Delhi Sultanate
Delhi Sultanate
Delhi Sultanate
Introduction:
The period from 13th to 15th (1200-1550 CE) century saw the arrival of Isalmic
institutions and Culture on India.
Islam was found by Prophet Muhammad (570-632). It originated in Mecca in
Arabia. Its first convert were Arabs. The Arabs made Islam a powerful force in the
politics of Asia. The Persians strengthened Islam and Turks extended it both towards
the West and East.
His teachings made the wealthy people of Mecca his enemies. Therefore he migrated
to Medina in 622 which was the starting point of the Muslim calendar and the
Muslim era called hijra. After 8 years he returned to Mecca where he died in 632.
Caliphate – An Islamic state, especially the one ruled by single religious and political
leader.
Earlier there were 2 caliphates (Ummayads and Abbasids). Both expanded their rule
separately by conquering and then spread the principle of Islam. By the end of 9th
century Abbasid caliphate, Arab‟s garrison in India and elsewhere declined and
independent rulers emerged.
Caliph – Representative of Prophet Muhammad.
The Arabs learned the numerals 0 to 9 from India. The importance of zero was spread
to the west (Europe) through Arabs. It is believed that the people of west and Arabs
learned the game of chess from India.
The Arab scholars visited the Sind and learned many Sanskrit books in Astronomy,
Philosophy, Mathematics and Medicine and translated them into Arabic.
The geographical location of Arabia facilitates the trade relationship between India
and Arabia.
There were south Indian settlements in the Persian Gulf and the Arabs too settled in
the Malabar and Coromandel Coast.
The Arabs who married the Malabar women and settled down in the west coast were
called Mappillais.
The Arab conquest in 712 and subsequent invasion of Ghazi and Ghori led to the loot
and use the resources to strengthen their power in Central Asia.
Following the invasion of the ruler of Eastern Afghanistan (Khurasan) and
subsequent invasion by Chengiz Khan led to the ties of North Indian rulers with
Afghanistan.
Mongol invasion destroyed Ghaznavids and Ghori and cut into the resources of Sultan
Nasir-Ud-din-Qubacha (1206-1228), the ruler of Uchh and Multan.
Thus Iltutmish had the opportunity to expand his province in North India which
enabled the Muslim rulers to rule for nearly 4 centuries.
The rulers of the medieval period came from different ethnicities: Arabs, Persia, Turk
and Central Asia.
Iltutmish was a Olperli Turk and many of his slaves were of Turkish and Mongol
ancestries brought by the merchants from Bukhara,Samarkhand and Baghdad.
There were some slaves from other ethnicities as well (Hindu Khan captured from
Mihir in Central India) but Iltutmish gave them all Turkish titles.
The Delhi Sultanate belonged to 5 distinct categories:
Slave dynasty (1206-1290)
Khalji dynasty (1290-1320)
Tughlaq dynasty (1320-1414)
Sayyid dynasty (1414-1451)
Lodi dynasty (1451-1526)
Sources:
*Sunil Kumar – Emergence of Delhi Sultanate-Persian chronicles speaks about the Delhi
Sultanate in hyperbolic terms
Rani Bai, the wife of Dahir and other women of Sind put up a heroic defense
within the Fort of Rewar. When their attempt failed they performed Jauhar to save
their chastity and escape from the hands of the invaders.
Brahma Siddhanta, a Sanskrit work of Brahma Gupta was translated into
Arabic.
Arabic works mentions the names of Indian scientists like Bhala, Manaka and
Sindbad.
Dhana was appointed as the chief medical officer in the hospital of Bhagdad.
Manaka, a physician cured a serious illness of Caliph Harun-al-Rashid.
Ghaznavids:
The Ghazanavid empire roughly include Persia, Trans-Oxyana, Afghanistan and
Punjab.
In central Asia – Arab empire collapsed and independent rulers arose. In the
meantime Samanid kingdom arose to power. Later it also collapsed.
Alaptigin (Alp-Tegin)
He was slave, working as a governor under Samanid kingdom in Khurasan.
In 963 he seized the city of Ghazini in the eastern Afghanistan and established an
independent kingdom there.
He died soon and after him 3 successors were unsuccessful.
Sabuktigin
The nobles made Sabukitigin as the successor. He was the son-in-law of
Alptigin. He wanted to conquer India from north-west but his son Muhammad
only succeeded.
He succeeded in capturing Peshawar from Jayapala.
