Agro-Techniques of Selected Medicinal Plants Vol - I Part - I

Agro-techniques of
selected medicinal plants
Volume 1
National Medicinal Plants Board

Department of AYUSH, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare
Government of India, Chandralok Building, 36, Janpath
New Delhi – 110001
© National Medicinal Plants Board, Department of AYUSH, Ministry of Health and
Family Welfare, Government of India, 2008
Price: Rs 500/US $15
ISBN 978-81-7993-154-7
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means
without prior permission of the National Medicinal Plants Board, Department of AYUSH,
Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India
Published by
TERI Press
The Energy and Resources Institute Tel. +91 11 2468 2100 or 4150 4900
Darbari Seth Block, Habitat Place Fax +91 11 2468 2144 or 2468 2145
Lodhi Road, New Delhi – 110 003 E-mail teripress@teri.res.in
Web site www.teriin.org
The agro-techniques covered in this publication are based on the reports of various institutions
and may not meet the exact agronomic requirement of a particular crop in another agro-climatic
region. The National Medicinal Plants Board, therefore, does not take any responsibility for any
variation in the agronomic practice, crop yields, and economic returns indicated in the agro-
techniques in this publication.
Printed in India by Innovative Designers & Printers, New Delhi
ii
Contents
Foreword v
Acknowledgements vii
Abbreviations xi
Introduction xiii
Abroma augusta 1
Aconitum balfourii 5
Aconitum heterophyllum 11
Alpinia galanga 17
Alstonia scholaris 21
Asparagus racemosus 27
Bacopa monnieri 33
Baliospermum montanum 39
Caesalpinia sappan 45
Clerodendrum indicum 49
Colchicum luteum 55
Coleus barbatus 59
Commiphora wightii 63
Curculigo orchioides 69
Curcuma caesia 73
Curcuma zedoaria 77
Desmodium gangeticum 81
Dioscorea bulbifera 85
Gymnema sylvestre 89
Hedychium spicatum 93
iii
CONTENTS
Hemidesmus indicus 99
Holostemma ada-kodien 103
Inula racemosa 107
Leptadenia reticulata 111
Marsdenia tenacissima 115
Microstylis wallichii 119
Nardostachys grandiflora 125
Operculina turpethum 131
Oroxylum indicum 135
Picrorhiza kurroa 139
Plumbago zeylanica 145
Premna integrifolia 151
Pterocarpus marsupium 155
Pterocarpus santalinus 159
Rheum emodi 163
Rubia cordifolia 167
Saraca asoca 171
Solanum indicum 175
Strychnos nux-vomica 179
Strychnos potatorum 183
Swertia chirata 189
Terminalia arjuna 193
Terminalia chebula 197
Tinospora cordifolia 201
Tylophora indica 205
Uraria picta 211
Valeriana jatamansi 215
Vigna trilobata 221
Viola serpens 227
Zanthoxylum armatum 231
Glossary
Glossary of botanical terms 235
Glossary of medical terms 238
iv
Foreword
W
e in India have a rich heritage of plant-based health care sys-
tems like Ayurveda, Unani, and Siddha, which have a very
high degree of societal acceptance as they provide quality
health care to a large segment of our population. Forests, however, con-
tinue to be the main source of the raw material used for the manufacture
of medicines of Ayurveda, Siddha, and Unani. The unsustainable collec-
tion from the wild not only puts the species at the risk of extinction but
also affects the quality of the medicines manufactured due to absence of
standardization in the quality parameters of the raw material.
A recent study by the NMPB (National Medicinal Plants Board) has
highlighted the fact that although about 6000 plants are used in the folk
and documented systems of medicine in India, less than 50 species of me-
dicinal plants are cultivated to any sizeable extent. The main factor be-
hind the slow pace of domestication of medicinal plants sourced from the
wild is the absence of knowledge on cultivation practices for such medici-
nal plants.
The NMPB has the primary mandate of supporting programmes relat-
ing to conservation and development of medicinal plants. While conser-
vation of medicinal plant resources in situ is the major component of the
schemes of the Board, promoting cultivation of medicinal plants is also of
equal, if not greater, importance, considering the potential that medicinal
plants offer for crop diversification and income generation, if supported
with proper extension and marketing linkages. Cultivation can also en-
sure production of raw material of standardized content and quality,
thereby enhancing the quality of the products manufactured.
v
FOREWORD
The agro-techniques developed by the NMPB through the various

university and R&D institutes will go a long way in disseminating scien-
tific information to the growers who are keen to take up cultivation of
medicinal plants but have not been able to do so due to the absence of
authentic scientific information.
I am confident that the book will fill this critical void in the pro-
gramme for promoting cultivation of medicinal plants.
Anita Das
vi
Acknowledgements
C
ultivation of medicinal plants offers opportunities for crop diver-
sification and income generation to the farmers. However, devel-
opment of sound agro-techniques for the plants that have
traditionally been collected from forests has been a major challenge in
promoting cultivation. It is in this background that a need was felt to
develop agro-techniques for some of the important medicinal plants by
involving the key R&D institutions and universities in the country.
Accordingly, the Department of AYUSH decided to support studies for
development of agro-techniques under the ‘Central scheme for develop-
ment of agro-techniques and cultivation of medicinal plants’, specifically
for those plants that are used in AYUSH systems of medicine.
Projects were, therefore, allocated to 33 specialized scientific organiza-
tions consisting of agriculture/horticulture universities and the R&D
institutions of CSIR (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research), ICAR
(Indian Council of Agricultural Research), and ICFRE (Indian Council of
Forestry Research and Education), which required infrastructure and exper-
tise to study about 115 plants. Under the scheme, the organizations were
required to undertake the experimental cultivation of allocated plants
specifically for the development of agro-techniques through projects that
were normally executed for three to four years. The performance and
progress of the projects were monitored by the PEC (Project Evaluation
Committee) set up by the Department. Of the 115 plants, 50 medicinal
plants and their agro-techniques have been short-listed for publication in
the first volume on the basis of reports received. It is proposed to finalize
further reports for publication under subsequent volumes.
vii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Development of agro-techniques for different medicinal plants is an

endeavour of the NMPB (National Medicinal Plants Board) towards
promoting cultivation of medicinal plants, through standardized agro-
techniques so as to make available to the industry raw material of quality
and standardized chemical ingredients.
The present publication is the first step in the series for finalization of
the agro-techniques that have been developed by the various R&D insti-
tutions and universities. This would not have been possible without the
efforts put in by the PIs (principal investigators) and project staff in the
respective organizations that were assigned the projects for development
of agro-techniques. The contribution of all the PIs, Co-PIs, and the or-
ganizations is deeply acknowledged. The agro-techniques included in the
publication are based on the reports furnished by the project organiza-
tions. All other information relating to basic features of a particular me-
dicinal plant is based on the published literature and formularies/
pharmacopoeias. The agro-technique developed by an institution located
in a particular geographical area is the outcome of its best efforts. The
findings given are only indicative and may not meet the exact agronomic
requirement of a particular crop in another agro-climatic region, as no
agro-technique can suit all the diverse climatic regions. Therefore, anyone
seeking to enter into cultivation as a commercial activity will be well ad-
vised to revalidate the agro-techniques from an R&D institution/univer-
sity located in the region where cultivation is sought to be done. The
NMPB has set up 23 facilitation centres for medicinal plants in different
states, which may also be approached to confirm the applicability of the
agro-techniques for a particular region.
The project work was evaluated and guided by the PEC consisting of
Dr Rajendra Gupta (Retired Agricultural Scientist of NBPGR [National
Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources]), Dr Mayaram Uniyal (Dravyaguna
and Ayurveda expert), Dr S Natesh (Adviser, Department of Biotechnol-
ogy), and Dr Sudeep Kumar (Principal Scientist, CSIR). Efforts of the
members of the PEC, especially those of Dr Rajendra Gupta who chaired
most of the meetings of the Committee, are gratefully acknowledged.
On behalf of the NMPB, Department of AYUSH, I feel it is my duty
to place on record my sincere thanks and appreciation for all institutions/
organizations that have worked for the development of agro-techniques.
Editing of the text and preparation of final document for publication in a
uniform pattern was a herculean task. Dr K K Bhutani, Dean, Depart-
ment of Natural Products and Shri A S Sandhu, Garden Superintendent
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
of the NIPER (National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Re-

search), Mohali have been responsible for the initial editing of the text,
and I acknowledge with gratitude their contribution in the exercise. The
final technical editing and designing have been accomplished by TERI
(The Energy and Resources Institute) and the contribution of Dr P P
Bhojvaid, Senior Fellow (TERI), Mrs Neelu Gera, and others in TERI is
highly appreciated.
Development of agro-techniques of the medicinal plants has a great
significance for overall development of this sector. Formulation,
implementation and monitoring of the programme, and the outcome of
the programme in the form of present publication is the result of untiring
efforts of officers/staff of NMPB, Department of AYUSH. In particular,
contributions by Dr S K Sharma, Adviser (Ay.), Sh R B S Rawat, former
Chief Executive Officer (NMPB), Dr D C Katoch, Dy. Adviser (Ay.),
Sh T U Haqqi, Assistant Adviser (Botany), Dr N Padma Kumar, Research
Officer (Botany), Dr O P Mishra, Research Officer (Botany), Dr V K
Singh, Asstt. Director (Botany), CCRUM (Centre Council for Research
in Unani Medicine), New Delhi and all other officers/staff of NMPB and
Department of AYUSH are gratefully acknowledged. The Board expresses
its gratitude to everyone who has been directly or indirectly involved in
bringing out this publication.
B S SAJWAN
Chief Executive Officer
ix
x
Abbreviations
@ at the rate of
BA butyric acid
°C degree celsius
cm centimetre
DAP di-ammonium phosphate
FYM farmyard manure
GA 3 gibberellic acid
gm gram
H2SO 4 sulphuric acid
ha hectare = 10 000 m2
IAA indole acetic acid
IBA indole butyric acid
K2O potash
kg kilogram
m metre
mg milligram
ml millilitre
mm millimetre
msl. mean sea level
MT metric tonnes
NAA naphthalene acetic acid
NER North East Region of India
NPK nitrogen + phosphorous + potassium
P2O 5 phosphate
xi
ABBREVIATIONS
PBZ paclobutrazol
pH acid/alkali value of soil (below 7 pH – acidic; above 7 pH – alkali)
PPM parts per million
TRF triademophon
WDP wettable dispersible powder
ZnSO 4 zinc sulphate
xii
INTRODUCTION
Introduction
M
ore than 90% of the formulations under the Indian Systems of
Medicine that is, Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, and
Homoeopathy (AYUSH), predominantly contain plant-based
raw materials. The efficacy of these systems thus mainly depends upon
the use of genuine raw material of quality and standardized ingredients in
the manufacture of medicines of these systems. In all, about 2000
medicinal plants are used in the preparation of AYUSH medicines, and
500 of these are more commonly used. For centuries, the forests have
been the source of herbs and medicinal plants. In the last few decades,
while the availability of medicinal plants collected from forests is
becoming uncertain, demand for herbs and plants has been increasing
due to resurgence in interest in AYUSH systems. Therefore, the forest
resources are under double pressure and are not able to meet the demand
of providing medicinal plants and herbs. A number of species have been
rendered vulnerable to extinction due to lack of cultivation and also due
to unsustainable collection of these plants from forests.
Considering the above situation, measures are required to promote the
cultivation of medicinal plants and create awareness amongst the people,
particularly amongst the farmers, about the medicinal and economic
value of these plants so that these plants may be wisely used and at the
same time conserved.
With the above objective in mind, the Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare had organized five regional seminars on medicinal plants during
the year 1986. These seminars were held at Junagarh, Guwahati,
Coimbatore, Manali, and Nainital. These seminars brought together a
xiii
AGRO - TECHNIQUES OF SELECTED MEDICINAL PLANTS
wide range of experts and were followed by a few workshops organized in

various states. In this series, a national workshop was also convened in
August 1990 in New Delhi. On the basis of recommendations of regional
seminars and workshops, 45 medicinal plants were considered important
for development of agro-techniques on priority, keeping in view their
demand and availability status.
For these reasons a central sector scheme, that is, ‘Central Scheme
for Development and Cultivation of Medicinal Plants’, was implemented
in 1990/91 to encourage cultivation of medicinal plants through
government-supported organizations that were engaged in, and had
expertise in this field. Central assistance was provided for creation of ba-
sic infrastructure facilities comprising works relating to fencing/develop-
ment of land, creation of irrigation facility, making available equipment,
and construction of sheds and other miscellaneous expenditures. The in-
tention behind this activity was to engage these organizations in cultiva-
tion of these plants and also develop agro-techniques for their cultivation.
However, after a few years of implementation of this scheme, it was ob-
served that the medicinal plant gardens set up under the scheme served
the demonstration purpose only. The concerned organizations had not
been able to properly take up the work of development of agro-tech-
niques.
No systematic effort had been made in the past for developing the
practices for cultivation of medicinal plants for providing raw material of
standardized ingredients. The package of practices under the agro-tech-
nique should essentially consist of the following:
Best method for raising the plants
Best soil for the plants
Seasonal practices including time of sowing the seeds and determina-
tion of growth behaviour
Number of plants appropriate for plantation per unit area and for
cropping/intercropping system
Nutrient requirement
Water management and weed control
Maturity and best harvesting period
Best harvest techniques and storage/packing methods
Best period of harvesting, keeping in view the active chemical ingredients
Commercial viability keeping in view the per acre input/output
xiv
INTRODUCTION
Need for good cultivation and harvesting practices

Medicinal plants have so far been collected from wild resources. However,
the plant material collected from these sources is replete with the
problems of adulteration and mis-identification. Further, the plant
material collected from the wild may also be contaminated by other
species or parts thereof. The wild varieties also differ with respect to the
presence of the active constituents from area to area. All such conditions
may have adverse consequences. In view of this, cultivation of genuine,
authentic variety of plants may be the only way to have raw material of
required quality. However, cultivation of these plants has never been easy
and commercially viable. This is the basic reason for their exploitation
from wild sources. Non-availability of proper techniques, soil, and
authentic plantation material are also some of the main constraints.
The safety and quality of raw medicinal plant materials and finished
products depend on various factors like genetic makeup, environmental
conditions, collection and cultivation practices, harvest and post-harvest
processing, transport and storage practices, and so on. Inadvertent con-
tamination by microbial or chemical agents during any of the production
stages can also lead to deterioration in quality.
WHO guidelines on GACPs

The WHO (World Health Organization) has published guidelines for
GACPs (good agricultural and collection practices) for medicinal plants.
The national governments are required to develop country-specific
guidelines for sustainable production of raw material of quality and
standardized ingredients. The development of WHO guidelines on
GACPs for medicinal plants is an important step to ensure quality of
herbal medicines and ecologically sound cultivation practices.
The GACPs cover a wide spectrum of cultivation and collection activi-
ties, including site selection, climate and soil considerations, identifica-
tion of seed, main post-harvest operations, and legal aspects. It is
necessary to concentrate on standardizing the cultivation practices,
collection practices, and post-harvest technologies for these plants adher-
ing to GACPs.
Certain basic guidelines are to be followed under GACPs for cultiva-
tion and harvesting of the crop, some of which are described below:
Select proper site for cultivation of a particular medicinal plant.
Select correct time for cultivation.
xv
Select proper variety.

Adopt organic farming.
Prune and collect only desired mature part(s), without harming the
mother plant.
Do not collect the whole population; leave at least 30%–40% for re-
generation.
Do not cut twigs/branches for collection of plant parts.
Use proper equipment for cutting, shearing, peeling, and so on.
Start drying process immediately after collection; ensure complete dry-
ing before packing and storage.
Dry aromatic herbs and delicate fruits in shade, and do not dry two or
more herbs in close vicinity.
Sift the herbs with appropriate sifter to remove dust and other unde-
sirable matter.
Pack the herbs in suitable packaging material to avoid losses due to ex-
ternal factors.
Store the herbs in proper storage conditions to minimize loss on storage.
For collection of underground part(s), bark, and whole plant, following

guidelines should be adhered to:
Collect after the seeds are shed to facilitate regeneration.
Do least digging for collection of underground parts and leave some
underground part to facilitate regeneration.
Collect underground parts when the mother plant is fully matured.
Dry fleshy parts before packing and storing; cut large parts into
smaller pieces.
Do not harvest bark from immature plant; instead, collect from the
branches of main trunk.
Strip the bark longitudinally and not from all over the circumference
of trunk/branches.
Cut into small pieces to facilitate complete drying.
Harvest only mature branches for stem.
Dry the herbs properly before packing or storing.
For collection of leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, floral parts, and so on,
follow the following recommendation:
Harvest only mature parts from healthy plants.
Do not collect all material of the plant at a time.
xvi
INTRODUCTION
Do not cut branches for collecting leaves, fruits, flowers, and so on.
Leave some floral parts on the plants to facilitate natural regeneration.
Fleshy flowers may be dried in the sun, but should preferably be dried
in shade.
Parts like stigma, anthers, buds, and so on should be collected at ap-
propriate time.
Harvest the seeds once the fruits are completely mature.
For collection of gums, oils, resins, galls, and so on:

Make incisions only vertically on some portions of the tree and not
horizontally.
Treat the incisions after collection of the desired material.
Do not collect the gum or resin from a tree continuously and collect
them in precisely right season.
Do not leave gum/resin exposed in the field. Pack them in appropriate
containers or drums with polyethylene lining.
Collect the galls only from prescribed species (for example,
Karkatshringi from Pistacia integerrima).
No live insect should be present inside the galls.
xvii
ABROMA AUGUSTA LINN . F .
Abroma augusta Linn.f.
Sterculiaceae
Ayurvedic name Pisachkarpas

Unani name Ulatkambal
Hindi name Ulatkambal
Trade name Ulatkambal, Devil’s
cotton
Parts used Root, root bark,
stem, and leaves
Abroma augusta
Therapeutic uses
R
oot bark of ulatkambal is a valuable emmenagogue and uterine
tonic, chiefly used in intra-uterine diseases and other gynaecological
disorders mostly related to menstrual disorders such as dysmenor-
rhoea, amenorrhoea, and gonorrhoea. Powdered root is an abortifacient and
anti-fertility agent. The leaves and stem are demulcent. Infusion of fresh
leaves and stems is effective in treatment of gonorrhoea.
Morphological characteristics
Abroma is a shrub or a small tree, attaining a height of 3–5 m, with hori-
zontal and velvety branches. Leaves are about 10–30 cm long and 6–18 cm
broad, ovate or lanceolate, more or less cordate, finely acuminate, mem-
branous, entire, and three to five lobed with 1–12-cm-long petiole. The
dorsal surface of the leaves is glabrous and ventral surface is pubescent.
1
Floral characteristics
Flowers are purple in colour, about 5 cm in diameter, occurring on few
flowered cymes. Sepals are about 2.5 cm long, lanceolate, and persistent.
Petals are imbricate and fall off soon. Stamens are present on short
staminal tube; five staminodes are present. Ovary is five lobed, pyramidal
with many ovules in each cell. Capsules are 3–5 cm long, obpyramidal,
membranous, finely pubescent, and truncate at the apex. Each carpel has
a triangular wing behind it. Flowering and fruiting occur in the months
of December and January.
Distribution
The species is of Indo-Malayan origin and
occurs throughout tropical forests of India,
particularly in North-East and East Coast.
The species is often planted for its showy,
deep scarlet flowers.
Climate and soil

Hot and humid climate is suitable for the
growth of the crop. The plant grows well in a
variety of soils, like sandy loam to loam type.
It grows in open areas in nature.
Field view of
Abroma augusta
Propagation material
Seeds are the best propagation material. Mature seeds, which are black in
colour at maturity, can be collected during December to January.
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules The pretreated seeds are sown in well-prepared
nursery beds during February to mid-March. Germination is
completed in about 12–15 days. Germinated seedlings are transplanted
in polybags filled with loamy soil, sand, and FYM (farmyard manure)
in equal ratio. Seeds may also be directly sown in polybags after pre-
treatment. Seedlings are ready for transplanting in field during May–June
when they attain a height of about 20–25 cm.
1
Agro-technique study carried out by Regional Research Laboratory, Itanagar Branch, P O
Naharlagun – 791 110, Arunachal Pradesh
2
ABROMA AUGUSTA LINN . F .
P Propagule rate and pretreatment About 150–200 g seeds are sufficient

to produce 12 000–14 000 seedlings for 1 hectare plantation. To
hasten germination, the seeds are dipped in dilute sulphuric acid for
six minutes and then rinsed thoroughly in running water to remove
any traces of acid. Soil in nursery beds and polybags should be treated
with Bavistin 50 WP @ 0.20% to check damping off and 0.25%–0.30%
Rogor 30EC to check insect attack.
Planting in the field

P Land preparation and fertilizer application Pits of
30 cm × 30 cm × 30 cm size are dug at a spacing
of 1 m × 1 m, after light ploughing of the soil. A
basal dose of FYM @ 10 tonnes/hectare is mixed
with dried soil and filled in the pits for better and
faster growth. The basal dose of NPK (nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium) @ 30:40:20 kg/hectare,
along with FYM, may also be applied to the pit soil.
P Transplanting and optimum spacing May–June is
the best time for transplantation of seedlings in
the pits, as by that time, the seedlings attain a
height of about 20–25 cm. This may be continued
till August in North-East region where rainfall is
well distributed throughout the year. At the time
of transplantation, there should be sufficient
moisture in the soil for establishment of the seed-
lings. Optimum spacing recommended in the
field is 1 m × 1 m, that is, an optimum crop stand Abroma augusta –
of 10 000 plants/hectare. root
P Intercropping system Since good root growth is essential for optimum
yield, the plant may be grown as a sole high-density crop. Inter-
cropping may interfere with root growth and, therefore, should be
avoided.
P Interculture and maintenance practices After basal dose of manure and
NPK, top dressing of N @ 30 kg/hectare is given 120 days after trans-
planting. The follow-up fertilizer is provided in the second year with
doses of NPK @ 30:40:20 kg/hectare after 12 months at the time
of soil working, followed by applying N @ 30 kg/hectare after
18 months. First intercultural manual weeding operation is done
45 days after plantation and second after four months of plantation.
3
In the second year, intercultural weeding operations are done at the

end of 12 and 18 months.
P Irrigation practices The crop is grown under rain-fed conditions in
North-East India. Elsewhere, the crop should be regularly irrigated to
maintain humidity. Water logging should be avoided.
P Disease and pest control Damping off is a serious disease in this crop
due to high moisture conditions. Control measures include spraying
of Bavistin 50 WP @ 0.20% to check damping off and 0.25%–0.30%
Rogor 30EC to check insect attack. No other infection has been
observed on this crop.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting Best time for seed collection is November–
January. The crop takes 24 months to mature. Harvesting of medicinally
useful parts should be done at post-flowering stage. For harvesting, the
roots are dug out and cleaned with water. The soil should be suffi-
ciently moist before digging out the roots.
P Post-harvest management Root bark should be shade-dried, packed in
gunny bags, and kept in a cool and dry place.
P Chemical constituents Roots contain alkaloids abromine, abromasterol,
and digitonide. The acceptable range of active constituents is 5.5%–5.7%
of total constituents.
P Yield and cost of cultivation About 1.95 quintals of dry root bark is
obtained per hectare after two years. Estimated cost of cultivation per
hectare is Rs 54 000.
4
ACONITUM BALFOURII ( BENTH .) MUK .
Aconitum balfourii (Benth.) Muk.

