Kotlin Reference
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StarKotlin Reference
Uploaded by
StarKotlin
Language Documentation 1.5.21
Table of Contents
Kotlin docs 42
Get started with Kotlin 43
Learn Kotlin fundamentals 43
Create your powerful application with Kotlin 43
Is anything missing? 48
Multiplatform programming 48
Use cases 52
What's next? 53
Sample projects 53
Kotlin for server side 54
Frameworks for server-side development with Kotlin 54
Deploying Kotlin server-side applications 55
Users of Kotlin on the server side 55
Next steps 55
Kotlin for Android 55
Kotlin for JavaScript 56
Use cases for Kotlin/JS 56
Kotlin/JS frameworks 58
Kotlin/JS, Today and Tomorrow 59
Get started with Kotlin/JS 59
Hands-on labs for Kotlin/JS 59
New Kotlin/JS IR compiler 60
Join the Kotlin/JS community 60
Kotlin Native 60
Why Kotlin/Native? 60
Target platforms 61
2
Interoperability 61
Sharing code between platforms 61
How to start 62
Sample projects 62
Kotlin for data science 63
Interactive editors 63
Libraries 65
Kotlin for competitive programming 66
Simple example: Reachable Numbers problem 67
Functional operators example: Long Number problem 68
More tips and tricks 69
Learning Kotlin 70
What's new in Kotlin 1.5.20 70
Kotlin/JVM 71
Kotlin/Native 73
Kotlin/JS 74
Gradle 75
Standard library 75
What's new in Kotlin 1.5.0 76
Language features 77
Kotlin/JVM 80
Kotlin/Native 83
Kotlin/JS 84
Kotlin Multiplatform 85
Standard library 85
kotlin-test library 91
kotlinx libraries 94
Migrating to Kotlin 1.5.0 96
3
What's new in Kotlin 1.4.30 97
Language features 97
Kotlin/JVM 100
Kotlin/Native 101
Kotlin/JS 102
Gradle project improvements 102
Standard library 102
Serialization updates 104
What's new in Kotlin 1.4.20 105
Kotlin/JVM 105
Kotlin/JS 106
Kotlin/Native 109
Kotlin Multiplatform 111
Standard library 112
Kotlin Android Extensions 113
What's new in Kotlin 1.4 113
Language features and improvements 114
New tools in the IDE 119
New compiler 122
Kotlin/JVM 125
Kotlin/JS 127
Kotlin/Native 128
Kotlin Multiplatform 131
Gradle project improvements 136
Standard library 138
Stable JSON serialization 146
Scripting and REPL 146
Migrating to Kotlin 1.4.0 147
What's new in Kotlin 1.3 148
4
Coroutines release 148
Kotlin/Native 149
Multiplatform projects 149
Contracts 149
Capturing when subject in a variable 151
@JvmStatic and @JvmField in companions of interfaces 151
Nested declarations in annotation classes 152
Parameterless main 152
Functions with big arity 152
Progressive mode 153
Inline classes 153
Unsigned integers 154
@JvmDefault 155
Standard library 155
Tooling 157
What's new in Kotlin 1.2 158
Table of contents 158
Multiplatform projects (experimental) 159
Other language features 160
Standard library 163
JVM backend 166
JavaScript backend 167
Tools 167
What's new in Kotlin 1.1 167
Table of contents 168
JavaScript 168
Coroutines (experimental) 168
Other language features 169
Standard library 175
5
JVM Backend 179
JavaScript backend 180
What's new in Kotlin plugin 2021.1 181
Performance improvements 182
Evaluation of custom getters during debugging 182
Improved Change Signature refactoring 183
Code completion for type arguments 184
UML diagrams for Kotlin classes 184
Other platform enhancements 185
What's new in Kotlin plugin 2020.3 186
New types of inline refactorings 186
Structural search and replace 186
EditorConfig support 186
Project templates for Jetpack Compose for Desktop 186
Basic syntax 187
Package definition and imports 187
Program entry point 188
Print to the standard output 188
Functions 188
Variables 190
Creating classes and instances 190
Comments 191
String templates 192
Conditional expressions 192
for loop 192
while loop 193
when expression 193
Ranges 194
Collections 195
6
Nullable values and null checks 196
Type checks and automatic casts 197
Idioms 198
Create DTOs (POJOs/POCOs) 199
Default values for function parameters 199
Filter a list 199
Check the presence of an element in a collection 199
String interpolation 199
Instance checks 200
Read-only list 200
Read-only map 200
Access a map entry 200
Traverse a map or a list of pairs 200
Iterate over a range 200
Lazy property 201
Extension functions 201
Create a singleton 201
Instantiate an abstract class 201
If-not-null shorthand 202
If-not-null-else shorthand 202
Execute a statement if null 202
Get first item of a possibly empty collection 202
