Computer Hardware

Computer hardware is the collection of physical parts of a computer system. This includes
the system unit and peripherals. Computer hardware is what you can physically touch. Some
examples of computer hardware include:

 Keyboard: a computer keyboard is one of the primary input devices that can be used to
input letters, numbers, and other symbols into a computer. It is similar to those found on
electric typewriters, but with some additional keys.

 Mouse: A computer mouse is a small handheld device which is moved across a mat or
flat surface to move the cursor on a computer screen. It is an Input Device to Control On-
Screen Objects.

 Hard disk drive: A hard disk drive is the main storage device on a personal computer
system. It is usually mounted inside the computer’s system unit and can store billions of
characters of data.

 CD and DVD drives: a CD drive is a storage device that uses laser technology to work
with data on computer or audio CDs. A DVD drive can work with data on computer CDs,
audio CDs, computer DVDs or DVD movie disks. There are read only devices that
cannot be used to write data onto disk. They are typically used to access data from
commercial software, music and movie CDs or DVDs. Writable CD and DVD drives
however can be used to store and access data.

 Other storage: Personal computers sometimes include a floppy disk drive, which is a low-
capacity storage device once found on virtually all computers. Floppy disks are
disappearing as USB flash storage devices have become more popular.

 Sound System: The sound system for a personal computer can output digital music,
digitally recorded speech and a variety of sound effects. System sounds are designed to
draw your attention to various messages and events. A computer’s sound card sends
signals to speakers which can be eternal devices or built into the system unit.

 Display System: A PC display system consists of two parts: Circuitry called a graphic
card, converts raw digital data into images that can be shown on a display device. Display
devices often called computer screens or monitors present visual output such as
documents, photos and videos.

 Network and Internet access: many PC systems include built-in circuitry for wired or
wireless connections to a computer network. Internet connection requires a modem;
Modems establishes an internet connection using a standard telephone line which are
often built into the system unit while Modems for cable, satellite and other types of
internet access are usually separate components.

 Printer: This is an output device that produces computer generated text or graphical
images on paper.
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  System unit: This is the case that holds the central processing unit, the computer’s main
circuit/system boards; primary memory and storage devices. It can also be defined as the
electronic components used to process and temporarily store data and instructions.

 Central Processing Unit: This is the part of a computer in which operations (instructions)
are controlled and executed. The CPU has three essential sets of transistors that work
together in processing digital data: a control unit, an arithmetic logic unit, and registers.

1. The control unit directs the flow of data and instructions within the processor and
electronic memory.

2. The arithmetic logic unit (ALU) contains programmed transistors that perform
mathematical and logical calculations.

3. The registers are special transistors that store data and instructions as they are being
manipulated by the control unit and ALU. New microprocessors also have additional
high-speed memory called cache, on the chip to store frequently used data and
instructions.

Various performance features of the CPU that determine the efficiency of the machine cycle
are: clock speed, word size, front-side bus, instruction set and processing techniques.

Clock speed: This is the rate at which the CPU carries out its basic instructions. It is measured in
Hertz (mega hertz or giga hertz). One hertz is one cycle per second.

Word Size: This refers to the number of bits that a processor can manipulate as a unit in one
machine cycle. A processor with 64bit word size has 64bits register, processes 64bits data at a
time and is referred to as 64bit-processor.

Front side bus: this refers to circuitry that transports data to and from the microprocessor.

Instruction set

This is the collection of preprogrammed operations such as addition, subtraction, division and
multiplication. Example is reduced instruction set (RISC). RISC chips eliminate complex
embedded microcode instructions and replace them with a simpler set of instructions for
executing the most common commands used by the processor. These common commands are
combined to carry out the less frequent, more complex processing tasks. This results in faster
overall processing of routine operations.

Processing Techniques

There are three methods, they are Serial processing; this is an execution technique in which one
instruction is executed before the next.

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Parallel processing: This is an execution of multiple instructions at the same time

Pipelining: This is an execution of an instruction before the completion of another.

System Board

The system board (also called the motherboard) is the main circuit board, or the electrical
foundation of the computer. In addition to CPU, RAM, and ROM chips, the system board
contains the following:

 Expansion slots to add memory and hardware devices

 Special purpose chips that convert analog signals to digital format

 Video card to control the display monitor

 Power supply

 I/O interface ports to capture and send data to peripheral devices

Multimedia computers are equipped with many built-in devices, but often a developer may want
additional hard drives, a DVD burner, or a second video board, for example. Many computers
have expansion slots to add these hardware components; others have limited or no expansion
capability at all. An alternative to adding devices directly on the system board is to plug external
devices into an interface port.

Primary Storage/Memory

Primary storage is also known as internal storage or memory. It is used to store programs and
data currently being processed by CPU. There are three types of primary storage – RAM, ROM
and Cache.

RAM: This is also known as Random Access Memory. It is a temporary holding area for data,
application program, instructions and the operating system. It is volatile, that is, data can easily
be lost when current goes off. RAM provides the fast, electronic access to data and instructions
required for processing by the CPU. Programmer can read from it and also write into it.

It is the waiting room for the computer’s processor. It holds raw data waiting to be processed,
stored, displayed or printed as well as the program instruction for processing that data. It holds
the result of processing until they can be stored more permanently on disk or tape.

RAMs come in different capacities/sizes. There are 256MB, 512MB, 2GB and so on. The
amount of RAM your computer uses depends the speed of your processor and the type of
software you use.

RAM speed is often expressed in nanoseconds or megahertz. 1 nanosecond (ns) is 1 billion of a

second. Lower nanosecond ratings are better because the RAM circuitry can react faster to
update the data it holds. For example 8ns RAM is faster than 10ns RAM. Ram speed can also be

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expressed in MHz (million of cycle per second); just the opposite of nanoseconds, higher MHz
ratings means faster speeds e.g. 533MHz RAM is faster than 400MHz RAM.

In today’s PC, SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic RAM) which is fast and relatively inexpensive
are used. Also RDRAM (Rambus Dynamic RAM) which is more expensive than the former and
usually found in high-performance workstations.

ROM: Also known as Read-Only Memory. It is a permanent storage location for a set of
instructions the computer uses. ROM is a special form of nonvolatile electronic storage that
contains frequently used instructions for the CPU. These instructions are hardwired or embedded
in the chip by the manufacturer; they can be read, but not changed. The instructions perform
essential system checks and load the operating system (OS) from disk storage into RAM. ROM
is activated when the power is on. The embedded instructions do not disappear when the power
is off, unlike RAM storage.

ROM is needed as well as RAM because when the RAM loses its data or information when
light/power goes off, ROM contains a small set of instruction called the ROM Bios (basic input
/output system). These instructions tell the computer how to access the hard disk, find the
operating system and load it into RAM. After the OS is loaded, the computer can understand
your input, display output, run software and access your data.

