Principles of

Vibration Analysis
with Applications in
Automotive Engineering

VibrationAnalysis_txt.indb i 11/24/10 11:43:29 AM

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 Principles of
Vibration Analysis
with Applications in
Automotive Engineering

C. Q. Liu and
Ronald L. Huston

Warrendale, Pennsylvania
USA

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 400 Commonwealth Drive
Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 USA

E-mail: CustomerService@sae.org
Phone: 877-606-7323 (inside USA and Canada)
724-776-4970 (outside USA)
Fax: 724-776-1615

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ISBN 978-0-7680-3339-7
Library of Congress Catalog Number 2010940965
SAE Order No. R-395

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iv

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 Contents
Preface xiii

Chapter One Introduction 1

1.1 What Is Vibration? 1
1.2 Classification of Vibration Studies 2
(1) Vibration Analysis 2
(2) System Design 2
(3) Input Evaluation 2
(4) System Identification 2
1.3 Classification of Vibration 3
(1) Classification Based on Input 3
(2) Classification Based on Output 4
(3) Classification Based on the Degrees of Freedom
of the System 7
(4) Classification Based on Differential Equation
of Motion of the System 7
1.4 Harmonic Vibration 8
1.5 Harmonic Analysis 10
Problems 16
References 18

Chapter Two Vibration of a Single-Degree-of-Freedom System 21

2.1 Introduction: Modeling 21
2.2 Free Vibration of a Single-Degree-of-Freedom System 24
(1) Governing Differential Equation of Motion 24
(2) Equivalent Spring Stiffness 28
2.3 The Energy Method 33
(1) The Law of Conservation of Energy 33
(2) The Rayleigh Method 34
2.4 Effective Mass 40
2.5 Damped Free Vibration of a Single-Degree-of-Freedom System 41
(1) Damping Forces 41
(2) Differential Equation of Motion 41
(3) Discussion of the Solution 43
Problems 50
References 53
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 Chapter Three Harmonically Excited Motion 55
3.1 Introduction 55
3.2 Forced Harmonic Vibration of Damped Systems 55
3.3 Forced Harmonic Vibration of Undamped Systems 63
(1) Beating 64
(2) Resonance 66
3.4 Forced Vibration Caused by Rotating Unbalance 67
3.5 Forced Vibration Caused by Support Motion 69
3.6 Vibration Isolation 72
(1) Isolation of the Machine from the Foundation 73
(2) Isolation of the Foundation from the Machine 73
3.7 Damping 76
(1) Energy Dissipation Due to a Viscous Damping Force 76
(2) Structural (Hysteretic) Damping 78
(3) Complex Stiffness and Lost Factor 79
(4) Sharpness of Resonance 80
3.8 Forced Vibration Under Periodic Excitation 81
3.9 Response to Arbitrary Excitation 82
Problems 87
References 92

Chapter Four Balancing of Rotors 93

4.1 Unbalance 93
(1) Static Unbalance 93
(2) Dynamic Unbalance 94
4.2 Whirling of Rotating Shaft 95
4.3 Experimental Balancing 98
(1) The Influence Coefficient Method: Single-Plane Balancing 98
(2) The Influence Coefficient Method: Two-Plane Balancing 100
4.4 Inertia Forces in a Single-Cylinder Engine 104
4.5 Inertia Forces and Couples of Multicylinder Engines 110
4.6 Balancing of Crankshafts 120
Problems 126
References 133

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 Chapter Five Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Systems 137
5.1 Introduction 137
5.2 Two-Degree-of-Freedom Systems 137
(1) Equations of Motion 137
(2) Characteristic Equation and Natural Frequency 138
(3) Mode Shapes 138
5.3 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 140
5.4 Orthogonal Properties of the Modal Vectors 143
5.5 Zero Eigenvalues and Repeated Roots 146
(1) Zero Eigenvalues 146
(2) Repeated Roots 147
5.6 Response of a System to Initial Conditions 150
5.7 Coordinate Coupling 152
5.8 Undamped Systems and Coordinate Decoupling 155
(1) Forced Response and Coordinate Decoupling 155
(2) Initial Value Problem and Coordinate Decoupling 157
5.9 Damped Systems and Coordinate Decoupling 159
(1) Coordinate Decoupling with Forced Response 159
(2) Coordinate Decoupling with Initial Value Problems 162
5.10 Lagrange’s Equations 164
(1) Generalized Coordinates and Virtual Displacements 165
(2) Virtual Work and Generalized Forces 165
(3) Lagrange’s Equations 166
5.11 Kane’s Equations 169
(1) Partial Velocities and Partial Angular Velocities 170
(2) Inertia Forces 170
(3) Generalized Applied Forces 172
(4) Kane’s Equations 172
Problems 174
References 177