Execute if not null 202
Map nullable value if not null 202
Return on when statement 203
try-catch expression 203
if expression 203
Builder-style usage of methods that return Unit 203
Single-expression functions 203
7
Call multiple methods on an object instance (with) 204
Configure properties of an object (apply) 204
Java 7's try-with-resources 205
Generic function that requires the generic type information 205
Nullable Boolean 205
Swap two variables 205
Mark code as incomplete (TODO) 205
What’s next? 206
Coding conventions 206
Configure style in IDE 206
Source code organization 206
Naming rules 208
Formatting 210
Documentation comments 220
Avoid redundant constructs 221
Idiomatic use of language features 221
Coding conventions for libraries 226
Basic types 227
Numbers 227
Booleans 234
Characters 234
Strings 235
Arrays 237
Type checks and casts 238
is and !is operators 238
Smart casts 239
"Unsafe" cast operator 240
"Safe" (nullable) cast operator 240
Type erasure and generic type checks 240
8
Unchecked casts 241
Conditions and loops 242
If expression 242
When expression 243
For loops 245
While loops 246
Break and continue in loops 246
Returns and jumps 246
Break and continue labels 247
Return at labels 247
Exceptions 249
Exception classes 249
Checked exceptions 250
The Nothing type 251
Java interoperability 251
Packages and imports 251
Default imports 252
Imports 252
Visibility of top-level declarations 253
Classes 253
Constructors 253
Creating instances of classes 256
Class members 257
Inheritance 257
Abstract classes 257
Companion objects 257
Inheritance 257
Overriding methods 258
9
Overriding properties 259
Derived class initialization order 259
Calling the superclass implementation 260
Overriding rules 261
Properties 262
Declaring properties 262
Getters and setters 262
Compile-time constants 264
Late-initialized properties and variables 265
Overriding properties 266
Delegated properties 266
Interfaces 266
Implementing interfaces 266
Properties in interfaces 266
Interfaces Inheritance 267
Resolving overriding conflicts 267
Functional (SAM) interfaces 268
SAM conversions 268
Functional interfaces vs. type aliases 269
Visibility modifiers 270
Packages 270
Classes and interfaces 271
Modules 272
Extensions 272
Extension functions 273
Extensions are resolved statically 273
Nullable receiver 274
Extension properties 275
10
Companion object extensions 275
Scope of extensions 275
Declaring extensions as members 276
Note on visibility 277
Data classes 278
Properties declared in the class body 279
Copying 279
Data classes and destructuring declarations 280
Standard data classes 280
Sealed classes 280
Location of direct subclasses 281
Sealed classes and when expression 281
Generics: in, out, where 282
Variance 282
Type projections 285
Generic functions 287
Generic constraints 287
Type erasure 288
Nested and inner classes 288
Inner classes 289
Anonymous inner classes 289
Enum classes 290
Anonymous classes 290
Implementing interfaces in enum classes 291
Working with enum constants 291
Inline classes 292
Members 293
Inheritance 293
11
Representation 294
Inline classes vs type aliases 295
Object expressions and declarations 296
Object expressions 296
Object declarations 298
Delegation 300
Overriding a member of an interface implemented by delegation 301
Delegated properties 302
Standard delegates 303
Delegating to another property 304
Storing properties in a map 305
Local delegated properties 306
Property delegate requirements 306
Type aliases 310
Functions 311
Function usage 311
Function scope 316
Generic functions 317
Tail recursive functions 317
High-order functions and lambdas 318
Higher-order functions 318
Function types 320
Lambda expressions and anonymous functions 322
Inline functions 326
noinline 327
Non-local returns 327
Reified type parameters 328
12
Inline properties 329
Restrictions for public API inline functions 330
Null safety 330
Nullable types and non-null types 330
Checking for null in conditions 331
Safe calls 332
Elvis operator 333
The !! operator 333
Safe casts 333
Collections of a nullable type 334
Equality 334
Structural equality 334
Referential equality 334
Floating-point numbers equality 335
This expressions 335
Qualified this 335
Implicit this 336
Coroutines 336
How to start 336
Sample projects 337
Type-safe builders 337
How it works 338
Scope control: @DslMarker 340