Cache: This is a special high-speed memory chip on the motherboard or CPU. It stores
frequently and recently accessed data and commands, this reduces the time it takes to locate and
transport data from RAM.

Differences between ROM and RAM

ROM RAM

ROM is nonvolatile RAM is volatile

ROM is cheaper than RAM RAM is very expensive

The contents of ROM are always known The contents are not known

and can be verified

ROM cannot be updated or corrected RAM can be updated and corrected

ROM serves as permanent data storage RAM can serve as temporary data storage

Secondary Storage/Storage Devices

This is an optional attachment, which is cable –connected to the CPU. Secondary storage is
nonvolatile. It is a permanent form of storage. A data storage system has 2 components:

A storage medium: The disk, CD, DVD paper or other substance that contains data.
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A storage device: Mechanical apparatus that records and retrieve data from storage medium e.g.
floppy disk drives, hard disk drives, tape drives, CD drives, DVD drives and flash drives.

Storage Technology for Personal Computers

Examples of Storage Technology for Personal Computers are magnetic, optical and solid state
devices.

Magnetic disk and tape technology: Examples are floppy disk, hard disk and magnetic tape. They
store data by magnetizing microscopic particles on a disk or tape surface. The particles retain
their magnetic orientation until that orientation is changed, thereby making disks and tape fairly
permanent but modifiable storage media.

Data stored on magnetic media such as floppy disk can be unintentionally altered by magnetic
fields, dust mold, smoke particles, heat and mechanical problems associated with such storage
device. Placing a magnet on a floppy disk is a sure way of losing data saved on it.

Magnetic media gradually lose their magnetic charge, resulting in lost data. Therefore it is
recommended that data on magnetic media should be refreshed every two years by recopying
and re-saving them.

Optical Storage Technology: They use laser technology to read and write data on specially
coated reflective discs. Examples are- CD (Compact Disc), DVD (Digital Video/Versatile Disk).

CD (Compact Disc) technology was originally designed to hold 74 minutes of recorded music.
The original CD standard was adapted for computer storage with capacity for 650MB of data.
Later improvement increased the capacity to 80minutes of music or 700MB of data.

DVD (Digital Video or Digital Versatile Disk) technology is a variation of CD technology that
was originally designed as an alternative to VCRs (video cassette recorder), but was quickly
adopted by the computer industry to store data.

The initial DVD standard has 4.7GB (4,700MB) of data storage (about 7x as much capacity as a
CD). With the improvement we have, a double layer DVD which has two recordable layers on
the same side and can store 8.5GB of data. An HD-DVD can store 15GB per layer on a single
side; a Blu-ray DVD (BD) has 25GB capacity per layer.

CD and DVD drives contain a spindle that rotates the disk over a laser lens. The laser directs a
beam of light toward the underside of the disk. The dark pits and lights on the disk surface reflect
the light differently. As the lens reads the disk, these differences are translated into the 0s and 1s
that represent data.

Categories of Optical Technologies

Optical technologies are grouped into 3 categories namely: read-only, recordable and rewritable.

 Read-only (ROM): Stores data permanently on a disk, which cannot be subsequently

added to or changed e.g. CD-ROMs, CD-Das, DVD-Video, DVD-ROMs
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  Recordable (R): it uses laser to change the color in a dye layer sandwiched beneath the
clear plastic disk surface. The laser creates dark spots in the dye that are read as pits. The
change in the dye is permanent, so data cannot be changed once it has been recorded.

 Rewritable (RW): It uses phase change technology to alter a crystal structure on the disk
surface. Altering the crystal structure creates patterns of light and dark spots similar to
the pits and lands on a CD. The crystal structure can be changed from light to dark and
back again many times, making it possible to record and modify data much like on a hard
disk.

Types of CD and DVD formats for PC

 CD-CA (Compact Disc Digital Audio): Commonly known as audio CD. Music is
typically recorded on audio CDs by the manufacturer but cannot be changed by the
consumer.

 DVD-Video (Digital Versatile Disc Video): This is the format for commercial DVDs
that contain feature –length films.

 CD-Rom (Compact Disc Read Only Memory): this is for storing data. Data is
stamped on the disk at the time it is manufactured. Data cannot be added, changed or
deleted from these disks.

 DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disc Read Only Memory): like CD-ROMs, the data on
these disks is permanent, so you cannot add or change the data.

 CD-R (Compact Disc Recordable): Stores data using recordable technology. The data
on a CD-R cannot be erased or modified once you record it. However, most CD-R
drives allow you to record your data in multiple sessions. For example you can store
two files on a CD-R disk today, and add data for a few more files to the disk at a later
time.

 DVD+R or DVD-R (Digital Versatile Disk Recordable): Stores data using recordable
technology similar to a CD-R, but with DVD storage capacity.

 CD+RW or CD-RW (Compact Disc Rewritable): stores data using rewritable

technology. Stored data can be recorded and erased multiple times, making it a very
flexible storage option.

 DVD+RW or DVD-RW (Digital Versatile Disk Rewritable): disks store data using
rewritable technology similar to CD-RW, but with DVD storage capacity.

Solid State Storage Technology

This stores data in erasable, rewritable circuitry rather than on spinning disks or streaming tape.
Examples are; USB flash drive, memory cards and the built-in memory used in MP3 players,
digital cameras, and mobile phones.

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Solid state storage is portable and provides fairly fast access to data. It is an ideal solution for
storing data on mobile devices and transporting data from one device to another. It is durable i.e.
it is impervious to vibration, magnetic fields or extreme temperature fluctuations.

Types of Solid State Storage

Various types of solid state storage mechanism are compact flash, multimedia, secure-Digital
(SD) and smart-Media.

There is also USB flash drive such as Sony’s Microvault, ScanDiskcruzer or the Kingston
Traveler. They are portable storage devices that can be plugged into a computer’s USB port
using a built-in connector. Also called thumb drives, pen drives, jump drives and key chain
drive. Files stored on a USB flash drive can be opened, edited, deleted and run just as though
those files were stored on magnetic or optical media. Software can be run on them too. Their
capability ranges from 16MB to 128GB, they have maximum data transfer speeds of about
100Mbps but mostly operate in the range of 18-28Mbps.

The criteria to compare storage devices are as follows:

 Versatility: this is how devices can access data from several different media. For
example; a floppy disk can access only floppy disk, whereas a DVD drive can access
computer DVDs, DVD movies, audio CDs, computer CDs and CD-Rs.

 Durability: susceptibility to damage from mishandling or other environmental factors

such as heat or moisture. CDs and DVDs are more durable than hard disks.

