Sudan University Of Science & Technology

College of Petroleum Engineering & Technology Department of

Petroleum Engineering

OPTIMIZATION OF DIRECTIONAL
DRILLING

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CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Statement of the Problem............................................................................................................... 4

1.2 Research Objectives and Contributions ........................................................................................... 6

1.3 Methodology .................................................................................................................................. 7

1.4 Thesis Organization ......................................................................................................................... 8

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................... 9

2.1 Applications of directional drilling .................................................................................................. 9

2.2 Directional drilling mechanisms .................................................................................................... 15

2.3 Directional drilling optimization .................................................................................................... 22

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

BHA: Bottom Hole Assembly

DD: Directional drilling

DOF: Degree of Freedom

DSS: Directional Steering System

FOB: Force on Bit

GSA: Gravitational Search Algorithm

LQR: Linear Quadratic Regulator

LWD: Logging While Drilling

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MD: Measured Depth

MSE: Mechanical Specific Energy

MWD: Measurement While Drilling

PSO: Particle Swarm Optimization

RMSE: Root Mean Square Error

ROP: Rate of Penetration

RPM: Revolution per Minute

RSE: Rock Specific Energy

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RSS: Rotary Steerable System

TVD: True Vertical Depth

WOB: Weight on Bit

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 ABSTRACT

Directional Steering System (DSS) has been established for well drilling in the oilfield in

order to accomplish high reservoir productivity and to improve accessibility of oil

reservoirs in complex locations. In this thesis, dynamic modeling of two different DSS

were developed and optimized using different control and optimization techniques. Firstly,

the Rotary Steerable System (RSS) which is the current state of the art of directional

steering systems. In this work, we address the problem of real time control of autonomous

RSS with unknown formation friction and rock strength. The work presents an online

control scheme for real time optimization of drilling parameters to maximize rate of

penetration and minimize the deviation from the planned well bore trajectory, stick-slip

oscillations, and bit wear. Nonlinear model for the drilling operation was developed using

energy balance equation, where rock specific energy is used to calculate the minimum

power required for a given rate of penetration. A proposed mass spring system was used to

represent the phenomena of stick-slip oscillation. The bit wear is mathematically

represented using Bourgoyne model. Secondly, the autonomous quad-rotor DSS which has

4 downhole motors, is considered. In this work, a novel feedback linearization controller

to cancel the nonlinear dynamics of a DSS is proposed. The proposed controller design

problem is formulated as an optimization problem for optimal settings of the controller

feedback gains. Gravitational Search Algorithm (GSA) is developed to search for optimal

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settings of the proposed controller. The objective function considered is to minimize the

tracking error and drilling efforts. Detailed mathematical formulation and computer

simulation were used for evaluation of the performance of the proposed techniques for both

systems, based on real well data.

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

In particular, conventional vertical drilling becomes no longer attractive compared to

horizontal drilling. Directional Steering System (DSS) has a considerable importance in

the oilfield industry due to its influence on drilling production rate. It can expedite the

accessibility of the oil reservoirs with wide surface zone in a slim horizontal coat. The

horizontal wells can be extended over a larger area in contact with the reservoir providing

higher productivity [1]. Most of the research and development in the oilfield aims at

minimizing total costs, minimizing the possibility of encountering drilling problems and

maximizing performances. In the recent years, the search for the underground energy has

shown significant advances in drilling wells technologies. Different techniques from

various disciplines are being developed presently in drilling activities to achieve an

environmentally safe and friendly well in addition to cost effective well construction.

Among those disciplines the most effective are communication and computer technologies

which enabled online optimization of well drilling. Massive data quantity could be

transferred from different sites in the world in time efficient and reliable aspects. Advanced

computer and network technologies can be used to transfer, store, and retrieve massive

amounts of data, and numerically solve sophisticated algorithms and problems [2].

