫ إ ْﻓﺘـَﺢ‬، ‫ ﯾَ ْﻔﺘَــ ُﺢ‬،‫ﻓَﺘـَــ َﺢ‬. The past describes an

َ َ‫) ﻧ‬. The present

event that occurred before the moment of speaking, such as: ( ‫ﺼـــَﺮ‬

indicates an event that occurs at the moment of speaking or after it. For instance: ( ‫) ﯾَ ْﻨﺼُﺮ‬.

In Arabic, the imperative is considered as a tense unlike English which considers it as a

mood. It expresses a request that will occur after the moment of speaking. For example:

(‫) أُ ْﻧﺼُﺮ‬.

Besides, Gellati (1998) states a detailed clarification of the tense system in Arabic

considering the mood; Arabic verbs are of three types: the participle, the indicative, and the

imperative. The participle comprises the imperfect which denotes an event occurring

before the moment of speaking such as: ( ‫ أ ْﻗﺒَ َﻞ‬، ‫) ﺷَﺎھَ َﺪ‬. The imperfect is specified by the “T”

ْ ) which indicates the feminine, for example: ( ‫ﺖ‬

(‫ت‬ ْ َ‫) َذھَﺒ‬, or the “Tu” ( ‫)ت‬
ُ which expresses

the doer of the action, such as ( ُ‫) َذ َھﺒْﺖ‬. The perfect is different from the imperfect because:

A- The perfect tense indicates that an event or a state occurred in the past tense:

- If the perfect is followed by the particle ( ‫ ) ﻗﺪ‬it indicates that the actions occurred in the

past (i.e., the past which is near to the present) such as: ‫ﻗﺪ ﺟﺎءﻧﻲ أﺧﻲ‬

- The perfect can indicates the future for instance:

(‫ )ﺣﻔﻈﻚ ﷲ‬which shows the invocation of God.

" ‫ـﻌﺬ ﺑــﺎہﻠﻟ ﻣﻦَ اَ ْﻟّ ﱠﺸﯿــﻄَــﺎن اﻟّﺮّ ﺟـﯿــﻢ‬

ْ َ ‫ﻓَﺈ َذا ﻗَ َﺮأتَ اَ ْﻟﻘُ ُﺮ َءانَ ﻓَﺎﺳْﺘـ‬ " (98 ‫ )اﻟﻨﺤﻞ‬In English: « So when you

want to recite the Qur’an, seek refuge with Allâh from Shaitân (Satan), the outcast ( the

cursed one) » ( Sûrat An’nahl ‘The Bees’ 98) which indicates the meaning of conditions.

B- The imperfect indicates an event that occurred or which is happening at the moment of

speaking. It may also be used in a conditional sentence but it should not be followed by (‫)ﻟﻢ‬

and (‫ )ﻟ ّﻢ ــا‬otherwise it expresses the perfect. The imperfect is marked to clarify that an

41
event happens. In addition, it implies a state in present or future depending on the context.

Moreover, the imperfect is specified to start with one of the letters (‫ت‬،‫ي‬،‫ن‬،‫)أ‬.

To indicate the future it can be preceded by (‫ )س‬or (‫)ﺳﻮف‬.

● If the imperfect is preceded by (‫ )س‬or (‫ )ﺳﻮف‬it expresses the future such as:

َ ‫ ( " ﻗَﺎ َل َﺳﻼَ ٌم َﻋﻠَﯿ َﻚ َﺳﺄَ ْﺳﺘﻐﻔﺮ ﻟَـ‬47 ‫ )ﻣﺮﯾﻢ‬In English : Ibrâhîm (Abraham)
" ‫ﻚ َرﺑــ ّﻲ إﻧّﮫُ َﻛﺎنَ ﺑﻲ َﺣﻔﯿّﺎ‬

said : " Peace be on you! I will ask Forgiveness of my lord for you. Verily He is unto me

Ever Most Gracious” (Maryam ‘Mary’47 ).

● The imperfect may indicates the past if it is:

- followed by a past tense such as: "...‫( " ﻓَ َﺠﺎ َء ْﺗ ﮫُ إﺣْ ﺪَاھُ َﻤﺎ ﺗَ ْﻤ ﺸﻲ َﻋﻠَﻰ اﺳْﺘﺤْ ﯿَﺎء‬25 ‫ )اﻟﻘﺼﺺ‬.In

English: “ Then there came to him one of the two women, walking shyly…” (Al’ Qasas

25)

- followed by (‫ )ﻛﺎن‬because it indicates the meaning of continuity of time for a given period

in the past as in: ‫ﻛﺎن اﻟﻨﺒﻲ ﯾﺘﻌﺒﺪ ﻓﻲ ﻏﺎر ﺣﺮاء‬

- Followed by ( ‫ ) ﻟﻢ‬because it expresses that the event has not occurred in the past and it is

impossible to happen neither in the past nor in the future as in:

" ‫( "…ﻟَ ْﻢ ﯾَﻠﺪ َوﻟَ ْﻢ ﯾُﻮﻟَﺪ َوﻟَ ْﻢ ﯾَ ُﻜﻦ ﻟَﮫُ ُﻛﻔﺆً ا أَ َﺣﺪ‬4-3 ‫ )اﻹﺧﻼص‬In English: “ … (3)He begets not, nor was

He begotten (4)and there is none co-equal or comparable unto Him.” (Al ikhlas 3-4).

C- The imperative indicates an event that is related to a request such as: .‫اﺟﺘﮭﺪ‬

The imperative is clarified by requesting something and by adding “‫”ي‬, which

demonstrate the singular feminine addressee, into the stem of the verb. The use of

imperative is to express doing something. Moreover, it implies a state of being obligatory.

The imperative is directed from the stronger to the weak such as: ،‫( "ﯾـَـﺎ أَﯾـﱡـﮭَﺎ اَ ْﻟ ُﻤﺪَﺛﺮ‬2-1 ‫)اﻟﻤﺪﺛﺮ‬

"...‫ﻗُـ ْﻢ ﻓـَﺄﻧـْﺬر‬In English: “(1) O you (Muhammed peace be upon him) enveloped in

garments! (2) Arise and warn!...” (Almoudathir 1-2) This tense can express other

meanings such as:

42
1- Plea: which happens between two individuals of the same or near rank such as:

‫ﻗﻢ ﺑﻨــﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻤﺴـــﺠﺪ‬

2- Invocation of God: this takes place when the request happens from the lowest position

to the highest such as: ‫( " َرﺑــﻲ ھــﺐْ ﻟﻲ ﻣﻦَ اﻟ ﱠ‬100 ‫)اﻟﺼﺎﻓﺎت‬. In English: “My lord!
" َ‫ﺼــﺎﻟﺤﯿﻦ‬

Grant me (offspring) from the righteous.” (As’ sâfât 100)

3- Debility: it occurs when the addressee is asked to do something that he cannot do such

as: "‫ـﺈن ﷲ ﯾـَﺄْﺗـﻲ ﺑﺎﻟ ﱠﺸــ ْﻤﺲ ﻣﻦَ اَﻟ َﻤﺸـﺮق ﻓـَـﺄت ﺑــﮭَﺎ ﻣﻦَ ْاﻟ َﻤ ْﻐﺮب‬
‫( "ﻓَ ﱠ‬258 ‫ )اﻟﺒﻘﺮة‬In English: “ Allâh brings

the sun from the east; then bring it you from the west” ( Al-Baqarah ‘The Cow’ 258).