 Speed: access time is the time it takes a computer to locate data on a storage medium and
read it. Fast storage devices are preferred to slow storage devices. A drive with 6ms
(milliseconds) access time is faster than a drive with an access time of 11ms. Random
access devices have the best access time. Random access (direct access) is the ability of a
device to jump directly to the requested data. Example of random access devices are
floppy disk, hard disk, DVD, CD and solid state drives. A tape drive must use slower or
sequential access by reading through the data from the beginning of the tape.

 Capacity: storage capacity is the maximum amount of data that can be stored on a storage
medium, and it is measured in KB, MB, GB or TB. Storage capacity is directly related to
storage density: the amount of data that can be stored in a given area of a storage
medium, such as the surface of a disk. The higher the storage density, the more data is
stored.

 Data Transfer Rate: this is the amount of data a storage device can move per second from
the storage medium to the computer. For example, a Cd-ROM drive with a 600KBps data
transfer rate is faster than one with a 300KBps transfer rate.

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 Input and Output Devices

Input Devices

These devices are used to enter information and instructions into a computer for storage or
processing. An input device is any hardware device that sends data (in form of sound, video,
images, numbers and text) to a computer, allowing you to interact with and control the
computer. Examples are: keyboard, mouse, pointing devices (trackballs, touch pads and touch
screens), scanner, microphones, sound recorders, cameras and graphical tablets.

Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common and very popular input device which helps to input data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that of traditional typewriter, although there are
some additional keys provided for performing additional functions.

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Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102 keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108
keys are also available for Windows and Internet.

The keys on the keyboard are as follows

S/N Keys & Description

1. Typing Keys

These keys include the letter keys (A-Z) and digit keys (0-9) which generally give the
same layout as that of typewriters.

2. Numeric Keypad

It is used to enter the numeric data or cursor movement. Generally, it consists of a set
of 17 keys that are laid out in the same configuration used by most adding machines
and calculators.

3. Function Keys

The twelve function keys are present on the keyboard which are arranged in a row at
the top of the keyboard. Each function key has a unique meaning and is used for some
specific purpose.

4. Control keys

These keys provide cursor and screen control. It includes four directional arrow keys.
Control keys also include Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up, Page Down,
Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt), Escape(Esc).

5. Special Purpose Keys

Keyboard also contains some special purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps Lock,
Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and Print Screen.

MOUSE
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Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a
small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and
sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.

Generally, it has two buttons called the left and the right button and a wheel is present between
the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot
be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages

 Easy to use

 Not very expensive

 Moves the cursor faster than the arrow keys of the keyboard.

Joystick

Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen.
It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball
moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.

The function of the joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen

Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw
pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small
tube.

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When the tip of a light pen is moved over the monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen location and sends the corresponding signal to the
CPU.

Track Ball

Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be
moved.

Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a square.

Scanner

Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for
further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which are then converted into a digital form that can be
stored on the disk. These images can be edited before they are printed.

Digitizer

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Digitizer is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data
into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image
manipulation applications.

Microphone

Microphone is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.

The microphone is used for various applications such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.

Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)

MICR input device is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles of magnetic material that are machine readable.

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This reading process is called Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed text.

OCR scans the text optically, character by character, converts them into a machine readable
code, and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may be a
handheld scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then
fed to the computer that the bar code reader is connected to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few alternatives is to be selected and marked.

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It is specially used for checking the answer sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.

Output Devices

These devices accept output from the data processing device and convert it into a form suitable
for use by the computer's human operators in audio or video form. An output device is
any device used to send data from a computer to another device or user. Examples include
monitors (LCD-liquid crystal display, LED-light emitting diodes and CRT-cathode ray tube),
projectors, speakers, headphones and printers (non impact-laser and inkjet, impact-dot matrix).

The following are some of the important output devices used in a computer.

 Monitors

 Graphic Plotter

 Printer

Monitors

Monitors, commonly called Visual Display Unit (VDU), are the main output device of a
computer. It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that are arranged in a rectangular form.
The sharpness of the image depends upon the number of pixels.

There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors.

 Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)

 Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the
better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole
character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.

A finite number of characters can be displayed on a screen at once. The screen can be divided
into a series of character boxes - fixed location on the screen where a standard character can be
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placed. Most screens are capable of displaying 80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines
vertically.

There are some disadvantages of CRT −

 Large in Size

 High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them on your
wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include calculators, video games, monitors, laptop
computer, and graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories −

 Emissive Displays − Emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy into
light. For example, plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).

 Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert sunlight or

light from some other source into graphics patterns. For example, LCD (Liquid-Crystal
Device).

Printers

Printer is an output device, which is used to print information on paper.

There are two types of printers −

 Impact Printers

 Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers

Impact printers print the characters by striking them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the
paper.
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Characteristics of Impact Printers are the following −

 Very low consumable costs

 Very noisy

 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost

 There is physical contact with the paper to produce an image

These printers are of two types −

 Character printers

 Line printers

Character Printers

Character printers are the printers which print one character at a time.

These are further divided into two types:

 Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)

 Daisy Wheel

Dot Matrix Printer

In the market, one of the most popular printers is Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical price. Each character printed is in the form of
pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come
out to form a character which is why it is called Dot Matrix Printer.

Advantages

 Inexpensive

 Widely Used

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  Other language characters can be printed

Disadvantages

 Slow Speed

 Poor Quality

Daisy Wheel

These printers are generally used for word-processing in offices that require a few letters to be
sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages

 More reliable than DMP

 Better quality

 Fonts of character can be easily changed

Disadvantages

 Slower than DMP

 Noisy

 More expensive than DMP

Line Printers

Line printers are the printers which print one line at a time.

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These are of two types −

 Drum Printer

 Chain Printer

Drum Printer

This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is called drum printer. The surface of the drum is
divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper
width of 132 characters, drum will have 132 tracks. A character set is embossed on the track.
Different character sets available in the market are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set. One
rotation of drum prints one line. Drum printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to 2000 lines
per minute.

Advantages

 Very high speed

Disadvantages

 Very expensive

 Characters fonts cannot be changed

Chain Printer

In this printer, a chain of character sets is used, hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.

Advantages

 Character fonts can easily be changed.

 Different languages can be used with the same printer.

Disadvantages

 Noisy

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Non-impact Printers

Non-impact printers print the characters without using the ribbon. These printers print a complete
page at a time, thus they are also called as Page Printers.