The objective of the online drilling parameters optimization is to optimize each of control

parameters and performance parameters. Performance parameters are the parameters used

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to represent the well status and can be optimized to improve its performance as stick slip

oscillation, Technical Hole Deviation, and bit life time. Control Parameters are the tools

used to tune performance parameters as weight on bit (WOB) and bit RPM. Optimization

of performance parameters may lead to the maximization of drilling rate and minimization

of the overall cost of drilling operations. An optimization technique has been applied for

the drilling optimization to minimize certain objective function. A comprehensive literature

review on drilling optimization has been carried out for the given research work. A

mathematical model is implemented for this intent using real-field data gathered via

advanced well monitoring systems and data recorders. This model forecasts the rate of

penetration (ROP) of any drilling well as a function of available parameters. Computer

networks are fundamental tools in drilling process. They can let the drilling parameters be

remotely optimized in the field. These networks save the ducted data immediately from the

data source, while collects the new data to be fed. The field engineer is responsible to

transmit the present parameters back to the main computer. The new amount of parameter’s

modifications is decided by the headquarters to be modified in the model and optimum

drilling parameters using the recently received data. Therefore, this process is considered

to be a real-time-optimization. This defined method is going to be extensively used in

future drilling works since it could minimize overall drilling costs and reduce the

probability of facing troubles.

Some important parameters those of which could be gathered in real time from drilling

activities are as

WOB: Stands for weight on bit which considered as essential factor in optimization of the

drilling process, where it affects the rate of penetration likewise natural frequencies of the

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drill string in the vibration bending mode. Also it can be related to the drill string carrying

capacity load (buckling load) [3]. It is usually measured through attaching a strain-gauge

to the drilling line which works for measuring the magnitude of the tension in the line itself,

then gives a calibrated weight reading.

RPM: It stands for “revolution per minute”. This parameter represents the angular speed

of the drill string.

ROP: Is the Rate of Penetration which is the speed of breaking the rock exerted by the

drill bit in order to deepen the borehole, which is considered as the most important drilling

parameter, since all the upcoming calculations in this work depend on accurate estimation

of ROP.

Torque: This parameter is the torque of the drillstring while it is rotating. The torque is

going to be significantly important for inclined and highly deviated wellbores, which is

also related with the wellbore cleaning issues.

MWD: Is the Measurement While Drilling where the feedback loop depends on. This

drilling instruments produce real-time parameters automatically and continuously such as

the location of the bottom hole assembly (BHA) in addition to its orientation, MWD

transmits these monitoring parameters to the PC for displaying, recording, printing, and

providing the control parameters [4].

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1.1 Statement of the Problem

It is shown that for all of the factors determined in the literature contribute to the conclusion

that a much enhanced overall ROP will be accomplished while using RSS assembly in

drilling operations instead of steerable motors. The use of rotary steerable systems allows

drilling variables to be optimized for both formation and bit.

The reactive torque from the bit acts in the opposite direction of the generated bit torque.

As the required bit torque increases, the reactive torque increases. Stick-slip occurs when

there is an increased torque demand from the bit to achieve penetration that cannot be met

by the drilling motor power section, causing bit rotation to slow or stop. It is also concluded

that the model for the on-line drilling optimization requires the previous and accumulated

practical data in order to be used in tuning parameters in next iterations.

The focus of this thesis is to propose an integrated approach for control and optimization

of two different directional drilling (DD) systems,

1- Optimize the drilling parameters and directional steering control of a RSS. An

objective function is defined, which compromises between trajectory tracking

accuracy, drilling effort, ROP, bit wear and stick-slip oscillations. The optimization

problem is solved subject to operations limits and constraints using constraint

optimization techniques. Nonlinear model for the drilling operation was developed

using energy balance equation, where rock specific energy is used to calculate the

minimum power required for a given ROP. The algorithm finds the optimal torque,

rpm, WOB, the steering actuators commands, and the drilling fluid feed rate. An

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 adaptive technique is used to estimate the rock specific energy, the lateral rate of

penetration coefficient, the bit life time, and rotary string parameters.

2- Control and optimization of the quad-rotor directional steering system. The

dynamic analysis and control strategy of the quad-rotor systems are proposed. The

proposed strategy aims at designing and controlling the DSS for tracking and

stabilization of the drill bit. The proposed control strategy involves linearization of

the highly nonlinear dynamics of the system. GSA optimization technique is

proposed and developed to optimize the control inputs of the four rotors.

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1.2 Research Objectives and Contributions

The research objective of this study is to develop a methodology which would accomplish

the following tasks in real-time basis:

1. Develop an adaptive control system for real-time Directional Drilling for RSS and

Quad-rotor.

2. Develop an optimization method for optimization of the drilling parameters,

Technical Hole Deviation, and cost of bit wear in RSS.

3. Extending of the optimization problem to include the Stick-Slip oscillations in RSS.

4. Develop an optimization and control algorithm for the quad-rotor directional

steering system.