(All the Qur’an’ verses are translated by Dr. Muhammed Taqi-ud-Din Al-Hilâli and Dr.

Muhammed Muhsin Khân 1999).

2.5. Arabic Tenses

According to Yusuf (2006, p.51), the verb in Arabic is a term which clarifies the

action combined with a tense, for example; ‫ﺷﺮب‬, this clarifies the action of drinking and

the tense here is the past ‫ اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ‬.Whereas ‫ ﯾﻘﻮد‬shows the event of driving and the tense is

the present ‫اﻟﻤﻀﺎرع‬. Thus, in Arabic there are only two tense as far as the form is

concerned.

However, Elmensouri (2002) indicates that there are three types of tenses in Arabic:

the present, the past and the future.

2.5.1. The Past Tense (almaadi) ‫اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ‬

This tense is used to express events that occurred in the past. There are two kinds of

the past tense. The first one with reference to the past as in ‫ذھﺒﺖ إﻟﻰ ﻛﻨﺪا اﻷﺳﺒﻮع اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ‬, in

English: ‘I went to Canada last week'. The second one without any reference to the past as

in ،‫ ذھﺐ اﺣﻤﺪ‬in English: ‘Ahmed went’. (Elmensouri, 2002, pp. 45-51).

43
2.5.2. The Present (elhadir) ‫اﻟﺤﺎﺿﺮ‬

It is used to indicate events in the present, that is, at the moment of speaking. It also

expresses truth or habitual actions as ‫ﺗﻐﺮب اﻟﺸﻤﺲ‬, in English: (the sun sets). Occasionally

the present tense refers to the future as in ‫راح ﯾﻤﺸﻲ ﻣﺴﺮﻋﺎ‬, in English: he left happily (Ibid

70).

2.5.3. The future (almustaqbal) ‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ‬

The future tense in Arabic is formed by adding the prefix" ‫ "س‬or" ‫"'ﺳﻮف‬to the main

verb as in ‫ ﺳﻮف ﯾﻠﻌﺐ‬, in English: he will play (Elmensouri, 2002, p .70).

2.6. The Present Perfect in Arabic

Thomson and Martinet (2001, p.166), state that “the present perfect simple

describes both present and past tenses. It is the combination of the two tenses and it is

frequently used in news papers, letters, etc”.

Structurally, the present perfect has no corresponding tense in Arabic. In English,

the present perfect is formed by the auxiliary (has / have + the past participle). For

instance, I have done my home work. Arabic has the perfective aspect, but it is structured

by the verb followed by the particle /qəd or laqəd / to express the present perfect for

example:

Peter and Susana have moved into a new apartment. In Arabic:

‫ﻟﻘﺪ إﻧﺘﻘﻞ ﺑﯿﺘﺮ و ﺳﻮزاﻧﺎ إﻟﻰ ﺷﻘﺔ ﺟﺪﯾﺪة‬

As a result, the form of the present perfect in Arabic is (‫ ﻗﺪ‬+ ‫" )اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ‬qəd + the perfective".

2.7. English Present Perfect vs. Arabic Present Perfect:

Usually, there is no correspondence between English and Arabic in terms of tenses

and more particularly the present perfect tense. In English, the present perfect is used to

describe something that occurred or never happened before now at unspecified time in the
44
past. “The present perfect tense describes both present and past tenses. It is the

combination of the two tenses and it is frequently used in news papers, letters, etc”.

(Thomson and Martinet, 2001, p.166)

In English, the present perfect refers actual-past-to-present time. An actual event

starts in the past and continues up to the present. Several expressions of time mark the

past-to-present event like since, for, so far, up to now, until now, up to the present, etc.

whereas in Arabic, the past-to-present time is symbolized by the perfect of the verb and the

particle ‫ﻗﺪ‬, ‫ﻟﻘﺪ‬. However, when a negative present perfect verb is used, the particles ‫ ﻗﺪ‬and ‫ﻟﻘﺪ‬

are no longer used; they are replaced by ‫ﻟﻢ‬.

Sometimes, the present perfect in English is used to refer to situations that began in

the past and going on up to the present, the equivalent in Arabic is the present simple tense

or the past tense, for example:

- I have lived in Tunisia for two years.

- ‫( ﺳﻜﻨﺖ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻮﻧﺲ ﻣﻨﺬ ﺳﻨﺘﯿﻦ‬sakanto fi Tounis mundu sanatajni)

- ‫( اﺳﻜﻦ ﻓﻲ ﺗﻮﻧﺲ ﻣﻨﺬ ﺳﻨﺘﯿﻦ‬askunu fi Tounis mundu sanatajni)

Consequently, Wolfgang and Eckehard Güther (2000, p.56) clarify that “the Arabic

perfect tense corresponds to both the English past tense and present tense”. However, the

present perfect in Arabic is indicated by adding adverbs such as ‫ "ﻗﺒﻞ ﻟﻠﺘﻮ‬or ‫ ﺑﻌﺪ ﻟﻢ‬to express

the negative form as in:

-He has just had his dinner ‫( ﺗﻨﺎول ﻋﺸﺎءه ﺗﻮا‬tanawala ach’aho tawa)

-He hasn’t had his dinner yet ‫ ﺑﻌﺪ‬/ ‫( ﻟﻢ ﯾﺘﻨﺎول ﻋﺸﺎءه ﺗﻮا‬lam jatanawal ach’aho tawa/ ba’ad)

(Najib, 2001, p.64).

45
 The translation of the present perfect tense from English into Arabic depends on the

context; this means one will render the perfect in English as the particle (qəd + the verb) in

Arabic, or by considering the perfect as a past or a present time in Arabic.

Conclusion

We conclude that English and Arabic are two distinct languages; each language has

a separate system. We have seen that the present perfect in English is formed by the

auxiliary (has / have + the past participle).Whereas Arabic has the perfective aspect, but it

is formed by the verb preceded by the particle /qəd or laqəd / to express the present perfect.

Thus; the purpose of this chapter is to accommodate one’s language who learns English as

a second language. These two languages have no exact equivalents in terms of grammar,

especially in the present perfect tense which causes problems to learners who are in the

process of translating this tense.

46
 Chapter Three

Field of Work

Introduction

This chapter is devoted to the analysis of the learners’ test scores about the translation of

the present perfect tense which is the practical part of this dissertation. This chapter aims at

testing the students’ awareness to what extent the form “‫( ”ﻟﻘﺪ‬laqəd) is overused by them. It

is composed of a test given to master one students at university of Biskra. This test

concerns translating ten sentences from English into Arabic. The aim of the test is to check

whether the students are able to translate the present perfect tense from English into Arabic

correctly. This chapter also aims at finding out which solutions or best cure to this

problematic issue which is the right translation of the present perfect tense from English

into Arabic.

3.1. The sample

The sample of the test comprises fourty students of first year master at the English

Department , Mohamed Kheider university , Biskra. So, the sample is heterogeneous and it

fits the research standards .The majority of these students come from language science

stream. The choice of students of first year is due to the fact that they supposed to have

sufficient knowledge about translation which was a module of theme and version as well as

sufficient knowledge about the grammatical rules and their application in the new

educational system (L.M.D).

3.2. The test

The test which comprises ten sentences consists mainly of the present perfect

simple whether it is, affirmative, negative, or interrogative .The students are asked to

translate these sentences from English into Arabic versions and in various context

47
situations .Basically, this test aims at checking whether students are able to translate

accurately the present perfect simple and whether they always use the particle ( ‫ ) ﻗﺪ‬when

rendering it into Arabic. For the reason that the present perfect simple was used in diverse

contexts in the test.