These printers are of two types −

 Laser Printers

 Inkjet Printers

Characteristics of Non-impact Printers

 Faster than impact printers

 They are not noisy

 High quality

 Supports many fonts and different character size

Laser Printers

These are non-impact page printers. They use laser lights to produce the dots needed to form the
characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages

 Very high speed

 Very high quality output

 Good graphics quality

 Supports many fonts and different character size

Disadvantages

 Expensive
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  Cannot be used to produce multiple copies of a document in a single printing

Inkjet Printers

Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers based on a relatively new technology. They print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output
with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Color printing is also possible. Some models of Inkjet printers can produce
multiple copies of printing also.

Advantages

 High quality printing

 More reliable

Disadvantages

 Expensive as the cost per page is high

 Slow as compared to laser printer

Hardware Security

Hardware security is all about keeping our computers save from either hackers or theft. We can
keep our computer save by:

 Installing Firewall.

 Installing Antivirus Software.

 Installing Anti-Spyware Software.

 Using of Complex and Secure Passwords.

 Check on the Security Settings of the Browser.

 By not leaving our computer unattended to.

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  By using hardware security module (HSM). HMS is a physical computing device that
safeguards and manages digital keys for strong authentication and provides crypto
processing. These modules traditionally come in the form of a plug-in card or an external
device that attaches directly to a computer or network server.

 Protection against power surge.

Power surge is a sudden increase or spike in electrical energy, affecting the current that flows to
electrical outlets. Power surges can originate from a number of sources: downed power lines,
power grid switching by electric company, faulty wiring and large appliances like refrigerators
and air conditioners powering on and off. Lightening or electrical storms can cause extremely
large power surges and consequently pose a real threat to your computer equipments.

Computers can be protected against power surge by plugging into a surge strips/surge
protector/surge suppressor instead of directly into a wall outlet. All devices should be switched
off/turned off.

A surge strip/surge protector/surge suppressor is a device that contains electrical outlets

protected by circuitry that blocks surges and spikes.

A UPS (uninterruptible power supply) is a device that not only provides surge protection but also
furnishes the computer with battery backup power during a power outage.

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 COMPUTER SOFTWARE

Computer Software is a set of programs designed to perform a well-defined function. A

program is a sequence of instructions written to solve a particular problem. This implies that the
set of instructions which control the sequence of operations are known as programs and
collectively, programs are called software. Computer software is anything that can be stored
electronically. The term is used to contrast with computer hardware (the physical objects);
unlike hardware, software cannot be touched. Hardware and software require each other and
neither has any value without the other.

Firmware is software that has been permanently stored in hardware. It is typically not user
accessible and usually contains the basic software of the device. Firmware such as
the BIOS (Basic Input/output System) of a personal computer typically contains only elementary
basic functions and allows the computer to run more complicated software. On most computer
platforms, software can be grouped into two broad categories: System software and Application
software.

System Software

The system software is a collection of programs designed to operate, control, and extend the
processing capabilities of the computer itself. It is the basic software needed for a computer to
operate (most notably the Operating System). System software is generally prepared by the
computer manufacturers. These software products comprise of programs written in low-level
languages, which interact with the hardware at a very basic level. System software serves as the
interface between the hardware and the end users.

Some examples of system software are Operating System (DOS, Windows, UNIX, Linux, Mac
OS), Compilers, Interpreter, Assemblers, etc.

Features of a system software

i. They are Close to the system

ii. They are Fast in speed

iii. Difficult to design

iv. Difficult to understand

v. Less interactive

vi. Smaller in size

vii. Difficult to manipulate

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 viii. Generally written in low-level language

System software

Loaders and Operating Utility Language

editors software Routine processor

Operating System

An operating system is a software component of a computer system that is responsible for the
management of various activities of the computer and the sharing of computer resources. An
operating system enables user interaction with computer systems by acting as an interface
between users or application programs and the computer hardware. Some of the common
operating systems are LINUX, Windows, etc.

All computers need some sort of Operating System (OS) to function. The majority of modern
home computers use different versions of Microsoft’s operating systems.

The original Microsoft operating system was called DOS (Disk Operating System) and was
replaced by a pretty; mouse controlled Graphical User Interface (GUI) that Microsoft
called Windows. Windows comes in various versions beginning with version 3.x then 95, 98,
ME, XP, Vista, 7 and 8 and so on.

Apple’s Mac computers use their own operating system beginning with Apple OS 1 through to
OS X 10.8 and is commonly referred to by cat names including Tiger, Leopard, Snow Leopard,
Lion and Mountain Lion.

Linux is a free operating system that has many of the functions of Windows or Apple OS. The
operating system controls the flow of information to and from the CPU. Basically the computer
starts from scratch every time you turn the power on and it first needs to load the operating
system (booting up). It automatically checks all its components and then loads into the operating
system. Once the operating system is loaded the user can start an application or program.
Application software is created to work on specific operating systems only.

Functions of Operating Systems

- Resource sharing

- Input and output handling

- Filing system

- Protection and error handling

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 - Program control

- Memory management.

Utility Program

This is also known as general purpose program because they are used for applications in general.

Functions

- File copying

- File organization

- File maintenance

- Sorting

- Disc copying and formatting.

Loaders

Before an instruction is executed, it must have been placed in the primary memory(RAM/ROM),
it is the loaders that places segment into an appropriate locations in the memory

Editors

The primary function of editor is to convert input into a particular format of output based on the
editing commands.

Functions:

- Insert

- Delete and,

- Modify

Types of Editors

Text Editors Linkage Editors

This is closely associated with application This is a piece of system software. It works on
packages. It solves the problem of “cut and object program during program compilation,
paste”. Changing data files and format of the resolving undefined references, linking to get
data several object programs.

Application Software

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Application software is all the software that uses the computer system to perform useful work
beyond the operation of the computer itself. Application software products are designed to
satisfy a particular need of a particular environment. All software applications prepared in the
computer lab can come under the category of Application software.

Application software may consist of a single program, such as Microsoft's notepad for writing
and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a collection of programs, often called a software
package, which work together to accomplish a task, such as a spreadsheet package.

Examples of Application software are the following: Payroll Software, Student Record Software,
Inventory Management Software, Income Tax Software, Railways Reservation Software,
Microsoft Office Suite Software, Microsoft Word, Microsoft Excel, Microsoft PowerPoint.

Features of application software

i. Close to the user

ii. Easy to design

iii. More interactive

iv. Slow in speed

v. Generally written in high-level language

vi. Easy to understand

vii. Easy to manipulate and use

viii. Bigger in size and requires large storage space

Types of Application Software

There are millions of different pieces of application software available for almost every
conceivable need. The four basic types of applications are:

1. Commercial software comes prepackaged and is available for purchase from software
stores and through the Internet.

2. Shareware is software developed by individual and small companies that cannot afford to
market their software worldwide or by a company that wants to release a demonstration
version of their commercial product. You will typically have an evaluation period in
which you can decide whether to purchase the product or not. Shareware software often
is disabled in some way and has a notice attached to explain the legal requirements for
using the product.