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1.3 Methodology

The research is planned to be performed as follows:

1- The performance of the Rotary Steerable System is improved by adding more

degrees of freedom to its dynamics in order to make its path smooth.

2- The location deviation of the BHA is minimized by online tuning of the control law

using real time MWD data, which are assumed to be available at the present time

without time delay. MWD data are compared with the preplanned trajectory at each

control iteration to compute the tracking error then using an optimization technique

this error is reduced by minimizing an objective function. To have more accurate

results, more drilling variables are considered as inclination and azimuth angles.

3- Optimizing the input drilling parameters using the concept of mechanical specific

energy which is illustrated as the amount of work required to crush a certain volume

of the rock. This concept is used as an optimization tool during drilling operations

where any change in drilling efficiency is detected in order to enhance

instantaneous ROP by optimizing the drilling parameters.

4- The stick-slip oscillation of the drill bit is reduced by online optimization of WOB.

5- Optimizing the life time of the drill bit using Burgoyne and Young model.

6- In order to optimize the performance of the quad-rotor DD system, the proposed

controller design problem is formulated as an optimization problem for optimal

settings of the controller feedback gains and Gravitational Search Algorithm is

developed to search for optimal settings of the proposed controller. The objective

function considered is to minimize the tracking error and drilling efforts.

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1.4 Thesis Organization

The rest of this thesis is described as follows. Chapter 2, presents the literature review.
Chapter 3, illustrates mathematical models for the directional steering systems. Chapter 4,
presents the proposed control design. The simulation results and discussion are presented
in chapter 5, followed by the conclusions.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Directional drilling refers to the operation of leading the wellbore along some preplanned

trajectory towards a prescribed target. Technical Hole Deviation control aims at holding

the wellbore within predetermined limits relative to inclination angle, azimuth angle, or

both [5].

2.1 Applications of directional drilling

Groups of application of DD include [6]

1- Sidetracking: This refers to drilling around an obstruction (e.g. fish) encountered

by a well bore during drilling. Such obstruction may also be result of the failure of

drillstring or an intentional back-off with leaving the bottom part of the drillstring

in the hole. When this happens, no additional advancement can be done if the

obstruction is not removed from the hole. Sidetracking such an obstruction is much

cheaper than to relinquish the hole then start drilling a new hole as shown in Figure

2-1.

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 Figure 2-1 Sidetracking around a fish

2- Drilling to avoid geological problems: Salt dome structures are geological features

that occasionally occur with petroleum reservoirs. Part of a salt dome may be

located directly on top of a reservoir such that a vertical well into the reservoir

would have to penetrate the salt formation. Lost circulation, large washouts and

corrosion are some of the problems that can be caused by drilling through a salt

section. Drilling a directional well in this kind of situation would be wiser as shown

in Figure 2-2.

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 Figure 2-2 Example of drilling a directional well down a salt dome

3- Controlling vertical holes: Directional techniques are needed to keep vertical wells

on an appropriate course and prevent them from going over lease boundaries.

Altering certain drilling configurations or changing BHA or can be used to correct

small deviations from a planned trajectory, while more significant deviations may

need the use of a downhole motor and bent sub to make a correction run or drill a

sidetrack. Deviation from trajectory may occur in the tangential section of a

directional well.

4- Drilling beneath inaccessible locations: When drilling a vertical well means drilling

through natural or man-made obstructions such as urban areas or mountainous

areas, permissions for such drilling operations may not be granted due to the

potential negative impact on the environment. In such cases, drilling directional

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 wells that can be accessed externally from an outer unrestricted location may be a

feasible alternative to exploit the reserve as shown in Figure 2-3.

Figure 2-3 Directional wells drilled down some restricted surfaces

5- Offshore development drilling: Using DD in the exploitation of offshore reservoirs

is one of the major applications of DD over the past 20 years. To drill a large

number of vertical wells from individual platforms in order to develop the many oil

and gas reserves that are beyond the reach of land-based rigs is clearly very

expensive and impractical. DD enabled a conventional approach where for a large

oilfield, a fixed platform is installed on the seabed from which many wells can be

drilled directionally. This platform can also be used to centralize all needed

production facilities, from which the oil may be exported through tankers or

pipelines. Some large platforms can be used to drill up to 50 directional wells Figure

2-4.