Syn. Aconitum atrox
Ranunculaceae
Ayurvedic name Vatsanabh

Unani name Bachnak
Hindi name Meetha vish
Trade name Meetha vish, Indian
aconite
Parts used Tuberous roots
Aconitum balfourii
Therapeutic uses
T
he roots of bachnak are diaphoretic, diuretic is analgesic,
febrifuge, anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic, anti-pyretic, and
vermifuge. It is used in all types of pains and inflammations. In
large doses, it acts as powerful sedative, narcotic and poison.
The roots of meetha vish are tuberous with broad and depressed initial
bud that is conical or hemispherical in shape. The scales are broad with a
clasping base. They usually decay after sprouting. The stem is erect,
robust, and more than a metre in height, generally with one to eight
branches. The leaves are scattered, orbicular or ovate–cordate.
5
The inflorescence is a many flowered compound raceme. Flowers are blu-
ish-violet with five carpels. The fruit is an achene containing 16–25
seeds, and is obpyramidal in shape. Flowering and fruiting occur during
September to November.
Distribution
The plant is found in the temperate
alpine ravines in the Himalayas and
also with the Rhododendron com-
munity at altitudes between 2800 m
and 4200 m.
Climate and soil

Areas above 2200 m altitude are
suitable for the cultivation of Indian
aconite. Sandy loam and slightly
acidic soils (pH 5.1–5.5), rich in hu-
mus, are suitable for cultivation of
this crop. Partially shaded areas,
thick soil, and moist conditions pro-
vide a healthy environment for the
plants.
Aconitum balfourii
– nursery
Varieties
No variety of this plant has been identified. However, strains collected
from timberline populations show better survival and good response to
vegetative propagation, growth and yield, when cultivated at compara-
tively lower altitudes, that is, about 2200 m.
Propagation is done through seeds and tuber segments. The fruits (cap-
sules) that turn light brown (before splitting) are collected in late Octo-
ber to mid-November for better germination of seeds. Stem cuttings have
also been found to be successful in multiplication at higher altitudes.
6
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules
• Seeds are sown in a nursery at a soil depth of 0.5–0.7 cm in mist
chambers or shade houses. Seeds may also be sown in open beds
followed by mulching. Seed sowing may be done during October–
November or March–April in temperature controlled chambers at
middle altitudes (1800–2200
m). At lower elevations, sow-
ing is done in February–
March in glass houses (for
example, at 1550 m altitude at
Srinagar, Garhwal) and during
May–June at alpine sites in
open beds or hot house.
• Tuber cuttings are planted
during the same period as
mentioned for seedlings. The
tubers sprout in about 6–45
days in laboratory conditions
and 12–65 days in polyhouses
under suitable soil and opti-
mal temperature (15–20 °C).
In case of availability of tubers
in late season (October– Aconitum balfourii
– plant
November), instead of dividing into segments, whole tubers should
be used at all altitudes.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment Nearly 2 kg seeds are required for
raising seedlings for 1 hectare of land, that is, for planting 50 000
seedlings at a spacing of 45 cm × 45 cm. Pretreatment of seeds with
GA3 (gibberellic acid) (100 and 200 PPM [parts per million]) favours
germination. In open beds, sun drying of seeds before sowing, fol-
lowed by mulching, is recommended for better germination.
1
Agro-technique study carried out by High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Centre, Hemwati
Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University, Srinagar (Garhwal) – 246 174, Uttarakhand.
7

P Land preparation and fertilizer application The field is ploughed well
during winter till a fine tilth is obtained. Weeds should be removed
along with addition of manure about 10–15 days before transplanta-
tion. Humus/compost/FYM (farmyard manure) may be added as per
the requirements, for example, soils with 1%–2% organic carbon will
need FYM/compost at the rate of 25–30 quintals/hectare/year as basal
dose at the time of land preparation. Application of forest litter at the
rate of 100–150 quintals/hectare/year for the entire crop period (5–7
years) has also been reported to give good
yield results. However, no studies are
available for application of inorganic ferti-
lizers.
P Transplanting and optimum spacing
Seedlings are transplanted after three
months of the first true leaf initiation
during March–April at lower and middle
altitudes and during May–August at al-
pine sites. Tuber segments can be directly
planted in the well-prepared field. For
better growth and development of tubers,
the recommended optimum spacing is
45 cm × 45 cm. Alternatively, seedlings
can be transplanted at a distance of 20–25
Aconitum balfourii
– flowering plants cm initially and then thinned after two
years of growth. For 45 cm × 45 cm spacing, about 50 000 seedlings
and for 20 cm × 25 cm spacing, about 200 000 seedlings are required.
The seedlings may suffer a mortality rate of 25%–40% during trans-
planting due to desiccation or mechanical injury.
P Intercropping system This plant is preferred as a sole crop.
Intercropping with Aconitum heterophyllum has been tried but mortal-
ity rate for A. heterophyllum was as high as 80% when cultivated with
Aconitum balfourii.
P Interculture and maintenance practices To achieve high production,
soil treated with high doses of humus has been found suitable for cul-
tivation. However, in the absence of adequate amount of leaf litter,
FYM prepared from sheep or buffalo dung may be used. But, at lower
elevations, no seed and tuber formation has been observed even in the
nursery beds treated with higher doses of organic manure. It is,
8
therefore, recommended that leaf litter or humus should preferably be

used. In the winter season, mulching is recommended as also the
manuring before the initiation of new plantlets
P Irrigation practices Watering is not required during the monsoon
period in cultivated fields. Irrigation depends on the location of sites
and texture of soil. At lower altitudes (1800–2200 m), frequent water-
ing at short intervals (two to seven days) is required till the seedlings
are six months old. Soil humidity should be maintained constantly.
P Weed control After the establishment of seedlings or sprouting of
tuber cuttings in early growth period, mulching through the layer of
broad leaf litter (up to 5-cm thick) is done. Manual weeding opera-
tions are not required at this stage. However, regular weeding at an
interval of 20–30 days is required in early development stages of the
growth, and during winter season.
P Disease and pest control No serious disease affecting the plant has
been observed, although insects may harm the flowers. No chemical
pesticides or insecticides are applied to the crop.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting In nature, plants require five to seven
years to complete the reproductive phase. In comparison, at lower alti-
tudes, plants mature within three to five years when cultivated
through seedlings. However, plants of ten produce flowers within one
to two years when raised through tubers. After completion of the re-
productive phase, plants become mature for harvest and achieve good
percentage of active contents. Time of completion of reproductive
phase differs with altitude. Generally, the plants from alpine areas
complete their reproductive phase by the last week of October or first
week of November, while the plants at lower altitudes complete their
reproductive phase during the first half of October. Plants raised from
tuber segments complete their reproductive phase by the end of third
year. Highest quantity of active ingredients is found during Novem-
ber–December. However, percentage of pseudoaconitine and aconitine
is found to be maximum during May–June when the plant becomes
six years old. Thus, plants can be harvested during that period to
achieve the high quantity of active contents. However, to get maxi-
mum yield as well as quality germplasm (seeds) for multiplication,
plants should be harvested during September at lower altitudes and in
October–November at higher altitudes.
9
P Post-harvest management Harvesting can be done simply by digging

the fields. Usually, whole tuber is harvested. However, rhizomatic seg-
ments of tubers (that is, tubers with roots) can be used for further
multiplication as they have better survival rate and growth percentage.
The tubers without rhizome are cut into 4–6 cm long slices. They
should be dried in shade at room temperature. After complete drying,
when moisture content is not more than 10% in slices, tubers can be
stored in damp-proof containers in dark, dry, and preferably cool
places for not more than six months, after which the quality starts de-
teriorating.
P Chemical constituents Tubers of A. balfourii contain a crystalline
toxic alkaloid called pseudo-aconitine (0.4%–0.5%) and small quanti-
ties of aconitine, picroaconine, aconine, benzyl aconine, and
hemonapelline.
P Yield and cost of cultivation Based on the dry weight of tubers and
total plants cultivated in 1 hectare of land, the estimated production
of root is nearly 450 kg dry weight, which is greater than the produc-
tion determined for natural sites. However, considering the survival
rate to be between 25% and 40% of transplanted seedlings/tubers, the
actual productivity has been estimated between 275 kg/hectare for
seedling-raised crop and 345 kg/hectare for tuber-raised crop after the
maturity of plants during third year of cultivation through vegetative
propagation. Plants grown from seedlings have yielded a maximum
production of 302 kg/hectare after third year of cultivation. Estimated
cost of cultivation per hectare is approximately Rs 120 000/hectare,
including the cost of land preparation, irrigation facilities, labour
charges, manure costs for three years, besides harvesting and drying
costs, but, excluding the cost of planting material.
Market trend – 2006/07

Market price: Rs 172 per kg
10
ACONITUM HETEROPHYLLUM LINN .
Aconitum heterophyllum Linn.
Ranunculaceae
Ayurvedic name Ativisha

Unani name Atees
Hindi name Atees
Trade name Atis
Parts used Dried tuberous roots
Aconitum heterophyllum –
plant in flower
Therapeutic uses
T
ubers of Aconitum heterophyllum are cooling in potency and bitter
in taste. They are used as expectorant, febrifuge, anthelmintic,
anti-diarrhoeal, anti-emetic, and anti-inflammatory. They are also
used against poisoning due to scorpion or snake bite and to cure fever
and contagious diseases. The aqueous extract of the root induces hyper-
tension through action on the sympathetic nervous system and in higher
doses, it becomes lethal.
The shoot of atees is annual, while the root is biennial. The stem is clasp-
ing and erect. The branches are absent or rarely one or two in number.
Leaves are glabrous, sessile, and variable in shape and size. The tubers are
11
up to 3 cm long, conical at ends. The mother and daughter tubers occur

in pairs. The initial first bud of the daughter tuber is conic in shape.
Flowers are large, hooded, white–violet in colour and occur in slender ra-
cemes or lax leafy panicles. Corolla is hairy. Carpels are five in number,
containing 10–18 follicles. Flowering and fruiting
occur from August to October in the third year of
growth.
Distribution
The species is found in grassy slopes of alpine
Himalayan region, between 3000 m and 4200 m
altitude, sometimes descending up to 2200 m.
Climate and soil

Although atees generally prefers sub-alpine and al-
pine climate, cultivation up to 2000 m altitude
has been recommended in sandy (10 cm deep)
soils with rich organic matter. In Garhwal Himala-
yas, altitudes above 2000 m above mean sea level
have been found to be suitable for the cultivation
of atees. Sandy loam and slightly acidic soil, with
pH about 6, has been found to be the best for seed
Aconitum heterophyllum – germination, survival, better growth, and yield.
seedlings in root-trainers Addition of humus or leaf litter to the soil in-
creases survival rate and growth of seedlings at all
altitudes. Forest leaf litter also helps in retaining moisture content in the
soil. The plant prefers open, sunny sites, and abundant air and soil mois-
ture during summer months.
Varieties
Although no variety has been developed for this plant, yet based on the
colour of the tubers, Aconitum heterophyllum is classified into white, yel-
low, red, and black varieties. The white (daughter tuber) variety, with
rapid growth and high yield, is considered to be the best. Seeds and
tubers collected from alpine meadows (about 3000–4000 m altitude)
have better growth, survival, and yield than those collected from alpine
pastures between 2500 and 3000 m altitudes.
12
Seeds, tuber segments or young leafy stems can be used as propagules.
The fruits (capsules) that turn light brown (before splitting) are collected
during late October to mid-November for better germination of seeds.
The seeds should preferably be collected during morning hours.
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules
• Seeds have no dormancy period and
are sown immediately after collection.
They are sown in sand and FYM
(farmyard manure)/compost mixture
(1:2) at a depth of 0.5 cm in
styrofoam trays in a mist house. Nurs-
ery beds of 2 m × 2 m or even smaller
size are better for raising seedlings in-
side the polyhouses. At a depth of 0.5
cm, germination is delayed to some
extent, but first true leaf initiation oc-
curs earlier as compared to sowing at
other depths. Seeds are sown during
October–November or March–April
in polyhouses at middle altitudes
(1800–2200 m), during February– Aconitum heterophyllum –
young plants
March in glass houses at lower altitudes
(600– 1000 m), and during May–June at alpine sites in open beds or in
hot houses. Plants raised from seeds have very slow growth and the
cotyledonary phase (pseudomonocotyle) persists for at least one growth
season (three to four months). Under polyhouse conditions and sandy
textured soil, germination takes about two months to complete. How-
ever, diurnal temperature variations (25–25 °C) and mulching of soil
promote germination within 15–25 days.
• When tuber segments are used as planting material, they are treated
with GA3 (gibberellic acid) (200 PPM [parts per million]) for
1
Agro-technique study carried out by High Altitude Plant Physiology Research Centre,
Hemwati Nandan Bahuguna Garhwal University, Srinagar (Garhwal), Uttarakhand.
13
maximum rooting percentage and survival. Tuber segments are also

planted during the same period as mentioned for seedlings. Propa-
gation using young leafy stems, when inserted in moist soils under
scrub canopy or in soil trenches covered with thin layer of moss, in-
duces rooting at every node. Even the top nodal segment roots
within 30–35 days under above conditions during
July–August. About two to four plantlets can be pro-
duced from one leafy stem.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment Approximately 1.5
kg seeds are required for obtaining seedlings for 1
hectare. However, about 111 000 tuber segment are
needed for plantation on 1 hectare. Pretreatment of
seeds with GA3 (200 PPM) results in early germina-
tion (9–20 days) and up to 55% germination.

P Land preparation and fertilizer application During
winter, the fields are thoroughly ploughed till fine
tilth is obtained. Removal of weeds and addition of
manure 10–15 days before transplantation improve
the soil quality. A high leaf litter dose (150 quintals/
hectare) is added to the soil before transplanting for
good seedling growth and survival (up to 56%). In
subsequent years, a dose of 60–70 quintals/hectare/
year can be added for maximum yield.
Aconitum heterophyllum P Transplanting and optimum spacing Propagules/
seedlings are transplanted after three months of the
first true leaf initiation during March–April at middle altitudes and
during May–August at alpine sites. A spacing of 30 cm × 30 cm in
field is considered optimum for better vegetative growth and resultant
high tuber yield.
P Intercropping system The plant is grown as a mono crop.
P Interculture operations and maintenance practices Forest leaf litter/
FYM from different sources/leaf compost can be used to provide nu-
trition to the growing plants. Leaves may turn slightly yellowish and
the plants may wither due to waterlogging in beds. To overcome this
problem, the crop should be planted in well-drained beds. During
the rainy season, weeding is required every week. In other seasons,
14
weeding may be done as and when required. When the crop is culti-
vated at middle and lower altitudes, that is, as to 2200 m, weeding
may be required at an interval of 15–20 days during the entire winter
season.
P Irrigation practices Planted beds need irrigation during early summer.
The retention of soil moisture is necessary to decrease seedling mortal-
ity. Irrigation requirement depends on the texture and porosity of the
soil. In dry season, irrigation at least once in a week is necessary to re-
tain soil moisture. However, waterlogging results in withering of
plants at lower altitudes. Hence, well-drained beds are recommended
for cultivation of the crop.
P Disease and pest control No serious pests or diseases are noticed in
this crop.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting Vegetative growth phase lasts for three
to four years and finally leads to the reproductive phase. Flowering at
alpine (natural) sites has been recorded in September and fruits ma-
ture during late October or November. Harvesting of tubers is recom-
mended after the completion of reproductive phase and ripening of
seeds during October–November, when maximum quantitative tuber
yield is recorded. However, active content (atisine) and other alkaloid
contents have been found to be maximum when tubers/plants are har-
vested in July–August at the budding stage. Further, percentage of ac-
tive contents decreases slightly with the maturity of the plant. Plants
raised from tuber cuttings complete their vegetative and reproductive
phase within three years. A. heterophyllum tubers harvested in May–
June contain lower quantity of atisine (0.35%) as compared to those
harvested in November and December (0.43%), which also contain
traces of aconitine. The tubers harvested in May, however, show higher
quantity of aconitine and hypoaconitine as compared to those har-
vested in other seasons.
P To get maximum yield of tubers as well as seeds for multiplication,
plants must be harvested during October at lower altitudes and in first
week of November at higher altitudes. At lower altitudes, flowering
and fruiting season comes nearly 1–1.5 months earlier. Stigma recepta-
cles of many alpine plants are sensitive to low temperatures and
remain active for 10–25 days. At lower altitudes, where temperature is
15
comparatively higher, these stigmas become inactive and thus proper

pollination does not take place. Often, no seed and tuber formation
is observed even in the beds treated with higher doses of organic
manure.
P Post-harvest management Tubers are harvested simply by digging the
field. Usually, whole tuber is harvested. However, topmost segments of
tubers can be used for further multiplication, as they have better sur-
vival and growth rates. After harvesting, the whole tubers or the tubers
without the top segment should be dried in partial shade or at room
temperature. After complete drying, slices of tubers can be stored in
wooden boxes or airtight polythene bags.
P Chemical constituents In tubers, atisine content varies from 0.19% to
0.27%. However, 0.79% of total alkaloids of the plant are found in
tubers. Other alkaloids found in A. heterophyllum are heteratisine
(0.3%), histisine, heterophyllisine, heterophylline, heterophyllidine,
atidine, and hitidine. Also present are aconitic acid, tannic acid, a
mixture of oleic, palmitic, and stearic acids, glycerides, and vegetable
mucilage in addition to starch and sugars.
P Yield and cost of cultivation Actual production of 518 kg/hectare and
579 kg/hectare, respectively, from seedlings and tuber cuttings has
been recorded after third year of cultivation under experimental con-
ditions. Cost of cultivation is nearly Rs 84 000 for three years for
1 hectare of land. This includes cost of land preparation, irrigation
facilities, low-cost polyhouse for the seedling establishment, manure,
labour charges, and harvesting cost. Cost of developed seedlings or
seeds is not included. After including this cost, the cost of cultivation
rises to approximately Rs 110 000/hectare.

P Market price: Rs 2800–3600 per kg
P Market demand: Approximately 40 tonnes per annum
16
ALPINIA GALANGA WILLD .
Alpinia galanga Willd.