He made his eldest son Muhammad as the provincial governor.
When Sabuktigin died in 997, Muhammad was in Khurasan. So Sabukitigin‟s
youngest son Ismail was made the successor.
Al-Beruni, mathematician, philosopher, astronomer, and historian, came to India along with
Mahmud of Ghazni. He stayed in India for 10 years.
He learned Sanskrit, studied religious and philosophical texts before composing his work
Kitab Ul Hind. He was impressed by the Upanishads and Bhagavat Gita.
He also translated the Greek work of Euclid into Sanskrit.
He transmitted Aryabhata’s magnum opus Aryabattiyam (the thesis that earth‟s rotation
around its axis creates day and night) to the West.
He was the inter-civilizational connect between India and the rest of the world.
In his book, Tahquiq-i-Hind, Alberuni discussed the Indian conditions, system of
knowledge, social norms and religion.
Ghuris (Ghoris) (1149-1206)
Muizz-ud-din Muhammad popularly known as Muhammad Ghori (1149 -1206
AD) invaded India with a scope to establish Garrison (military troops) to get regular
tribute and plunder. He was the ruler of Ghori, a mountainous region situated between
Ghazni and Heart.
He established garrison in Punjab, Haryana and Sind in 1180 and 1190.
As a result employment opportunities arose and people were employed to organize
military and fiscal affairs. The Sultan‟s military commanders in North India were
chosen from elite military class. They were different from the agrarian labor and
slaves. He invested in territories he seized. Lahore, Multan and Uchh was initially
powerful.
In 1175, he seized Multan from Ismaili ruler and the fort of Uchh fell into his
hands.
In 1179, the Chalukyas of Gujarat defeated him in Mt.Abu. So he started
consolidating his position in Sind and Punjab.
He subjugated lower Sind in 1182.
In 1186 he attacked Punjab (Captured it from Khusru Malik) and captured the
Fortress of Sialkot. In 1186 he besieged Lahore.
1st battle of Tarrain(1191) (Near Delhi).
When he attacked the fortress Tabarhinda (Bhatinda), the strategic viewpoint of
Ajmer, the ruler of Ajmer Prithviraj Chauhan marched and defeated him
Ghori left with wounds in a horse.
2nd battle of Tarrain (1192)
Muhammad gathered a large army of 1,20,000 men and came to Lahore via
Peshawar and Multan. Prithviraj gathered with 300000 horses, 3000 elephants and
a large booty of foot soldiers.
Prithviraj Chauhan was defeated but was restored with Ajmer. Later he was
executed on the charges of treason.
Qutb-ud-dib-Aibak (Ghori‟s general) was appointed as deputy in India. He is
declared as First sultan of India.
1st muslim kingdom that was firmly established in India was Ajmer.
Jayachandra of Kanauj – Battle of Chandwar(1194)
o He was an enemy of Prithviraj Chauhan because Prithviraj abducted his
daughter Samyuktha. So he did not support prithviraj in the battle of tarrain.
o Jayachandra‟s eye was struck with an arrow. Ghori easily defeated him.
o While returning back he was killed by unknown person while crossing the
bank of Indus (1206).
Muhammad army had 5 divisions.
Four armies were sent to attack the Rajput armies on all sides.
The 5th army was kept in reserve.
When the Rajput army becomes exhausted he sent the 5th army.
He was assassinated on 25th March1206 by some Shia rebels and Khokhars.
He was the real founder of Turkish empire in India.
Rajput Kingdoms:
The dominance of Rajputs began in the 7th and 8th century which continued till the
12th century. At the time of Muslim invasion, Rajputs were the main defenders of
Hindu religion and culture.
They were considered as the descendents of foreign invaders and Indian Kshatriyas.
They became homogeneous by constant intermarriage and by adopting common
customs. They made war as their chief occupation. However trade and agriculture
flourished.
Gurjar-Pratiharas were the earliest of the Rajput rulers. Its 1st great ruler was
Harischandra who captured extensive territory in Rajputana and ruled with the
capital Bhinmal.
The Gurjaras were in different branches. One branch ruled from Gujarat and other
from Avanthi.
By the beginning of the 10th century, the two powerful kingdoms, Gurjar
Prathihara and Rashtrakutas lost their power.