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 Figure 2-4 Development wells drilled from a fixed platform

6- Horizontal drilling: Drilling wells that are highly deviated from the vertical and

horizontal wells have advantages over vertical wells that include increased

productivity and reduced costs. Conventional wells may be drilled to an inclination

of around 60°, with increased inclinations causing many drilling problems that

increase the cost of the well significantly Figure 2-5.

Figure 2-5 Horizontal drilling

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7- Non-petroleum uses: DD may be used in other non-petroleum applications. In the

mining industry, small-diameter boreholes could be drilled in rocks for production

(such as in obtaining methane gas in coal seams) or measurement (such as to

measure strata thickness) purposes. DD can also find use in installing pipelines

underneath river beds.

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2.2 Directional drilling mechanisms

The steering mechanism of DD systems works by applying angular moments and laterals

loads to the drill bit in order to modify the direction of the propagation of the borehole.

Sensors that are spatially displaced from the drill bit are used to measure the BHA angular

orientation. This measurement inferentially gives the local inclination (i.e. pitch angle) of

the borehole. The sensors also indicate the azimuthal direction (i.e. deviation from the north

direction in the horizontal plane) of the borehole and both the azimuthal direction and local

inclination are transmitted to a controller.

The controller, which could be positioned in the drillstring, surface rig or remote location,

combines these measurements with data on distance drilled to estimate the position and

shape of the borehole with respect to the desired borehole trajectory. The controller then

computes and transmits a steering direction correction to the DD mechanism [7] .

Although the California Huntington Beach field drilled in 1933 is regarded as the first

directional oil well, different DD techniques have been recently presented. DD systems

introduced in 1962 which had developments on the positive displacement motor and bent-

sub assembly made the development of offshore fields practical [8]. This technology

rapidly extended from California to the Gulf of Mexico and has developed into the steerable

motor systems which are in use nowadays [9]. The development of the steerable motor

technology has included many improvements to its designs and materials [10].

High precision DD technologies have significant importance in extended mineral and

seabed resources exploration. They could be considered as a key task of geological work.

In order to enhance the precision and quality of geological exploration, a high accuracy

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DD technique is the proper option. DD is used to decrease the overall exploration cost and

reduce the total drilling platform number, particularly in the maritime resources exploration

[10].

In the last two decades, DD technology has been improved by some oil and gas services

companies as Schlumberger, Baker Hughes, Halliburton amongst others. Other companies

that carried out subsequent research in directional systems include Precision Drilling

Corporation, Pathfinder, Gyrodata Limited, and Noble Downhole Technology [11]–[13].

Researchers of several Chinese companies, including China National Offshore Oil

Corporation, Xi'an Petroleum Institute, China Petrochemical Corporation have also

investigated DD system control principle 21st century. Key directionally drilling

components, particularly the control unit of the system, has however not been fully realized

in China [10].

DD assembly designs used to drill directional holes are (1) mechanical, (2) hydraulic, (3)

electrical, and (4) natural [14]. The techniques used to drill directional holes are rotary

drilling with certain stabilizers arrangements[15], downhole motor with a bent sub [16],

rotary steerable system [17], whipstocks [18], and jetting drilling [19]. All of these

techniques are classified as mechanical methods except the jetting drilling which is

considered as a hydraulic method. Natural method is related to formation geology such as

hardness and dipping associated with a certain BHA design. Nowadays, the two most used

methods in deep DD are the downhole motor and the RSS.

In order to control the drilling direction, downhole steerable-motor necessitates sliding

through the hole without rotating the drillstring.

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Odell, Payne and Cocking in 1995 [20] used variable gauge stabilizers for fine tuning

control of the hole inclination which can cost effectively deepen the achieve of extended-

reach-drilling (ERD) wells and minimize drilling time consuming. A new world record had

been set with Wytch Farm the first well drilled using the HVGS technique for reaching the

subject reservoir depth where the total depth was 7522 m with a reach of 6732 m. The

HVGS can be controlled from the surface via a series of mud pump flow sequences, and

communicates the blades' commanded and measured positions to the surface with mud

pulse telemetry.

Bruce, Bezant and Pinnock in 1996 [21] pioneered a new technique at BP Wytch Farm

which is critical to their ERD where sliding is considered as a problem. GeoSteering Tool

near-bit inclination data and a HVGS are combined together and located on the top of the

motor. This combination enabled the wells to be drilled almost entirely in rotary mode. But

both of [20] and [21]have not been known to control the azimuth angle.