3. Open Source software is created by a collaboration of programmers working together.

Open source programs are often open for anyone to contribute to and the end products of
open source projects are commonly released for public use. Open Source software is not

25
 public domain in that the company or individual that develops the software retains
ownership of the program but the software can be used freely. Many popular Open
Source applications are being developed and upgraded regularly by individuals and
companies that believe in the Open Source concept. There is usually a copyright notice
that must remain with the software product and is similar to freeware.

4. Freeware is created by generous programmers and developers and released is distributed

freely, usually accompanied a copyright notice and terms of service that must remain
with the software product. Freeware is generally free for anyone to use and distribute so
long as the copyright notice and terms of service remain with the software.

Files, Folders and Directories

On the computer’s storage disk, data is stored in files and organized into directories (or a
collection of folders).

Directories can have sub-directories and sub-sub-directories many levels down. The directory
immediately below the current directory is called the child directory. The directory immediately
above the current one is called the parent directory. The top of the directory structure is called
the root directory – creating an (upside down) directory tree.

When a user adds or installs a new program on the computer, the installation process will usually
create a new directory or folder to store the application’s files. When saving a document created
by an application, the program will typically try to save to a default directory.

Users can create and delete directories or folders as the need arises. You can also easily move
files from one folder (or directory) to another using menu commands (cut, copy, paste) or by
using a mouse to drag and drop. It is important to understand your computer’s directory structure
as a file can be misplaced if it is saved in the wrong directory.

NOTE: One of the main problems new users have is creating a filing system before it gets too
large and difficult to easily find files. Modern operating systems address the ‘filing problem’ by
automatically creating a (My) Documents folder. By naming and saving documents in this folder
you will always know where to look for your files. Create sub-folders within this folder for your
main projects, and use Pictures, Movies, Music, Download, etc. directories as appropriate.
Remember to name your files and folders in a logical pattern (that you will remember) and stick
to it – search functions are your friend!

As we discussed before, the work that is produced using an application or program is also
software (data) and is usually referred to as a file or a document. Files can be manipulated in a
myriad of ways. They can be opened, closed, edited, saved, printed, backed up, etc.

Saving Files or Documents

In order to save a new document or file you must first choose the Save command. Most modern
software applications place this command in a menu. Each file must be given a filename so it can
be found easily the next time it is needed.
26
Many modern software programs (applications) add their own extension to filenames. These
extensions allow operating systems to recognize certain filenames and associate (match) them to
the program that created it. Typically they are in a three-letter (sometimes four-letter) format
following a period at the end of the file name.

As well as choosing a filename, users must choose a directory and/or disk to store the file in.
Remember: make sure that you are consistent and use a logical structure – the default option is
often not the best one for you.

Common File Types and Extensions

Common file extensions that are good to know, organized by file form

TEXT FILE DATA AUDIO VIDEO IMAGES DATABAS EXECUTABL

FILE E OR E
SPREAD
SHEET

.doc .m3u .avi .avi .bmp .db .app Mac

(Microsoft Media Audio Audio Bitmap Database OS X
Word Playlist Video Video Image File File Application
Documen)t File Interleave Interleave
File File .gif .xlr .bat DOS
.docx .m4a Graphical Works Batch File
Microsoft MPEG-4 .flv .flv Interchang Spreadsheet
Word Open Audio Flash Flash e Format .com DOS
XML File Video File Video File File .xls Command File
Document Excel
.mid .mov .mov .jpg Spreadsheet .exe
.msg MIDI Apple Apple JPEG Windows
Outlook File QuickTim QuickTim Image .xlsx Executable File
Mail e Movie e Movie Microsoft
Message .mp3 .png Excel Open
MP3 .mp4 .mp4 Portable XML
.rtf Audio MPEG-4 MPEG-4 Network Spreadsheet
Rich Text File Video File Video File Graphic
Format File
.wav .mpg .mpg .psd
.txt WAVE MPEG MPEG Adobe
Plain Text Audio Video File Video File Photoshop
File File Document
.rm .rm
.wpd .wma Real Real .thm
WordPerfec Window Media File Media File Thumbnail
t Document s Media Image File
Audio .vob .vob
.wps DVD DVD .tif

27
Microsoft File Video Video Tagged
Works Object Object Image File
Document File File
.pdf
.wmv .wmv Portable
Windows Windows Document
Media Media Format
Video File Video File File

Computer Language

Computer language or programming language is a coded syntax used by computer programmers

to communicate with a computer/ is the set of specialized words, symbols and commands that the
computer understands. They are used to communicate with the computer system. The language
enables a computer user to dictate what commands the computer must perform to process data.
These languages can be classified into following categories.

1. Machine language

2. Assembly language

3. High level language

Machine Language/Low Level Language

Machine language or machine code is the native language directly understood by the computer’s
central processing unit or CPU. This type of computer language is not easy to understand, as it
only uses a binary system (0s and 1s), an element of notations containing only a series of
numbers consisting of one and zero, to produce commands.

Assembly Level Language

Assembly language is a symbolic language comprises of alphanumeric, that is symbols and

numeric code. Assembly Level Language is a set of codes that can run directly on the computer’s
processor. This type of language is most appropriate in writing operating systems and
maintaining desktop applications. With the assembly level language, it is easier for a
programmer to define commands. It is easier to understand and use as compared to machine
language.

High Level Language

High Level Languages are user-friendly languages which are similar to English with vocabulary
of words and symbols. These are easier to learn and require less time to write. They are problem
oriented rather than ‘machine’ based. Program written in a high-level language can be translated

28
into many machine languages and therefore can run on any computer for which there exists an
appropriate translator.

Compiler & Interpreter

These are the programs that execute instructions written in a high-level language. There are two
ways to run programs written in a high-level language. The most common is to compile the
program; the other method is to pass the program through an interpreter.

Assembler:

This is the program that is used to converting assembly language into machine code.

Interpreter

An interpreter translates high-level instructions into an intermediate form, which it then

executes/ this is a program that read, translates and executes each statement in HLL sequentially
(statement by statement).

c. Compiler

A compiler is a special program that processes statements written in a particular programming

language called source code and converts them into machine language or “machine code” that a
computer’s processor uses at once. Compiler translates high level language programs directly
into machine language program. This process is called compilation.

Comparison of compiler and interpreter

S/N Interpreter Compiler

1 Takes time for program to run Faster and easier to run

2 Easier to debug because error messages are Harder to debug

easier to trace

3 It is cheaper Expensive

4 Occupy less memory space Occupy more memory space

Computer Security

Security has always been an overriding concern of humankind. For many organizations,
information plays a very important role in running business. Therefore, it becomes necessary to
safeguard information from reaching the illegal hands. When data takes the shapes of digital
form, a different security procedure is required. This branch of security is called computer
security.