The first five sentences are dialogue was extracted from the book “The Contrast

between the present perfect and simple past tenses” whose authors are Nutall, Gaist

(1937:10).

The sixtieth, seventieth, eightieth sentence were extracted from the book of Ibrahim (2006)

which is entitled “Eterjama Elmabadie wa Etatbikat” (Translation Principles and Practice).

The tow last sentences were extracted from the book of grammar entitled “Grammar for

language teachers” by Parrott (2000).

3.2. Data Analysis

This analysis focus on each translated sentence (i.e., each sentence has been analyzed

separately). Two procedures have been taken in this analysis:

- Quantitatively: the data is analyzed by means of tables and rate.

- Qualitatively: the description and demonstration of the consequences.

Sentence one

1- Has anybody seen my fountain pen?

‫ ھﻞ رأى أﺣﺪﻛﻢ ﻗﻠﻢ اﻟﺤﺒﺮ اﻟﺨﺎص ﺑﻲ؟‬-

This question has been translated in different ways as shown in the table below:

48
 The technique The translation versions N Rate

The translation with

the use of ‫ھﻞ رأى أﺣﺪﻛﻢ ﻗﻠﻢ اﻟﺤﺒﺮ اﻟﺨﺎص ﺑﻲ؟‬ 35 87.5%
" ‫" ھﻞ‬

The translation with

the use of negation ‫أﻟﻢ ﯾﺮى أﺣﺪﻛﻢ ﻗﻠﻢ اﻟﺤﺒﺮ اﻟﺨﺎص ﺑﻲ؟‬ 3 7.5%
" ‫" اﻟﻢ‬

The use of ( ‫ ) ﻗﺪ‬in the

question ‫ھﻞ ھﻨﺎك أي ﺷﺨﺺ ﻗﺪ رأى ﻗﻠﻤﻲ؟‬ 1 2.5%

No answer 1 2.5%

Total 40 100%
Table 1: Techniques of translating the present perfect in questions

100,00% 87,50%

80,00% The translation with the use of

"‫"ھﻞ‬
60,00% The translation with use of
ne gation "‫" أﻟﻢ‬
The use of "‫ " ﻗﺪ‬in the que stion
40,00%
No answe r
20,00% 7,50%
2,50%2,50%

0,00%

Fig.1: Translating the present perfect in questions

49
 Most students translated the present perfect into Arabic through the use of (WH)

questions such as (‫)ھﻞ‬, and there is no reference to a given time in Arabic which has the

same meaning as in English. Three students translated the present perfect by using the

negation form (‫)اﻟﻢ‬. Only one student used (‫ )ﻗﺪ‬but the translation is not appropriate because

the time in the source sentence is not specified to any time but it consists the duration

which is the action started in the recent past and going on till the present moment. Just one

student did not translate the sentence.

Sentence two
2- I haven’t, anyway. Why? What’s the matter?

.‫ﻣﺎﺧﻄﺒﻚ؟ ﻟﻤﺎذا؟ ﻟﻢ أره ﻋﻠﻰ أﯾﺔ ﺣﺎل‬

Number of
The technique The translation versions students /40 Rate

The translation with the

use of negation .‫ﻣﺎاﻻﻣﺮ؟ ﻟﻤﺎذا؟ ﻟﻢ أره ﻋﻠﻰ أﯾﺔ ﺣﺎل‬ 3 7.5%

The translation with the

use of negation 2
" ‫ " ﻟﻢ اﻓﻌﻞ‬or other .‫ ﻋﻠﻰ ﻛﻞ ﺣﺎل‬.‫ﻣﺎاﻟﺨﻄﺐ؟ ﻟﻤﺎذا؟ ﻟﻢ اﻓﻌﻞ‬ 5%

lexical word

(‫ ﻻ ﯾﻮﺟﺪ ﻋﻨﺪي )ﻣﻌﻲ‬/ ‫ﻻاﻣﻠﻚ‬

34 85%
Other negation forms
.(‫ﻟﯿﺲ ﻋﻨﺪي )ﻟﺪي‬

No answer 1 2.5%

Total 40 100%
Table 2: Techniques of translating the negation forms with the present perfect
50
 90,00% 85%

80,00%
The translation with the use of
70,00% ne gation

60,00% The translation with the use of

ne gation "‫ " ﻟﻢ أﻓﻌﻞ‬or othe r le xica
50,00% words

40,00% O the r ne gation form

30,00% No answe r
20,00%
10,00%
7,50%
5%
2,50%

0,00%

Fig.2: Translating the negation with the present perfect.

The accurate translation in this sentence is through the use of (‫ )ﻟﻢ‬plus the past tense

in Arabic which is the most appropriate and equivalent of the past participle in this

sentence. But the source sentence does not comprise of the past participle because it is left

out and it is needless to repeat it in English language. This table shows that all these

translations depend upon the context because each student tried to imagine the real

situation where this dialogue occurred and make it according to his/her understanding.

However, the most appropriate translation is the one given by the three students where

there is a use of negation form (‫ )ﻟﻢ‬plus the use of the past tense of the verb (‫)رأى‬.The vast

majority of the students mistranslated the verb into its appropriate equivalent in Arabic.

Sentence three
I’ve lost it

‫ﻟــﻘﺪ ﺿـﯿـﻌﺘـﮫ‬

51
 The translation versions Number of Rate
The technique
students /40

Common use of
" ‫" ﻟﻘﺪ‬
5 12.5%
. ‫ﻟﻘﺪ ﻓﻘﺪﺗﮫ‬

. ‫ﻟﻘﺪ ﺧﺴﺮﺗﮫ‬ 4 10%

Common use of
" ‫" ﻟﻘﺪ‬ . ‫ ﺿﺎع ﻣﻨﻲ‬/ ‫ أﺿﻌﺘﮫ‬/ ‫ﻟﻘﺪ ﺿﯿﻌﺘﮫ‬ 31 77.5%

Total 40 100%

Table 3 : Techniques of translating the present perfect through the use of (‫)ﻟﻘﺪ‬.

77,50%

80,00%
70,00%
60,00% The use of ‫ﻟ ﻘﺪ ﻓ ﻘﺪﺗ ﮫ‬
50,00%
The use of ‫ﻟ ﻘﺪ ﺧ ﺴﺮﺗ ﮫ‬
40,00%
30,00% The use of ‫ أ ﺿ ﻌ ﺘﮫ‬/‫ﺿ ﯿ ﻌ ﺘﮫ‬
20,00% 12,50%
10% ‫ﺿﺎع ﻣ ﻨﻲ‬
10,00%
0,00%

Fig.3 : Translating the present perfect through the use of (‫) ﻟﻘﺪ‬.

52
 Involving the meaning, all these translations are correct because the verb “to lose”

has three meanings which are ‫ ﺧﺴﺮ‬، ‫ ﻓَﻘﺪ‬، and ‫ﺿﯿﻊ‬. Thirty one students translated the verb to

lose by using " ‫ " ﺿﯿﻊ‬or " ‫ " أﺿﺎع‬which are the most suitable and common meanings of this

verb. In addition, they added the particle (‫ )ﻗﺪ‬proceeded by (‫ )ﻻم اﻻﺑﺘﺪاء‬in order to stress on

the action and to translate the present perfect simple correctly.