Syn. Amomum galanga Lour
Zingiberaceae
Ayurvedic name Kulanjana

Unani name Khulanjan
Hindi name Kulanjan, sugandha
bach
Trade name Kulanjan
Part used Rhizome and seeds
Therapeutic uses
Alpinia galanga
T
he rhizome of kulanjan is carmina-
tive, aphrodisiac, febrifuge, and bronchodilator. It expels the
phlegm (mucus), improves voice, and is very useful in sore throat
and respiratory congestion. It is also used in rheumatism. The seeds have
the same uses as the rhizome.
The plant is a rhizomatous, perennial herb, and attains a height of about
1.5–2.5 m. The rhizome is very prominent and aromatic. Externally, it is
reddish brown-white and internally reddish-white. Leaves are leathery,
about 30–60 cm long and 10–15 cm, glossy on both surfaces, lanceolate
and smooth, with white margins.
17
Flowers are greenish-white, about 3 cm long, and occur in dense panicles.
Corolla has distinctly clawed lips. Flowering occurs in May and June, while
fruiting occurs in August and September. Fruits are orange-red in colour.
Distribution
The species occurs naturally in shady and marshy lands in tropical areas, par-
ticularly in South India, and North-East India; elsewhere, it is cultivated.
Climate and soil

The plant is successfully culti-
vated only on sandy loam soils
and in humid tropical climate.
It can be grown in open sunny
areas with sufficient rainfall.
With adequate irrigation provi-
sions, it can be grown upto an
altitude of 1000 m.
Varieties
Alpinia galanga –
rhizomes No variety has been released so
far. However, as per experi-
ments, the accession no. IC-319683, available at NBPGR (National Bu-
reau of Plant and Genetic Resources), Umiam (Meghalaya), has been
found to give better yield.
Rhizome splits are used as planting material for commercial cultivation.
Seed propagation is not feasible due to low germination rate.
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules Rhizome slices are directly planted in the field and
no nursery stock is generally raised.
1
Agro-technique study carried out by NBPGR (National Bureau of Plant Genetic
Resources), Regional Station, Umiam, Shillong – 793 103, Meghalaya.
18
ALPINIA GALANGA WILLD .
P Propagule rate and pretreatment Planting rhizome slices @ 5.5 tonnes

per hectare with a spacing of 30 cm × 30 cm for one-year crop and
3.5 tonnes per hectare with a spacing of 45 cm × 30 cm for two-year
duration crop is recommended. No pretreatment is required before
planting.

P Land preparation and fertilizer application The land is prepared by
ploughing to achieve a fine tilth. FYM (farmyard manure) @ 5 tonnes
is applied in the field at the time of land preparation. Besides, 150 kg
of urea, 100 kg of muriate of pot-
ash, and 600 kg of single super
phosphate are added as basal dose
before planting. If required, lime @
2 tonnes may also be applied in the
field one month before planting to
counter the acidic nature of soil.
Well-decomposed humus or
vermicompost may also be used as
manure instead of FYM.
February to mid-April is the best
time for raising the crop in north-
eastern hilly tracts. Elsewhere, it
Alpinia galanga –
could be planted in monsoon sea- a crop veiw
son. Whole or parts of rhizomes of approximately 50 g weight with
8–10 internodes are directly planted on hills in rows in the field. The
rhizomes sprout in 15–20 days in the field. Optimum crop stand per
hectare is 111 000 hills for one-year crop at a spacing of 30 cm ×
30 cm and 74 000 hills for two-year crop at a spacing of 45 cm × 45 cm.
P Interculture and maintenance practices The total nitrogen requirement
of the crop is about 300 kg, half of which is applied through urea at
the time of planting. The rest of nitrogen (urea) should be applied in
two equal split doses, that is, 75 kg; one at the time of first earthing-
up and the rest at the time of second earthing-up. Each urea applica-
tion should always be followed by watering. Hoeing should be done
twice, one at 45 days and another at 60 days after planting. Manual
weedings should be done thrice at 60, 90, and 120 days after planting.
19
P Irrigation practices The crop can be raised under rain-fed conditions

on terraces in Meghalaya and other north-eastern states and elsewhere
in India. Watering is done only during long dry spells.
P Disease and pest control No significant pests and diseases have been
observed on this crop except Colletotrichum spots, which can be con-
trolled by spraying 1% Bordeaux mixture at monthly intervals after
the appearance of leaf spots.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting Keeping in view the active chemical in-
gredients, the best time for harvesting of rhizome is last week of Feb-
ruary when the crop becomes 12-month old. At this stage, the leaves
turn pale or start drying. The rhizomes, thus harvested, contain 0.32%
to 0.35% oil on dry weight basis. Generally, the crop can be harvested
after either one or two years. But for preserving the germplasm, it can
be kept as a perennial. In that case, frequent weeding, pegging, ferti-
lizer application and related practices are to be carried out at regular
intervals.
P Post-harvest management After harvesting, the rhizomes should be
cleaned, cut into slices, dried in the shade, and finally, stored in suit-
able containers in dry and cool places.
P Chemical constituents The green rhizomes are reported to contain
0.04% essential (galangal) oil, which consists of methyl-cinnamate
(48%), cineol (20%–30%), some camphor, and d-pinene. The dry rhi-
zome has 0.12% (approximately) of oil, which is low in asarone.
P Yield and cost of cultivation For a 12-month-old crop, yield of fresh
rhizome is 23.93 tonnes per hectare, which on drying reduces to
5.65 tonnes per hectare. For 24-month-old crop, yield of fresh rhi-
zomes is 82.91 tonnes per hectare, which gives 22.65 tonnes per hec-
tare of dry rhizome. The cost of cultivation for one-year-old crop is
approximately Rs 75 811 per hectare and that for a two-year-old crop
is about Rs 64 272 per hectare.

P Market price: Rs 50 per kg
P Market demand: Above 100 MT/year
20
ALSTONIA SCHOLARIS R . BR .
Alstonia scholaris R. Br.
Apocyanaceae
Ayurvedic name Saptaparna

Unani name Kashim
Hindi names Saptaparna,
Chhatwan
Trade name Saptaparni
Parts used Stem bark, leaves,
latex, and flowers
Alstonia scholaris –
sapling
Therapeutic uses
A
lstonia is a bitter tonic, febrifuge, diuretic, anthelmintic, stimulant,
carminative, stomachic, aphrodisiac, galactagogue, and haemo-
static. It is used as a substitute for cinchona and quinine for the
treatment of intermittent periodic fever. An infusion of bark is given in
fever, dyspepsia, skin diseases, liver complaints, chronic diarrhoea, and
dysentery.
Saptaparna is a medium-sized evergreen tree, usually 12–18 m high,
sometimes up to 27 m high, with close-set canopy. Bark is rough, greyish-
white, yellowish inside, and exudes bitter latex when injured. Leaves are
four to seven in a whorl, and are thick, oblong, with a blunt tip. They are
dark green on the top, and pale and covered with brownish pubescence on
the dorsal surface.
21
Flowers are fragrant, greenish-white or greyish-yellow in umbrella-shaped
cymes. Follicles (fruits) are narrowly cylindrical, 30 cm × 3 cm, fascicled,
with seeds possessing brown hair. Flowering and fruiting occur from
March to July, extending to August in subtropical climate.
Distribution
The species is found in the sub-Himalayan tract from Yamuna eastwards,
ascending up to 1000 m. It occurs in tropical, subtropical, and moist de-
ciduous forests in India, and is widely cultivated
as avenue tree throughout India.
Climate and soil

The species can be grown in a variety of climatic
conditions in India, ranging from dry tropical to
sub-temperate. However, it thrives well in areas
where annual rainfall is about 100–150 cm, as it
prefers a fairly moist habitat. The species grows
well in the red alluvial soil having proper aera-
tion. It can thrive in black cotton soils as well,
but the growth is slow due to prevailing moist
soil conditions during rainy season.
Alstonia scholaris Seeds are the best planting material for raising
the crop. No pretreatment is generally required. Fruits may be collected
during summer before splitting of thin and wiry pods. Seeds are feathery
but unable to disperse easily and automatically.
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules The seeds are sown in polybags or in beds of size
10 m × 1 m by broadcasting/dibbling method in March to April. Beds
are prepared by adding FYM (farmyard manure) and a little sand to
1
Agro-technique study carried out by the NWFP Division, Tropical Forest Research Insti-
tute, PO RFRC, Mandla Road, Jabalpur – 482 021, Madhya Pradesh.
22
improve porosity and drainage. About 25 g of clean seeds are required/

m2 (square metre) of nursery beds. Seeds should be mixed with fine
sand before sowing, either in polybags or in the nursery beds. Mixing
with sand helps to avoid germination in clumps. Protection from
strong winds is very important, especially in dry localities, as the dry
winds are extremely harmful to the tender plants. The seeds start ger-
minating in polythene bags or nursery beds after a fortnight. Seeds re-
main viable for more than a year, but the percentage
of germination declines from 90% to about 40%
after one year. When the seedlings in mother beds are
about 5–10 cm high, they are picked and transferred
to polybags, so that they attain a height of about
30–45 cm in about two months. These seedlings are
ready for transplanting during rainy season in refilled
pits.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment Approximately, 250 g
seeds in a bed of 10 m × 1 m size are sufficient to
raise seedlings for 1-hectare plantation. Germination
of fresh seed varies from 80% to 90% and no seed
treatment is required before sowing. About 400 sap-
lings are accommodated in 1 hectare of land at a
spacing of 5 m × 5 m.

P Land preparation and fertilizer application The land
is prepared by loosening the soil through ploughing Alstonia scholaris –
and is made porous. Ploughing also removes weeds. a 15-year old
Pits of size 45 cm × 45 cm × 45 cm are dug at a spacing of 5 m × 5 m mature tree
or 5 m × 6 m. Weathering of dug-out soil for about one to two
months is essential. The pits are then refilled with equal amounts of
FYM, sand, and soil, and watered so that the soil settles. Hoeing is
done about a fortnight before the transplantation.
P Transplanting and optimum spacing The polybag seedlings are trans-
planted in prepared pits at a spacing of 5 m × 5 m or 5 m × 6 m in the
rainy season in June–July.
P Intercropping system No reports on intercropping with this crop are
available. However, annual herbs of medicinal value can be grown as
intercrops in the early stages as well as after canopy development,
depending upon the requirements of herb crops. Beneath its shade
23
Curcuma longa (turmeric), Curcuma angustifolia (tikhur), and Alpinia

galanga (kulinjan) can be successfully grown as intercrops.
P Interculture and maintenance practices No fertilizer is applied after the
initial use of FYM at the time of planting. Plants raised in the field re-
quire two timely weedings around the pits, especially in rainy season.
Plantations in the black cotton soils require four weedings at monthly
intervals. The weeds between the rows are removed by scythe or sickle.
If the tractor is available, cultivator ploughing is beneficial to remove
the weeds as well as loosen the soil, especially in the black cotton soil
belt. This operation not only conditions the soil but also avoids crack-
ing associated with the black cotton soil during the summer months.
It is advisable to run the cultivator before the commencement of sum-
mer months to avoid cracking of soil, which leads to loss of soil mois-
ture and breaking of root tips.
P Irrigation practices Pit irrigation is required in summer season at
weekly intervals when planted without intercrop. In case of
intercropping, flood method of irrigation is beneficial. Light irrigation
at an interval of 15–20 days in winter season is sufficient. About
15–20 litres of water per pit per week is required for proper growth of
the plant.
P Disease and pest control Many insects are known to attack the tree.
Ceroplates actiniformis feeds on sap, while Pauropsylla tuberculata
makes hard barrel-shaped semi-woody galls on the leaves. The larvae
of some other insects of the family Pyrallidae (Caprinia conchylalis and
Glyphodes bicolor) are known to defoliate the tree. The insects can be
controlled by using 0.03% herbal pesticide nuvacron in the early
stages of plantation, that is, till the plant is two to three years old.
Diseases caused by Collectotrichum goleosporioides, Sardaria humana,
and other fungi have also been reported. However, no control meas-
ures are generally required.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting It takes about 8–10 years for the tree to
reach maturity, and thereafter bark or other parts may be harvested.
Peeling of bark from the trees is normally done for trees that have
attained a girth of 50–62 cm, in the intermittent and strip manner. It
is suggested that partial debarking should be done from each tree by
removing bark in strips of 15 cm × 15 cm, 30 cm apart. October–
January is the best season for collecting of stem bark.
24
P Post-harvest management The medicinally important part of this tree is

the stem bark. Properly shade-dried bark with less than 10% moisture
content should be stored in containers in a well-ventilated store room.
If the bark is not properly dried, it may get infected with many storage
fungi and attain black colour, thereby becoming useless for medicinal
use.
P Chemical constituents Mature bark contains 0.16%–0.27% total
alkaloids containing mainly echitamine, ditamine, and ditaine.
P Yield and cost of cultivation On the basis of yield assessment done on
available mature trees, it has been estimated that for getting a sustain-
able yield without damaging the tree, a maximum of 2.5 kg of fresh
bark can be extracted per tree from 10-year-old plantations, which on
drying, weighs about 625 g. Thus, 1 hectare of plantation may yield
approximately 250 kg dry stem bark every year. An approximate cost
of Rs 55 000 is incurred for raising and maintaining 1 hectare of plan-
tation upto harvesting.
25
ASPARAGUS RACEMOSUS WILLD .
Asparagus racemosus Willd.
Liliaceae
Ayurvedic name Satavari,
Unani name Shatawar, Shaququl
Hindi name Shatavar
Trade name Shatavar
Parts used Tubers and leaves
Asparagus racemosus
Therapeutic uses
T
he plant, Asparagus, is reputed to be a tonic and a geriatric. The
tubers are anti-diarrhoetic, diuretic, nutritive, tonic, aphrodisiac,
appetizer, and alterative. They are also reported to increase lacta-
tion. In addition, the plant is considered slightly sweet, and is useful in
the diseases of blood, kidney, liver, scalding urine, rheumatism, gleet, and
gonorrhoea.
Shatavar is a scandent, much-branched, spinous under-shrub with tuberous
roots. The roots are fascicled, fleshy, spindle-shaped, light ash-coloured exter-
nally and white internally, more or less smooth when fresh, but on drying,
develop longitudinal wrinkles and lack any well-marked odour. Branches are
modified into cladodes with long basal decurved spines.
27
Flowers are white, fragrant, and minute, about 3 mm long and occur in
solitary or fascicled, 2.5–5 cm long, racemes. Fruit is a three-lobed, red
coloured berry, up to 6 mm in diameter, with mottled seeds and oily
endosperm. Flowering and fruiting occur in December–January.
Distribution
Shatavar is common throughout the tropical and subtropical regions, par-
ticularly central India. It is also found up to an altitude of 1500 m in
subtropical Himalayas. By nature, the plant is xerophytic and prefers the
semi-arid to subtropical, cool environment.
Climate and soil

The plant prefers annual average rainfall of 600–
1000 mm or less, of which 85% is received dur-
ing July to September. A well-drained fertile
sandy-loam to clay-loam soil, with a pH of 6–8
is best suited for its cultivation with staking sup-
port. Shatavar can be grown in open land as well
as under shade, but very high moisture levels re-
sult in rotting of root.
Both seeds and crown rhizomes can be used for
propagation. However, seeds are preferable on ac-
count of high production that makes up for low
Asparagus racemosus – germination percentage in cultivation. Seeds may be
mature and
viable seeds collected from March to May when their colour changes from red to black.
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules Seeds are sown during the first week of June in
well-prepared and raised nursery beds containing good amount of
1
Agro-technique study carried out by
P NBPGR (National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources), Pusa Campus, New Delhi – 110 012.
P NIPER (National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research), SAS Nagar,
Mohali – 160 062, Punjab.
28
FYM (farmyard manure). The beds should ideally be 10 m × 1 m in

size. Seeds are sown in lines 5 cm apart and covered with a thin layer
of fine sand. The beds are lightly watered at regular intervals using a
rose water cane.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment About 7 kg of seeds are required for
raising seedlings for 1 hectare of crop. The seeds of satavar have a hard
seed coat. To obtain early and higher germination percentage, pre-
soaking in water is required for softening the seed coat. Higher germi-
nation is also achieved by soaking the seeds in cow urine for 24 hours.
The germination commences after 20 days of sowing and is completed
in 30 days.

P Land preparation and fertilizer
application The land should be
given a deep disc ploughing,
followed by harrowing and lev-
elling. The field is normally di-
vided into plots, keeping one
irrigation channel in between
two rows of plots. Ridges and
furrows are made about 45 cm
apart in the plots. About 10
tonnes of well-decomposed
FYM is thoroughly mixed in
the soil one month before Asparagus racemosus –
transplanting. Shatavar further crop view
requires a fertilizer dose of 60 kg nitrogen, 40 kg phosphate, and
40 kg potash per hectare for optimum growth and higher tuberous root
yield. One-third of nitrogen and entire dose of phosphate and potash
should be placed 10–12 cm deep in the rows before transplanting.
P Transplanting and optimum spacing The seedlings are ready for trans-
planting after 45 days of sowing. These are transplanted in field at the
onset of monsoon in July. Ridges and furrows are made 45 cm apart
and seedlings are transplanted on ridges, keeping the plant-to-plant
distance at 15 cm. The ridge method of transplanting is superior in
comparison to flat method. Optimum number of seedlings required
per hectare using the recommended spacing is about 150 000.
29
P Intercropping system Shatavar is normally grown as a monocrop, but it

can be grown in inter spaces available in orchards having low light in-
terception. Plants need staking material, thus poles or shrubs serve for
support.
P Interculture and maintenance practices The balance two-third N is ap-
plied in two equal split doses at ridges during September and in late
February. The fertilizer is broadcast in between the rows and mixed in
soil followed by irrigation, if the soil is dry. Shatavar initially grows
slowly for 60 days, which keeps inter-row space virtually vacant, allow-
ing easy weed growth. It is necessary to carry out three weeding and
hoeing operations to keep the field free from weeds for initial two-
month period. After two months,
Shatavar grows enough to cover the in-
ter-row spaces and prevents weed
growth.
P Irrigation practices Water requirement
of Shatavar crop is not much. It can be
grown without irrigation in areas that
receive 800–1200 mm of well-distrib-
uted rainfall. Irrigating the field once
immediately after transplanting is a
must for establishment of seedlings in
field. The second irrigation is done af-
Asparagus racemosus – ter seven days of seedling establish-
harvested roots
ment. If there is no rainfall and dry
spell prevails for more than 15 days, one more irrigation should be
given. During winters, irrigation at 30-day intervals is enough for
good growth. Irrigation should be done during seed formation stage
and before harvesting of the tuberous roots for obtaining higher seed
yield and easy digging of tuberous roots. Deficient soil moisture dur-
ing March–June brings down root yield significantly. Hence, three to
four irrigations during this period are essential.
P Disease and pest control No serious insects, pests, and disease have
been reported in this crop.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting The crop matures in 12 months after plant-
ing; however, for seed harvesting, it is recommended to be harvested only
after 20 months. Rabi season, that is, November–December, is the best
30
time for harvesting tuberous roots when the above-ground parts start
turning pale yellow. The crop, when harvested in 12 months, yields
about 4–5 tonnes/hectare, while harvesting after 20 months yields
about 6 tonnes/hectare of tubers along with 35 kg/hectare of seeds,
which are not obtained in the 12-month-old crop.
P Post-harvest management After harvesting, the tubers are washed well
in running water thereafter, these are dried in open sun for one to two
days. The tuberous roots are then kept in luke warm water for one
hour to soften the outer covering of the tubers. It facilitates removal of
outer skin. The harvested roots are peeled manually by pulling their
outer thin covering. These peeled tubers are then kept in shade for
four to five hours, followed by further drying at 40 °C in hot air oven
for 20 minutes or more, depending upon their moisture content. The
roots should be completely dry for storage. If the tuber breaks with a
cracking sound, it means that it has completely dried. Dried tuberous
roots are packed in cardboard boxes and stored. Boiled tubers turn yel-
lowish and fetch much higher market rate. Dry root in pieces of 5–15
cm × 1–2 cm are marketed as ‘A’ grade variety.
P Chemical constituents Sapogenins are the active principles found in the
tuberous roots. Chemical evaluation studies suggest that the sapogenin
content varies in the range of 0.7%–0.9% in the tubers.
P Yield and cost of cultivation The tuberous root yields 10%–12% of dry
matter after removal of outer wall. An average shade-dried tuberous
root yield of 3 tonnes per hectare is obtained from 20-month-old
plants underexperimental conditions. A two-and-a-half-year-old crop
gives a dry yield of 4–5 tonnes per hectare. It gives a seed yield of
30–35 kg/hectare. The estimated cost of cultivation is about
Rs 100 000 per hectare, including land preparation, nursery raising,
cost of planting material, FYM, cost of transplanting, harvesting, peel-
ing and processing for market, and so on. The calculated yield of 20-
month-old crop of Shatavar is 3 tonnes/hectare, which can fetch net
returns of approximately Rs 62 500/hectare. Dry root in 5–15 cm ×
1–2 cm pieces are marketed as ‘A’ grade variety.