29
Information technology also has some loopholes associated with it, like the possibility of stealing
of vital information and intentionally implanting destructive or malicious programs on the other's
computer system. The motive behind such activities is to slow down the pace of an organization
and harm it economically. We shall discuss now about these malicious programs which are often
called virus, worms, Trojan horse, logic bomb, spyware and so on.

Virus: This is a set of program instructions that attaches itself to a file, reproduces itself and
spreads to other files. They can replicate themselves only on host computer. They have the
ability to lurk in a computer for days or months quietly replicating themselves. When this
replication takes place unknowingly, it easily infects files on other people’s computer.

Types of computer virus.

Time bomb- these are viruses that deliver their payloads on a specific date and at a particular
time. It will cause the computer to lose its functionality.

Worm: Worms are constructed to infiltrate on the legitimate data processing programs and alter
or destroy the data. Worm programs often use network connections (such as holes in browsers,
OS, e-mail attachment and so on) to spread from one computer system to another system, thus,
worms attack system that are linked through communication lines.

Trojan horse: this is a computer program that masks itself, pretending to be performing one
function but actually doing something else. They do not spread like worms; they are standalone
programs that masquerade as useful utilities or applications which victims downloads and installs
unaware of their destructive nature.

Spyware: this is a computer program the secretly gathers personal information without the
victims knowledge and consent, usually for advertising and other commercial purposes. Once
installed, it starts monitoring web-surfing and purchasing patterns, and then sends a summary
back to one or more third parties. Like Trojan, it can monitor keystrokes and relay passwords and
credit card information to cybercriminals.

Preventive Measures against computer virus

 This can be achieved by installing antivirus software. Anti-virus software falls into two
categories: Scanners and Integrity checkers.

A scanner is a program that will detect the virus by checking the files on the disk, the boot sector
of the disk and programs in the memory by looking for the signature of the virus. The signature
is a piece of program code that is unique to the virus. It is very necessary to regularly update the
virus scanner that you have bought. This is essential because new viruses are constantly
appearing.

Integrity checkers work using simple checksums or complicated algorithms or cryptographic

checksums which check if a file has been modified.

 Also avoid opening suspicious e-mail attachments

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  Avoid clicking pop-up ads-to make the ads go away, right click the ad’s taskbar button
and select the close option

 Avoid unsavory websites

 Obtain software only from reliable sources, and before running it use security software to
scan for malware.

Computer Networks

Computer Networks are groups of computers (nodes) that are connected together via a
transmission channel (link) to communicate and share resources such as files, printers, scanners,
e.t.c. Network uses network media such as cables to carry network data, network adapter
hardware to translate data between the computer and the network media; a network operating
system to enable the computer to recognize the network and the network protocol to control
network communications. A computer network is a group of computers that are connected
together to communicate and share resources such as files, printers, e-mail…

Computer networks are made up of network media such as cable to carry network data; network
adapter hardware to translate the data between the computer and the network media; a network
operating system to enable the computer to recognize the network and a network protocol to
control the network communications.

A Computer network

Advantages of Computer Network

- To share hardware resources

- To share software resources

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 - For sharing of information

- To preserve or protect information

- To increase efficiency.

Disadvantages of Computer Network

- Security issues: This major drawback, if a computer is on the network, the hackers can
get unauthorized access by using varying tools. Therefore, in a big organization, it is
advisable to use strong network security software to prevent security issue.

- Rapid spread of virus: virus gets spread on a network easily because of the connectivity
of workstation. Such spread can be dangerous especially in a large database.

- Expensive: It is very expensive to set up especially at the initial stage.

Classification of Network

Network can be classified as follows:

i. According to functional relationship

ii. According to geographical coverage

iii. According to connection methods

iv. According to internetworks

A. According to Functional Relationship (Computer Architecture)

There are two major types of classification; peer-to-peer and client server.

Client/Server Model

A client is a network computer that utilizes the resources of other network computers including
other clients. The client computer has its own processor, memory and storage and can maintain
some of its own resources and perform its own tasks and processing. Any type of computer on a
network can function as a client of another computer from time to time.

The term “client” most often refers to the workstation or desktop computers employed by end
users.

A server is a network computer that shares resources with and responds to requests from other
network computers including other servers. Servers provide centralized access and storage for
resources that can include applications, files, printers or other hardware and specialized services
such as email.

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A server can be optimized and dedicated to one specific function or it can serve general needs.
Multiple servers of various types can exist on a single network.

A Server

Characteristics of a Server

 Receiver of request sent by client is known as server

• Passive (slave)

• Waits for requests from clients

• Upon receipt of requests, processes them and then serves replies

• Usually accepts connections from a large number of clients

• Typically does not interact directly with end-users

Characteristics of a Client

• Request sender is known as client

• Initiates requests

• Waits for and receives replies.

• Usually connects to a small number of servers at one time

• Typically interacts directly with end-users using a graphical user interface

In a client/server relationship, client computers request resources and information from a central,
usually more powerful, server computer. In the client-server model, processes are categorized as
servers and clients.

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Client Server Network

In a client server network, servers are the processes that provide services while processes that
need services are referred to as clients. In the client-server model, a client process needing a
service (e.g. reading data from a file) sends a message to the server and waits for a reply
message. The server process, after performing the requested task, sends the result in the form of
a reply message to the client process. Note that servers merely respond to the request of the
clients, and do not typically initiate conversations with clients.

Client/Server network is a network in which servers provide services to clients. Typically, there
is at least one server providing central authentication services.

The client's responsibility is usually to:

• Handle the user interface.

• Translate the user's request into the desired protocol.

• Send the request to the server.

• Wait for the server's response.

• Translate the response into "human-readable" results.

• Present the results to the user.

The server's functions include:

• Listen for a client's query.

• Process that query.

• Return the results back to the client.

Advantages of Client Server Network

34
 - Centralized: resources and data securely are controlled through the server

- Scalability: any or all elements can be replaced individually as needs increase.

- Flexibility: now technology can be integrated into the system.

- Interoperability: all components work together in client/server.

- Accessibility: server can be access remotely across multiple platforms.

Disadvantages of Client Server Network

• Expense - Requires initial investment in dedicated server.

• Maintenance - Large networks will require a staff to ensure efficient operation.

• Dependence - When server goes down, operations will cease across the network

Peer-to-Peer Network (P2P)

Peer

Peer network is a self-sufficient computer that acts as both server and client to other similar
computers on a network. It is often used in smaller networks with no dedicated central server but
both clients and servers in other types of networks can also share resources with other peer
computers.