Full definition of the com.example.html package 341
Operator overloading 343
Unary operations 344
Binary operations 345
Infix calls for named functions 348
13
Annotations 349
Usage 349
Constructors 350
Lambdas 351
Annotation use-site targets 351
Java annotations 352
Destructuring declarations 354
Example: returning two values from a function 355
Example: destructuring declarations and maps 355
Underscore for unused variables 355
Destructuring in lambdas 356
Reflection 356
JVM dependency 357
Class references 357
Callable references 358
Kotlin Multiplatform 363
Tutorials 365
Create a multiplatform library 365
What's next? 368
Discover your project 368
Multiplatform plugin 369
Targets 369
Source sets 370
Compilations 372
Share code on platforms 373
Share code on all platforms 373
Share code on similar platforms 374
14
Connect to platform-specific APIs 381
Rules for expected and actual declarations 382
Set up targets manually 383
Distinguish several targets for one platform 384
Add dependencies 384
Dependency on the standard library 385
Set dependencies on test libraries 385
Set a dependency on a kotlinx library 385
Configure compilations 387
Configure all compilations 388
Configure compilations for one target 388
Configure one compilation 389
Create a custom compilation 389
Include Java sources in JVM compilations 391
Configure interop with native languages 392
Compilation for Android 394
Compilation of the source set hierarchy 395
Run tests 396
Required dependencies 396
Run tests for one or more targets 396
Test shared code 396
Publish a multiplatform library 397
Structure of publications 398
Avoid duplicate publications 398
Publish an Android library 399
Create and publish a multiplatform library – tutorial 401
Set up the environment 401
Create a project 401
15
Write cross-platform code 403
Provide platform-specific implementations 404
Test your library 406
Publish your library to the local Maven repository 408
Add a dependency on the published library 409
Summary 409
What’s next? 410
Build final native binaries 410
Declare binaries 410
Access binaries 412
Export dependencies to binaries 414
Build universal frameworks 416
Supported platforms 417
Multiplatform Gradle DSL reference 418
Id and version 418
Top-level blocks 419
Targets 419
Source sets 428
Compilations 430
Dependencies 434
Language settings 435
Migrating multiplatform projects to Kotlin 1.4.0 436
For multiplatform project authors 436
For library authors 438
For build authors 440
For using the Kotlin/JS target 440
Tutorials for Kotlin Multiplatform 441
Get started with Kotlin/JVM 442
16
Create an application 442
Run the application 445
What's next? 446
Test code using JUnit in JVM – tutorial 446
Add dependencies 447
Add the code to test it 448
Create a test 448
Run a test 449
What's next 451
Create a RESTful web service with Spring Boot – tutorial 451
Bootstrap the project 452
Explore the project build file 453
Explore the Spring Boot application 454
Create a data class and a controller 454
Run the application 455
Proceed to the next tutorial 457
Add a database to a Spring Boot RESTful web service – tutorial 457
Add database support 458
Configure the database 459
Run the application 460
What's next? 463
Records 463
Using Java records from Kotlin code 463
Declare records in Kotlin 464
Further discussion 465
Calling Java from Kotlin 465
Getters and setters 465
Methods returning void 466
17
Escaping for Java identifiers that are keywords in Kotlin 466
Null-safety and platform types 466
Mapped types 473
Java generics in Kotlin 475
Java arrays 476
Java varargs 477
Operators 477
Checked exceptions 477
Object methods 477
Inheritance from Java classes 478
Accessing static members 478
Java reflection 479
SAM conversions 479
Using JNI with Kotlin 480
Using Lombok-generated declarations in Kotlin 480
Calling Kotlin from Java 480
Properties 480
Package-level functions 481
Instance fields 482
Static fields 483
Static methods 484
Default methods in interfaces 485
Visibility 487
KClass 487
Handling signature clashes with @JvmName 487
Overloads generation 488
Checked exceptions 489
Null-safety 489
Variant generics 490
18
Mixing Java and Kotlin in one project – tutorial 491
Adding Java source code to an existing Kotlin project 491
Adding Kotlin source code to an existing Java project 493
Converting an existing Java file to Kotlin with J2K 494
Comparison to Java 495