Other ruling dynasties that came to power in North India were:
Tomaras (Delhi)
Chauhans (Rajasthan) – Vighraharaja and Prithviray Chauhan – 2 prominent ruler
Solankis (Gujarat)
Paramaras (Malwa) – Bhoja King
Gahadavalas (Kanauj) – Jayachandra king
Chandelas (BundelKhand) – Yasovarman and Kirtivarman
The Rajput kings had a long tradition of martial spirit, bravery and courage.
The Rajput force were superior in the regimental discipline and training
However the Turks were superior in changing their tactics to the needs. Turkish
cavalry were superior to Rajputs. The Rajputs relied on elephant forces that were
powerful but slow moving. The Turkish horsemen had greater mobility and were
skilled in mounted archery.
The famous Khajuraho temple was built by Chandelas of Bundelkhand who ruled from
Khajuraho.
The complex consisted of many temples including
Lakshmana temple
Vishwanatha temple and
Kandariya Mahadev temple.
Balban (1265-1287):
The political intrigues of the nobility came to an end after the accession of Balban as
the Sultan.
He believed in the Divine right theory (ruler is considered as the representative og
God on Earth) of Kingship. According to him, the Sultans were the God‟s shadow on
Earth and recipient of the divine grace.
He introduced Polibos- a form of salutation to the king by kissing his feet.
He introduced the Persian festival Nauroz to impress the nobles and the people with
his wealth and power.
According to Lanepoole, Balban (a slave, water carrier, huntsman, general, statesman
and Sultan is one of the most striking figures among the notable men in the long line
of Kings of Delhi).
Haybat Khan – governor of Oudh was punished for killing a man who was drunk.
Malik Baqbaq – governor of Badaun was publicly flogged for his cruelty towards
his servants.
Sher Khan – governor of Bhatinda was poisoned.
He patronized the famous Persian poet Amir Khusru (parrot of India who has
written 4lakh couplets) and Amir Hasan. Amir Khusru has used hindi words in his
works.
He introduced a separate military department called Diwan-i-arz.
He led constant military campaigns against the defiant governors and their allies.
Barani mentions his campaign in the regions surrounding Delhi and Doab regions.
During this region, forests were cleared and new roads were laid and forts were
constructed. The newly deforested lands were given to freshly recruited Afghans and
others as rent free lands (mafruzi) and brought under cultivation.
New forts were constructed to protect the trade routes and village markets.
Jalal-ud-din-Khalji (1290-1296):
Balban‟s son Kaiqubad was unfit to rule. Therefore the nobles placed his 3 year old
son Kaymar on the throne.
There was no unanimity in the decision of regent and a council to administer the
empire.
Malik Jalal-ud-din Khalji (commander of the army), assumed the office of Naib
(Deputy of the sultan) emerged victorious.
He ruled the kingdom in the name of Kaiqubad for some time and later sent his men
to kill Kaiquabad.
He then ascended the throne formally. He wanted to rule without bloodshed, so he
was called as clemency Jalal-ud-din. He was generous and lenient.
He faced opposition on the grounds that he was not a Turk but an Afghan. The
Khalji‟s were indeed Turk who settled in Afghanistan before the establishment of
Turkish rule and so they were Afghanized Turks.
He fought many battles and even in his old age, he marched against the Mongols who
tried to advance up to Sunam and prevented their entry into India in 1292.
He arrested and killed Sidi Maula (religious leader) who tried to seize the throne.
He killed Malik Chhajju (nephew of Alauddin) at Kara and appointed Alauddin as
its governor.
Alauddin Khalji (governor of Kara), nephew and son-in-law of Jalaluddin Khalji
invaded Malwa which yielded him a huge booty.
This campaign stimulated him to raid Devagiri, the capital city of Yadava Kingdom
in Deccan and defeated its ruler Ramachandra. On his return he plotted against Jalal-
ud-din and murdered him and captured the throne.
Sack of Chittor (1303): When Ala-ud-din‟s army overwhelmed the Rajput army in
Chittor and in the context of threat of defeat, the men and women of the fortress, in
accordance with their old custom, performed the rite of jauhar. According to this custom,
left with no other way to survive, the men would go out and die in the field of battle and
women would burn themselves on a pyre.
The Padmini episode was graphically mentioned in the book Padmavath written by
Jayasi.
In the Delhi Sultanate, nobles were drawn from different tribes and nationalities like the
Turkish, Persian, Arabic, Egyptians and Indian Muslims.