It is also known as workgroup or adhoc network. This is a network in which resource sharing,
processing and communication are decentralized. In P2P, computers share resources and
information equally. There are no powerful central computers (servers) sharing information and
resources.

It is a model in which resource sharing, processing and communications controls are completely
centralized. All clients on the network are equal in terms of providing and using resources and
users are authenticated by each individual workstations.

A P2P network is often referred to as workgroup. In this group, user accounts must be duplicated
on every workstation from which a user accesses resources. Such distribution of user information
makes maintaining P2P networks difficult especially as the network grows.

Advantages of P2P Disadvantages of P2P

- They are inexpensive to set up - Only practical in small organization

- Easy to configure with fewer resources - There is no central repository for files
- Does not provide enough security

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 B. According to Geographical Coverage

Geographical classifications of networks are as follows

- Local-Area Network (LAN): A computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most
LANs are confined to a single building or group of buildings. However, one LAN can be
connected to other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and radio waves. A
system of LANs connected in this way is called a wide-area network (WAN).

- Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): a data network designed for a town or city. In terms
of geographic breadth, MANs are larger than local-area networks (LANs), but smaller
than wide-area networks (WANs). MANs are usually characterized by very high-speed
connections using fiber optical cable or other digital media.

- Wide-Area Network (WAN): A computer network that spans a relatively large

geographical area. Typically, a WAN consists of two or more local-area networks
(LANs). Computers connected to a wide-area network are often connected through public
networks, such as the telephone system. They can also be connected through leased lines
or satellites. The largest WAN in existence is the Internet.

- Personal Area Network (PAN): A PAN is a network that is used for communicating
among computers and computer devices (including telephones) in close proximity of
around a few meters within a room. For examples, scanner, printers, telephones and
personal digital assistants.

- Campus Area Network (CAN): this is a network that connects two or more lands but it is
limited to a specific geographical area such as college, campus and industrial complex.

- Global Area Network (GAN): this is a model or supporting mobile communication across
an arbitrary number of wireless L.A.Ns, satellite coverage area and so on. The core
challenges is handling user configuration from one local government area to the other.
36
C. According to Connection Method

Computer networks can be classified according to the hardware technology that is used to
connect individual devices on the network –wireless and wired. Wired uses cable, fiber optics,
twisted pair and coaxial cable. Twisted pair is categorized into two: shielded twisted pair (STP)
and unshielded twisted pair (UTP). The advantage of STP over UTP is that STP has reduced
electromagnetic interference known as noise.

Network Media: this is a highway or subway of a city allowing data to move from one computer
to another i.e. it is the path the signal travels from one place to another. When choosing media
type, the choice must be based on protocol, topology of the network, distance, environment,
security and speed

Types of Media

There are two types of network media, namely bounded and unbounded network media.

Bounded Media (wired): they use physical conductor metal wire in which electricity flows/ a
glass or plastics strands through which pulses of light flows. For example: twisted copper cable
(UTP&STP), coaxial cable and fiber optic.

Unbounded Media (wireless): they use electromagnetic signals that are transmitted through the
air with radio, microwave and infrared radiations.

D. According to Inter-Network Connection

Inter-network connection refers to two or more networks or network segments connected using
devices that operate at layer 3 (the 'network' layer) of the OSI Basic Reference Model, such as a
router or a layer 3 switch.

Any interconnection among or between public, private, commercial, industrial, or governmental

networks may also be defined as an internetwork.

In modern practice, the interconnected networks use the Internet Protocol.

There are at least three variants of internetwork, depending on who administers and who
participates in them:

• Intranet

• Extranet

• Internet

Internet: it is known as network of networks that consists of smaller, domestic, academic,

business and government networks, which together carry various information and services such
as electronic mail, online chat, file transfer and interlinked web pages and other resources of the
World Wide Web.

37
The Internet is a worldwide, publicly accessible series of interconnected computer networks that
transmit data by packet switching using the standard Internet Protocol (IP). It is a "network of
networks" that consists of millions of smaller domestic, academic, business, and government
networks, which together carry various information and services, such as electronic mail, online
chat, file transfer, and the interlinked web pages and other resources of the World Wide Web
(WWW).

World Wide Web (WWW) is a graphical environment that allows the display of texts and
pictures on “your” screen/when browsing through the software called web browser.

It operates on a technology of hypermedia that is the usage of hyperlink.

Hyperlink: this is a part of the text and graphics on the webpage that when clicked on it takes
you to a different page within the websites or another webpage. The address of the website is
usually given by URL (universal resource locator)

Intranet: An Intranet is a private network that is contained within an enterprise. It is a private

computer network that uses Internet protocols and network connectivity to securely share part of
an organization's information or operations with its employees. Sometimes the term refers only
to the most visible service, the internal website.

The main purpose of an intranet is to share company information and computing resources
among employees.

Extranet: an extranet is a private network that uses Internet protocols, network connectivity, and
possibly the public telecommunication system to securely share part of an organization's
information or operations with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers or other businesses.

An extranet can be viewed as part of a company's Intranet that is extended to users outside the
company (e.g.: normally over the Internet).

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Network Topologies

Topology: The geometric arrangement of a computer system. Network topology is all about
using the various concepts and components of the network by combining them together to create
large structural units called network topologies. Topology of a network has great effect on the
performance and network troubleshooting of a particular network.

Topology is a network specification that determines the network’s overall layout and the
network’s data flow patterns. A topology comprises the physical topology which describes the
network’s physical wiring layout or shape and the logical topology which describes the paths
through which the data moves. Common topologies include a bus, star, ring and mesh. Hybrids
of these are star bus & star ring.

A. Physical Bus Topology

A physical topology is a type in which network nodes are arranged in a linear format, with each
node connected directly to the network cable with T-connector (connects cables together, shape
of a capital T) or Tap. The data signal passes by the node not through the node. A bus network is
easy to implement but can be unreliable because the entire bus fails if there is a break in the
wire.

B. Physical Star Topology

It is a network topology that uses a central connectivity device such as a hub, with separate
connections to each node. Individual nodes send data to the hub when the hub gives them a turn.
The hub sends the data back out again to the destination node. Because a single failed node does
not bring down the whole network, star topologies are reliable and easy to maintain.

39
C. Physical Ring Topology

This is a network topology in which all network nodes are connected in a continuous circle. Each
node in turn reads the network signal from its upstream neighbor and then transmits it to its
downstream neighbor, so signal quality is high in this topology.

However, because failure of a single node can bring down the whole network, ring topologies are
potentially unreliable.