Steerable rotary drilling has better control ability for both angles (inclination and azimuth).

It has much more features over previous mechanisms, as Barr, Clegg and Russell have done

in 1996 [22]. The proposed system used synchronous polyphase modulation of bias by

connecting a rotating mechanism into the drill bit. It is driven by a kind of drilling fluid

and can be controlled by a directional sensor package, the orientation of the latter being

independent of BHA rotation, stabilized and controlled. Some economic gains are

supposed by saving time consuming and enhancing directional control.

Rotary Steerable Systems improve the ROP and extend the reach of ERD wells. This

increases the efficiency and lowers the overall cost of ERD processes. Using those systems,

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operators can optimize the wellbore placement and hole quality to fulfill better ROP and

improve the reservoir deliverability. RSSs were applied for various ERD wells at the Wytch

Farm by Colebrook, Peach, Allen, and Conran in 1998 [23].

One of the biggest advantages of rotary drilling is the application of weight to the bit in

ERD wells [24]. As the departure growth relative to the vertical depth, it becomes more

sophisticated to implement this property in order to apply and control weight to the bit

because of axial friction [25] and the detailed trajectory design of the well becomes critical

in terms of torque and drag optimizing [26]. By optimizing the WOB the lateral vibrations

(Stick-Slip oscillations) can be decreased to reduce the probability of drill bit stall and

equipment failure [27]. Stick Slip oscillations are introduced as a new methodology to

represent the enormous amplitude torsional oscillation of the drill string in drilling wells

[28].

Some drilling assembly are composed of a drill bit and mud motor with one or more

"bends" immediately above, below, or intermediate the motor. When the bit is being steered

in a desired direction, the entire drill string is not rotated in order to maintain the "bends"

and the motor directed in the proper orientation. This type of system has several inherent

disadvantages such as the mud motor is expensive to manufacture and maintain, the non-

rotating drill string also causes cuttings to accumulate on the bottom side of the borehole

which may inhibit the removal of the drill string, on-rotation of the drill string results in

high frictional contact between the wellbore wall and the drill string which inhibits the

smooth application of an axial force to the drill bit which is needed in order to drill

efficiently, and the drill string tends to "stick" in the borehole and does not slide down

freely. In order to overcome the problems inherent to the above described tools, Tommy

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M. Warren (1996) provided a simple and robust shifting mechanism for changing the

drilling mode from "straight" to "curved" and vice versa without withdrawing the drilling

assembly from the borehole [29].

T. Yonezawa, E. J. Cargill , T. M. Gaynor, J. R. Hardin and Richard T. proposed a new

rotary steerable drilling in 2002 [30] which is the Robotic Controlled Drilling. The

proposed technique is a bendable shaft where the bit is pointed in the counter direction to

the shaft bending direction. The concept of tilting action is triggered from other rotary

steerable device concepts where the bit is pushed sideways in order to modify the wellbore

trajectory. The combination of the described tilting action and the extended gage bit

technology contributes maximum effectiveness in torque and drag reduction while

reducing vibration and further improving hole cleaning.

Y. Li , W. Niu , H. Li , Z. Luo , and L. Wang (2015) presented a novel steering mechanism

which is installed in a point the bit rotary steerable system for oilfild exploitation [31]. This

unique mechanism supports a set of universal joints to relieve the high alternative strain on

drilling mandrel and engages a specially designed planetary gear small tooth number

difference (PGSTD) to achieve directional steering. The point-the-bit steering mechanism

normally utilizes a set of offset mechanisms to deflect the drilling mandrel and hence

changes the well direction. The offset mechanism contains various eccentric rings. Each

eccentric ring is energized by motors and can rotate, respectively. During the eccentric

rings rotation, the offset amplitude and offset phase of the drilling mandrel can be regulated

[32][33]. The point-the-bit steering mechanism can introduce greater well holes quality,

lower vibration, extended service life time, and greater efficiency of rock removing.

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A new high build-up rate (HBR) rotary-steerable drilling system (RSS) with

comprehensive logging-while-drilling (LWD) capabilities was developed and

commercialized by E. Biscaro, J. D'Alessandro, A. Moreno, M. Hahn, R. Lamborn, M.