Iltutmish organized a corps of forty (Chahalgani), all drawn from Turkish nobility and
selected persons from this forty for the appointment in the military and civil
administrations.
The corps of forty became so powerful that it disregarded the wishes of Iltutmish and after
his death to place Rukn-ud-din Firoz to place on the throne.
Razziya sought to counter the influence of Turkish nobles and defend her interest by
organizing a group of non-Turkish and Indian Muslim nobles under the leadership of
Yakut, the Abyssinian slave. This was resented by the Turkish nobles and got both of
them murdered.
Balban abolished the corps of forty.
Alauddin Khalji also took stern actions against the nobles by employing spies.
Alauddin’s successor:
He built Alai Darwaza, fort of Siri and the Palace of 1000 pillars.
His son Khizr Khan was his successor. However Alauddin‟s confidant at that time
was Malik Kafur. Later Kafur ascended the throne but his rule lasted only for 35
days as the hostile nobles assassinated him.
He had weak successors like Qutb-ud-din Mubarak Shah (1316-1320) and Nasir-ud-
din Khusrav Shah (1320).
After a series of murders it finally culminated in Ghazi Malik (governor of
Dipalpur), a veteran of several campaigns against the Mongols ascended the throne
of Delhi in 1320 as Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq after killing Khusrav Shah.
He murdered the Khalji ruler Khusrau and thereby prevented any Khalji ruler from
ascending the throne.
Muhammad-bin-Tughlaq(1324-1351)
Muhammad was a learned, talented and a cultured man. But he gained a reputation of
being merciless, cruel and unjust.
He effectively repulsed the Mongol army that had marched up to Meerut in Delhi.
Muhammad was an innovator. Unlike Alauddin Khalji, he lacked the will to execute
his plans successfully.
He captured Warrangal in 1327.
He raised an army of 370,000 men in order to conquer Tranoxiana, Khurasan and
Iraq. He disbanded them after realizing it was not possible.
He gave huge presents to Tamashirin, the Mongol leader to avoid Mongol invasion.
It was a 40-days march to Daulatabad from Delhi (more than 1500kms). Many people
left. Some hid themselves. When they were found, they were punished cruelly, even
though one was a blind man and another a paralytic. Describing the city as spreading
over eight or ten miles, a historian observed: „All was destroyed. So complete was the
ruin that not a cat or a dog was left among the buildings of the city in its palaces or in
its suburbs.‟
Transfer of Capital
He transferred the capital from Delhi to Devagiri in Maharashtra which he named
as Daulatabad after realizing it was difficult to administer Deccan from Delhi.
Centrally located, Devagiri possessed an advantage and it had a fort atop a rocky
hill.
He ordered the important officers and leading men including Sufi saints to shift to
Devagiri.
Later he realized, it was difficult to rule North India from Devagiri he shifted his
capital back to Delhi.
Ibn Battuta, the Moroccan traveler was with him. On returning to Delhi, he found
Delhi „empty, abandoned and had but a very small population‟.
His contemporary scholars like Ibn Battutah, Barani and Isami were unable to give
correct picture of his personality.
He was the only Sultanate to have received a comprehensive literacy, religious and
philosophical education.
Token Currency
The next important innovation that he took was introduction of token currency.
As it was already experimented in China (introduced by Kubali Khan in China) and
Iron, it was much ahead of its time in India given that it was a time when coins were
based on silver content.
When he issued bronze coins, fake coins were minted which could not be prevented
by the government. Later the bronze coins were withdrawn and it was replaced by the
silver coins.
According to Barani, a heap of copper coins were lying on the roadside in
Tughlaqabad.
The wazir (prime minister) of Firuz Tughlaq, the famous Khan-i-Jahan was a Telugu Brahmin
convert to Islam. Originally known as Kannu, he was captured during the sultanate campaigns in
Warangal (present day Telangana).
Religious policy
He was an orthodox. He proclaimed the state to be an Islamic state to satisfy the
theologicans. He was intolerant towards Shia muslims and Sufis.
He banned the practices that were considered un-Islamic. He reimposed Jizya in
which the Brahmins were also forced to pay.
In 1353 and 1359, he besieged Bengal. He captured Jainagar and destroyed Jagannath
temple at Puri. He made the rulers of Nagarkot and Tatta to pay tribute.
He did not stop the construction of new temples and shrines
His cultural interest led to the translation of many Sanskrit works relating to medicine,
religion and music.