Sentence four

I haven’t seen it since yesterday afternoon.

‫ﻟﻢ أره ﻣﻨﺬ ﻣﺴﺎء أﻣﺲ‬

The technique The translation versions Number of Rate

students /40

.‫ﻟﻢ أره ﻗﻂ ﻣﻨﺬ اﻟﺒﺎرﺣﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ اﻟﺰوال‬ 3 7.5%

Using adverbs of time in

translating present
perfect
‫ ﻣﺴﺎ ء اﻟﺒﺎرﺣﺔ‬/ ‫ﻟﻢ أره ﻣﻨﺬ‬ 35 87.5%
. ‫ ﻣﺴﺎء أﻣﺲ‬/‫اﻟﺒﺎرﺣﺔ ﻣﺴﺎءا‬

. ‫ﻟﻢ أره ﻣﻨﺬ اﻷﻣﺲ ﺻﺒﺎﺣﺎ‬ 2 5%

Total 40 100%

Table 4: Techniques of translating the present perfect used with adverbs of time.

53
 90,00% 87,50%

80,00%

70,00% Using adverbs of time, e,g, ‫ﻟﻢ‬

60,00% ‫أره ﻣﻨﺬ ﻟﯿﻠﺔ اﻟﺒﺎرﺣﺔ ﺑﻌﺪ اﻟﺰوال‬
50,00%
‫ اﻟﺒﺎرﺣﺔ‬/‫ ﻣﺴﺎء اﻟﯿﺎرﺣﺔ‬/ ‫ﻟﻢ أره ﻣﻨﺬ‬
40,00%
‫ ﻣﺴﺎء أﻣﺲ‬/ ‫ﻣﺴﺎءا‬
30,00%
20,00% ‫ﻟﻢ أره ﻣﻨﺬ اﻻﻣﺲ ﺻﺒﺎﺣﺎ‬
10,00% 7,50%
5%
0,00%

Fig 4: Translating the present perfect using the adverbs of time.

The majority of students rendered “yesterday afternoon” ‫ أﻣﺲ ﻣﺴﺎء‬which means that

they consider afternoon as " ‫ " اﻟﻤﺴﺎء‬which is correct. In addition, all students consider the

negation in Arabic as an equivalent to sentences which comprise have + not + past

participle which is the negative form of the present perfect in English. Two students

translated “yesterday afternoon” as "‫ "اﻷﻣﺲ ﺻﺒﺎﺣﺎ‬which is wrong.

Sentence five

7- No, I’m sure I haven’t.

. ‫ أﻧﺎ ﻣﺘﺄﻛﺪ ﻟﻢ أﻓﻌﻞ‬،‫ﻻ‬

The Translation versions Number of Rate

students /40

. ‫ﻻ أﻧﺎ ﻣﺘﺄﻛﺪ أﻧﻨﻲ ﻟﻢ اﻓﻌﻞ‬ 5%

2

. ‫ ﻻ اﻣﻠﻜﮫ‬/ ‫ﻻ أﻧﺎ ﻣﺘﺄﻛﺪ ﻟﯿﺲ ﻋﻨﺪي‬ 87.5%

35

54
 . ‫ﻻ أﻧﺎ ﻣﺘﺄﻛﺪ ﻟﻢ أره‬ 2 5%

. ‫ﻻ أﻧﺎ ﻣﺘﺄﻛﺪ ﻣﻦ ذﻟﻚ‬ 2.5%

1

40 100%
Total
Table 5: Techniques of translating the present perfect where the past participle is
ellipted

87,50%
90%
80%
70%
60% ‫ﻻ اﻧﺎ ﻣﺘﺎﻛﺪ ﻟﻢ أﻓﻌﻞ‬
50% ‫ ﻻ أﻣﻠﻜﮫ‬/ ‫ﻻ أﻧﺎ ﻣﺘﺄﻛﺪ ﻟﯿﺲ ﻋﻨﺪي‬
40% ‫ﻻ أﻧﺎ ﻣﺘﺄﻛﺪ ﻟﻢ أره‬
30%
‫ﻻ أﻧﺎ ﻣﺘﺄﻛﺪ ﻣﻦ ذﻟﻚ‬
20%
10% 5% 5%
2,50%

0%

Fig 5: Translating the present perfect where the past participle is ellipted.

This table shows clearly that 35 students translated the given sentence by the use of

the negative form in Arabic which is ‫ ﻟﻢ‬plus the simple past. (‫ )ﻻ اﻣﻠﻜﮫ‬/ (‫)ﻟﯿﺲ ﻋﻨﺪي‬. But only

two students used (‫ )أﻓﻌﻞ‬which is the correct transfer and meaning of this sentence into

Arabic because the past participle is ellipted to avoid repetition.

Sentence six
George and Mary have moved into a new apartment.

‫ﻟﻘﺪ اﻧﺘﻘﻞ ﺟﻮرج و ﻣﺎري إﻟﻰ ﺷﻘﺔ ﺟﺪﯾﺪة‬

55
 The technique The translation versions Number of Rate
students /40

4 10%
The use of : ‫اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ‬+‫ﻟﻘﺪ‬ .‫ﻟﻘﺪ اﻧﺘﻘﻞ ﺟﻮرج وﻣﺎري إﻟﻰ ﺷﻘﺔ ﺟﺪﯾﺪة‬

Translation with the use .‫ﺟﻮرج وﻣﺎري اﻧﺘﻘﻼ إﻟﻰ ﺷﻘﺔ ﺟﺪﯾﺪة‬
18 45%
duality in Arabic

the use duality in 4 10%

.‫ﺟﻮرج وﻣﺎري ﻗﺪ اﻧﺘﻘﻼ إﻟﻰ ﺷﻘﺔ ﺟﺪﯾﺪة‬
Arabic + ‫ﻗﺪ‬

‫ رﺣﻠﻮا‬/ ‫ﺟﻮرج و ﻣﺎري اﻧﺘﻘﻠﻮا‬

The use of past tense 14 35%
.‫إﻟﻰ ﺷﻘﺔ ﺟﺪﯾﺪة‬

Total 40 100%

Table 6: Techniques of translating of the present perfect in a simple sentence.

45%

45%
40% 35%

35% The use of ‫ اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ‬+ ‫ﻟﻘﺪ‬

30%
Translation with the use of
25% duality in Arabic
The use of duality in Arabic + ‫ﻗﺪ‬
20%
15% 10% 10%
The use of past te nse

10%
5%
0%

Fig 6: Translation of the present perfect in a simple sentence.

56
 The right translation of the present perfect tense is by the use of ‫ ﻟﻘﺪ‬plus ‫اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ‬

which is the case of only one student who made it correctly, 18 students rendered it by the

use of the past tense in Arabic which is acceptable in this context. Remarkably, majority of

students translated it in a good way because it was so simple and clear. Four students used

the duality in Arabic, but they started with the subject and then the verb which is not

appropriate in Arabic which is a V.S.O (verb, subject, and object) structure, and not S.V.O.

only one student used ‫ﻟﻘﺪ‬.

Sentence seven

I have gained five pounds since I started my diet. At the same time I have gained a craving

for Milky Way bars.