H. Al-Naabi, and A. C. Bowser in 2015 [34] . The new HBR RSS was designed to provide

extensive LWD services, including propagation and deep resistivity, neutron and density

porosity measurements, borehole imaging and many others at build-up rates up to 12°/100

ft. With the use of a closed loop control algorithm and a short steering sleeve that decouples

steering functionality from dynamics of the drilling system, it becomes able to perform

open-hole sidetracks and drill high dogleg severity (DLS) curves and laterals in one run

with precise directional control and well placement, without exceeding the fatigue limits

of the LWD tools.

A new proposed model of a directional steering system has been developed with different

dynamics by M. Talib, et. al. in 2014, which includes 4 DC motors where drill cones are

attached. The steering mechanism of quad-motor is comparable to the quad-rotor craft

structure. However, designing its control algorithm is more challenging due to the

nonlinear coupling in its associated angles, pitch-yaw-roll [1]. Unlike conventional drilling,

the drilling power is mainly coming from these downhole motors. The drill string is not

rotating and only transmits the drilling fluid and force on bit.

A novel steering mechanism for RSS was presented by Hongtao, Wentie, Shengli and

Dawei [35] in 2015,with the use of an multiobjective optimization technique to reach the

optimal parameters design using a modified Non-dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm

(MNSGA). The key component of which is a planetary gear set with teeth number

difference (PGSTND) [31]. This study aimed to minimize the dynamic responses and outer

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diameter of steering mechanism with structural parameters as design variables subject to

geometric, kinematic, and strength constraints. Based on the established dynamic model,

the optimization problem is formulated, and both MNSGAII and NSGA-II are applied to

the optimization problem.

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2.3 Directional drilling optimization

Plenty of research studies have been developed in the scope of modeling and optimization,

of DD. A major part of the reported work aims at minimizing error and cost of the drilling

process [36]. Drilling optimization has changed from simply improving the ROP assuming

or holding the other factors constant to analyzing all aspects of the drilling process by

establishing an integrated workflow that enables different engineering departments to plan

and execute the well [37].

Modeling of the drilling operation for control and optimization is a challenging problem

due to the diversity of the factors affecting drilling as well as uncertainty in their

determination. Among these factors are the BHA dynamics, torques and drags, formation

properties, bit formation interaction and drilling fluid properties and its hydraulics [38].

At the while-drilling mode, the DD system should try to coordinate various control actions

(RPM, WOB, mud properties, rate and hydraulic pressure, inclination actuators, azimuth

actuators, etc) to keep the down hole path close to the preplanned path trajectory. The main

task in DD is to properly orientate the down hole tool to steer the wellbore in a desirable

location, and minimize the drilling time [39].

The work by Bourgoyne and Young (1974) is one of the most important early

investigations on optimal drilling detection. It was based on statistical analysis of the

drilling parameters from previous works [38]. In the work, a linear ROP model was

constructed and multiple regression analysis of drilling data obtained from the model was

done to select the rotary speed, bit hydraulics and bit weight. This model is commonly used

in industry due to its robustness. Effects of formation attributes - such as strength,

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compaction, and depth of the formation in addition to the pressure differential across the

hole bottom – as well as drilling features – such as bit diameter, RPM, bit wear, bit weight,

and bit hydraulics – were included in model data analysis. It was concluded in the work

that about 10% of drilling costs can be saved using fairly uncomplicated drilling

optimization equations.

Speer [40] suggested a new comprehensive approach in 1958 to determine optimum

drilling techniques. His work showed the empirical interrelationships of ROP, WOB, RPM,

hydraulic horse-power and drill ability of the formation. He integrated five relationships

into one chart to define optimum drilling technique using minimum field test data.

Graham and Muench [41] are executed one of the earliest evaluations of drilling data in

order to determine optimum WOB and RPM combination in 1959. Their approach was to

use a method of mathematical analysis of drilling related costs for drilling in optimum

conditions. They derived experimental mathematical formulations for bit life anticipation

and drilling rate as functions of depth, RPM and bit weight. Their work yielded a means

for using calculations with any different drilling conditions to suggest optimum WOB and

RPM that minimizes total drilling costs.

Young (1968) [42] achieved improvement in on-site computer systems for bit weight and

rotary speed control. A minimum cost drilling terminology was introduced with four main

equations; drilling rate as function of WOB and bit tooth height, bit wearing rate as a

function of bit rotation speed, bit tooth wear rate and finally drilling cost. The work showed

that integration of the equations for optimum WOB and RPM constants yields the best

solutions for those parameters.