He was a scholar himself, so he patronized learned scholars including non Muslims.
He was fond of music and established educational institutions and a number of
mosques, palace and forts.
Public Works:
He undertook many irrigational works and a canal (200 kms) were dug from river
Sutlej to Hansi and another canal in Jumna (Yamuna to Hissar). He was the 1st
Sultan to impose irrigation tax.
There were 1200 fruit gardens in and around Delhi yielding more revenue. The
special tax on 28 items were abolished by him since they were against the Islamic
laws
Firuz died in 1388 after making his son Fath Khan and grandson Ghiyas-ud-din as
the joint rulers of Delhi Sultanate. (He died on September 1833 at the age of 83. His
son Muhammad Khan murdered him)
The principle hereditary applied to the nobles and army led to the weakening of the
Delhi Sultanate.
Within 6 years of Firuz‟s death 4 rulers succeeded him.
His successors include: Ghiyas-ud-din Tughluq Shah II, Abu Bakr Shah, Nasir-
ud-din Mohammed Tughluq
Jizya is a tax levied and collected per head by Islamic states on non Muslim subjects living
in their land.
In India, Qutb-ud-din-Aibak imposed Jizya on Non-muslims for the 1st time.
Jizya was abolished by the Mughal ruler Akbar in the 16th century but was
reintroduced by Aurangzeb in the 17th century.
Timur’s invasion:
The last ruler was Nasir-ud-din Muhammad Shah (1394-1412), whose reign
witnessed the invasion of Timur from Central Asia. He along with his Prime Minister
Mallu Iqbal opposed Timur.
Turkish Timur, who could claim a blood relationship with the 12th century great
Mongol Chengiz Khan, ransacked Delhi in 1398 virtually without any opposition.
On hearing the arrival of Timur, Nasir-ud-din fled Delhi.
Timur also tool Indian artisans such as masons, stone cutters, carpenters whom he
engaged for raising buildings in his capital Samarkhand.
Punjab also faced severe raid after Delhi
Nasir-ud-din managed to rule up to 1412.
Then the Sayyid and Lodi dynasty ruled Delhi till 1526.
In the entire history of Delhi Sultanate there was only one Sultan who voluntarily abdicated his
throne and moved to a small town away from Delhi, where he lived for 3 decades in
contentment and peace. He was Alam Shah of Sayyid dynasty.
-Abraham Eraly, The Age of Wrath.
Economy:
The establishment of Delhi Sultanate was accompanied by some economic changes.
One such change was the collection of land tax as rent in cash.
Because of this the food grains and other products were drawn to towns which
facilitated the urban growth.
In the 14th century, Delhi and Devagiri (Daulatabad) emerged as the great cities of the
world.
Other large towns – Multan, Kara, Awadh, Gaur, Cambay (Khambayat) and
Gulbarga.
In 13th century, they began gold and silver mintage along with the copper coins which
facilitated brisk commerce.
Irfan Habib’s view: India‟s external trade (both overland and oceanic) grew
considerably during this period.
Bengal and Gujarat were famous for their quality fabrics. Cotton, wool, silk clothes
were produced. The clothes were studded with gold, diamond, pearls, silver and
stones.
Industrial expertise
The paper making technology invented by Chinese was learnt by the Arabs and
introduced by them in India.
The spinning wheel invented in China came to India through Iran in the 14th century
and enabled the spinner to increase the output some 6 fold and enlarged the yarn
production greatly.
The subsequent introduction of treadles in the loom similarly helped speed-up
weaving.
Sericulture was established in Bengal in the 15th century.
Building activity attained a new scale by the large use of bricks and mortar and by the
adoption of vaulting techniques.
Education:
Certain traditions of education were implanted from the Islamic world.
At the base were the maktab, where school teachers taught children to read and write.
At the higher level, important texts in various subjects were read by individual pupils
with particular scholars who gave them instruction (dars) in them.
Madrasa – institutionalized form of higher education which was established in Iran
and Central India in the 11th century from where it spread it to other Islamic
countries. Madrasa had a building where teachers gave individuals special
instructions.
Firuz Tughlaq built large Madrasa in Delhi whose splendid building still stands.
From Barani’s account it would seem that the teachings were about the “Quran-
commentary, the Prophet‟s sayings and the Muslim Law (fiqh)”.
It is said that Sikkander Lodi (1489-1517) appointed teachers in Maktabs and
Madrasas in various cities and making provisions for them through cash or land
grants.