.‫ أرطﺎل ﻣﻨﺬ أن ﺑﺪأت ﻓﻲ ﺗﻄﺒﯿﻖ اﻟﺤﻤﯿﺔ و ﻓﻲ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ ازداد وﻟﻌﻲ ﻟﺸﻜﻮﻻطﺔ اﻟﻤﻠﻜﻲ واي‬5 ‫ﻟﻘﺪ ازداد وزﻧﻲ‬

The technique The translation versions N Rate

Use of "‫ "ﻟﻘﺪ‬and use ‫ ﺑﺎوﻧﺪات ﻣﻨﺬ أن ﺑﺪأت اﻟﺤﻤﯿﺔ‬5 ‫ﻟﻘﺪ رﺑﺤﺖ‬
26 65%
of past tense in the .‫وﻓﻲ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻛﺴﺒﺖ ﺷﮭﯿﺔ اﻟﺸﻜﻮﻻطﺔ‬
second part .
‫ ﺑﺎوﻧﺪات ﻣﻨﺬ أن ﺑﺪأت اﻟﺤﻤﯿﺔ‬5 ‫ازداد وزﻧﻲ‬
Use of past tense in ‫وﻓﻲ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ أﺻﺒﺤﺖ اﺷﺘﮭﻲ ﻟﺸﻜﻮﻻطﺔ‬ 13
32.5%
both verbs .‫اﻟﻤﻠﻜﻲ واي‬

Use of "‫"ﻟﻘﺪ‬
in both parts of the ‫وﻓﻲ ﻧﻔﺲ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻟﻘﺪ ﺻﺮت اﻣﻠﻚ‬..........‫ﻟﻘﺪ زاد وزﻧﻲ‬ 1 2.5%
sentence .‫ رﻏﺒﺔ ﻋﺎرﻣﺔ‬......

Total 40 100%

Table 7: Translation of a sentence consists of two verbs in the same tense (present
perfect)

57
 70%
65%

60%
Use of ‫ ﻟﻘﺪ‬and use of
50% past tense in the second
part
40% 3 2 ,5 0 %
Use of past tense in both
30% verbs

20% Use of ‫ ﻟﻘﺪ‬in both parts

of the sentence
10% 2 ,5 0 %

0%

Fig 7: Translation of a sentence consists of two verbs in the same tense (present perfect).

It is noticed from the table that the form ‫ ﻟﻘﺪ‬has been used in only one part of the

sentence by the majority of students and only one student used ‫ ﻟﻘﺪ‬in both parts of the

sentence. These students overused this form in any context which is not always appropriate

since there are many alternatives to express the same tense. The rest of students translated

the present perfect into a past tense in Arabic. This table shows that the most students

generalize the rule concerning translating the present perfect with the use of ‫ ;ﻟﻘﺪ‬however, it

is not true since the translation of the present perfect is related to a context.

Sentence eight
Bernard Show says:"Few people think more than two or three times a year. I have made an

international reputation for myself by thinking once or twice a week".

‫و‬،‫ أﻣﺎ أﻧﺎ ﻓﻘﺪ ﺻﻨﻌﺖ ﻟﻨﻔﺴﻲ ﺷﮭﺮة ﻋﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ‬،‫"ﻗﻠﺔ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺎس ﯾﻔﻜﺮون أﻛﺜﺮ ﻣﻦ ﻣﺮة أو ﻣﺮﺗﯿﻦ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﻨﺔ‬:‫ﯾﻘﻮل ﺑﺮﻧﺎرد ﺷﻮ‬
."‫ذﻟﻚ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻔﻜﯿﺮ ﻣﺮة أو ﻣﺮﺗﯿﻦ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﺒﻮع‬

58
 The technique The translation versions N Rate

‫ " ﻗﻠﯿﻞ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻨﺎس ﯾﻔﻜﺮون ﻣﺮة أو ﺛﻼث‬:‫ﯾﻘﻮل ﺑﺮﻧﺎرد ﺷﻮ‬

‫ ﻗﻤﺖ ﻟﻨﻔﺴﻲ ﺳﻤﻌﺔ‬/‫ ﻛﺴﺒﺖ‬/ ‫ أﻣﺎ أﻧﺎ ﻟﻘﺪ ﺻﻨﻌﺖ‬،‫ﻓﻲ اﻟﻌﺎم‬ 13 32.5%
The use of "‫"ﻟﻘﺪ‬
."‫ﻋﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻔﻜﯿﺮ ﻣﺮة أو ﻣﺮﺗﯿﻦ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﺒﻮع‬

The use of "‫"ﻗﺪ‬ ...........‫ﻛﻮﻧﺖ‬/‫ﻣﻨﺤﺖ‬/ ‫أﻣﺎ أﻧﺎ ﻓﻘﺪ ﻛﺴﺒﺖ‬ 7

‫ﻟﻨﻔﺴﻲ ﺳﻤﻌﺔ ﻋﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻔﻜﯿﺮ ﻣﺮة أو ﻣﺮﺗﯿﻦ‬ 17.5%

.‫ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﺒﻮع‬

The use of the past ...........‫ﺑﺮﻣﺠﺖ ﻟﻨﻔﺴﻲ ﺷﮭﺮة ﻋﺎﻟﻤﯿﺔ‬/‫ﺻﻨﻌﺖ‬/‫أﻧﺎ ﺟﻌﻠﺖ‬ 14 35%
.‫ﺑﺎﻟﺘﻔﻜﯿﺮ ﻣﺮة أو ﻣﺮﺗﯿﻦ ﻓﻲ اﻷﺳﺒﻮع‬.

No answer 6 15%

Total 40 100%

Table 8: Different forms were used for translating the present perfect tense.

35%

35,00% 32,50%

The use of "‫"ﻟ ﻘﺪ‬

30,00%

25,00%

The use of "‫"ﻗ ﺪ‬

20,00% 17,50%

15%

15,00% The use of the past

10,00%
No answer
5,00%

0,00%

Fig 8: Different forms were used for translating the present perfect tense.
59
 Obviously, the form “‫اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ‬+‫ ”ﻟﻘﺪ‬is used by 13 students in order to render the

present perfect simple into Arabic as in" ‫ "ﻟﻘﺪ ﺻﻨﻌﺖ‬which can be accepted in this case. The

most appropriate and accurate translation of this form is by using the particle " ‫ " ﻗﺪ‬which is

the case of 7 students as shown in the above table. The remaining students translated the

present perfect as a past tense by omitting the particle "‫ "ﻗﺪ‬or “‫ ”ﻟﻘﺪ‬which are more

appropriate in this context.

Sentence nine

We have reached the period when the Arabic language has become the vehicle for fresh

and original work in the newly introduced sciences like medicines, astronomy, chemistry,

geography and mathematics.