Some Java issues addressed in Kotlin 495
What Java has that Kotlin does not 496
What Kotlin has that Java does not 496
What’s next? 497
Migrating from Java to Kotlin: Strings 497
Concatenate strings 497
Build a string 498
Create a string from collection items 498
Set default value if the string is blank 499
Replace characters at the beginning and end of a string 499
Replace occurrences 500
Split a string 500
Take a substring 501
Use multiline strings 502
What’s next? 503
Get started with Kotlin/JS for React 503
Create an application 503
Run the application 505
Update the application 505
What's next? 509
Set up a Kotlin/JS project 510
Execution environments 512
Dependencies 512
19
run task 515
test task 515
webpack bundling 517
CSS 518
Yarn 519
Distribution target directory 520
Module name 520
package.json customization 521
Troubleshooting 521
Run Kotlin/JS 521
Run the Node.js target 522
Run the browser target 523
Development server and continuous compilation 524
Debug Kotlin/JS in the browser 527
Run tests in Kotlin/JS 529
Kotlin/JS dead code elimination 532
Exclude declarations from DCE 533
Disable DCE 533
Kotlin/JS IR compiler 534
Ignoring compilation errors 534
Lazy initialization of top-level properties 535
Preview: generation of TypeScript declaration files (d.ts) 536
Current limitations of the IR compiler 536
Migrating existing projects to the IR compiler 537
Authoring libraries for the IR compiler with backwards compatibility 537
Migrating Kotlin/JS projects to the IR compiler 538
Convert JS- and React-related classes and interfaces to external interfaces 538
20
Convert properties of external interfaces to var 539
Make boolean properties nullable in external interfaces 539
Convert functions with receivers in external interfaces to regular functions 540
Create plain JS objects for interoperability 540
Replace toString() calls on function references with .name 541
Browser and DOM API 541
Interaction with the DOM 542
Use JavaScript code from Kotlin 542
Inline JavaScript 543
external modifier 543
Dynamic type 546
Use dependencies from npm 548
Use Kotlin code from JavaScript 549
Isolating declarations in a separate JavaScript object in plain mode 549
Package structure 549
Kotlin types in JavaScript 551
JavaScript modules 552
Browser targets 552
JavaScript libraries and Node.js files 553
@JsModule annotation 554
Kotlin/JS reflection 556
Class references 556
KType and typeOf() 556
Example 557
Typesafe HTML DSL 557
Generation of external declarations with Dukat 559
Generate external declarations at build time 559
21
Manually generate external declarations via Gradle task 560
Hands-on labs for Kotlin/JS 560
Get started with Kotlin/Native in IntelliJ IDEA 560
Create a new Kotlin/Native project in IntelliJ IDEA 560
Run the application 562
Update the application 563
What's next? 565
Get started with Kotlin/Native using Gradle 566
Create project files 566
Build the project 568
Open the project in an IDE 568
What's next? 568
Get started with Kotlin/Native using the command-line compiler 568
Obtain the compiler 568
Write "Hello Kotlin/Native" program 568
Compile the code from the console 569
Concurrency in Kotlin/Native 569
Workers 569
Object subgraph detachment 571
Raw shared memory 571
Atomic primitives and references 572
Immutability in Kotlin/Native 573
Kotlin/Native libraries 574
Kotlin compiler specifics 574
cinterop tool specifics 574
klib utility 574
Several examples 575
22
Advanced topics 576
Platform libraries 577
POSIX bindings 577
Popular native libraries 577
Availability by default 577
Examples 578
Kotlin/Native as a dynamic library – tutorial 578
Create a Kotlin library 578
Generated headers file 581
Use generated headers from C 585
Compile and run the example on Linux and macOS 586
Compile and run the example on Windows 586
Next steps 587
Interoperability with C 587
Platform libraries 587
Simple example 587
Create bindings for a new library 588
Bindings 590
Mapping primitive data types from C – tutorial 597
Types in C language 597
Example C library 597
Inspect generated Kotlin APIs for a C library 598
Primitive types in kotlin 600
Fix the code 601
Next steps 602
Mapping struct and union types from C – tutorial 602
Mapping struct and union C types 602
Inspect Generated Kotlin APIs for a C library 603
23
Primitive types in Kotlin 605
Use struct and union types from Kotlin 606
Run the code 608