D. Physical Mesh Topology

This is a network in which each node has a direct connection to every other node. This topology
is extremely reliable because no node can ever be isolated from the network. It is also
extraordinarily difficult to implement and maintain because the number of connections increases
exponentially with the number of nodes. Mesh topologies are typically used to provide reliable
connections between separate independent networks. The connection between major divisions of
the Internet uses a mesh topology.

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E. Hybrid Topology

A hybrid topology exhibits characteristics of more than one standard physical topology. Each
section of the network follows the rules of its own topology. They can be complex to maintain
because they incorporate wide range of technologies. Hybrid technologies are not typically built
on purpose, instead they arise when administrators connect existing networks that were
implemented independently using different topologies.

Network Connectivity Devices

Network media, both bounded and unbounded carry data across the network. To move data
around the network on the media and to create networks, network connectivity devices are
needed. (means of communication). Network connectivity devices make networks happen. They
connect clients to the network and assist in moving data around a network in most efficient
manner.

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Network Interface Cards (NIC)

NIC is a device that serves as an intermediary between the computer’s data bus and the network.
To connect to a network, a PC must have a NIC. NICs can be built into the motherboard of the
computer, connected through a USB, PC card or Fire wire port or can be an internal adapter card
that is installed into one of the computer’s expansion slots. It can also be called a network
adapter, LAN adapter or network card. The mechanisms by which computers connect to a
network.

An Expansion NIC

HUBS

Hubs: Hubs are simple network devices, and their simplicity is reflected in their low cost. A
networking device used to connect the drops in a physical star topology network into a logical
bus topology. Computers connect to a hub via a length of twisted-pair cabling.

A High Capacity or High Density Hub

42
Switches: a switch is a networking device used to connect the drops in a physical star topology
network into a logical bus topology. Switches forward packets to the correct port based on MAC
addresses. (MAC is a unique number stamped into every NIC to provide a means by which
systems communicate at base level). Switches offer distinct advantages over hubs. As with a
hub, computers connect to a switch via a length of twisted-pair cable. Multiple switches are often
interconnected to create larger networks.

A 32-PORT ETHERNET SWITCH

Routers

A networking device that connects multiple networks that use the same protocol. They route data
around network. Routers sends data between networks by examining the network addresses
contained in the packets they are processing. Routers are the smartest and most complicated of
the bunch. They make intelligent decisions on how to route traffic. Routers connects a LAN to a
WAN or a WAN to a WAN. Routers divides networks based on network addresses.

A ROUTER WITH TWO LAN PORTS AND TWO WAN PORTS

Some Definitions

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 Network software controls the traffic flow of data travelling through the network.

 Stand-alone computer is a personal computer not connected to any network.

 Workstation is a personal computer connected to the network.

 Signal: this is an electromagnetic communication that is being transmitted across a

network media.

 Noise: this is an electromagnetic interference that disrupts signals. It slows a network

performance and reduces its reliability.

 Attenuation: this is the degradation or reduction of signals as it travels across the network
medium. It is usually caused by the accumulation of noise or fading strength of the
signal.

 Protocol: The protocol defines a common set of rules and signals that computers on the
network use to communicate.

 Data transfer rate (DTR): this is the amount of digital data being transmitted from one
place to the other at a given time. It is also known as bandwidth. It is expressed in bit per
seconds (bps).

 A MAC address is a unique number that is stamped into every NIC (Network interface
Card). It helps in forwarding data only to the system to which the data is addressed and as
such decreases the amount of traffic on each network link dramatically. MAC (Media
Access Control) addresses are the means by which systems communicate at base level.

 Firewalls are essential part of a network today. A firewall is a networking device, either
hardware or software based, that controls access to your organization’s network.

 Wiring Closet: a small room in which patch panels are installed. Drop cables radiate out
from the wiring closet to the components on the network.

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A Wiring Closet

 Drop Cable: The wire that runs to a PC, printer or other device connected to the network.

 Premise Wiring: are the cables, connectors and connection points that make a network
functional.

A Premise Wiring

• Patch Panel: a connection point for drop and patch cables. Typically, a patch panel has
one or more rows of RJ-45 or other connectors. Drop cables are connected to the
connectors.

• Patch Cable: a cable that is plugged into the patch panel to connect two drops. It might or
might not be a crossover cable, one in which the transmit conductors at one end is
connected to the receive conductor at the other.

Patch Panel with Patch Cables

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 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER PROGRAMMING

Programming is the act of communicating instructions to the computer in a way the computer
can understand. Before instructions to compute the solution to a problem can be communicated
to the computer, an algorithm for solving that problem must be discovered first.
Algorithms are one of the four cornerstones of Computer Science. An algorithm is a plan, a set
of step-by-step instructions to solve a problem. If you can tie shoelaces, make a cup of tea, get
dressed or prepare a meal then you already know how to follow an algorithm. In an algorithm,
each instruction is identified and the order in which they should be carried out is planned.
Algorithms are often used as a starting point for creating a computer program, and they are
sometimes written as a flowchart or in pseudo code. If we want to tell a computer to do
something, we have to write a computer program that will tell the computer, step-by-step,
exactly what we want it to do and how we want it to do it. This step-by-step program will need
planning, and to do this we use an algorithm.
Computers are only as good as the algorithms they are given. If you give a computer a poor
algorithm, you will get a poor result – hence the phrase: ‘Garbage in, garbage out.’ Algorithms
are used for many different things including calculations, data processing and automation. It is
important to plan out the solution to a problem to make sure that it will be correct. An algorithm
must be clear. It must have a starting point, a finishing point and a set of clear instructions in
between.
Flowcharts are simply pictorial representations of algorithms. Fig. below is a chart showing
some flowchart symbols, their names and their functions.

Fig. 4: Flowchart symbols (Image source: https://howtrending.com)

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Ex 1: Write an algorithm that will find the sum of even numbers between 1 and 50

STEP 1: START THE ALGORITHM THAT WILL FIND AREA AND PERIMETER OF A
RECTANGLE

STEP 2: WRITE IN THE LENGTH OF THE RECTANGLE

STEP 3: WRITE IN THE BREADTH OF THE RECTANGLE

STEP 4: FIND THE AREA OF A RECTANGLE

STEP 5: FIND THE PERIMETER OF THE RECTANGLE

STEP 6: DISPLAY THE AREA OF THE RECTANGLE

STEP 7: DISPLAY THE VALUE OF THE PERIMETER

STEP 8: END THE ALGORITHM

Ex. 2: Draw a flowchart to calculate the area and perimeter of a rectangle.

START

LET LENGHT = L

LET BREADTH= B

AREA =L XB

PERIMETER= 2L X2B

PRINT PERIMETER

PRINT AVERAGE

END

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Quiz: Write an algorithm and draw a flow chart to find the sum of even numbers between 1 and
500.

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