‫وﺻﻠﻨﺎ اﻵن إﻟﻰ اﻟﻔﺘﺮة اﻟﺘﻲ أﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﻓﯿﮭﺎ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ أداة ﻟﻠﺘﻌﺒﯿﺮ ﻋﻦ اﻟﻌﻠﻮم اﻟﻤﺴﺘﺠﺪة ﻛﺎﻟﻄﺐ و اﻟﻔﻠﻚ و اﻟﻜﯿﻤﯿﺎء‬

‫واﻟﺠﻐﺮاﻓﯿﺎ و اﻟﺮﯾﺎﺿﯿﺎت‬

The technique The translation versions N Rate

31 77.5%
The use of "‫"ﻟﻘﺪ‬ ...‫ﻟﻘﺪ وﺻﻠﻨﺎ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ اﻟﺬي أﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﻓﯿﮫ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ‬

‫ ﺑﻠﻐﻨﺎ اﻟﻤﺮﺣﻠﺔ اﻟﺘﻲ أﺻﺒﺤﺖ ﻓﯿﮭﺎ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ‬/ ‫وﺻﻠﻨﺎ‬ 4

Use of the past 10%
...‫اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ‬

Use of the present ‫ﻧﻤﻠﻚ اﻟﻮﻗﺖ ﻋﻨﺪﻣﺎ ﺗﺼﺒﺢ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ‬/‫ﻧﺤﻦ ﻧﺼﻞ‬... 4 10%

The use of ‫ ﻗﺪ‬at the

begining ...‫ﻗﺪ وﺻﻠﻨﺎ إﻟﻰ ﻣﺮﺣﻠﺔ أﯾﻦ أﺻﺒﺤﺖ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻌﺮﺑﯿﺔ‬ 1 2.5%

Total 40 100%

Table 9: Translating the present perfect that continues to the present time.

60
 77,50%
80,00%

70,00%

60,00%

50,00% The use of "‫" ﻟﻘﺪ‬

Use of the past
40,00% Use of the pre se nt
30,00% The use of "‫ " ﻗﺪ‬at the be gining

20,00%
10% 10%
10,00% 2,50%

0,00%

Fig 9: Translating the present perfect that continues to the present time.

It is noticed that the majority of the students which are 21, started the sentence with

the form" ‫ اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ‬+ ‫"ﻟﻘﺪ‬. In this sentence, the event seems happened in the past with no

reference to the present. This can be accepted. But there are other alternatives and solutions

as stated by Ghazala (1995) who argued that the present perfect should be considered as a

past tense in Arabic. The majority of the students followed what they have been taught that

the present perfect in Arabic is formed with "‫ اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ‬+ ‫ "ﻟﻘﺪ‬which is not always appropriate

(this is better to be included in the discussion). Only one student rendered it by the use of

"‫ "ﻗﺪ‬at the beginning of the sentence. Also there are 4 students who render it in the present

which is inappropriate in this context. Once more, the difficulty in discovering other

possibilities to be adopted for translating present perfect events leads students to make

serious mistakes such as the use of the present " ‫ ﻧﻣﻠك‬/ ‫ "ﻧﺣن ﻧﺻل‬at the beginning of this

sentence.

Sentence ten

Russell Davies became a freelance writer and a broadcaster soon after leaving Cambridge

University in 1969. He has been a television critic of the Sunday times, and lately has been

61
‫‪writing a column about sport for the Sunday telegraph. For television and radio, he has‬‬

‫‪presented many literary and political features, a history of radio comedy.‬‬

‫أﺻﺒﺢ راﺳﻞ دﯾﻔﯿﺲ ﻛﺎﺗﺒﺎ و ﻣﺬﯾﻌﺎ ﻣﺘﺤﺮرا ﻣﺒﺎﺷﺮة ﺑﻌﺪ ﺗﺨﺮﺟﮫ ﻣﻦ ﺟﺎﻣﻌﺔ ﻛﺎﻣﺒﺮﯾﺪج ﻓﻲ ‪ 1969‬و ﻗﺪ ﻋﻤﻞ ﻛﻨﺎﻗﺪ ﺗﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮﻧﻲ‬

‫ﻟﺠﺮﯾﺪة اﻟﺴﺎﻧﺪاي ﺗﺎﯾﻤﺰ أﺻﺒﺢ ﻣﺆﺧﺮا ﻛﺎﺗﺒﺎ ﻟﻤﻘﺎل رﯾﺎﺿﻲ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺴﺎﻧﺪي ﺗﯿﻠﯿﻐﺮاف ﻛﻤﺎ ﻗﺪم ﻓﻲ اﻟﺘﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮن و اﻟﺮادﯾﻮ ﺑﺮاﻣﺞ‬

‫أدﺑﯿﺔ و ﺳﯿﺎﺳﯿﺔ ﻋﺪﯾﺪة و ﺑﺮاﻣﺞ ﺣﻮل ﺗﺎرﯾﺦ اﻟﻜﻮﻣﯿﺪﯾﺎ ﻓﻲ اﻟﺮادﯾﻮ‪.‬‬

‫‪The technique‬‬ ‫‪The translation versions‬‬ ‫‪N‬‬ ‫‪Rate‬‬

‫‪...‬واﺻﺒﺢ ﯾﻜﺘﺐ‪....‬اﺻﺒﺢ ﻧﺎﻗﺪ ﺗﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮﻧﻲ‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪50%‬‬

‫‪The use of past‬‬
‫وﻗﺪم اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﺮاﻣﺞ‬

‫ﻟﻘﺪ اﺻﺒﺢ ﻧﺎﻗﺪا ﺗﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮﻧﯿﺎ‪...‬وﻟﻘﺪ ﻗﺪم اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻷﻋﻤﺎل‬ ‫‪11‬‬

‫" ﻟﻘﺪ " ‪Use‬‬ ‫‪27.5%‬‬
‫و ﻟﻘﺪ‪...‬‬

‫اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﯿﺰات ﻓﻘﺪ ﻗﺪم‪...‬وﻗﺪ ﻛﺎن ‪/‬اﺻﺒﺢ‬

‫" ﻗﺪ " ‪Use of‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪15%‬‬

‫‪No answer‬‬
‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪3%‬‬

‫‪100%‬‬
‫‪Total‬‬ ‫‪40‬‬

‫‪Table 10: Translation of the present perfect in larger contexts.‬‬

‫‪62‬‬
 50%

50%
45%
40% The use of past
35%
30%
2 7 ,5 0 %
Use of "‫" ﻟﻘﺪ‬
25%
Use of "‫" ﻗﺪ‬
20% 15%

15% No answer
10%
3%

5%
0%

Fig 10: Translation of the present perfect in larger contexts.

All translations provided here were dominated almost by only one form. This

would show that the 11 students ignore the different options of the present perfect tense.

For example:

‫ﻟﻘﺪ‬..‫وﻟﻘﺪ أﺻﺒﺢ ﻧﺎﻗﺪا ﺗﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮﻧﯿﺎ‬. ‫و ﻟﻘﺪ ﻗﺪم اﻟﻜﺜﯿﺮ ﻣﻦ اﻷﻋﻤﺎل‬...

The same with the use of "‫"ﻗﺪ‬, students here apply just the rule of ‫ ﻗﺪ‬and ignore the

different ways of expressing the present perfect tense. For example:

‫أﺻﺒﺢوﻗﺪ‬/ ‫ ﻛﺎن‬...‫اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﻤﯿﺰات ﻗﺪمﻓﻘﺪ‬

This means that our students are equipped with only one form and one rule

available for translating the present perfect tense. The majority of the students rendered the

present perfect into a past tense from the beginning to the end. For example:

. ‫ وﻗﺪم اﻟﻌﺪﯾﺪ ﻣﻦ اﻟﺒﺮاﻣﺞ‬... ‫أﺻﺒﺢ ﻧﺎﻗﺪ ﺗﻠﻔﺰﯾﻮﻧﻲ‬....‫وأﺻﺒﺢ ﯾﻜﺘﺐ‬. This indicates that there is no connection

between the sentences in Arabic.