P Market price: yellow variety – Rs 180–340 per kg; white variety –
Rs 35–40 per kg
P Market demand: 900 tonnes or more
31
BACOPA MONNIERI ( L .) PANNELL
Bacopa monnieri (L.) Pannell

Syn. Herpestris monnieri (L.) H.B. & K.
Scrophulariaceae
Ayurvedic name Brahmi
Unani name Brahmi
Hindi name Neer brahmi
Trade name Brahmi
Parts used Whole plant
A single plant of Bacopa monnieri
Therapeutic uses
B
rahmi is a reputed intellect promoter, hypotensive, and neuro-
pathic sedative drug. It is a potent tonic used to improve mental
alertness, learning performance, and memory as well as in the
treatment of insomnia. It is the principal ingredient of classical Ayurvedic
preparations like brahmighritam and brahmirasayanam.
Bacopa is a succulent, glabrous, creeping herb, with rooting at nodes. The
plant is easily recognized by its spreading habit, sessile and fleshy leaves,
and light bluish, purple or white flowers. Leaves are ovate and opposite
with dotted lower surface.
33
Flowering occurs chiefly in September–October, sporadically throughout
the year. Fruiting occurs simultaneously with flowering. Flowers are soli-
tary, axillary, white or purple-tinged, with short pedicels and two
bracteoles. Sepals are five in number, 0.4–0.9 cm long. Corolla tube is
cylindrical with spreading lips, twice as long as sepals. Capsule is ovoid in
shape, acute, two-grooved and two–valved with numerous seeds that are
very minute, pale, and irregular.
Distribution
The plant is a short duration annual herb, frequent in moist habitat and
water edges throughout tropical and subtropical India. It grows best near
flowing water and wetlands in plains and foothills, and is particularly
abundant in monsoon.
Climate and soil

The plant occurs in a variety of soil types
if the habitat provides wet and semi-shade
conditions. It is found at altitudes up to
1300 m. Near-neutral, clayey loam to
clayey soils are best suited for the growth
of Bacopa monnieri. In North India, it can
grow in a wide range of temperatures
(15–40 oC) and soil pH (5–7.5). How-
ever, it can even grow well in soils with
pH 7.5 or even more. It becomes dor-
Bacopa monnieri –
crop grown in hills mant during the winter months except
when grown near running water.
Varieties
Saplings from the catchment areas of the River Ravi have proved to be
the better germplasm than those from the Indo-Gangetic plains in terms
of yield and bacoside content. CIMAP (Central Institute of Medicinal
and Aromatic Plants), Lucknow, has also developed three varieties of this
crop, namely, subodhak, pragyashakti, and CIM-jagriti, which can be
grown as perennials with at least two harvests per year. Subodhak is a
selection from wild collections providing a dry herb yield of 47 quintals/
hectare/harvest (with 1.6% bacoside A). Pragyashakti is a selection from
34
Orissa with dry herb yield of 65 quintals/hectare/harvest (with 1.8%

bacoside A). CIM-jagriti has a potential of producing 85 kg/hectare of
bacoside A from a dry herb yield of 40 quintals/hectare. The RRL
(Regional Research Laboratory), Jammu, has also developed a cultivar
with 1.8%–2.2% bacoside A content.
Freshly collected shoot cuttings of 5–10 cm length with internodes and
rootlets are the best planting material for cultivation. The plant shows
luxurious growth during rainy season when the propagules multiply fast.
Seeds are very minute and produced during October/November. Germi-
nation studies with seeds have not shown encouraging results.
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules Best time for
planting a nursery is from May to
July. The nursery soil is mixed with
well-decomposed FYM (farmyard
manure) at the rate of 3 kg/m2.
About 200 m2 of nursery, that is,
210 beds of 10 m × 1 m, is suffi-
cient for raising 1 hectare of planta-
tion. The freshly collected propagules
(shoot cuttings) of 5–10 cm length Bacopa monnieri –
bearing internodes and rootlets should be manually embedded in the flowering
soil at a distance of 5 cm × 10 cm in the well-prepared nursery beds
followed by light irrigation. The propagules develop roots within a
week of planting and are ready for transplanting in field in about
35–40 days.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment About 70 kg of fresh weight or about
40 000 propagules are required for planting the nursery for
1 hectare plantation.
1
P National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research, Sector 67, S A S Nagar,
Mohali – 160 062, Punjab.
P Herbal Garden, Herbarium and Research Institute ISM, Joginder Nagar, Dist Mandi,
Himachal Pradesh.
35

P Land preparation and fertilizer application The land should be appro-
priately tilled to make it weed free and planked to a uniform level. For
optimum yields, 10 tonnes/hectare of well-decomposed FYM, 30 kg/
hectare of nitrogen, 50 kg/hectare of phosphorus, and 40 kg/hectare of
potash are required to be mixed with soil before planting. A basal dose
of 20 kg/hectare of zinc (ZnSO4) is often required in areas showing
deficiency, such as plains of Punjab and Uttar Pradesh. Nitrogen is
also required to be applied later in two split doses, after four to five
weeks and six to eight weeks of transplanting.
Propagules, that is, stem cuttings
with rootlets, are transplanted in
field at a spacing of 20 cm × 20 cm.
Propagules can be planted directly in
the well-prepared field if sufficient
planting material is available. Best
time for direct planting or trans-
planting in the field is beginning of
rainy season commencing in last
week of June to first week of August.
Transplanted field is immediately
flooded. Propagules take about one
Bacopa monnieri – week for establishment and fresh root
harvested crop
development.
P Intercropping system Bacopa may fit well in the kharif season’s rice-
based cropping systems in the plains of North India. All paddy-based
rotations, namely, Bacopa and rice–wheat; Bacopa and rice–pea–wheat;
Bacopa and rice–berseem–maize; Bacopa and rice–winter vegetables–
maize, are suitable, depending on the choice of crops grown in a re-
gion. B. monnieri and rice have matching growth periods and similar
soil and nutritional requirements. Medium duration dwarf rice varie-
ties (140–148 days) are ideal for intercropping with B. monnieri. This
pattern requires low additional inputs at minimum risk.
P Interculture and maintenance practices Three to four manual weedings
are required from the time the crop is 15–20 days old, at about 20-day
intervals, so that the weeds remain under control in the monsoon sea-
son (July–September). If grown as a round-the-year crop, Bacopa field
36
should be kept weed-free during winter months and irrigated

regularly.
P Irrigation practices The crop is preferably kept inundated with water,
at 4–5 cm depth, throughout the growth period. Irrigation could be
done either weekly or at intervals, depending on the type of soil and
availability of water to maintain constant humidity in soil.
P Weed control Butachlor 50 EC at the rate of 3 kg mixed with 60 kg
sand should be applied uniformly in 1 hectare of land in 4–5 cm deep
standing water before transplanting
Bacopa. About three to four manual
weedings, at approximately 20-day inter-
vals, are required to check the seasonal
weeds in monsoon season (July to Septem-
ber).
P Disease and pest control No pests, insects
or pathogens have been reported to affect
the crop seriously.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting The crop can
be harvested 75–90 days after planting.
September–October is the best time for
harvesting. The crop should be harvested
when plants attain a length of 20–30 cm. Bacopa monnieri
The whole plant should be pulled out, up-
rooted or scraped off manually. In severe cold conditions of North
India, ratoon crop is not possible since the aerial parts of the plant die
almost completely even after the application of irrigation and fertiliz-
ers, and the field is invaded by winter weeds.
P Post-harvest management The produce should be dried by spreading it
on clean area or sheets in the sun for four to five days, followed by
shade drying for next 7–10 days. The dried material should be stored
in clean containers. Bacoside content starts reducing after six months
of storage. Therefore, long storage should be avoided.
P Chemical constituents The results of chemical analysis indicate that the
percentage of total bacosides is about 5.6% (based on bacoside A3 esti-
mation) for the dried material that is initially sun-dried for four days.
P Yield and cost of cultivation As a pure crop, fresh yield is 22.5 tonnes/
hectare, reduced to approximately 5.5 tonnes/hectare on drying. As an
37
intercrop with paddy, dry matter production of Bacopa is estimated to

be about 3.75 tonnes/hectare. The cost of cultivation is Rs 40 000/
hectare in the first year. Second year onwards, it is reduced to
Rs 10 000/hectare due to the use of bulk planting material from
harvest. An additional income of Rs 20 000/hectare can be generated
annually, if Bacopa is grown with paddy as an intercrop.

P Market demand: 1000 tonnes
38
BALIOSPERMUM MONTANUM MUELL . ARG .
Baliospermum montanum Muell. Arg.

Syn. B. axillare
Euphorbiaceae
Ayurvedic name Danti, Dravanti
Unani name Danti

Hindi name Danti
Trade name Danti, Jangli jamalgota
Parts used Roots, leaves, and

seeds
Single plant of
Danti
Therapeutic uses
T
he roots and leaves of Baliospermum are cathartic, pungent, ther-
mogenic, purgative, anthelmintic, and diuretic. The roots are used
in dropsy, anascara, and jaundice. Decoction of leaves is used for
treating asthma. Seeds are purgative, used externally as stimulant, and are
rubifacient. The oil from the seeds is hydrogogue, cathartic, and used for
external application in rheumatism.
The plant is a stout, monoecious undershrub up to 3.5 m high, with
toothed leaves and stiff branches arising from the root. The upper
branches bear small, lanceolate leaves, while the lower branches have
large, and often broad, ovate, three- to five-lobed leaves with rounded
base. Petioles are 5–15 cm long.
39
The flowers of the plant are unisexual. In male flowers, the calyx is glo-
bose, 2.5 mm long, four to five partite, glabrous or slightly pubescent,
membranous, finely mottled with a disc of six glands. Stamens are about
20 in number. Female flowers have ovate-lanceolate and pubescent sepals,
and a disc about 2.5 mm in diameter. Fruit is a three-lobed capsule,
about 8–13 mm long and usually hairy. Seeds are mottled, smooth, and
have oily endosperm. Flowers
appear during January–February,
while fruits mature a month later.
Distribution
The species is distributed through-
out tropical and subtropical areas
receiving rainfall above 1000 mm,
that is, in Himalayan foothills,
Kashmir to Khasi hills, and par-
ticularly in Vindhyas southward. It
is very common in North and East
Bengal, Chhota Nagpur, and pe-
ninsular India.
Baliospermum montanum – Climate and soil

seeds
Danti prefers humid climate for
better growth. Well-drained sandy-
loam soils with pH normally ranging from 6.5 to 7.5 are good for its cul-
tivation. But it can also grow in soils with pH up to 8.2. This is a shade-
loving plant but can be grown in open sun when cultivated. Low rainfall
areas are not conducive for its growth.
Danti can be easily propagated by seeds and terminal cuttings. The best
season for seed collection is from February to April. The seeds are col-
lected when the outer tri-lobed covering around fruits starts turning
brown and dry.
40
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules Kharif season (onset of monsoon) is the best time
for raising the crop. The crop should be raised in the last week of June
or beginning of monsoon rains. After raising nursery, the seedlings can
be transplanted in the main field or seeds can be sown in the rows di-
rectly in field. In the nursery, seeds can be sown during June in well
prepared nursery beds, with sand, soil, and FYM (farmyard manure)
in 2:1:1 ratio. Seeds are sown at a depth of 3 cm in shade. A minimum
distance of 8–10 cm should be maintained between two rows and
3 cm between the seeds. Two
seeds per hill may be sown to
compensate for any failure in
seed germination or mortality
later. Regular watering should be
done to keep the nursery beds in
moist condition. To raise the
planting stock, terminal cuttings
can also be planted in nursery
beds or polybags after treating
them with commercially avail-
able rooting hormones. The
cuttings should be kept in shade
houses or mist chambers for Baliospermum montanum –
better rooting. The stock raised through cuttings takes crop
longer time than seedlings to attain transplantable size.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment About 7–8 kg of seeds are required for
raising seedling stock on 1 hectare of land. Seeds require mechanical
scarification pretreatment before sowing to obtain higher seed germi-
nation. Soaking of seeds in water for two to three hours and then dry-
ing in shade before sowing also promotes germination. It takes about
25 days for complete germination to take place.

P Land preparation and fertilizer application The land should be given a
deep disc ploughing followed by harrowing and levelling. The field is
1
Agro-technique study carried out by National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Issapur
Farm, New Delhi.
41
divided into appropriate beds, usually

4–5 m × 10 m in size. One irrigation
channel is kept between the two rows of
beds. A basal dose of 10 tonnes/hectare
of FYM is applied at the time of field
preparation. In addition, NPK (nitro-
gen, phosphorus, and potassium) @
75:50:25 kg/hectare may also be applied
as basal dose at the time of transplanta-
tion.
Seedlings are ready for transplanting af-
ter 40 days of sowing. Terminal
cuttings, when used for raising the nurs-
ery, take longer time. The optimum
spacing recommended is 1.5 m × 1.2 m.
Baliospermum montanum
In monocropping system, approximately,
5500 plants are required as planting
material for 1 hectare of land.
P Intercropping system Baliospermum is generally grown as a monocrop
due to its dense growth, but, it may also be raised as a catch crop
beneath trees and in fruit orchards.
P Interculture and maintenance practices Fertilizer is applied at the time
of field preparation and at the time of transplanting. In general, half
of the N and full dose of P and K are applied at the time of planting,
and the remaining half of the N dose, that is, 75 kg/hectare, is added
after 60 days of planting. Intercultural operation is necessary at 30
days after transplanting. Later, weeding cum hoeing is done at an
interval of 30–45 days.
P Irrigation practices Initial irrigation should be done for the establish-
ment of plants immediately after transplanting, followed by irrigation
at an interval of seven days in summer season and at an interval of
20 days during winter season.
P Weed control Initial weeding should be done manually after 30–35 days
of transplanting. Regular weeding at an interval of 30 days up to four
months keeps the field free from weeds. After five months, there is
enough vegetative growth, which does not allow the weeds to come up
in the field.
42
P Disease and pest control No serious insect pests or diseases have been
reported. However, ants are observed when the crop is about six
months old. The water sap that oozes near the inflorescence attracts
the ants. No chemical pesticides should be used on the crop.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting The plant flowers in January–February,
while fruits appear a month later. Fruit is initially green and turns
brownish black at maturity. Danti is a 10-month-duration crop. Indi-
vidual plants are dug out; roots and seeds are dried under shade.
P Post-harvest management The produce is dried under shade and stored
in dry cool areas in gunny bags.
P Chemical constituents Axillarenic acid is present in the seeds, while 12-
deoxy-5β-hydroxyphorbol-13-myristate, 13-palmitate, 12 deoxyphorbol-
13-palmitate, baliospermin, and montanin are reported to be present
in the roots.
P Yield and cost of cultivation A dry root yield of 2 tonnes/hectare is
obtained in a 10-month-duration crop. Estimated cost of cultivation is
Rs 72 000 per hectare.

43
CAESALPINIA SAPPAN LINN .
Caesalpinia sappan Linn.
Caesalpiniaceae
Ayurvedic name Patangah
Unani name Pattang
Hindi name Patang
Trade name Patang, Brazil wood
Parts used Wood, leaves, pods,

and seeds
Caesalpinia sappan
plant
Therapeutic uses
C
hiefly Caesalpinia is emmenagogue, haemostatic, and anti-
inflammatory. It is one of the ingredients of indigenous drug
‘lucol’, which is administered for the treatment of non-specific
leucorrhoea. The heartwood is used in traditional medicine as a treatment
for contusion and thrombosis. The paste of the wood is used in curing
rheumatism, haemorrhages, and wounds. The heartwood yields a red dye,
which is used for cosmetic purposes, as it is resistant to sun rays, light, heat,
and water. The plant has anti-cancerous and anti-diarrhoeal properties. The
oil obtained from the leaves shows anti-bacterial and anti-fungal action.
Patang is a small to medium sized, thorny tree, growing up to 10 metres,
with conspicuous spines on the stem and leaf rachis. Branchlets are dull,
45
lenticellate, usually armed with paired, recurved stipular prickles. Leaves

are large, hairy or glabrate with 9–14 pairs of pinnae.
Flowers are golden yellow, arranged in supra-axillary and terminal
racemes forming a large panicle. Pods are ellipsoid and brown to black in
colour. Flowering and fruiting occur from July to September, extending
rarely to November.
Distribution
The species is frequent in Indian peninsular areas. It is also grown as
plantation in all southern states, and extends northwards to Orissa and
Bengal. It is native to Indo-Malayan region.
Climate and soil

The plant is xerophytic in nature and grows best
in subtropical and tropical regions with dry and
hot climatic conditions. It can be grown in a wide
range of soils. The red loamy soils rich in humus
nutrients are the best suited for its growth.
Propagation materials
Usually the stock raised from seeds is used for
planting. Fruits are formed 5–15 days after
flowering and attain maturity in three months
time, that is, during October–December. Seeds
Flowering in for raising the nursery are collected in Novem-
Caesalpinia sappan ber–December.
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules April and May are suitable for raising the seedlings.
A nursery is raised in the polybags. The H2SO4 (sulphuric acid)-treated
seeds are sown in polythene bags containing sand, FYM (farmyard
1
Agro-technique study carried out by the Division of Horticulture, University of Agricultural
Sciences, Gandhi Krishi Vigyana Kendra Campus, Bangalore – 560 065.
46
CAESALPINIA SAPPAN LINN .
manure), and red laterite soil in 1:1:1 ratio. The seedlings are ready for
planting in the main field during June–July.
P Seed rate and pretreatment About 600–800 g seeds may be needed for
raising seedlings for planting on 1 hectare of land. The seeds should be
treated with diluted H2SO4 for six minutes. Concentrated H2SO4 and
soaking for a longer time in acid may damage the radical and the
plumule. This should be followed by washing well in running water.
The seeds should be shade-dried for 24
hours and again soaked in 300 PPM (parts
per million) GA3 (gibberellic acid) for six
hours to promote rapid germination.

P Land preparation and fertilizer application
The soil should be ploughed and brought to
a fine tilth. Then pits of size 45 cm × 45 cm
× 45 cm should be dug at a spacing of 4 m ×
4 m and filled with topsoil and organic mix-
ture. An application of 6–8 kg FYM along
with 100:50:75 g NPK (nitrogen, phospho-
rous, potassium) per plant is ideal as basal
dose before planting.
P Intercropping system The species cannot be
grown under the shade of other crops.
Hence, the plant is favoured as a single crop.
However, some annuals may be grown be- Caesalpinia sappan
tween the rows of Caesalpinia in the initial years. – twig
P Transplanting and optimum spacing The 30–45 days old seedlings are
transplanted in the pits in the field immediately after the onset of
monsoon rains, after they attain a height of 30–40 cm. If there is no
rain, the field should be irrigated immediately after transplanting. For
1 hectare of land, 625 seedlings shall be required at a spacing of
4 m × 4 m.
P Interculture and maintenance practices Application of 150:60:160 g
NPK per plant in second year and 200:100:150 g NPK per plant from
third year onwards is recommended. Manuring and watering are done
twice by opening rings around the stem base at a distance of 30 cm,
first during May–June and then in September–October. Gap filling for
seedlings may be done 30 days after planting along with staking of
47
seedlings. Weeding in the entire field should be done during the sec-
ond week of September, followed by application of fertilizers. Manual
weeding around basin is recommended once in four months.
P Irrigation practices Light irrigation is done once daily up to 15 days
after transplanting, and thereafter, may be done at weekly or fort-
nightly intervals, depending upon the season and water requirement.
Furrow is the best method of irrigation, though drip irrigation may
also be adopted.
P Disease and pest control Pod borer insect bores the pod and eats seeds.
It can be controlled by spraying 0.2% nuvacron during fruiting stage
at weekly intervals. Termites attack the
roots and trunk, which leads to drying
of the plant. The affected plants should
be drenched with chlorpyriphos (2 ml/
litre dilution in water).
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting Flower-
ing takes place after the plant attains
two to three years of age, and the pods
and seeds can be plucked during Octo-
ber–November. The wood can be har-
vested 10–15 years after planting
during October–November.
Caesalpinia sappan P Chemical constituents The pod shell
contains 4% and bark of the plant con-
tains 1.8% tannins along with aromatic compounds such as brazilin,
sappanchalcone, ceasalpin-J, caesalpin-P, and protosappanin A and B.
P Estimated yield A yield of 2000–2500 kg pods, producing 200–250 kg
dry seeds per hectare per year, may be obtained. Estimates for wood
production are not available. The cost of cultivating the crop on 1
hectare of land is Rs 75 000 approximately.