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Wilson and Bentsen [43] investigated various drilling optimization procedures

concentrating on optimization of WOB and RPM. In the study, three methods of increasing

complexity and data requirements were developed. The first method is a Point

Optimization method to minimize the cost per foot during a bit run, while the second

method is an Interval Optimization method to minimize the cost of a selected interval. The

third and most complex method is a Multi-Interval Optimization method for minimizing

the cost of over a series of intervals. The authors concluded that their model of equations

could be used as a guide toward good drilling procedures with considerable cost savings.

Reza and Alcocer (1986) used the Buckingham Pi theorem, a theorem for dimension

analysis in creating expressions with dimensionless formats, to improve a non-linear,

dynamic, multidimensional mathematical formulation for extended applications in drilling.

The model consisted of three equations for ROP, rate of bearing wear, and rate of bit

dulling. Their work also showed the effect of drilling parameters - WOB, RPM, bit radius,

bit nozzle radius, bit bearing radius, characteristics of drilling fluid, differential pressure,

etc. – on the developed model [44].

Wojtanowicz and Kuru (1990) proposed a new technique of drilling process planning and

control. The proposed method combined theory of single-bit control with an optimal multi-

bit drilling program for a well. Comparison of the dynamic drilling strategy to conventional

drilling optimization and typical field practices showed an estimated potential cost saving

of 25 and 60 respectively. The proposed method was shown to be the most cost effective

for expensive and long-lasting PDC bits due to the more effective use of bit performance

and reduced number of required bits for the hole [45].

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In 1992, Pessier and Fear [46] improved on the Mechanical Specific Energy technique

which has been created by Teale [47] . The authors implemented computer simulation and

laboratory measurement tests in order to establish an energy balanced formulation for

boreholes drilling subject to hydrostatically pressurized conditions. They implemented the

derivation for mechanical specific energy formulation and identified methodologies for

drill bit bearing problems identification. The identification methods continuously monitor

the specific energy and bit-specific coefficient of sliding friction. They are quicker and

more reliable than WOB and ROP concentrated evaluation.

Cooper et al. [48] developed a simulator program for well drilling in 1995. This program

was aimed to be simple to understand and use. The simulator included characteristics in

which drilling engineers could experiment changing effects of the operating parameters in

order to optimize drilling operations. The simulator contained an algorithm which

determines drilling ROP and wear rate of the bit. The overall cost and time are available

together with cost per foot in total and for the bit in use during the drilling run.

Mitchell (1995) demonstrated the purpose of selecting optimal WOB and RPM values in

his book [49]. One of the essential reasons was defined to be producing the minimum

drilling cost per foot. Also controlling the direction of the borehole and recognizing over-

pressured regions were among optimum parameters selection. He also mentioned the

contouring method of selecting optimal weight and string speed.

Serpen [50] implemented a computerized drilling optimization research work in 1996.

Computer programmes were implemented for the common six different drilling

optimization methodologies which mostly made use of graphs. Namely the methods

25
covered were: Constant Energy Drilling approach, Galle-Woods method, drill-off tests

approach, modified multiple regression approach, multiple regression approach, drilling

hydraulics optimization. The aim of the study was to be useful to field drilling teams in

determining optimized drilling parameters, and to planning engineers in making effective

parameters estimation.

Dubinsky and Baecker [51] developed a simulation system for several drilling conditions

in 1998. They examined dynamic behavior of drill bit, simulating key dynamic drilling

dysfunctions such as lateral vibrations, bit bounce, torque shocks, BHA/bit whirl, stick-slip

and torsional oscillations. They concluded that the model for the on-line drilling

optimization requires the previous and accumulated practical data in order to be used in

tuning parameters in next iterations.

Akgun (2002) investigated the controllable drilling parameters that effecting drilling rate

[52]. Mud weight, RPM, WOB, bit shape, and hydraulics are considered as the controllable

parameters of the drilling process. Selection of the controllable parameters properly was

concluded to significantly enhance drilling rate. An upper drilling rate limit or “technical

limit” concept has been introduced which can not be passed without hazarding the safety

of drilling operations. Values of RPM and WOB variables should be at possible maximum

feasible rates taking into consider the minimum bit operational cost and stability of

drillstring. Hole cleaning and bit hydraulics must be considered while selecting flow rate

at an optimum value.