3.4 Results’ discussion

The result that we can get from this research is that the general rule of translating

the present perfect is accomplished through the use of (‫ﻗﺪ‬+ the past). In some cases, (‫ )ﻗﺪ‬is

not used as in questions negations and actions which denote the past but they are not

specific. In addition, (‫ )ﻗﺪ‬is not used in statements in which there is the meaning of
63
continuity such as: They have lived in Spain since 1987. This sentence is translated by the

use of the present tense in Arabic such as: 1987 ‫ ھﻢ ﯾﺴﻜﻨﻮن ﻓﻲ إﺳﺒﺎﻧﯿﺎ ﻣﻨﺬ‬because the action is

continuing till the moment of speaking and may continue to the future.

As a result, the analysis of the students’ test reveals that the lack of linguistic and

stylistic and cultural equivalence between Arabic and English do really influence the

degree of student’s understanding of the present perfect tense. This lack causes for a

students difficulties and problems in finding an appropriate equivalent to English. In order

to overcome these difficulties some techniques are presented before by Baker (1992) such

as substitution and omission, and some of these techniques are also propounded by

Newmark (1981) which comprises paraphrasing, omission, which he refers to as deletion,

and the use of loan word plus explanation, which he refers to as translation couplet. In

accordance with Baker’s and Newmark’s suggested techniques , Ghazala provided us with

solution of rendering English tenses which correspondent to only one Arabic version

(1995,p.61).

Supporting Ghazala’s solution concerning translating tenses which have no

equivalent in the target language by the substitution into only one Arabic version, Baker

states that “…in translation, grammar often has the effect of a straitjacket, forcing the

translator along a certain course which may or may not follow that of the source text as

closely as the translator would like it to.” (2001, p. 85).

However, another important factor that intervene in drawing the meaning of the

present perfect which is the role of context. A considerable number of results showed that

students are not aware about the importance of the context in order to render correctly the

correct time .As a result, they render the present perfect tense as present time not the past

one .Thus, they should be also more aware about the significant role of context in

translation.

64
Conclusion

At the end of this chapter which is devoted to the analysis of the learners’ test

scores about the translation of the present perfect tense. We can conclude that while

translating the present perfect simple from English into Arabic we should take into

consideration the context because tense sometimes does not always indicate time,

especially the present perfect which has diverse aspects. Thus, context is considered as the

best solution in order to solve and get this problematic area. So, students should rely on the

contextualization.

Pedagogical implications

The outcome of this study illustrates that the students are not aware of the

importance of adopting an accurate translation technique while translating tenses in

general, and specifically the present perfect tense, and the significance of rendering present

perfect tense into Arabic equivalent , in order to get an adequate meaningful equivalents ;

and preserve the Arabic language identity .In addition, they seemed not careful about the

role of context in grammar which shapes the meaning of a given written or oral

products.Teaching tenses in the university of Biskra is still in need of clarifying and

focusing more on introducing tenses and specifically the present perfect tense.

Here are some recommendations will be propounded that might make the

translators and the learners more aware and reconsider the best method, which should carry

meaning and aims at preserving it in Arabic language.

The undergraduate syllabus design concerning teaching grammar and theme and

version for first year master students of English does not comprise any course where the

students will be exposed to tenses and particularly to present perfect tense. Concerning

theme and version, students are practicing only translation as a general matter of written

65
products without introducing how rendering tenses in general and present perfect tense in

particular. Also, the syllabus does not contain the study of tenses translation and its

technique. For that, the students should be provided with the basics of translation as a

technique, and be exposed, in earlier stages of their academic acquisition to tenses most

commonly the present perfect tense, and its appropriate use according to the context. This

will them help to produce suitable equivalents. Moreover, the students should be taught to

be creative and avoid rendering , which decreases the quality of the translation, they need

to learn the techniques serve the Arabic language more, so they can translate and convey

the required meaning easily.

66
General Conclusion

The purpose of this dissertation aimed at investigating the areas of translating the

present perfect tense from English into Arabic. It is examined by a translation test in order

to know the technique of master one student how to translate and perceive the present

perfect tense in Arabic, as well whether they are able or not to translate this tense

appropriately into Arabic.

As a result, if master one students of English apply the rule which shows that the

English present perfect is transformed by the use of the particle (‫اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ‬+‫ )ﻟﻘﺪ‬, they will

generalize it in all contexts, so they sometimes produce inaccurate tense equivalent. The

analyses of the test showed that students lack of exposure to the present perfect tense in

Arabic. This was proved only through the use of (‫ا ﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ‬+‫ )ﻟﻘﺪ‬when translating this tense

from English into Arabic. However, this form is not always suitable in all contexts. As well

as the mistakes they do such as shifting from one tense to another.

The outcomes proved that students are in need for more exposure to tenses,

specifically the present perfect. It is obligatory to make students differentiate between both

tenses - English and Arabic, and more particularly the present perfect tense. Finally,

Students have to progress a perception of circumstances and situations in order to

overcome the difficulty of tense equivalent.

67
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71
 Dedication
In the Name of ALLAH, the Most Gracious, the Most

Merciful

I must first thank ALLAH for enabling me to finish this

work,

This work is dedicated to:

-To the soul of my beloved father Abderrahmane (mercy

on him) who have been my constant source of inspiration,

- To my beloved mother: Drifafor her patience and

sacrifices,

-To my dearestbrothers: Omar, Mohammed Lamjad,

Boubakeur, and their sons and daughters

-ToMy dearest lonely sister Batoul, and her son and

daughters

-To all my family and my friends and all people who know

me.

Haidar BOULEGROUN

I
 Dedication
In the Name of Allah, the Most Gracious, the Most Merciful

“(1) Read! In the Name of your Lord Who has created (all that exists) (2)

He has created man from a clot (a piece of thick coagulated blood) (3)

Read! And your Lord is the Most Generous (4) Who has taught (the

writing) by the pen (5) He has taught man that which he knew not…”

(Sûrat Al-‘Alaq “The Clot”).

This Dissertation is lovingly dedicated to my respective

parents who have been my constant source of inspiration.

They have given me the drive and discipline to tackle any

task with enthusiasm and determination. Without their

love and support this project would not have been made

possible, and most of all to the Almighty ALLAH who

gives me strength and good health while doing this.

To my brothers who support me in everything,

To my sisters and their daughters who never left my side

and are very special.

To all my friends.

Bilal BOULTIAH

II
 Acknowledgements

First and foremost we offer our sincere gratitude to our supervisor, Mrs. Nashoua

HASSINA, who has supported us throughout our dissertation with her patience and

knowledge. We have been amazingly fortunate to have an advisor who gave us the

freedom to explore on our own, and at the same time the guidance to recover when our

steps faltered. Mrs. Hassina taught us how to question thoughts and express ideas. Her

patience and support helped us overcome many crisis situations and finish this

dissertation. We attribute the level of our Master’s degree to her encouragement and

effort and without her this dissertation, too, would not have been completed or written.

We hope that one day we would become as good advisor to our students as Mrs. Hassina

has been to us.

We would like to thank the head of Department and all the teachers who were extremely

kind and helpful as well for their hard work, expertise and patience.

III
 Abstract

This research sheds light on the translation of the grammatical rules from English into

Arabic, more particularly the present perfect tense. The main aim of this study is to

analyse to what extent the technique (Laqad + el Madi) is used by the first year master

students of English in translating the present perfect tense into Arabic. The study also

tests students’ awareness about the appropriate use of the present perfect tense in various

contexts conceptually. In order to achieve these aims we administered a test in order to

collect data which reveals that most of students overuse the form (‫ اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ‬+ ‫)ﻟﻘﺪ‬. The study

falls within the framework of Descriptive Translation Studies, English and Arabic

Tenses, and the analysis of the test. The conclusions drawn regarding the appropriateness

or otherwise of the strategies used are intended to increase an awareness of the problems

involved and the solutions available to learners.