Chapter Six Numerical Methods 179

6.1 Introduction 179
6.2 Various Eigenvalue Analyses 179
(1) The Generalized Eigenvalue Problem 179
(2) The Algebraic Eigenvalue Problem 180

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 (3) The Symmetric Eigenvalue Problem 180
(4) The Standard Eigenvalue Problem in State Space 183
(5) The Generalized Eigenvalue Problem in State Space 185
6.3 Numerical Evaluation of the Time Response 197
Problems 210
References 214

Chapter Seven Transfer Functions and Frequency

Response Functions 217
7.1 Introduction 217
7.2 The Laplace Transformation and Fourier Transformation 217
(1) The Laplace Transform 217
(2) The Fourier Transform 219
7.3 Laplace Domain: Transfer Function 220
7.4 Frequency Domain: Frequency Response Function 223
(1) Receptance (or Admittance, or Dynamic Compliance) 223
(2) Mobility 223
(3) Accelerance (or Inertance) 223
(4) The Bode Diagrams 226
(5) The Nyquist Diagrams 228
7.5 Time Domain: Impulse Response Function 230
7.6 FRFs of Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Systems 234
(1) Laplace Domain: Transfer Function Matrix 235
(2) Frequency Domain: Frequency Response Function Matrix 238
(3) Time Domain: Impulse Response Functions 241
7.7 Determination of Residues and Poles in State Space 248
Problems 254
References 257

Chapter Eight Lumped Parameter Systems 259

8.1 Introduction 259
8.2 The Flexibility and Stiffness Matrices 259
8.3 Maxwell’s Reciprocity Theorem 261
8.4 Eigenvalue Analysis 265
8.5 Dunkerley’s Equation 269
8.6 Rayleigh Principle 271
8.7 Method of Matrix Iteration 274
8.8 Determining of Higher-Order Modes and Frequencies 277

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 8.9 Transfer Matrix Method 279
(1) A Spring-Mass System 280
(2) Torsional Systems 286
(3) A Geared System 289
(4) Branched Systems 290
8.10 Beams Modeled as Lumped Masses 292
(1) Flexural Vibration 292
(2) Rotating Beams 301
Problems 304
References 308

Chapter Nine Continuous Systems 309

9.1 Introduction 309
9.2 Lateral Vibration of a String 310
(1) d’Alembert’s Solution 310
(2) Separation of Variables 312
9.3 Longitudinal Vibration of Rods 315
9.4 Torsional Vibration of Rods 320
9.5. Lateral Vibration of Beams 323
9.6 Orthogonal Relations 331
9.7 Effects of Rotary Inertia, Shear, and Axial Loading 336
(1) The Effect of Rotary Inertia and Shearing Deformation 336
(2) The Effect of Axial Force on Lateral Vibration 339
9.8 Forced Vibration 340
9.9 Ritz Method 344
Problems 348
References 351

Chapter Ten Engine Mounting Systems 353

10.1 Introduction 353
10.2 Inertia Properties of an Engine 354
(1) Reference Frame and Direction Cosines 358
(2) Inertia Matrix 358
(3) Mass Center 361
10.3 Orientation Angles and Transformation Matrix 363
10.4 Equations of Motion 372
(1) Forces and Torques Produced by an Engine Mount
due to Translational Motion of the Engine 374

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 (2) Forces and Torques Produced by an Engine Mount
due to Rotational Motion of the Engine 376
10.5 Mode Shapes and Natural Frequencies 379
10.6 Decoupling and Optimization 382
(1) Two-Degree-of-Freedom Coupled System 384
(2) Three-Degree-of-Freedom Coupled System 387
(3) Optimization 389
10.7 Torque Roll Axis (TRA) 395
10.8 Torque Roll Axis (TRA) Mode Decoupling 397
Problems 398
References 402

Chapter Eleven Experimental Modal Analysis 405

11.1 Introduction 405
11.2 Modal Analysis Theory 406
11.3 The Complex Exponential Algorithm 408
11.4 The Least-Squares Complex Exponential Method 412
11.5 The Polyreference Time Domain Method 412
11.6 The Ibrahim Time Domain Method 419
11.7 The Eigensystem Realization Algorithm 422
11.8 Estimation of Modal Vectors 426
11.9 Estimation of Frequency Response Functions 428
(1) Ĥ1 Estimator of FRF 430
(2) Ĥ2 Estimator of FRF 431
(3) Ĥv Estimator of FRF 432
11.10 Coherence Function 433
(1) Ordinary Coherence Function 433
(2) Multiple Coherence Function 434
(3) Partial Coherence Function 435
11.11 Discrete Fourier Transfer (DFT)
and Fast Fourier Transfer (FFT) 436
(1) Aliasing 438
(2) Leakage 438
11.12 Window Functions 440
11.13 Averaging 442
(1) Linear Average 443
(2) Stable Average 443