48
CLERODENDRUM INDICUM ( LINN .) MOON
Clerodendrum indicum (Linn.) Moon

Syn. C. siphonanthus C.B. Clark
Verbenaceae
Ayurvedic name Bharangi
Unani name Arni
Hindi name Chhoti arani, Chingari
Trade name Chhoti arani,

Chingari
Parts used Roots and leaves
Clerodendrum indicum
Therapeutic uses
T
he root of chingari is stomachic, expectorant, anti-inflammatory,
anti-bronchitis, febrifuge, hence useful for asthma, cough, and
scrofulous affections. The root increases appetite and lowers fever
(Unani medicine). The leaves and roots are used externally to treat
tumours and certain skin diseases.
Clerodendrum species is an erect, less branched shrub, 1.5–3.0 m tall. The
roots are light brown in colour and more than 2.5 cm in diameter. Stem
is herbaceous, ridged, fluted, and hollow. Leaves are axillary, fascicled or
terminal, and hang from the upright branches.
49
Flowers of the species occur in axillary or terminal racemes. Calyx is
about 7.5 mm long with a cleft halfway down; lobes are oblong or ovate
and acute. Corolla tube is 7.5–10 cm long, curved, and very slender, with
upto 1.5-cm-long and ovate-oblong lobes. Fruit is upto 1.5 cm across,
dark bluish green when ripe and seated on the enlarged red fleshy calyx.
Flowering and fruiting occur from January to May.
Distribution
The species occurs throughout the peninsular India,
from Vindhyas onward to foothills of Uttarakhand,
Sikkim, and north-eastern states. It is often cultivated
elsewhere. Chingari is supposed to have originated in
East India and has been dispersed and extended to
southern and eastern India; sometimes it is planted as
an ornamental species.
Climate and soil

Chingari requires moist tropical and subtropical cli-
mate, which should be free from frost during winters
and dry heat in summers. It is also possible to grow the
species in the dry regions under partial shade. The
plant is affected by frost in northern India, which
causes burning of leaves, defoliation, and drying up of
young shoots, and the plants ultimately die. The plant
is not very selective in its soil requirements and can be
Clerodendrum indicum – grown successfully in soils ranging from clay-loam to
plantlet sandy-loam. However, the soil should be deep, fertile,
and well drained, having a pH range of 6.0–8.0. It can
be grown in semi-humid climate.
Chingari is commercially propagated by stem cuttings as well as root
cuttings. The stem cuttings should be taken from semi-matured branches
and root cuttings from about 2-cm-thick roots in July–August. Semi-hard
woody stem cuttings give higher success rate than soft wooded and hard
wooded cuttings. Rooting success rate in cuttings may go up to 90%
under favourable conditions.
50
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules A nursery is raised for producing planting stock
from stem and root cuttings during March–April, and the propagules
so developed are transplanted in the field during July–August
(monsoon season). For this purpose, 10–15-cm-long cuttings having
three to five buds are obtained from partially matured shoots, known
as semi-hard wood cuttings. While planting, care should be taken that
the basal two nodes of the cuttings are inserted in the soil. In case of
root cuttings, about 2-cm-thick roots should be selected. These roots
are cut into 5–6-cm-long pieces and planted horizontally in the sand
bed for sprouting. All cuttings are planted with a spacing of
7–8 cm within the row and 15 cm between the rows. The
rooted cuttings are transplanted in the field along with the
ball of earth.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment The cuttings are soaked in
500 PPM (parts per million) of IBA (indole butyric acid)
for one minute before planting to promote easy and early
rooting of the propagules.

P Land preparation and fertilizer application The field is
ploughed well, at least twice, to have a fine tilth. The quan-
tity of manure and fertilizers depends upon the season, cli-
matic conditions, and soil fertility. However, in general, the Clerodendrum indicum –
crop responds well to the basal application of 100 quintals floral bud
of well-decomposed FYM (farmyard manure) along with 40 kg nitro-
gen and 75 kg phosphorus per hectare
P Transplanting and optimum spacing It is always advisable to take up
transplanting in the field in the afternoon or in the cloudy weather for
higher survival rate and early establishment. Planting is done in the
centre of the small pit by burying completely the ball of earth contain-
ing the rooted cutting. The soil around the plant is pressed properly with-
out breaking the earth ball. Irrigation should be done as soon as the
planting is over. Later, irrigation should be done regularly. The transplant-
ing of chingari in the field at a spacing of 45 cm × 30 cm gives good
1
Agro-technique study carried out by the Department of Horticulture, SKN College of Agri-
culture, Jobner, Rajasthan.
51
returns. Planting at a spacing of 45 cm × 30 cm can accommodate

about 74 000 plants per hectare.
P Intercropping system Clerodendrum is grown as a pure crop.
P Interculture and maintenance practices Besides basal application of
FYM, and 37.5 kg of nitrogen/hectare, an additional 37.5 kg of nitro-
gen should be applied in two equal split doses as top dressing: first at
one month after transplanting and the second after six months (Febru-
ary–March) of transplanting.
P Irrigation practices Clerodendrum needs water-
ing regularly. However, excess irrigation leads
to waterlogging and should be avoided. The
first irrigation should be done soon after trans-
planting. In rainy season, frequency of irriga-
tion depends on the rainfall. In winter,
irrigation should be done at an interval of
15–20 days. In summer months, irrigation
should be done at an interval of 7–10 days,
depending on the severity of the summer.
P Weed control Weeds create a serious problem
in the cultivation of the crop, as it is planted
during monsoon. Being a long duration and
non-spreading type of crop, frequent manual
weeding and hoeing at monthly interval keeps
the field free from weeds and facilitates good
aeration and plant growth.
Clerodendrum indicum – P Disease and pest control Chingari is affected by
inflorescence
termites, which feed on the roots. The
attacked plants turn yellow and finally die. Drenching of the field
twice with chloropyriphos 20% EC @ 4.0 litres per hectare, at an
interval of 10 days, effectively controls the termite. No other disease
has been observed.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting Chingari bears flowers during January–
February, that is, 100–120 days after planting. Seed setting does not
take place in extreme hot and dry weather conditions. The crop is
ready to be harvested in 10–12 months after planting. May–June is
the best time for harvesting the crop. Irrigation of field four to six
days before harvesting facilitates digging of roots. Mechanical injury
52
to the roots during digging should be avoided

because it affects the quality of the produce.
P Post-harvest management The roots are dug out
manually with the help of spade. Detach the shoot
from the roots and then allow the roots to dry in the
sun and then in shade. These roots are wrapped in
gunny bags and stored in well-ventilated cool
godowns for a long period without any deterioration
quality. The roots may be graded for marketing.
P Chemical constituents The root contains sapogenins,
saponins, triterpenes, and D-mannitol as active con-
stituents.
P Yield and cost of cultivation An average crop of
Chingari produces about 10–12 quintals per hectare
of dry roots. Input cost is estimated to be Rs 75 000 Clerodendrum indicum –
per hectare. root
53
COLCHICUM LUTEUM BAKER
Colchicum luteum Baker
Liliaceae
Ayurvedic name Suranjan,

Hiranatutia
Unani name Suranjan talkh
Hindi name Suranjan,
Hirantutiya
Trade name Suranjan,
Suranjankadva
Parts used Corms and seed
Colchicum luteum in
the nursery
Therapeutic uses
C
olchicum luteum is used as a carminative, laxative, and an aphro-
disiac. Colchicines are effective in the treatment of gout, rheuma-
tism, and diseases of liver and spleen. Externally, the corms are
applied as paste to lessen inflammation and pain.
Suranjan is an annual alpine herb. It can be recognized by an almost
conical corm with a longitudinally grooved flat side, rapier-like leaves,
short scape, and golden yellow flowers. Corms are almost conical, brownish
in colour, with one side flat and other rounded, and can be either translucent
or opaque. Leaves are 15–30 cm long and 0.8–1.5 cm broad and few in
number. They appear with flowers and are narrow but broader towards the
tip. They increase in size as the plant approaches fruiting stage.
55
The scape is very short and sessile. Flowers occur in large, erect terminal
cymes with one to three flowers. Perianth is funnel-shaped and golden
yellow in colour. Stamens are six in number. Ovary is sessile, three-celled
with three long styles. Capsules are septicidal with recurved beaks. The
plant flowers soon after the snow melts at higher altitudes in March, fol-
lowed by fruiting in May.
Climate and soil

Natural habitat of suranjan is characterized by physiologically temperate con-
ditions like severe winter, snow, and low humidity. The plant grows well in
sandy-loam soil. Drainage is very important to avoid waterlogging.
Distribution
The plant is usually found on the edges of
forests or in open grassy places and tem-
perate western Himalayas from Kashmir
to Chamba, at altitudes ranging from
700 m to 2800 m in India.
The plant can be successfully propagated
through corms, which can be extracted
from natural habitats when snow melts in
April–May. The corms should be free
Colchicum luteum
in the field
from any injury or infection.
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules No nursery is generally raised for the crop and the
corms are directly planted in the field.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment Corms do not require any pre-plant-
ing treatment. About 0.5 million corms are required for planting in
1 hectare of land.
1
Agro-technique study carried out by the Department of Agroforestry and Environment,
Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh – 176 062.
56
COLCHICUM LUTEUM BAKER

P Land preparation and fertilizer application The fields should be
ploughed two to three times to make the soil porous to facilitate
planting and sprouting of the corms. The corms may rot in water-
logged conditions. Therefore, the fields should be well drained and
have some slope. The plant prefers sandy loam soil, and if required,
sand may be mixed with soil to make it suitable for growth. FYM
(farmyard manure) @ 6 tonnes/hectare
should be broadcast and properly mixed with
soil while ploughing the fields at pre-planting
stage.
P Transplanting and optimum spacing The
corms are directly planted in rows in small
beds laid out in the field. The crop is sown in
rabi season, generally in October, in temper-
ate zones. The corms should be placed at an
optimum spacing of 10 cm × 20 cm. Corms
germinate and develop roots within one
month.
P Intercropping system The crop is preferably
grown as a sole crop. No intercropping is
recommended.
P Interculture and maintenance practices Only
organic manure @ 6 tonnes/hectare is recom-
mended as a basal dose. No further applica-
tion of manure is necessary. No inorganic Colchicum luteum
fertilizers are used.
P Irrigation practices This crop is very sensitive to waterlogging, so field
should be free from excess water. This could be done by digging chan-
nels around the field well in advance to save the crop. The field should
be irrigated as and when required, especially during the hot weather.
Irrigation may be done every alternate day during summers.
P Weed control The initial growth of the crop may be hampered because
of increased infestation of weeds during the sprouting period. So, the
field should be kept free from weeds in the initial stages, and there-
after, weeding and hoeing should be done at an interval of one month.
P Disease and pest control The crop, in general, is not attacked by any
insect/pest. There is no disease infestation as well.
57
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting The crop matures in about 16–18
months. The seeds should be harvested immediately after ripening of
fruits in April. Corms are taken out after a gap of one month in May,
giving sufficient time for the hardening of the protective layers of the
corm.
P Post-harvest management The collection/harvesting of seeds is difficult
due to their very small size. Therefore, while collecting the seeds, a
piece of cloth should be placed below the plant. For medicinal pur-
poses, corms must be harvested before the development of offshoots.
Corms are harvested by manual digging, sun dried, and packed in
damp-proof containers. The corms are stored in sand at a cool place
and are used to raise new crops.
P Chemical constituents Seeds contain 0.41%–0.43% poisonous alka-
loids colchicine and cornigerine. The dried corms contain alkaloid col-
chicine in a range of 0.21%–0.25%. Colchicine occurs in the form of
yellow flakes, crystals or as a whitish-yellow amorphous powder, which
darkens on exposure to light.
P Yield and cost of cultivation By following the standard package and
practices, corm yield of 500–750 kg dry weight is obtained from plan-
tation on 1 hectare land under experimental conditions. The estimated
cost of cultivation for raising crop on 1 hectare of land is about
Rs 90 000 including the cost of planting material, other material, and
labour cost.

P Market rate: Rs 450 per kg
P Market demand: 2 tonnes per annum
58
COLEUS BARBATUS BRIQ .
Coleus barbatus Briq.
Lamiaceae
Ayurvedic name Gandhmoolika

Hindi name Patharchur
Trade name Coleus, Patharchur
Part used Root
Coleus in a
plantation
Therapeutic uses
T
he root of Coleus species is considered analgesic, ophthalmic, and
febrifuge. It is very useful in epilepsy. Fresh aromatic root is
offered in temples for its characteristic odour and is also used as a
flavouring agent.
Patharchur is a large, succulent, densely hairy, herb with aromatic roots.
It grows up to a height of 70 cm. The roots are perennial, while the
shoots are annual. Stems are much branched, scandant, hairy, fragile, and
knotted at nodes. Leaves are thick, fleshy, ovate, hairy, with serrate
margins.
Pink-white flowers appear in winter season, that is, from October to Feb-
ruary. This is also the best growth period for shoots.
59
Distribution
Patharchur is found wild in tropical moist forests of Tamil Nadu and
Karnataka. It is quite rare in nature but very commonly cultivated in
moist tropical regions and southern states.
Climatic and soil

The plant is sun loving and grows well in tropical regions. The suitable soil
for commercial cultivation is sandy loam or sand-rich loam. It is also culti-
vated on sandy beds and river banks and ridges in Tamil Nadu. Loose sandy
soil permits roots to penetrate deep into the sand bed and maximum root
yield is obtained this way. The crop is pref-
erably cultivated in open sunshine.
The species is mainly propagated through
stem cuttings of length 15 to 20 cm, con-
taining four to five nodes. The cuttings
remain viable up to four days, thereafter,
the survival and rooting percentage de-
clines. The crop can be raised round the
year under ambient conditions. However,
rainy season promotes early and copious
Coleus barbatus – rooting of stem cuttings with almost
stem cuttings for 100% survival.
planting
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules A pencil-thick stem cutting bearing leaves is cut and
all cauline leaves are removed except apical bud. The base of the
branch is given a sharp inclined cut so that the plant does not get
bruised while planting. These stem cuttings are inserted into the soil
till a depth of 5–6 cm with at least three nodes inside the soil and re-
maining one to two nodes above the soil. The stem cuttings need to be
placed in shade, preferably in net house or polyhouse, using sprinkler
or misting system to maintain a minimum humidity of 85% for at
1
Agro-technique study carried out by Indian Institute of Horticultural Research,
PO Hessaraghatta Lake, Bangalore – 560 089.
60
COLEUS BARBATUS BRIQ .
least a fortnight. The initiation of roots can be seen within 10 days

but the cuttings need about five weeks for better establishment. There-
after, the cuttings can be kept out of polyhouse for conditioning and
hardening of plantlets. After two weeks of conditioning, the
propagules are ready for transplantation in the field. Transplantation is
done after four to five weeks of completion of rooting process. This
period also includes hardening of the cuttings outside the polyhouse
after which these cuttings can be planted in the field.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment About 28 000 rooted cuttings are re-
quired for planting crops on 1 hectare of land, at a spacing of 50 cm ×
60 cm or 60 cm × 60 cm. No specific treat-
ment is required before planting of cuttings.

The land is tilled twice to make it porous
and weed-free. It is then planked to get a
level field. FYM (farmyard manure) or
vermicompost at the rate of 15 tonnes per
hectare should be incorporated as a basal
dose 15 days before planting. The crop re-
sponds well to fertilizer application @ 30 kg
per hectare each of nitrogen, phosphorus, Coleus roots –
and potash, after about 10 days of transplanting. This may be followed economically
important plant
by at least two irrigations, if sufficient soil moisture is not available. part
P Transplanting and optimum spacing Ridges are made in the field at a
distance of 60 cm and the rooted propagules are planted in the soil up
to a depth of 15 cm, generally by using the crowbar method.
P Intercropping system This crop can be intercropped beneath perennial
species as it performs well under partial shade.
P Interculture and maintenance practices Phosphate and potash fertilizers
are given as basal application as mentioned earlier. Nitrogenous ferti-
lizers may be used in two equal split doses, the first being the basal
dose. Frequent earthing-up once in 15–20 days is essential for good
root growth. The soil from the furrow is heaped on to the base, result-
ing in proliferation and good growth of the roots. Weeding of crop is
done after 30 days of transplanting followed by weeding after 60 days
of transplantation. There is no need of weeding when the plants grow
61
and spread well over the ground. However, two to three weedings are
usually necessary depending on the weed intensity.
P Irrigation practices The crop needs intermittent irrigation due to its
succulent leaves. The crop gives good fibrous root yield only when
irrigated adequately.
P Disease and pest control No serious pests or diseases have been re-
corded on this crop. However, white scale insects often attack the
leaves, usually between the leaf veins and midrib, and suck the sap.
The pest can be controlled by spraying 1.5 ml Nuvacron per litre of
water on the foliage. The crop is also susceptible to water stagnation,
which leads to root rot. Proper drainage and porosity of the soil are
very important for good growth and productivity.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting The crop can be maintained for three to
four years under good phytosanitary conditions. The roots are, how-
ever, harvested between fifth and sixth months after planting. Studies
indicate that plants harvested when they are five-month-old are better
than those harvested when they are three or seven-month old. Maxi-
mum oil content in roots (1.4%) is obtained if the roots are harvested
at the end of five months of plantation.
P Post-harvest management Harvested roots are first cleaned under run-
ning water, soaked well, and dried in shade. These are graded into
main and lateral roots. Only lateral roots are used to extract oil. Main
roots are left out since they hardly contain any oil and may be
replanted in the field for fresh sprout.
P Chemical constituents The roots contain 0.5% to 1.4% oil, on air dry
weight basis.
P Yield and cost of cultivation Yield of roots is about 250 kg per hectare.
The cost of cultivation is estimated to be approximately Rs 75 000 per
hectare.

P Market price: Rs 50 per kg (roots)
62
COMMIPHORA WIGHTII ( ARN .) BHANDARI
Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari

Syn. C. mukul Wt. and Arn.
Burseraceae
Ayurvedic name Guggulu
Unani name Muqil
Hindi name Guggal
Trade name Guggal
Part used Oleo-gum resin
Commiphora wightii –
mature leafless tree
Therapeutic uses
T
he gum of guggal is anti-inflammatory and efficacious in the
treatment of arthritis, rheumatism, hyperlipidemia, thrombosis,
and hypercholesterolemia. It has alterative, carminative, astrin-
gent, and antispasmodic properties.
Commiphora is a slow growing, highly branched, spiny shrub or a small
tree with crooked and knotty branches ending in sharp spines. The stem
is covered with silvery white, papery bark that peels off as flakes from the
older parts of the stem, whereas, the younger branches are pubescent and
glandular. Leaves are trifoliate; leaflets rhomboid, ovate, and entire at the
base and serrate at the apex. The plant remains leafless during winter sea-
son, that is, from October to March. New leaves sprout during April, are
63
short-lived and do not fall until September. A short spell of rainfall initiates
leaf formation. Guggal, an oleo-gum resin of pale brown or dull green colour,
exudes from bark during winter season (November–February).
Flowers are sessile and appear singly or in groups of two to three. Fruits
are ovoid, reddish brown to purple in colour. Two types of seeds, that is,
black and yellowish-white, are produced. The flowering and fruiting take
place throughout the year. However, maximum fruiting is observed from
January to April.
Distribution
Guggal is a xerophyte and grows naturally in
arid and rocky zones of India, that is, Gujarat,
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan, and
also in Pakistan.
Climate and soil

The plant grows well in arid, sandy, and rocky
tracts of tropical India. Sandy or sandy loam
soils are best for its cultivation.
Commiphora wightii –
seeds
Varieties
CIMAP (Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants), Lucknow,
has developed a good oleo-gum-resin-yielding cultivar called ‘marusudha’.
Some studies by CIMAP also indicate the presence of high guggul
sterones in the cuttings obtained from Mangaliaswas area of Ajmer in
Rajasthan and Kot Lakhpat area of Bhuj in Gujarat. The germplasm from
Nakoda in Rajasthan also gives a good yield.
Black coloured seeds may be used as planting material, although germina-
tion averages around 40% only. Seeds can be collected during February–
March. Yellowish-white seeds are non-viable. One to four seedlings
emerge from a single seed due to polyembryony. The plant can be easily
propagated through leafless stem cuttings, prepared in May, or through
air layering of 5–8-year-old mother plants in July–August.
64
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules The planting stock for raising the crop can be pre-
pared in a nursery through seeds, stem cuttings or air layering of 5–8-
year-old mother plants. Only the black-coloured seeds are viable and
sown during March to June, preferably in polybags. One seed may
produce more than one seedling due to its polyembryonic nature.
However, due to poor germination, two seeds are sown in each
polybags. Seeds germinate within 7–10 days after sowing in the rainy
season. Leafless stem cuttings are planted in the nursery in May. Simi-
larly, air layering can be done during rainy season in July–August;
roots develop in 15–20 days af-
ter setting.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment
Approximately, 100 g of black
seeds are required for raising
plantation in 1 hectare of land at
a spacing of 2 m × 2 m. No
treatment of seed is required.
Stem cuttings planted without
any treatment show approxi-
mately 90% rooting. However,
cuttings can be pretreated with
guggulu solution (100 mg/litre)
or IBA (indole-3-butyric acid @ Commiphora wightii –
10 mg/litre) to hasten rooting and to achieve better survival rate. field view