IV
 ‫ﻣﻞ ـخ ـص‬
‫ـ‬

‫إن ﺘرﺠﻤﺔ اﻟﻤﺎﻀﻲ اﻟﺘﺎم ﻤن اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻻﻨﺠﻠﯿزﯿﺔ إﻟﻰ اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻌرﺒﯿﺔ ﻤن ﺨﻼل اﺴﺘﺨدام‬

‫ﺒﻌض اﻟﺒﺎﺤﺜﯿن ﯿﻌﺘﻘدون أن أﻓﻀل طرﯿﻘﺔ‬

‫ف‬ ‫)ﻟﻘد‪+‬اﻟﻤﺎﻀﻲ( ﻻ ﺘﺘﻨﺎﺴب ﻤﻊ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق داﺌﻤﺎ‬

‫ﻟﺘرﺠﻤﺘﻪ ﺘﻛون ﺒﺎﻟﺘﻤﺴك ﺒﻬذﻩ اﻟﻘﺎﻋدة ﻛوﻨﻬﺎ رﺴﻤﯿﺔ وﻋﺎﻤﺔ‪ .‬ﻓﻲ ﺤﯿن ﯿﻌﺘﻘد اﻟﺒﻌض اﻵﺨر‬

‫ذا ﻤن اﺠل‬ ‫أن أﻓﻀل طرﯿﻘﺔ ﻫﻲ اﺨذ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق ﺒﻌﯿن اﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎر ﺒﻐﯿﺔ ﻨﻘل اﻟﻤﻌﻨﻰ ﺒدﻗﺔ وﻩ‬

‫زﺤزﺤﺔ اﻟﻨظرﯿﺔ اﻟﻘﺎﺌﻠﺔ ﺒﺄن اﻟﻤﺎﻀﻲ اﻟﺘﺎم ﯿﺘرﺠم داﺌﻤﺎ ﺒﺎﺴﺘﻌﻤﺎل )ﻟﻘد‪+‬اﻟﻤﺎﻀﻲ(ل ذاﻟك ﻓﺈﻨﻨﺎ‬

‫ﻨواﻓق اﻟﻨظرﯿﺔ اﻟﻘﺎﺌﻠﺔ ﺒﺄﺨذ اﻟﺴﯿﺎق ﺒﻌﯿن اﻻﻋﺘﺒﺎر ﻓﺈن ﻫذﻩ اﻟدراﺴﺔ ﺘﻘوم ﻋﻠﻰ اﻟﻤﻘﺎرﻨﺔ ﺒﯿن‬

‫اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻌرﺒﯿﺔ و اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻻﻨﺠﻠﯿزﯿﺔ ﻛﻤﺎ ﺘﺤﺎول إﯿﺠﺎد أﻓﻀل طرﯿﻘﺔ ﻟﺘرﺠﻤﺔ اﻟﻤﺎﻀﻲ اﻟﺘﺎم إﻟﻰ‬

‫اﻟﻠﻐﺔ اﻟﻌرﺒﯿﺔ‪.‬‬

‫‪V‬‬
 List of Tables

Table 1: Techniques of translating the present perfect in

Questions 49

Table 2: Techniques of translating the negation forms with the present

Perfect 50

Table 3: Techniques of translating the present perfect through the use

of (‫)ﻟﻘﺪ‬ 52

Table 4: Techniques of translating the present perfect used with adverbs

of time 53

Table 5: Techniques of translating the present perfect where the past

participle is ellipted 54

Table 6: Techniques of translating of the present perfect in a simple

Sentence 56

Table 7: Translation of a sentence consists of two verbs in the same

tense (present perfect) 57

Table 8: Different forms were used for translating the present perfect

tense 59

Table 9: Translating the present perfect that continues to the present

Time 60

Table 10: Translation of the present perfect in larger contexts 62

VI
 List of Figures

Fig. A: Main divisions of time in English 29

Fig. 1: Techniques of translating the present perfect in

questions 49

Fig. 2: Techniques of translating the negation forms with the

present perfect 51

Fig.3: Techniques of translating the present perfect through

the use of (‫)ﻟﻘﺪ‬ 52

Fig. 4: Techniques of translating the present perfect used with

adverbs of time 54

Fig. 5: Techniques of translating the present perfect where the

past participle is ellipted 55

Fig. 6: Techniques of translating of the present perfect in a simple

sentence 56

Fig. 7: Translation of a sentence consists of two verbs in the same

tense (present perfect) 58

Fig. 8: Different forms were used for translating the present perfect

tense 59

Fig. 9: Translating the present perfect that continues to the present

time 61

Fig. 10: Translation of the present perfect in larger contexts 63

VII
 Table of Contents

General Introduction 01

Chapter One: Translation

Introduction 08

1.1. Definition of Translation 08

1.2. Translation Taxonomy 10

1.2.1. Literal Translation 11

1.2.1.1. Literal Translation of Words 11

1.2.1.2. One to One Literal Translation 12

1.2.1.3. Literal Translation of Meaning 13

1.2.1.4. Free Translation 15

1.2.1.4.1. Bound Free Translation 15

1.2.1.4.2. Loose Free Translation 16

1.3. Problems of Translation 17

1.3.1. Grammatical Problems 17

1.3.2. Stylistic problems 20

1.3.3. Cultural problems 22

1.4. Pedagogical uses of translation as a technique 25

Conclusion 27

Chapter Tow: Tenses

Introduction28

2.1. English Tense and Aspect 28

VIII
2.1.1. Tense 28

2.1.2. Aspect 30

2.1.2.1. Simple aspect 31

2.1.2.2. Perfect aspect 32

2.1.2.3. Progressive aspect 32

2.1.2.4. Perfect Progressive Aspect 32

2.2. English Tenses 32

2.2.1. Past tense 33

2.2.2. Past perfect 33

2.2.3. Past continuous 34

2.2.4. Past perfect continuous 34

2.2.5. Present tense 34

2.2.6. Present perfect 34

2.2.7. Present continuous 35

2.2.8. Present perfect continuous 35

2.2.9.Future tense 35

2.2.10. Future perfect 36

2.2.11. Future continuous 36

2.2.12. Future perfect continuous 36

2.3.1. The formation of the past tense 37

2.3.2. The formation of the present tense 37

2.3.3. The Present Perfect Simple 38

2.4. Arabic tense and Aspect 41

IX
2.5. Arabic Tenses 43
2.5.1. The Past Tense (almaadi) ‫اﻟﻤﺎﺿﻲ‬ 43

2.5.2. The Present (elhadir) ‫اﻟﺤﺎﺿﺮ‬ 44

2.5.3. The future (almustaqbal)‫اﻟﻤﺴﺘﻘﺒﻞ‬ 44

2.6. The Present Perfect in Arabic 44

2.7. English Present Perfect vs. Arabic Present Perfect 44

Conclusion 46

Chapter Three: Field of Work (Test)

Introduction 47

3.1. The Sample 47

3.2. The Test 47

3.3. Data Analysis 48

3.4 Results’ Discussion 63

Conclusion 65

3.5 PedagogicalImplications 65

General Conclusion 67

References 68

Appendix