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 11.14 Overlapping Signal Analysis 443
11.15 Modal Data Acquisition 444
(1) Test Structure 445
(2) Exciter 447
(3) Data Acquisition System 451
(4) Analyzer 453
11.16 Operational Modal Analysis 453
(1) Stochastic Subspace Identification Method 454
(2) The Natural Excitation Technique (NExT) 457
11.17 Running Modes Analysis 458
Problems 460
References 463

Chapter Twelve Special Topics 467

12.1 Introduction 467
12.2 Complex Structure Analysis Using the FRFs of Substructures 467
(1) Equations of Motion 468
(2) Solution Method 469
12.3 Translational Vibration Absorber 475
(1) Absorber Tuning Based on the Primary System FRF 476
(2) Special Cases: A Single-Degree-of-Freedom System 480
12.4 Torsional Vibration Absorber 486
12.5 Experimental Measurement of the Torsional FRF 487
12.6 HYFEX Method 488
12.7 Sensitivity Analysis 495
(1) Eigenvalue Derivatives 496
(2) Eigenvector Derivatives 497
References 503

Appendix A 507

Appendix B 509

Appendix C 513

Notation 519

Index 537

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VibrationAnalysis_txt.indb xii 11/24/10 11:43:34 AM
 Preface
Over the years there have been many outstanding books written on
vibrations, including textbooks, books on analysis and design, and theoretical
treatises. Why then should there be another, and, specifically, why this book?
There are several reasons: First, vibrations, as with all science and engineering
subjects, is continually evolving. As new discoveries and new analyses and
new experimental procedures are developed, there is an ongoing need to
document these advances.
Next, with the evolution in the subject, many of the older procedures
become obsolete. Traditional topical emphases become less important, and
are superseded by advances in computational and measurement methods.
Consequently, new topical emphases are emerging. There is a need to
document these new methods for students and for practicing engineers.
Finally, it is always helpful to have a state-of-the-art treatise on fundamentals
enabling future research and application.
We wrote this book attempting to satisfy each of these needs. The book
summarizes basic concepts and established analytical methodologies.
We then illustrate these ideas and procedures via worked-out examples.
Numerous examples using Matlab are presented throughout the text. The
various chapters contain problems (with answers) for readers studying the
subject for the first time, and for those seeking additional expertise and/
or review. In the later chapters, we illustrate application in automotive
engineering with a focus upon engine balancing and engine mounting
systems. Finally, the book is intended to be a quick reference for current
(circa 2010) modeling and analysis methods.
The book is divided into twelve chapters, with the first of these providing an
introduction to vibration terminology. In the second chapter we review the
fundamentals of single-degree-of-freedom systems, and in the third chapter
we consider harmonically excited motion.
The fourth chapter applies these concepts with rotors, outlining balancing
methods.
In the fifth chapter we study multi-degree-of-freedom systems, and then we
devote a chapter to numerical methods. In the seventh chapter we introduce
the concept of transfer functions and frequency response functions together
with a detailed discussion about these functions.
Chapter eight explores lumped parameter modeling and chapter nine follows
with analyses of continuous systems.
Chapter ten provides an extensive exposition of engine mounting systems.

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 Chapter eleven summarizes experimental modal analysis methods, including
the basic theory and an account of signal processing and test procedures.
In the final chapter, we conclude with some special topics, such as the
frequency response function (FRF)-based substructure method, the hybrid
finite element and experimental (HYFEX) method, system sensitivity
analysis, and vibration absorber tuning.
Prior to writing this book we were fortunate to have studied under
and been associated with academicians and engineers in industry who
have significantly advanced the state of the art through their research,
development, application, and exposition of both theoretical and
experimental breakthroughs. We are particularly appreciative of the
inspiration provided by the innovations of faculty (David L. Brown and
Randall J. Allemang) and students at the Structural Dynamics Research
Laboratory (SDRL) at the University of Cincinnati, and of engineers in local
industries, and particularly in the automotive industry. We have relied heavily
upon these sources for our exposition.
We have also, of course, relied upon many others, as cited in the references
and permissions. We have attempted to acknowledge all sources, but
undoubtedly have missed many which should have been cited. We apologize
for any such omissions.
A number of the examples in this book have originated with the references
listed in the chapters. Although we attempt to acknowledge these sources, the
examples are not direct quotations. Instead they are usually done differently
and often more extensively than in the quoted sources.
We appreciate the assistance of Charlotte Better in preparing the manuscript.
We also appreciate the assistance of Aaron Lock in preparing the artwork for
this book.
Finally, we are grateful to the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) for their
interest and their acceptance of our work.
C. Q. Liu
Ronald L. Huston

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