P Land preparation and fertilizer application Pits of size 45 cm × 45 cm
× 45 cm are dug at requisite spacing of 2 m × 2 m and refilled after
mixing the sand, soil, and FYM in the ratio of 1:1:1.
P Transplanting and optimum spacing The plantlets obtained from seeds
and rooted twigs from cuttings or air layerings are transplanted from
polybags in the rainy season (July/August) to the pits containing a
1
P Department of Botany, Jai Narain Vyas University, Jodhpur – 342 001, Rajasthan.
P Planting material source provided by Guggulu Garden Mangaliavas, Department of
Forests, Ajmer, Rajasthan.
65
mixture of sand:soil:FYM (1:1:1). A crop stand of 2500 plants per

hectare is obtained with a spacing of 2 m × 2 m.
P Intercropping system Guggal can be intercropped with crops like pearl
millet and cluster bean. Experiments indicate a synergistic relationship
between the intercropped species and guggal, resulting in better yield
of pearl millet and cluster bean, while the quality and yield of guggal
plantation remain unaffected. In Rajasthan, it is planted on the bor-
ders of the cultivated fields because of its very slow growing nature.
Presence of spinous branches makes the field impenetrable.
P Interculture and maintenance practices Besides the basal dose of FYM
provided in the pits, the plants may be provided with growth regula-
tors like IBA (10 mg/litre) along with or-
ganic manures like hexameal @ 100 g/plant
every month or NPK (nitrogen, phospho-
rus, potassium) @ 75:130:30 g/plant after
every three months up to a period of one
year, which helps in the better survival of
plants. After one year, quarterly dose of
compost or hexameal @ 100 g/plant is good
for growth and survival of plants. The pits
should always be kept weed-free. Manual
weeding and hoeing are recommended at an
interval of 15–20 days during rainy season.
After rainy season, weeding may be done at
Commiphora wightii – monthly intervals.
guggal P Irrigation practices Irrigation with 8 litres of water per plant at an in-
terval of 15 days results in best growth of plant.
P Disease and pest control No serious disease is observed in Commiphora
wightii except for collar rot during rainy season, which is caused by
Sclerotium rolfsii. The plant is infected at collar region when the water
remains stagnant near the base at early growing stage. The condition
may be controlled by avoiding stagnation of water around the base of
the plant and spraying Diathane M-45 fungicide @ 2 g/litre of water
on the crop. In desert areas, the early growth of the plant is often
checked by termite attack, and in some cases, whole plant is damaged
by the termite colony. Termite can be controlled successfully by
drenching the soil with chloropyrophos @ 4 ml/litre of water.
66
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting The plant should be allowed to grow for
at least five to six years before commencing incision of thick branches
for extracting oleo-gum resin. The oleo-gum resin is tapped during
winter, from November–February, by making a 7–10-cm long incision
in the main stem near the base. The cut part is completely covered
with resin in about a month’s time. The exuded gum secreted is col-
lected every week up to one month after which further exudation of
gum stops.
P Post-harvest management After collection, the oleo-gum resin is stored
in airtight plastic containers.
P Chemical constituents The gum resin contains 3.2% gum and 19.5%
mineral matter chiefly consisting of silicon dioxide, magnesium, cal-
cium, iron, and aluminium. It also contains about 1.5% essential oil,
which contains 6.5% myrcene and 11% dinyrcene. A number of ster-
oids have also been isolated from guggul like Z-guggul sterone and
E-guggulosterol I, II, and III.
P Yield and cost of cultivation A yield of 120–130 kg oleo-gum resin is
obtained per hectare after about eight years. The per hectare cost of
cultivation is approximately Rs 110 000 plus maintenance cost of
Rs 5000 every year; thus, total input for eight years will be approxi-
mately Rs 160 000/hectare.

P Market demand: 900 tonnes per year (90% imported from Pakistan)
67
CURCULIGO ORCHIOIDES GAERTN .
Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.
Hypoxidaceae
Ayurvedic name Talamulika
Unani name Musli Siyah
Hindi name Kalimusali
Trade name Kalimusali
Parts used Tuberous roots and

rhizomes
Curculigo orchioides –
plant in bloom
Therapeutic uses
C
urculigo is used as a rejuvenating tonic, aphrodisiac drug, and diu-
retic. It is useful in general debility, cough, jaundice, asthma, and
piles.
Roots of kalimusali are straight, cylindrical, tuberous, 5–22 cm long, and
0.5–0.8 cm thick. The external surface is brownish, marked with loosely
spaced, prominent, transverse wrinkles. Lateral roots are 5 cm or more in
length, stout, fibrous, dull white in colour, and spongy externally. The
freshly cut surface of tuberous rootstock has a starch-white colour within
and is mucilaginous. Leaves are simple, sessile, crowded on the short stem
with sheathing leaf bases, tapering into a short petiole, almost radical. They
are 15–45 cm long and 1.2–2.5 cm broad, linear or linear–lanceolate,
69
membranous, glabrous or sparsely soft haired. The leaf tip, when in con-
tact with the soil, develops roots and produces adventitious buds.
Floral biology
Flowers are epigynous, bright yellow, bisexual or unisexual, with a lanceo-
late and membranous bract. Perianth is located at the top of a slender
sterile long extension of the ovary by means of which it is exposed above
the ground. Perianth is gamotepallus with six equal lobes of size 1.5 cm ×
0.2 cm; outer lobes are hairy on the back, while the inner ones are
sparsely hairy along nerves. Ovary is tricarpellary, syncarpous, and
trilocular with a fairly long slender beak (stipe). Flowering and fruiting
occur mostly from October to January, rarely throughout the year.
Distribution
The species occurs in shady areas of sub-
tropical Himalayas, Western Ghats from
Konkan southwards, plains of West Bengal,
Central India, Chhota Nagpur, and other
tropical zones. Basically, it is a tropical
plant and is found in almost all districts of
India, from near-sea level up to 400 m alti-
tude, especially in rock crevices and laterite
soil. It is a shade-loving plant and thrives
Curculigo orchioides – well in areas that receive high rainfall. It is
field view considered to be a threatened species.
Tuber segments of 1.5–2 cm size, containing the apical bud, are collected
during February–March and used for propagation.
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules No stock is raised in the nursery. Tuber segments of
size 1.5 cm × 2 cm, obtained from mother plants, are planted directly
1
Agro-technique study carried out by Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Research Station, Kerala
Agricultural University, Odakkali, PO Asamannoor Post, Ernakulam district, Kerala – 683 549.
70
CURCULIGO ORCHIOIDES GAERTN .
in the main field at the onset of south-west monsoon, which breaks

over South India in May–June. The tuber segments are planted at an
optimum spacing of 10 cm × 10 cm. About 70%–80% sprouting is
obtained after two months of planting in humid tropical regions like
Kerala.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment The propagule rate is 600–750 kg of
root segments per hectare. The tuber segments require no pretreat-
ment before sowing.

Talamuli grows well in moist and humus-rich
soils. The land is ploughed well with the onset
of monsoon. Organic manure is mixed before
planting and raised beds are prepared to prevent
waterlogging. FYM (farmyard manure) at the
rate of 20 tonnes/hectare is applied at the time
of land preparation. Alternatively, FYM at the
rate of 15 tonnes/hectare may be applied at the
time of land preparation and NPK (nitrogen,
phosphorus, potassium) at the rate of 25:15:10
kg/hectare can be applied as top dressing during
October–November. If available, well-decom-
posed poultry manure at the rate of 2.7 tonnes/
hectare, instead of FYM, mixed well with the
soil at the time of land preparation gives better
yield.
P Planting and optimum spacing The tuber seg- Curculigo orchioides –
rootstock
ments are directly planted in the field in rows.
About 70%–80% germination/sprouting of tubers takes place after
two months, when planted in humid tropical areas like Kerala. An op-
timum crop stand of 0.6–0.65 million is desirable for a pure crop with
an optimum spacing of 10 m × 10 cm or 10 cm × 15 cm, while
intercropping with a coconut gives a crop stand of approximately 0.2
million with a spacing of 20 cm × 25 cm.
P Intercropping system The crop grows well in the shade of irrigated co-
conut orchards. If it is to be raised as a pure crop, artificial shade has
to be provided using shade nets of 25% density.
71
P Interculture and maintenance practices No additional manure is re-

quired for crop management. Manual weeding is usually adopted.
Weeding twice at two and four months after planting is necessary to
keep the crop weed-free. No special maintenance practices are required
except for regular weeding and watering during dry spells.
P Irrigation practices The crop is grown in rain-fed area during the
monsoon period. After the monsoon ceases, it is to be irrigated with
5 cm flooding fortnightly.
P Disease and pest control Seedling rot is observed during the rainy sea-
son and can be controlled by spraying and drenching the soil with 1%
bordeaux mixture. Black rot disease is also observed and can be con-
trolled by spraying 0.05% tridemorph. Rhizomes are often eaten by
rodents and hence standard control measures may be taken for their
control.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting The plant starts flowering one month af-
ter planting and maximum number of flowers are noted during second
and third months of planting. Flowering takes place throughout the
year. However, fruits and seeds are not used as drug. Roots mature in
the field in seven to eight months and may be harvested by digging.
P Post-harvest management Remnants of the shoot and rootlets are re-
moved from tubers. The tubers are cleaned of the soil particles, dried
well in the shade, and stored in gunny bags.
P Chemical constituents Curculigo roots contain acetone extractives
(1.5%–1.8%), ash (3.3%–3.9%), and curculigosides (0.2%).
P Yield and cost of cultivation A dried tuber yield of 1000–1700 kg/hec-
tare is obtained. The estimated cost of cultivation is Rs 28 000/hec-
tare, which does not include the cost of planting material.

Market price: Rs 300 per kg
72
CURCUMA CAESIA ROXB .
Curcuma caesia Roxb.
Zingiberaceae
Ayurvedic name Narkachur

Unani name Siyah haldi,
Kali haldi
Hindi name Kali haldi, Narkachur
Trade name Black zedoary,
Kali haldi
Part used Rhizome
Curcuma caesia –
plant
Therapeutic uses
T
he rhizome of kali haldi has a bitter, sharp, hot taste, and a pleas-
ant odour. It has anti-bacterial and anti-fungal properties, and is
laxative. It is used as a tonic for the brain and the heart.
Rhizomes are useful in treating leucoderma, piles, bronchitis, asthma,
tumors, tuberculous glands of the neck, enlargement of the spleen, epi-
leptic seizures, inflammations, and allergic eruptions.
Black zedoary is an erect, rhizomatous herb, about 1.0–1.5 m high. The
rhizomes are ovoid in shape, acute at tip, but not so thick as in other spe-
cies of Curcuma. Leaves are about 30–60 cm long and up to 15 cm broad,
broadly lanceolate or oblong, glabrous, with a deep ferruginous purple
cloud down the middle, which penetrates to the lower surface. Leaves
arise from the underground rhizome.
73
Inflorescence is a spike, about 15 cm long or altogether about 30 cm high
on basal peduncle. Flowers are pale yellow, reddish at the outer border
and shorter than their bracts. Petiole and sheath are about as long as the
blade. Spikes appear before the leaves. Flowers appear in June and July,
while fruits mature in September and October.
Distribution
The species occurs in moist deciduous forests, mostly in Bengal, North-
East, and Central India, within the altitudinal range of 200–1000 m. It
grows as ground cover of forest area in subtropical to
temperate region. It is a rare species and is mostly
under cultivation.
Climate and soil

Curcuma caesia grows well in sandy loam, acidic
soils of pH 4.5–6.5. It is a partial shade-loving spe-
cies; however, it grows well in open sun under culti-
vated conditions.
Varieties
There is no recommended variety. However, among
the collected materials, accession no. IC-319760
(NBPGR) was found to give better rhizome yield.
Curcuma caesia –
Kali haldi plant Propagation material
Rhizome is the propagation material. Mature rhizomes are collected in
December or just before plantation and longitudinally sliced with one
apical bud in each slice.
Agro-technique 1
Nursery Technique
P Raising propagules Rhizome pieces are directly planted in the field and
no nursery stock is generally raised.
1
P NBPGR Regional Station, Umiam, Shillong – 793 103, Meghalaya.
P Department of Forest, Bilaspur, Achanakmar, Chhattisgarh.
74
CURCUMA CAESIA ROXB .
P Propagule rate and pretreatment Approximately, 2.2 tonnes of rhizomes

shall be required per hectare for planting at a spacing of 30 cm × 30 cm.
No particular treatment is given to the propagules before planting.

P Land preparation and fertilizer application The land is ploughed, har-
rowed, and planked, mixed with FYM (farmyard manure) @ 5 tonnes
per hectare together with NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium) @
33:80:60 kg per hectare as basal dose during land preparation. If re-
quired, lime @ 2 tonnes per hectare may be applied to reduce excessive
acidity in soils, at least one month before planting.
P Transplanting and optimum spacing Middle of April is the best time
for raising the crop in North-East India, while in other regions, it is
the pre-monsoon period. The crop is propagated vegetatively through
rhizomes. The whole or parts of rhizome, weighing approximately
20 g, should be planted in rows directly in the field during April.
Planting at a spacing of 30 cm × 30 cm is found optimum, for which
0.11 million propagules (rhizome segments) are required per hectare.
The rhizomes sprout in about 15–20 days.
P Intercropping system Kali haldi is grown as a single crop. But, it may
be intercropped beneath widely interrupted canopy trees.
P Interculture and maintenance practices A complete dose of NPK is to
be applied @ 100:80:60 kg per hectare as urea, single super phosphate,
and potash, respectively. One-third of urea, that is, 33 kg, and full rec-
ommended quantity of single super phosphate and potash are applied
at the time of final land preparation. The rest two-thirds of nitrogen as
urea is top dressed in two split doses, first at the time of first earthing-
up and the rest at the time of second earthing-up. Earthing-up is car-
ried out at 45 days and 60 days after planting. To reduce the
crop–weed competition during the early stages of growth, manual
weeding at 60, 90, and 120 days after planting is recommended.
P Irrigation practices The crop is usually grown under rain-fed condi-
tions in high rainfall tracts of Assam and Kerala states. Constant hu-
midity is to be maintained in other areas through regular irrigation.
Sprinkler irrigation is the most suitable method.
P Disease and pest control Leaf spot (Tephrina sp., Coletotrichum sp.) and
leaf blotch (Corticium sp.) are sometimes observed on the crop. They
can be controlled by spraying of 1% Bordeaux mixture at monthly
intervals.
75
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting The crop takes about nine months to
mature. Harvesting is done in mid-January. Before digging the rhi-
zomes, soil is moistened through irrigation, so that the rhizomes are
not injured. Injury to the rhizomes may cause decay of the harvest.
P Post-harvest management Peeled, half cut or sliced rhizomes should be
kept in oven at 55 °C or under well-ventilated shade for drying. These
dried rhizomes should be stored in suitable damp-proof containers.
P Chemical constituents Dried rhizomes of Curcuma caesia are reported
to contain 1.6% essential oil containing 76.6% d-camphor; 8.2%
camphene and bornylene; and 10.5% sesquiterpenes, curcumine,
ionone, and turmerone.
P Yield and cost of cultivation Estimated yield of fresh rhizomes is
48 tonnes per hectare while dry rhizome yield is about 10 tonnes per
hectare. Estimated cost of cultivation is Rs 95 000 per hectare.
76
CURCUMA ZEDOARIA ( CHRIST .) ROSC .
Curcuma zedoaria (Christ.) Rosc.
Zingiberaceae
Ayurvedic name Karchur

Unani name Zarambad
Hindi name Narkachur, Ban Haldi

Trade name Zerumbat, Zedoary
Parts used Rhizomes and leaves
Curcuma zedoaria –
plant in flower
Therapeutic uses
R
hizomes of Karchur are aromatic, cardio-tonic, carminative, diu-
retic, and anti-spasmodic. They are used to cure jaundice, cough,
hiccups, and respiratory disorders. Essential oil extracted from
leaves is used in perfumery and aromatherapy.
Zedoary is an annual or biennial, aromatic, rhizomatous, tall herb. It at-
tains a height of 1.8 m. Rhizomes are large, pale yellow or whitish inside.
Roots are aromatic and end in ellipsoid tubers. The edible root of zedoary
has a white interior and a fragrance reminiscent of mango; however, its
flavour is more similar to ginger, except for the fact that it leaves a very
bitter aftertaste. There is no distinct aerial stem, but the shoot has a
pseudo stem formed of long and closely overlapping four to six sheathing
leaf bases. Leaves are large, reaching upto 1 m in length, oblong and
deeply veined, often coloured purplish in the centre.
77
Inflorescence is a spathe arising from the rhizome. Flowers are whitish or
pale-yellow with bright reddish-green bracts. Corolla tube is pinkish and
funnel-shaped. Calyx is whitish and obtusely toothed. Flowering occurs
in May–June, but fruiting occurs rarely. Fruit is an ovoid capsule.
Distribution
The species is semi-domesticated and is found in the forests of eastern
Himalayas, Bengal, and Kerala. It is cultivated in Kerala, Karnataka,
Tamil Nadu, and other places that provide congenial climatic conditions.
Climate and soil

Karchur is a semi-domesticated crop
of moist tropical, subtropical, and
temperate regions. Loam and sandy
loam soil and rainfall of about 1100
mm per annum are best for its cultiva-
tion. It can grow in open as well as
shady conditions.
Rhizome is the best material for
Curcuma zedoaria
– view of crop propagation, which can be collected
in winter season (November–December). Seeding generally does not
occur in this crop.
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules The nursery is not raised for the crop. Rhizome
pieces are planted directly in the field.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment Rhizome propagules @10–12 quintals
per hectare are required for planting at a spacing of 40 cm × 20 cm.
No specific treatment is required before sowing.
1
Agro-technique study carried out by NBPGR (National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources),
Research Station, Niglat, Bhowali – 263 132, Dist Nainital, Uttarakhand.
78
CURCUMA ZEDOARIA ( CHRIST .) ROSC .

P Land preparation and fertilizer application One ploughing of disc har-
row and two to three ploughings of desi plough are needed for condi-
tioning of soil. About 150 quintals/hectare of FYM (farmyard manure)
and 100:80:60 kg/hectare of NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium)
are mixed thoroughly in the soil before planting.
P Planting and optimum spacing The crop can be planted anytime from
April to June, depending upon the availability of soil
moisture. Rhizome pieces are planted directly in the
field in rows at a spacing of 20 cm, row-to-row dis-
tance being 40 cm. Rhizomes sprout in 10–12 days
in moist soil conditions; otherwise, they remain dor-
mant in soil and sprout after the first shower. For
planting, about 125 000 propagules per hectare at a
spacing of 40 cm × 20 cm are needed. However, a
little wider spacing may increase the output.
P Intercropping system Both solo and mixed cropping
system can be opted for this crop under partial
shade of trees with thin canopy.
P Interculture and maintenance practices The crop re-
quires two to three weedings at intervals of 30, 60,
and 90 days after planting. Thereafter, the plants
have a suppressing effect on the weeds. No further
application of any organic or inorganic fertilizer is
required. Curcuma zedoaria –
narkachur
P Irrigation practices The crop requires three to four light irrigations per plantation
month during summer and two to three irrigations per month in win-
ter. Irrigation frequency depends on soil and weather conditions.
P Disease and pest control No visible symptoms for any kind of disease,
physiological disorder, and so on have been observed or reported on
Curcuma zedoaria during the experimental trials.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting Overall crop maturity occurs in six to
eight months. Harvesting of rhizomes is done during November–
December. These rhizomes are washed well in water to remove soil
particles, cut into slices, dried in sun to remove surface water, and
then again dried in shade. The best time for harvesting the leaves is
October–November.
79
P Post-harvest management Sliced and dried rhizomes are stored in a

cool place for commercial purposes. To get planting material, rhizomes
are buried in soil pits or sand heaps up to March.
P Chemical constituents The rhizomes contain an average of 0.18% of
essential oil when collected during February, March, and November.
The major ingredients of essential oil are cineole, δ-pinene, β-pinene,
camphor, and so on.
P Yield and cost of cultivation Fresh rhizome yield varies from
285 quintals/hectare to 315 quintals/hectare, while the yield of leaves
is in the range 70–80 quintals/hectare on fresh weight basis. The es-
sential oil yield from leaves is 7–8 kg/hectare (on 0.09% of fresh
weight basis), while the essential oil yield from rhizomes is 80–90 kg/
ha (at 0.28% of fresh weight). The estimated cost of cultivation is
Rs 92 900 per hectare.