Ozbayoglu and Omurlu [53] implemented a research to optimize drilling parameters

mathematically to decrease the overall well costs in 2005. They treated with WOB, RPM,

26
bit wear and type, and bit hydraulics as explicit influencers on ROP. An analytical

formulation of the drilling cost was formed based on a non-linear ROP equation. After

using the proposed formula to optimized drilling parameters of the real field data provided

from their literature, they discovered that total costs of the drilling process were decreased

up to four times.

William and Jeff (2005) showed a method for determining Mechanical Specific Energy

(MSE) in real time and in remote monitoring. The work showed how MSE behavior can

be effectively understood from conducting real time MSE tests and how it can be an

acceptably beneficial tool for drilling technicians and engineers. A practice of tuning

drilling parameters in order to reduce MSE amount is shown as a good rule of thumb.

Milter et al. (2006) worked on improving the use of real-time data transfer from offshore

to drilling, well intervention and production operations land stations [54]. Emphasis was

placed on the piped data quality to multi-disciplinary relevant personnel that are not

essentially at a predetermined remote location, but anywhere with high speed internet

communication. The efficiency of the optimization was based judgment of the expert

involved, which is based on in his/her experience in the process. It was concluded that

using real-time data transmission as a means of automatic surveillance, there is a reduction

in occurrence of unforeseen events and well shut-ins and improved consistency of

operations.

Iqbal (2008) demonstrated a computer algorithm in order to calculate and optimize drilling

optimization procedures using real-time parameters for roller cutter insert type of bits [55].

This method is consisted of some steps include calculating weight exponent given in

27
drilling ROP, finding the optimum revolution speed of the string and parameters of WOB

using plots or correlation. The relation of lease cost per foot is used to select the optimum

parameter. The study concluded that the efficiency of exploratory wells could be enhanced

using the same technique where no proven information would be available.

Alum and Egbon (2011) used real-time bit data acquired from wells in Niger Delta

reservoirs to develop semi-analytical models for ROP [56]. These models were obtained

by carrying out regression analysis of the parameters that contain differential pressure in

the equations of the Bourgoyne and Young Model in order to obtain regression constants.

Mathematical expressions connecting ROP and drilling fluid properties were then

generated using the obtained regression constants.

Rashidi et al. (2008) put forward a novel approach to compute real-time bit wear from a

combination of MSE and ROP models. The stated approach, unlike ROP models, takes the

major differences between those two models into consideration. Particularly interesting

results that were obtained from the work show a linear relationship between rock

drillability (Drilling Strength) and MSE (Rock Energy) [57].

Eren and Ozbayoglu (2010) showed the development of a model to minimize cost per foot

by maximizing drilling rate through the optimization of parameters in an ongoing drilling

operation, such as WOB and bit RPM [2]. Data in the developed model is experimental

field data obtained using modern well monitoring systems and data recorders. The acquired

data is used to estimate the rate of drilling penetration as a function of available parameters.

The work illustrated the use of past drilling trends to achieve relatively accurate prediction

28
of drilling ROP. Optimum WOB and bit RPM could also be regulated in order to

accomplish minimum cost drilling.

Koederitz and Johnson (2011) showed the improvement and field testing of an autonomous

drilling system that uses a test process to assess the drilling performance of a specified set

of target set points [58]. The set points are identified by a research method whose

development was based on earlier work in the application of real-time MSE display. Field

testing results that were presented are generally favorable and indicate a practical and

flexible potential for autonomous drilling optimization without drilling knowledge which

is promising in a range of cost-effective applications.

Elshafei, Khamis and Al-Majed (2015) presented a unified approach for real-time drilling

optimization of the drilling parameters and directional steering, which combined the

conventional drilling parameters as well as the directional steering control [39]. The

proposed objective function compromised between trajectory tracking accuracy, drilling

effort, and drilling time. The optimization problem was solved subject to operations limits

and constraints using constraint optimization techniques.

Yashodhan et al. (2016) launched an Artificial Neural Network drilling parameter

optimization system to provide the rig-site operator real time data analysis to help in

decision making in order to increase the operating efficiency, increase the ROP, maximize

the bit lifetime, and decrease the total cost [59]. The operating parameters such as WOB,

and RPM can be selected depend on the provided data. The proposed system save much

more money via reducing the drilling days.

29
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