Histriography
In addition to secular sciences that came with Arabic and Persian learning to India,
one more notable addition was systematic historiography.
The collection of witnesses‟ narratives and documents that the Chachnama
(thirteenth-century Persian translation of a ninth-century Arabic original), in its
account of the Arab conquest of Sind, represents advancement in historical research,
notwithstanding the absence of coherence and logical order of latter-day
historiography like Minhaj Siraj‟s Tabaqat-i Nasiri, written at Delhi c. 1260.
Sufism
In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, two most influential orders emerged among
the sufis: the Suhrawardi, centred at Multan, and the Chisti at Delhi and other
places.
The most famous Chishti Saint, Shaik Nizamuddin offered a classical exposition of
Sufism of prepantheistic phase in the conversations (1307– 1322).
Sufism began to turn pantheistic only when the ideas of Ibn al-Arabi (died 1240)
began to gain influence, first through the Persian poetry of Jalal-ud-din Rumi (1207–
1273) and Abdur Rahman Jami (1414–1492), and, then, through the endeavours
within India of Ashraf Jahangir Simnani (early fifteenth century).
Significantly this wave of qualified pantheism began to dominate Indian Islamic
thought about the same time that the pantheism of Sankaracharya‟s school of thought
was attaining increasing influence within Vedic thought.
An important aspect of Islam is that it coexisted with Hinduism despite all the
violence.
The conqueror Mu’izzuddin of Ghor had, on some of his gold coins, stamped the
image of goddess Lakshmi and had his name inscribed on it.
Muhammad Tughlaq in 1325 issued a farman enjoining the protection to be
extended to all the officers to Jain priests; he himself played holi and consorted
with the yogis.
The historian Barani noted with some bitterness how „the kings of Islam‟ showed
respect to „Hindus, Mongols, Polytheists and infidels‟, by making them sit on
masnad (cushions) and by honouring them in other ways, and how the Hindus
upon paying taxes (jiziya-o-kharaj) were allowed to have their temples and
celebrations, employ Muslim servants, and flaunt their titles(rai, rana, thakur, sah,
mahta, pandit, etc), right in the capital seats of Muslim rulers.
Caliph/Caliphate
Considered to be the successor of Prophet Muhammad, the Caliph wielded
authority over civil and religious affairs of the entire Islamic world.
The Caliph ruled Baghdad until it fell before Mongols in 1258.
The Caliphs then ruled in Egypt until the conquest of Ottomans in 1516-17.
Thereupon the title was held by Ottoman Sultans.
The office of Caliph (Caliphate) ended when Ottoman Empire was abolished and
Turkish Republic established by Mushtafa Kemal Attaturk in the 1920s.
The name of the Caliph is included in the Khutba or prayer.
Iltutmish, Muhammad Tughlaq and Firoz Tughlaq obtained Mansur or latter of
permission from the Caliph.
Architecture
Arch, dome, vaults and use of lime cement, the striking Saracenic features, were
introduced in India. The use of marble, red, grey and yellow sandstones added
grandeur to the buildings. In the beginning the Sultans converted the existing
buildings to suit their needs. Qutb-ud-din Aibak‟s Quwwat-ul- Islam mosque
situated adjacent to Qutb Minar in Delhi and the Adhai din ka Jhopra in Ajmer
illustrate these examples. A Hindu temple built over a Jain temple was modified into
Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque. Adhai din ka Jhopra was earlier a Jain monastery before
being converted as a mosque.
With the arrival of artisans from West Asia the arch and dome began to show up with
precision and perfection. Gradually local artisans also acquired the skill.
The tomb of Balban was adorned with the first true arch and the Alai Darwaza
built by Alaud- din Khalji as a gateway to the Quwwatul- Islam Mosque is adorned
with the first true dome.
The palace fortress built by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq and Muhammad bin Tughlaq in
Tughlaqabad, their capital city in Delhi, is remarkable for creating an artificial lake
around the fortress by blocking the river Yamuna.
The tomb of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq introduced the system of sloping walls bearing the
dome on a raised platform. The buildings of Firuz Tughlaq, especially his pleasure
resort, Hauz Khas, combined Indian and Saracenic features in alternate storeys,
displaying a sense of integration.
The Kotla fort at Delhi was the creation of Firoz Tughlaq.