P Market price: Rs 15 per kg (rhizomes)
P Market demand: 2.5 tonnes
80
DESMODIUM GANGETICUM ( L .) DC
Desmodium gangeticum (L.) DC
Fabaceae
Ayurvedic name Shalparni

Hindi name Salparni
Trade name Sarivan

Parts used Roots and whole
plant
Desmodium gangeticum plant
Therapeutic uses
T
he plant has febrifuge, aphrodisiac, analgesic, diuretic, anti-
inflammatory, and haemorrhagic properties. It is used in
postnatal complaints, diarrhoea, chronic fever, biliousness, cough,
vomiting, and asthma. It is an important ingredient of dasmoolarishta and
chyavanprash.
Salparni is a sub-erect, diffusely branched undershrub, up to 120-cm tall.
Stem is short and woody at base. Leaves are unifoliate, ovate to ovate-
lanceolate, membranous, and mottled with grey patches.
Inflorescence is elongated, lax, terminal or axillary raceme. Flowers are
purple, lilac to white in colour. Fruit is a pod, moniliform (beaded), six
81
to eight jointed. Joints of pods are sparsely pubescent with hooked hairs.
Joints separate into indehiscent one-seeded segments at ripening. Seeds
are compressed and kidney shaped. Flowering and fruiting occur twice a
year, from May to June and from September to October.
Distribution
The species is common as an undershrub in forests and wastelands
throughout tropical and sub-tropical regions of India, predominantly in
the lower Himalayan regions and Gangetic plains. It is never found in
open grassy lands, but quite often found as orchard weed.
Climate and soil

Tropical and subtropical dry climate is suitable for the cultivation of
Desmodium. It grows well in partial shade in moist orchards on loam to
clay loam soil, with pH 8.5–9.0 (alkaline). It can also thrive well in heavy
soils with high clay content.
The crop can be raised easily through seeds, which germinate without any
pretreatment. Seeds are collected during July–August and October–
November. The collected seeds retain their viability for three years under
normal storage conditions.
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules The seedlings can be raised from seeds in the nurs-
ery in March–April. Seeds are sown in polybags with a potting mix
containing equal amounts of soil, sand, and FYM (farmyard manure).
The seeds germinate in about 7–10 days and the seedlings are ready
for transplanting in the main field after 45–50 days. Seeds planted
directly in the field produce uneven or dense crop stand.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment Approximately, 3–4.5 kg seeds are
needed for raising about 50 000 seedlings for 1 hectare plantation.
1
P National Botanical Research Institute, Rana Pratap Marg, Lucknow – 226 001, Uttar
Pradesh.
P Zandu Foundation of Health Care, Vapi, Dist Bulsad, Gujarat.
82
DESMODIUM GANGETICUM ( L .) DC
No particular pretreatment is required; however, seeds soaked over-

night in water show quicker germination.

P Land preparation and fertilizer application The field should be pre-
pared well by giving one ploughing and two harrowings, followed by
planking. Manure at the rate of 10 tonnes/hectare should be mixed
thoroughly with the soil at the time of field preparation. Nitrogen and
phosphorus should be applied at the time of planting at the rate of
20 kg/hectare and 40 kg/hectare, respectively. Nitrogen and phospho-
rus can also be applied in the form of DAP (di-ammonium phosphate)
at the rate of 100 kg/hectare. Zinc should be applied in deficient soils
at the rate of 20 kg/hectare at the time of planting.
P Transplanting and optimum spacing Transplantation in irrigated farms can
be done after seedlings attain 45 days of age. If dry conditions prevail,
transplantation may be delayed till early July under rain-fed conditions.
An optimum spacing of 45 cm × 45 cm is recommended, which can ac-
commodate approximately 50 000 saplings in 1 hectare of land. For
intercropping with widely spaced main crops such as aonla, planting can
be done in two adjacent rows at a spacing of 30 cm × 30 cm.
P Intercropping system The plant can be grown either as a pure crop or as
an intercrop with trees like poplar (Populus deltoidea), as it can with-
stand partial shade. Aonla, mango, and guava orchards are also suit-
able for intercropping.
P Interculture and maintenance practices All manures and fertilizers are
applied just before transplantation while preparing the land. Although
manual weeding is the norm, herbicides, such as glyphosate, can be
used as pre-planting application. Glyphosate is sprayed about three
weeks before planting the crop. This results is reduced intensity of
weeds in the early stages of crop growth. Weeding and hoeing are done
manually at the initial stages of crop–weed competition. The crop re-
quires manual removal of weeds twice at early stages (25 and 45 days
after transplantation) and once at the end of September.
P Irrigation practices First irrigation is essential just after transplanting,
followed by irrigation at an interval of 12–15 days in summers (May–
June). During monsoon, irrigation can be done depending on the
rains received. In rain-fed conditions, irrigation depends upon the
amount and frequency of rainfall. Irrigation once a month during
winter season is sufficient.
83
P Disease and pest control No serious disease or insect pests have been
observed. The roots of plantations older than one year are often
severely damaged by rats in some dry regions. The rodents may be
controlled by standard control measures.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting The plants mature in six to seven
months by November–December, and may be harvested as whole
plants. If root is required for medicinal purpose, the plant may be
allowed to stand for one year and harvesting may be done in April.
One-year old crop produces higher root yield.
P Post-harvest management Irrigation is withheld three weeks before
harvesting. The whole plant is dug out with spade and roots are sepa-
rated. The produce is washed, cleaned, and dried in shade. The dried
produce is packed in gunny bags and stored under humidity-free
conditions.
P Yield and cost of cultivation The total herb yield per hectare is esti-
mated to be 50–55 quintals dry weight, while the dry weight yield of
roots is estimated to be 11–15 quintals/hectare. The approximate cost
of cultivating 1 hectare of land is Rs 45 000.

P Market price: About Rs 16 per kg
84
DIOSCOREA BULBIFERA LINN .
Dioscorea bulbifera Linn.

Syn. D. crispata, D. sativa
Dioscoreaceae
Ayurvedic name Varahikhand, Varahi

Unani name Zaminkand, Ratalu
Hindi name Ratalu, Genthi
Trade name Rattalu

Parts used Corms and tubers
Dioscorea bulbifera –
plant in flowering
Therapeutic uses
C
orms of Dioscorea bulbifera are aphrodisiac, tonic, and used for
treating sore throat, boils and swellings, dysentery, piles, and
syphilis. They are also used against tumour.
Ratalu is a clockwise twining herb with glabrous stem. Leaves are alter-
nate, simple, three to five veined from base, glabrous, ovate-triangular
with deep cordate base. Axillary bulbils are spherical, tubercled, and dark
brown-green in colour.
Flowers are arranged in hanging, axillary, solitary or fascicled spikes. Cap-
sules are oblong and winged, while seeds are winged at the base. Perianth
is tubular and fruit is three-valved. Flowering and fruiting occur from
September to November.
85
Distribution
The species is distributed throughout tropical and subtropical areas, up to
1000 m altitude. It is a shade-loving species but grows well in open areas too.
Climate and soil

A subtropical or sub-temperate and humid climate with distinct two to
three months of cold winters is ideal for the growth of the plant. Sandy
loam soil is most suitable for its cultivation and better yield of corm.
The species can be easily propagated by
underground corms or aerial bulbils.
Vegetatively propagated plants have rela-
tively faster growth than the seedlings.
Larger bulbils that are more than 4 cm
in diameter sprout about two days earlier
than the smaller ones. November and
December are the ideal months for col-
lection of bulbils for propagation.
Bulbils are buried in soil for protection
and used as propagules for next season.
Dioscorea bulbifera Agro-technique 1

Nursery technique
P Raising propagules Direct planting of the corms or bulbils in the field
is more effective than transplanting nursery-raised seedlings, hence it
is the preferred method. The suitable time for planting corms or
bulbils is April–May in mid-hills. For raising seedlings, seeds are sepa-
rated from mature fruits collected in November and are sown in spring
or early summer. Germination takes about 15–30 days and is less than
40% even under laboratory conditions.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment About 80–100 kg well-developed bulbils
or corms are required for plantation on 1 hectare of land at a spacing of
50 cm × 50 cm. No pretreatment is required before sowing the bulbils.
1
Agro-technique study carried out by the Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology,
Palampur, Himachal Pradesh.
86
DIOSCOREA BULBIFERA LINN .

P Land preparation and fertilizer application The planting beds should
be tilled properly and made weed-free, and the soil should be well pul-
verized. A basal dose of 15–20 tonnes/hectare of FYM (farmyard ma-
nure) should be applied to the soil at the time of pre-planting tillage.
P Planting and optimum spacing Plant-to-plant spacing of 50 cm × 50 cm
is considered optimum for good growth and yield. This spacing gives
an optimum crop stand of 40 000 plants per hectare. Plant spacing of
100 cm × 100 cm yields higher number of
bulbils per plant; however, the average
weight of bulbils as well as their number per
unit area are much higher at the spacing of
50 cm × 50 cm.
P Intercropping system The plant is preferred
as a solo crop, but needs staking support or
host of shrubs and trees.
P Interculture and maintenance practices Ap-
plying organic manure @ 15–20 tonnes/
hectare at the time of planting enhances av-
erage weight and yield of bulbils. Where
sufficient FYM/organic manure is not avail-
able, suitable doses of inorganic fertilizers
can be given to compensate for FYM for
higher yield. The twiner needs staking support
Dioscorea bulbifera
to expose maximum foliage area to the sun- – bulbil
light. The plants may be supported by a system of bamboo pillars and
string or wooden stakes or trellis.
P Irrigation practices Only light irrigation to maintain humidity during
dry season is recommended through sprinklers. Flood irrigation may
result in waterlogging and should be avoided.
P Weed control Manual weeding at monthly intervals during the peak
period of weed growth (July–September) controls weeds to a great extent.
P Disease and pest control No serious disease or infestation has been
reported in this crop.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting Bulbils become ready for harvest within
180–200 days from sprouting. The mother corm may be harvested
after two to three years. The crop undergoes dormancy during winter.
87
Hence, October–November are the ideal months to harvest bulbils/

underground corms. In subtropical and tropical areas, mid-September
to mid-October is the most suitable time. The bulbils should be
plucked as and when they become fully grown, otherwise they are shed
before the foliage develops.
P Post-harvest management The corms and bulbils can be stored in
gunny or paper bags without causing any adverse effect on the rate of
sprouting. There might be delay in sprouting of the bulbils by about
two days.
P Chemical constituents Chief active ingredient of corm is diosgenin
along with furanoid norditerpenes, sinodiosgenin, diosgenin ß,
smilagenone, and epismilagenins.
P Yield and cost of cultivation The crop yields an average of 12 tonnes of
fresh corms per hectare in the second year. The estimated cost of input
is Rs 62 500 per hectare.

P Market price: Rs 16 per kg dry weight
88
GYMNEMA SYLVESTRE R . BR . EX SCHULT .
Gymnema sylvestre R. Br. ex Schult.
Asclepiadaceae
Ayurvedic name Meshashringi

Unani name Gurmar buti
Hindi uame Gurmar

Trade name Gurmar
Part used Leaf
Gymnema sylvestre –
plants
Therapeutic uses
G
urmar is hypoglycaemic, astringent, stomachic, antiperiodic,
diuretic, tonic, and refrigerant. It is used as a destroyer of glyco-
suria, and is believed to neutralize the excess sugar present in the
body. It is also used to treat other urinary disorders.
Gymnema is a gregarious woody climber, much branched, running over the
tops of tall trees. Young stems and branches are pubescent. Leaves are 3–5 cm
long and upto 3 cm broad, ovate-elliptic, acute or shortly acuminate,
pubescent on both sides; base rounded or heart shaped with 6–13 mm long
pubescent petioles.
Flowers occur in umbellate cyme inflorescences. Calyx is pubescent,
nearly divided to the base. Corolla is yellow, tube campanulate with
89
thick, ovate, and recurved lobes. Follicles are up to 7.5 cm long and 1 cm
broad, rigid, lanceolate, and attenuated into a beak. Seeds are about
1.3 cm long, narrowly ovoid–oblong, flat, with a thin, broad, brown, and
glabrous marginal wing. Flowering occurs in October–January, while
fruits mature from March to May.
Distribution
The species occurs in all tropical zones of India and is a
common climbing plant in central and southern India.
Climate and soil

The plant grows in tropical and subtropical humid
climate. It is common in hills of evergreen forests.
Sandy loam soil is best for its cultivation. It may be
cultivated on a variety of soils including gravelled soil.
Terminal and axillary cuttings with three to four
nodes from one-year-old plants are the best planting
material. Seed germination is poor; hence, plants are
preferably raised vegetatively through cuttings.
Cuttings can be obtained throughout the year in
moist humid conditions of South India. In North and
Gymnema sylvestre
– cutting Central India, cuttings are preferably planted in
February–March.
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules Styrofoam trays or polybags are filled with soil,
sand, and FYM (farmyard manure) in 1:2:1 ratio, and terminal or axil-
lary cuttings are planted in them. Vermicompost may be used in place
of FYM. February to March is the best season for planting the cuttings
in nursery, especially in North Indian conditions. The cuttings are
placed under humid conditions in shade houses or mist chambers for
development of roots. Rooting is initiated within a month of planting.
1
Agro-technique study carried out by Centre for Advanced Studies in Botany, University of
Madras, Guindy Campus, Chennai – 600 025, India.
90
GYMNEMA SYLVESTRE R . BR . EX SCHULT .
Seed setting is poor in this species and the seeds show a maximum ger-
mination percentage of 50%–55% when sown in soil mixed with
vermicompost.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment About 6700 rooted cuttings are re-
quired for plantation in 1 hectare of land. At 80% survival, about
8400 cuttings would be required. The stem cuttings are dipped in IBA
(indole-3-butyric acid;100 PPM [parts per million]) for six minutes
before planting in the nursery to promote rooting.

P Land preparation and fertilizer application The field is ploughed to
turn the soil and make it
weed-free. About 10 tonnes
of FYM is mixed with the soil
as a basal application at the
time of land preparation.
P Transplanting and optimum
spacing The period between
June and August is best for
transplanting the rooted
plants in the field. An opti-
mum spacing of 1 m × 1.5 m
is recommended for a crop
stand of about 6700 plants
per hectare. The rooted Gymnema sylvestre
– crop
cuttings/seedlings may be planted by crow bar method.
P Intercropping system When the plants are young, green gram can be
grown as an intercrop. Alternatively, the crop can be raised beneath
the tree species that serve as host or staking for this twiner.
P Interculture and maintenance practices About 10–12 tonnes/hectare of
FYM or 250 kg of NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium in equal
quantities) is applied as basal dose at the time of land preparation. An
additional equal dose may be added every year for maximizing biomass
production.
P Irrigation practices Irrigation is required at least once in a week during
summer season. Frequency may also depend on the soil moisture in
winter. It may be limited to one per month.
P Disease and pest control An aphid (Aphis sp.) is observed to attack the
apical tender parts of the plant during rainy season. However, if the
91
damage is not severe, no control measures are required. Use of chemi-

cal pesticides should be avoided since leaves are to be regularly
plucked for harvest.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting Leaves that are about 30–40 days old
can be plucked for use, and harvesting can be done every three
months. However, better yield is obtained after one year of growth.
P Post-harvest management Leaves are dried in shade and the dried leaves
are packed in polythene bags. The moisture content of the dry leaves
should be less than 8% to prevent deterioration.
P Chemical constituents The produce contains 7%–9.6% of gymnemic
acid as active principle. Besides, alanine, aminobutyric acid, isoleu-
cine, valine, adenine, choline, gymnamine (alkaloid), and many other
ingredients are isolated from leaves.
P Yield and cost of cultivation About 1250 kg of dry-weight leaves can be
obtained per hectare every three months. The approximate per hectare
cost of cultivation is Rs 25 000/hectare.

P Market price: Rs 50 per kg (dry leaves)
P Market demand: 1 tonne per annum
92
HEDYCHIUM SPICATUM HAM . EX SMITH
Hedychium spicatum Ham. ex Smith
Zingiberaceae
Ayurvedic name Shati, Karchur

Unani name Kapoor kachari
Hindi name Kapoor kachri
Trade name Kapoor kachri
Parts used Rhizomes and
essential oil from
rhizomes
Hedychium spicatum –
Kapoor kachri
Therapeutic uses
R
hizome of Hedychium is aromatic, acidic, bitter, pungent, car-
minative, stomachic, stimulant, expectorant, anti-asthmatic, anti-
septic, and anti-inflammatory. It is useful in asthma, bronchitis,
vomiting, dyspepsia, and inflammations. It has insect repellent proper-
ties, and is also used as a dye and perfume for making ‘abir’ powder used
in ‘Holi’.
Kapoor kachri is a rhizomatous, fragrant leafy herb with robust stem, and
is up to 1.5 m tall. Rhizomes have strong aromatic odour and bitter cam-
phoraceous taste. They are white, starchy, and fragrant within. Bark is
rough, reddish-brown with few deep-seated fibrous rootlets. Leaves are up
to 30 cm long, lanceolate, with green, obtuse bracts and leaf sheath clasp-
ing the stem.
93
Flowers are fragrant, white with orange-red base, present in a dense, ter-
minal, 15–25 cm long spike. Floral bracts are prominent, green with soli-
tary flower in axil. Calyx is papery and three-lobed. Petals are linear and
spreading; tip is white with two elliptic lobes and orange base. Corolla
tube is about 5–6.5 cm long. Fruit is a spheroid, three-valved capsule
with orange-red lining. Seeds are black with a red aril. Flowering occurs
in August and fruits ripen in October.
Distribution
The species occurs in subtropical and sub-temperate Himalayan region in
oak (Quercus spp.) and deodar (Cedrus deodara) forests on slopes between
1500 m and 2500 m altitudes.
Climate and soil

Kapoor kachri is sciophytic in nature and prefers shady slopes.
Waterlogging in the soil is fatal due to rotting of rhizomes. Moderate
temperature and well-spread rainfall are suitable for better growth. Sub-tem-
perate to temperate climate with annual precipitation of 1000–1500 mm,
and well-drained, deep sandy loam, and humus-rich soil with good mois-
ture retaining capacity are most suitable for its cultivation. Soil with
40%–50% of sand gives better yield.
Both seeds and rhizomes may be used as propagation material, but when
crops are raised through seeds, rhizomes may require three to four years
to mature. Propagation by rhizome is preferred due to less time involved
(about two years) in crop maturity.
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules It is not advisable to raise the crop through seeds;
rhizome pieces with apical buds are buried in 10 cm × 20 cm polybags
containing soil, sand, and FYM (farmyard manure) in equal amounts
and irrigated intermittently. Rhizomes may also be planted in mother
1
Agro-technique study carried out by National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, Regional
Station Shimla, Himachal Pradesh.
94
beds in the nursery and uprooted for planting in the field. Nursery is
raised in April when the weather is little warmer. Propagules sprout
between 25 and 30 days. Rhizomes may also be planted directly in the
field.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment About 25 quintals of healthy rhi-
zomes, segregated into pieces with one bud in each and weighing
about 40–50 g, are required for raising plantlets in 1 hectare of land.
Though rhizome rot is not a serious problem, high rainfall and
waterlogging may cause damage to propagules. Therefore, rhizomes
should be dipped in 0.01% bavistin solution for 25–30 minutes, fol-
lowed by shade-drying for six to eight hours before planting.

P Land preparation and fertilizer application First ploughing with soil-
turning plough is done in the first week of March in montane ranges
and in last week of March on higher hills. This makes the soil free
from weeds and buries the previous crop residues. The field is left
fallow for 15–20 days for solar treatment, aeration, and to facilitate
decay of crop residues. With second ploughing, well-decomposed
FYM at the rate of 20 tonnes per hectare should be spread well and
thoroughly mixed. Planking should be done after second and third
ploughing to make the soil friable and turn it into a fine tilth.
P Transplanting and optimum spacing Propagules are transplanted in
April in middle zones and in May in high ranges of hills. The rhi-
zomes are planted in furrows at a depth of 10–12 cm, at an optimum
spacing of 45 cm × 30 cm. At this spacing, about 64 000 propagules
per hectare will be required. Saplings should be taken for transplanta-
tion when they attain a height of 12–15 cm. These saplings should
immediately be planted after uprooting them from the nursery bed.
P Intercropping system Hedychium is preferred as an intercrop in fruit or-
chards. Experiments of intercropping in apple orchards have given
better results perhaps due to the availability of congenial environment
for better growth. The yield is about 60–65 quintals per hectare. In an
apple orchard, only about 44 000 propagules/hectare may be required.
P Interculture and maintenance practices The quantity of FYM recom-
mended is about 30–35 tonnes/hectare. It should be applied in three
split doses: the first one at the time of land preparation (20 tonnes/
hectare) and the other two doses (5–8 tonnes/hectare each) should be
applied well before the onset of monsoon in the first and second year
95
of cropping. Interculture operations mainly comprise weeding,

earthing-up (hoeing), and timely watering. First hoeing is done at the
time of top dressing, that is, 45–50 days after transplanting, and the
second hoeing can be done just after rainy season to loosen the soil. If
required, inorganic fertilizer, such as NPK (nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium), may be applied at the rate of 100:120:60 kg/hectare in
three split doses. The entire amount of phosphorus and potassium
along with one-third of nitrogen should be applied in furrows at the
time of land preparation. The remaining nitrogen should be applied in
two equal split doses: first after two months of planting and the sec-
ond in the next rainy season after new sprouting.
P Irrigation practices Since the crop is grown in areas with well spread-
out rainfall, it requires no irrigation, except in the case of rainfall defi-
ciency or during long spells of no rain. During winter, light irrigation
at an interval of 15–20 days is sufficient. Sufficient moisture should
always be available, but there should be no waterlogging.
P Weed control Manual weeding is recommended for the crop. Three
weedings are sufficient. First weeding is done 15–20 days after com-
pletion of sprouting. Second and third weedings are done with the
first and second hoeing operations.
P Disease and pest control In rhizome rot, leaves of the affected plant be-
come pale and the affected rhizomes become soft and pulpy, and ulti-
mately rotten. Rhizome rot can be controlled by dipping the rhizomes
in 0.01% bavistin solution for 25–30 minutes followed by shade-dry-
ing before planting. In leaf spot disease, spots appear over leaf lamina;
control measures involve spraying with 4:4:50 bordeaux mixture.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting The crop is biennial when planted
through rhizomes, and hence, matures in second season during
October–November, depending upon the elevation. Dried leaves and
stalks are removed after they turn yellow, while rhizomes are left in soil
for about 20–25 days for ripening before being dug out.
P Post-harvest management Rhizomes should be properly cleaned in
water to remove soil particles. Small roots and rootlets are also removed.
The produce is then dried in shade and stored in containers in damp-
proof stores. Healthy rhizomes should be selected before drying as future
propagules and treated with 0.01% bavistin solution to prevent rotting
and then buried with pits in sandy soil till next sowing period.
96
P Chemical constituents α-pinene, β-pinene, limonene, camphor, linalyl

acetate, β-terpineol, β-caryophyllene, benzyl cinnamate, benzyl ac-
etate, γ-terpinene, β-phellandrene, methyl paracumarin acetate, cin-
namic ethyl acetate, ethyl cinnamate, sesquiterpene alcohols, and
hydrocarbons.
P Yield and cost of cultivation Second year harvesting yields about
115–120 quintals/hectare dry weight of rhizomes. However, first year
harvesting can also yield 45–50 quintals/hectare dry weight. Since
there is a significant increase in produce, it is recommended to harvest
the crop in the second year. Estimated cost of cultivation is approxi-
mately Rs 40 000/hectare for complete crop duration.

P Market price: Rs 10–12 per kg of dry rhizomes
97
HEMIDESMUS INDICUS R . BR .
Hemidesmus indicus R. Br.
Asclepiadaceae
Ayurvedic name Sveta Sariva,

Anantmool
Unani name Ushba
Hindi names Anantamul
Trade name Anantmool, Sariva
Part used Root
Hemidesmus indicus
Therapeutic uses
T
he root of the Hemidesmus plant is demulcent, alterative, astrin-
gent, diaphoretic, diuretic, tonic, anti-pyretic, and blood purifier.
It is used in leprosy, skin diseases, fever, asthma, bronchitis,
syphilis, pruritus and other urinary diseases, chronic rheumatism, and
leucorrhoea.
Anantmool is a perennial, slender, twining undershrub with woody and
fragrant rootstock. Stems are numerous, slender, wiry, and laticiferous.
Leaves are simple, opposite, variable, elliptic–oblong to linear–lanceolate,
variegated, and white above and silvery-white pubescent beneath.
99
Flowers are greenish purple, crowded in axillary cymes in small compact
clusters. Fruits (follicles) are paired, cylindrical, pointed, and slender.
Seeds are oblong in shape. Flowering is usually sparse and occurs in
October, while fruits mature in January.
Distribution
The species is distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical parts of
India, especially in upper Gangetic plains, Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, and
South India. It generally occurs on sub-ravine slopes, twining on shrubs
and trees.
Climate and soil

The plant is found throughout the tropical and subtropical parts of India.
Loam to silt-clay loam soils with appropriate humus are suitable for its
cultivation. The soil should be slightly alkaline with a pH of 7.5–8.5.
The plant can best be propagated from stem and rootstock cuttings
obtained from more than one-year-old plants. Rootstock cuttings have
better sprouting and survival rates than stem cuttings.
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules Planting stock is raised in nursery through stem
and root cuttings. The cuttings are planted in polythene bags or
styrofoam trays between July and September. The cuttings establish or
initiate roots in 30–45 days. The cuttings may be treated with com-
mercially available root-promoting hormones before being planted in
the nursery. Nursery can also be raised in shade net house in early
summer under humid conditions.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment About 28 000 rooted cuttings are re-
quired for planting in 1 hectare of land. No specific treatment other
than dipping in rooting hormones is required.
1
Agro-technique study carried out by National Botanical Research Institute, Rana Pratap
Marg, Lucknow – 226 001, Uttar Pradesh.
100
HEMIDESMUS INDICUS R . BR .

P Land preparation and fertilizer application The field is ploughed and
harrowed, and levelled properly. Pits of size 30 cm × 30 cm × 30 cm
are dug at a spacing of 60 cm × 60 cm in the prepared field. A basal
dose of about 1–2 kg of FYM (farmyard manure) is mixed with soil
and sand in equal quantities for filling in the pits.
P Transplanting and optimum spacing Rooted plantlets can be trans-
planted in the field at three- to five-leaved stage in August and Sep-
tember under rain-fed conditions. The propagules are planted in
30 cm3 pits with a spacing of 60 cm × 60 cm for better harvest.
P Intercropping system Since Sveta Sariva is a twiner and needs support
for growth, it can be intercropped with trees in orchards/plantations
where it may get staking support.
P Interculture and maintenance practices Only organic manure @ 1–2 kg/
plant is recommended to be mixed with the soil at the time of field
preparation. As many as three to four weedings are recommended for
the crop. The interval between subsequent weeding and hoeing may be
30–45 days. Common weedicides based on glyphosate may be used at
the time of land preparation.
P Irrigation practices The crop may be irrigated at the time of trans-
planting. Two subsequent irrigations are required during establishment
stage, 15 and 45 days after transplanting. The crop grows as a rain-fed
crop under humid tropical conditions, thus not much irrigation is re-
quired.
P Disease and pest control No serious damage by diseases and insect pests
has been observed in the crop.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting A minimum period of two-and-a-half
years is required for root maturity. Harvesting may be done in Decem-
ber and January.
P Post-harvest management The roots are dug with care and some part of
the root is left within the soil for regeneration. The harvested roots are
washed, dried in shade, and stored in moisture-free packing in cool
and dry places.
P Chemical constituents The roots contain coumarin and two sterols –
hemidosterol and hemidesmol – besides resins and tannins. Aerial
parts of the plant contain carotenoid (22.4 mg/100 g), provitamin A,
vitamin C (27.2 mg/100 g), tannins (1.7%), phenolics, anthocyanins,
101
reducing and non-reducing sugars (17.6%), and anti-nutritional

factors.
P Yield and cost of cultivation A total dry root biomass of approximately
1.2 tonnes per hectare is obtained. The estimated cost of cultivation is
about Rs 35 000 per hectare.

P Market price: Rs 65 per kg dry root
102
HOLOSTEMMA ADA - KODIEN SCHULT .
Holostemma ada-kodien Schult.

Syn. H. annulare (Roth.) Schum
Asclepiadaceae
Ayurvedic name Jivanti, Ark pushpi
Hindi name Dudhi bel, Chirvel

Trade name Dudhi bel
Part used Root
Holostemma ada-kodien
Therapeutic uses
T
he roots of Holostemma are useful in treating ophthalmopathy, or
chitis, cough, burning sensation, stomach pain, constipation,
fever, and tridoshas. The root can also be used as a rejuvenative
drug, imparting resistance to diseases.
Morphological characteristic
Chirvel is a large woody climber and glabrous. Its latex is milky white.
The leaves are opposite and simple, with petioles decussate, ovate-oblong
to broadly ovate, cordate, caudate or aristate at apex. Basal lobes are
rounded, more or less pubescent beneath lateral nerves that are promi-
nent and arched.
The flowers of the plant are arranged in umbellate axillary cymes; pedun-
cles are terete and glabrous; bracts are linear acute, grooved on ventral
103
surface, glabours. Pedicels are 1–4 cm long, glabrous; sepals are five in
number, free up to the base, and broadly ovate, glandular within. Corolla
rotate lobes five in number, united about halfway, ovate–oblong, obtuse,
leathery with papery margin. Corona is staminal, uniseriate, with annular
ring at the base staminal tube. Stamens are five in number; pollinia are five in
number; pollen masses are solitary 11 cm × 3.5 cm, ovoid, thick, acute, and
glabrous. Seeds are many, comose, small ovate, thick acute, brown, coma
shaped, silky-white, and 2–4 cm long. Flowering occurs in September–
October, while fruiting occurs in November–December.
Distribution
The species occurs in tropical peninsular India, Vindhyas,
and southwards in humid areas, in open forests, and ra-
vine edges.
Climate and soil

The plant prefers a tropical humid climate and partially
sunny locations. Sandy-loam soil is best for its cultivation.
Holostemma ada-kodien – The plant can be propagated through seeds. Matured
young plant seeds are collected from the plant during December–Janu-
ary before they disperse. Seeds are cleaned, dried, and stored for sowing.
However, fruit set is generally less than 10% in this crop, which is a
major constraint for large-scale cultivation through seeds. The crop can
also be propagated by vegetative means through root and stem cuttings.
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules The crop is raised in a nursery in February. The
seeds are sown on sand beds. Adequate moisture in beds is maintained
by light irrigation. Partial shade is provided to the germinating seed-
lings. The seeds sprout in about 10 days. About one-month-old seed-
lings are transplanted in polybags of size 14 cm × 10 cm, which are
1
Agro-technique study carried out by Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Research Station,
Kerala Agricultural University, Odakkali, Asamannoor Post, Ernakulam District, Kerala.
104
HOLOSTEMMA ADA - KODIEN SCHULT .
filled with soil, sand, and well-decomposed FYM (farmyard manure)

in the ratio 1:1:1. Polybags should be kept in shade and irrigated regu-
larly. Seedlings are ready for planting in the field in May–June.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment About 1.5 kg of seeds are required to
raise a plantation in 1 hectare of land. About 28 000–30 000 seedlings
per hectare would be required for planting at a spacing of 60 cm ×
60 cm. When intercropped with another species, seedling requirement
would reduce by half. The seeds are soaked in water for four to five
hours before they are sown in raised beds in nursery.

P Land preparation and fertilizer ap-
plication The sowing is done at the
start of rainy season in May–June in
South India. Towards northern ar-
eas, it should be sown just after pre-
monsoon showers. The land should
be loosened properly by ploughing
and harrowing. Pits of size 30 cm ×
30 cm × 30 cm are dug at a spacing
of 60 cm × 60 cm, and are filled
with thoroughly mixed surface soil
and sand in 1:1 ratio along with
Holostemma ada-kodien –
FYM @ 2 kg for each plant, and
crop view
mounds are formed. Seedlings are carefully transferred to the centre of
the mounds from the polybags. FYM @ 30 tonnes/hectare is applied at
the time of land preparation in case of intercropping.
P Transplanting and optimum spacing The seedlings are transplanted in
the main field in May–June just at the onset of monsoon, after about
30–45 days of transfer to polybags. An optimum spacing of 60 cm ×
60 cm is maintained for the sole crop. This accommodates a crop
stand of approximately 28 000 plants per hectare. When intercropped
with another species, crop stand would be approximately 14 000.
P Intercropping system The plant can be grown as a sole crop as well as an
intercrop. Since it is a twiner, it has to be provided with trellises or some
live support of tree or shrub. The light requirements of the intercrop must
then be taken into consideration before deciding the intercrop species.
P Interculture and maintenance practices No inorganic fertilizer may be
used for the crop if sufficient FYM is applied as a basal dose
105
(30 tonnes/hectare or 1 kg/plant). The plants need stakes as support in

July–August. First weeding operation should also be carried out in
July–August. Manual weeding twice at two and four months after
planting is necessary to keep the crop weed-free.
P Irrigation practices Dudhi bel is grown as a rain-fed crop during the
monsoon period. It is irrigated with 5 cm water on alternate days after
the cessation of monsoon.
P Disease and pest control Spraying of 0.05% quinalphos effectively con-
trols the attack by aphids, which is observed during the rainy season.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting The root parts are
used as drug and it takes one to two years for its
good development. The crop yield is maximum
(400–450 kg/hectare of fresh roots) after about
one year of planting. However, the crop quality
reaches the peak only after 18 months, although
the yield of fresh roots may be reduced to about
250 kg/hectare. Thus, keeping in mind quality
considerations, the crop should preferably be
harvested when it attains 1.5–2 years of age. Har-
vesting is done by digging the soil to collect the
roots. These roots are then cleaned well.
Holostemma ada-kodien –
plant with fruit
P Post-harvest management The roots are cut into
pieces of 10 cm length, dried in shade, and
stored in gunny bags before sale within six months, after which the ac-
tive constituents start degrading.
P Chemical constituents The major constituents in the produce are 40%–
50% starch, 10%–15% crude protein, 2%–3% crude fat, 15%–25%
crude fibre, and 4%–6% ash.
P Yield and cost of cultivation The yield of dry roots varies in the range
10–15 tonnes per hectare. The cost of cultivation of crop on 1 hectare
of land is approximately Rs 50 000.

P Market price: Rs 65 per kg dry roots
P Market demand: 85 tonnes per annum in South India
106
INULA RACEMOSA HOOK . F .
Inula racemosa Hook. f.

Syn. Inula helenium L.
Asteraceae
Ayurvedic name Puskara
Hindi name Puskarmool
Trade name Puskarmool
Parts used Root and rhizome
Inula racemosa –
Therapeutic uses a plant
P
uskarmool is an aromatic tonic, febrifuge, and expectorant with
anti-inflammatory, carminative, diuretic, and antiseptic properties.
The plant is used in chronic bronchitis and rheumatism. Dried
rhizomes and roots are used to cure loss of appetite and stomach troubles.
The species is a perennial herb up to 1.5 m tall with fragrant prominent root
and rootstock. Stems are many in number, ascending from the base of
the rootstock. Leaves are leathery, rough above and densely hairy below,
25–50 cm long and 10–12 cm broad, and elliptic–lanceolate in shape.
Floral biology
Flower heads are yellow in colour, have bisexual florets, and occur in ter-
minal racemes. Flowering occurs from January to July, while fruiting
107
occurs in October–November. Fruits (achenes) are

slender and about 0.5 cm long.
Distribution
The species occurs in temperate areas of Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand in India. It
extends up to Iran, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, and
Europe, and is cultivated in temperate and sub-alpine
regions of India. It is an oriental species in origin and
distribution.
Climate and soil

The conditions of temperate and sub-alpine regions
are most suited for the cultivation of Inula species.
Well-drained, clay-loam soils are ideal for the crop. It
prefers open and sunny locations.
Inula racemosa –
a field view Propagation material
Propagation can be done both by seeds and rootstocks. However, it is
preferable to raise seedlings through seeds. The fruits (achenes) mature in
winter and can be collected by the end of cold season (March–April) in
high hills.
Agro-technique 1
Nursery technique
P Raising propagules The crop can be raised through seeds in nursery in
November or early March by broadcasting the seeds in well-prepared
nursery beds. Germination is completed in about 50 days. Seedlings
are transplanted in the field with a ball of earth after about two
months of growth.
P Propagule rate and pretreatment About 1 kg seeds are required to raise
about 40 000 seedlings required for 1 hectare of land. No specific seed
treatment is required before sowing.
1
Agro-technique study carried out by S K University of Agricultural Sciences and Techno-
logy, Division of Floriculture, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Shalimar, Srinagar – 191121,
Jammu and Kashmir.
108
INULA RACEMOSA HOOK . F .

P Land preparation and fertilizer application The land should be
ploughed lightly in order to loosen the soil and mix organic manure or
FYM (farmyard manure). Usually, FYM @ 15 tonnes/hectare is
applied at the time of land preparation. If inorganic fertilizers are
used, half of nitrogen (100 kg/hectare) and full dose of phosphorus
and potassium at the rate of 100 kg/hectare and 50 kg/hectare, respec-
tively, are applied at the time of land preparation.
P Transplanting and optimum spacing The germinated seedlings may be
transplanted to the main field after about two months. Optimum
spacing recommended in the
main field is 50 cm × 50 cm. An
optimum crop stand of approxi-
mately 40 000 plants per hectare
is accommodated with the
above-mentioned plant density.
P Intercropping system Puskarmool
is preferred as a sole crop with-
out intercropping.
P Interculture and maintenance
practices NPK (nitrogen, phos-
phorus, potassium) @ 200 kg/
hectare, 100 kg/hectare, and
50 kg/hectare, respectively, may
Roots of Inula racemosa
be used per year to achieve high
biomass yield. Nitrogen is usually applied in two split doses, one as a
basal dose and the other (100 kg/hectare) as top dressing in six to
eight weeks after transplantation. Only manual weeding is recom-
mended twice during the establishment phase of the crop.
P Irrigation practices Light irrigation at an interval of three to four
weeks is sufficient to maintain the crop.
P Disease and pest control No serious incidence of disease or pest has
been observed in this crop.
Harvest management
P Crop maturity and harvesting The crop is harvested after about one-
and-a-half years in October–November under temperate conditions of
Kashmir. Roots are dug after wetting the soil. The roots are cleaned
well and soil particles are removed.
109
P Post-harvest management The harvested crop

should be cut or sliced into small pieces,
dried, and stored in airtight containers. The
rootstock and roots should be separated from
the aerial portion, chopped into small pieces,
and allowed to dry in shade.
P Chemical constituents The rootstock and roots
contain inulin, alantolactone, β-sitosterol,
isoalantolactone, dihydroalantolactone, and its
glucosides. Four sesquiterpene lactones have
also been isolated from Inula sp.
Inula racemosa – P Yield and cost of cultivation The crop is har-
in full bloom
vested at one-and-a-half years of growth.
About 80 quintals of dried roots are obtained from 1 hectare cropped
area. The estimated cost of cultivation is about Rs 37 800 per
hectare.

Market demand: 3 tonnes per annum
110
LEPTADENIA RETICULATA RETZ .
Leptadenia reticulata Retz.
Asclepiadaceae
Ayurvedic name Jeevanti

Unani name Jeevanti
Hindi name Jeevani
Trade name Jeevanti

Parts used Leaves, stem, and
roots
Leptadenia reticulata –
jeevanti
Therapeutic uses
L
eaves and roots of Leptadenia species are useful in treating skin in-
fections and wounds. Their major use is to prevent prolapse of
uterus and vulva in controlling habitual abortion in women. The
roots are used in cardiac disease and haemorrhage, as diuretic, and to cure
fever and opthalmia. They are also used as a tonic for general debility to
strengthen the body. Leaves are also used as galactagogue for nursing
mothers.
The species is a much branched laticiferous twining shrub with yellowish
brown, deeply cracked bark. Leaves are ovate, cordate, coriaceous, gla-
brous above and more or less finely pubescent beneath.
Inflorescence is a many flowered cyme with greenish yellow flowers. Fruit
(follicle) is horned shaped and slender. Seeds are lanceolate and comose.
111

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What are the therapeutic uses of Leptadenia reticulata?

What are the therapeutic uses of Leptadenia reticulata?

What are the morphological characteristics of Leptadenia reticulata?

What are the morphological characteristics of Leptadenia reticulata?

Agro-techniques of

selected medicinal plants

National Medicinal Plants Board

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Printed in India by Innovative Designers & Printers, New Delhi

The agro-techniques developed by the NMPB through the various

Development of agro-techniques for different medicinal plants is an

of the NIPER (National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Re-

wide range of experts and were followed by a few workshops organized in

Need for good cultivation and harvesting practices

WHO guidelines on GACPs

Select proper variety.

For collection of underground part(s), bark, and whole plant, following

For collection of gums, oils, resins, galls, and so on:

Abroma augusta Linn.f.

Ayurvedic name Pisachkarpas

Climate and soil

P Propagule rate and pretreatment About 150–200 g seeds are sufficient

Planting in the field

In the second year, intercultural weeding operations are done at the

Aconitum balfourii (Benth.) Muk.

Ayurvedic name Vatsanabh

Climate and soil

Planting in the field

therefore, recommended that leaf litter or humus should preferably be

P Post-harvest management Harvesting can be done simply by digging

Market trend – 2006/07

Aconitum heterophyllum Linn.

Ayurvedic name Ativisha

up to 3 cm long, conical at ends. The mother and daughter tubers occur

Climate and soil

maximum rooting percentage and survival. Tuber segments are also

Planting in the field

comparatively higher, these stigmas become inactive and thus proper

Market trend – 2006/07

Alpinia galanga Willd.

Ayurvedic name Kulanjana

Climate and soil

P Propagule rate and pretreatment Planting rhizome slices @ 5.5 tonnes

Planting in the field

P Irrigation practices The crop can be raised under rain-fed conditions

Market trend – 2006/07

Alstonia scholaris R. Br.

Ayurvedic name Saptaparna

Climate and soil

improve porosity and drainage. About 25 g of clean seeds are required/

Planting in the field

Curcuma longa (turmeric), Curcuma angustifolia (tikhur), and Alpinia

P Post-harvest management The medicinally important part of this tree is

Asparagus racemosus Willd.

Ayurvedic name Satavari,

Unani name Shatawar, Shaququl

Hindi name Shatavar

Trade name Shatavar

Parts used Tubers and leaves