The architecture that belonged to Khalji period were :
Siri new town in Delhi
Dargah of Hazrat Nisam-ud-din Aulia
Alai Darwaza
The Tughlaq rulers did not give importance to ornamentation. The buildings in theier
period were solid and strong.
Lodi architecture include: The Lodi Garden, Moti Masjid in New Delhi and tombs of
Sikander Lodi.
Qutb Minar, originally a 72.5 metre tower when completed by Iltutmish, was
increased to 74 metres by the repairs carried out by Firuz Shah Tughlaq.
The Minar is facilitated by 379 steps and it is magnificent for the height, balconies
projecting out marking the storeys, the gradual sloping of the tower and the
angular flutings creating a ribbed effect around the tower.
Literature
Amir Khusrau emerged as a major figure of Persian prose and poetry. Amir Khusrau
felt elated to call himself an Indian in his Nu Siphr („Nine Skies‟). In this work, he
praises India‟s climate, its languages – notably Sanskrit – its arts, its music, its people,
even its animals.
Amir Khusrau (1252-1325) was the famous Persian writer of this period. He wrote a
number of poems.
He experimented with several poetical forms and created a new style of Persian
poetry called Sabaq- i - Hind or the Indian style. He also wrote some Hindi verses.
Amir Khusrau‟s Khazain-ul-Futuh speaks about Alauddin‟s conquests. His famous
work Tughlaq Nama deals with the rise of Ghyiasuddin Tughlaq.
The Islamic Sufi saints made a deep literary impact. The Fawai’d-ul-Fawad, a work
containing the conversations of Sufi Saint Nizam-ud-din Auliya was compiled by
Amir Hassan.
A strong school of historical writing emerged with the writings of Zia-ud-din
Barani, Shams-ud-din Siraj Afif and Abdul Malik Isami.
Zia-ud-din Barani, emerged as a master of Persian prose.
Abdul Malik Isami, in his poetic composition of Futuh-us-Salatin, records the
history of Muslim rule from Ghaznavid period to Muhammad bin Tughlaq’s reign.
Persian literature was enriched by the translation of Sanskrit works.
Persian dictionaries with appropriate Hindawi words for Persian words were
composed, the most important being Farhang-i-Qawas by Fakhr-ud-din Qawwas
and Miftah-ul- Fuazala by Muhammad Shadiabadi.
Tuti Namah, the Book of Parrots, is a collection of Sanskrit stories translated into
Persian by Zia Nakshabi.
Mahabharata and Rajatarangini were also translated into Persian.
Delhi Sultanate did not hamper the progress of Sanskrit Literature.
Sanskrit continued to be the language of high intellectual thought.
The Sanskrit schools and academies established in different parts of the empire
continued to flourish.
The classical Sanskrit inscription (Pala Baoli) of 1276 in Delhi claims that due to the
benign rule of Sultan Balban god Vishnu sleeps in peace in the ocean of milk without
any worries.
The influence of Arabic and Persian on Sanskrit literature was felt in the form of
translations.
Shrivara in his Sanskrit work Kathakautuka included the story of Yusuf and
Zulaika as a Sanskrit love lyric.
Bhattavatara took Firdausi‟s Shah Namah as a model for composing Zainavilas, a
history of the rulers of Kashmir.
Zia Nakshabi was the first to translate Sanskrit stories into Persian. The book Tutu
Nama or Book of the Parrot became popular and translated into Turkish and later into
many European languages.
The famous Rajatarangini written by Kalhana belonged to the period of Zain-ul
Abidin, the ruler of Kashmir. Many Sanskrit works on medicine and music were
translated into Persian.
Chand Baradi was the famous Hindi poet of this period. Bengali literature had also
developed and Nusrat Shah patronized the translation of Mahabaratha into Bengali.
The Bakthi cult led to development of Gujarati and Marathi languages. The
Vijayanagar Empire patronized Telugu and Kannada literature.
Khafi Khan, a courtier of Emperor Aurangzeb says, „It is the duty of an historian to
be faithful, to have no hope of profit, no fear of injury, to show no partiality on one
side, or animosity on the other, to know no difference between friend and stranger, and
to write nothing but with sincerity.‟
Other information
Copper Jitals are available for the study of the period of the Delhi Sultans.
Silver Tanka introduced by Iltutmish, Ala-ud-din Khalji‟s gold coins,
Muhammad-bin-Tughluq‟s copper token currency are indicative of coinage as
well as the economic prosperity or otherwise of the country of the time.