Next steps 609
Mapping function pointers from C – tutorial 609
Mapping function pointer types from C 609
Inspect generated Kotlin APIs for a C library 610
C function pointers in Kotlin 612
Pass Kotlin function as C function pointer 613
Use the C function pointer from Kotlin 613
Fix the code 613
Next Steps 614
Mapping Strings from C – tutorial 614
Working with C strings 614
Inspect generated Kotlin APIs for a C library 615
Primitive types in Kotlin 617
Pass Kotlin string to C 618
Read C Strings in Kotlin 618
Receive C string bytes from Kotlin 619
Fix the Code 619
Next steps 620
Using C Interop and libcurl for an app – tutorial 620
Generate bindings 620
Consume the Kotlin API 623
Compile and link the library 624
Interoperability with Swift/Objective-C 625
Usage 625
Mappings 626
24
Casting between mapped types 632
Subclassing 632
C features 633
Unsupported 633
CocoaPods integration 633
Install the CocoaPods dependency manager and plugin 633
Add dependencies on Pod libraries 634
Use a Kotlin Gradle project as a CocoaPods dependency 644
Kotlin/Native as an Apple framework – tutorial 646
Create a Kotlin library 646
Generated framework headers 649
Garbage collection and reference counting 653
Use the code from Objective-C 653
Use the code from Swift 653
Xcode and framework dependencies 654
Next steps 655
Debugging Kotlin/Native 655
Produce binaries with debug info with Kotlin/Native compiler 655
Breakpoints 656
Stepping 657
Variable inspection 657
Known issues 659
Symbolicating iOS crash reports 659
Producing .dSYM for release Kotlin binaries 659
Make frameworks static when using rebuild from bitcode 660
Decode inlined stack frames 661
Tips for improving Kotlin/Native compilation times 661
General recommendations 661
25
Gradle configuration 662
Kotlin/Native FAQ 663
How do I run my program? 663
What is Kotlin/Native memory management model? 663
How do I create a shared library? 663
How do I create a static library or an object file? 664
How do I run Kotlin/Native behind a corporate proxy? 664
How do I specify a custom Objective-C prefix/name for my Kotlin framework? 664
How do I rename the iOS framework? 665
How do I enable bitcode for my Kotlin framework? 665
Why do I see InvalidMutabilityException? 665
How do I make a singleton object mutable? 666
How can I compile my project with unreleased versions of Kotlin/Native? 666
Kotlin releases 666
Update to a new release 666
IDE support 667
Release details 667
Kotlin plugin releases 673
Update to a new release 673
Release details 674
Kotlin roadmap 674
Key priorities 675
Kotlin roadmap by subsystem 675
What's changed since January 2021 679
Collections overview 681
Collection types 681
Constructing collections 687
Construct from elements 687
26
Empty collections 687
Initializer functions for lists 687
Concrete type constructors 688
Copy 688
Invoke functions on other collections 689
Iterators 690
List iterators 691
Mutable iterators 692
Ranges and progressions 692
Range 693
Progression 694
Sequences 695
Construct 696
Sequence operations 697
Sequence processing example 698
Collection operations overview 699
Extension and member functions 700
Common operations 700
Write operations 701
Collection transformation operations 702
Map 702
Zip 703
Associate 704
Flatten 705
String representation 706
Filtering collections 707
Filter by predicate 707
Partition 709
27
Test predicates 709
Plus and minus operators 710
Grouping 710
Retrieve collection parts 711
Slice 711
Take and drop 712
Chunked 713
Windowed 713
Retrieve single elements 714
Retrieve by position 715
Retrieve by condition 716
Retrieve with selector 716
Random element 717
Check element existence 717
Ordering 718
Natural order 719
Custom orders 720
Reverse order 720
Random order 721
Aggregate operations 721
Fold and reduce 723
Collection write operations 725
Adding elements 725
Removing elements 726
Updating elements 727
List-specific operations 727
Retrieve elements by index 727
28
Retrieve list parts 728
Find element positions 728
List write operations 730
Set-specific operations 733
Map-specific operations 733
Retrieve keys and values 733
Filter 734
Plus and minus operators 735
Map write operations 735
Scope functions 738
Function selection 739
Distinctions 740
Functions 743
takeIf and takeUnless 747
Opt-in requirements 748
Opt in to using API 749
Require opt-in for API 752
Opt-in requirements for pre-stable APIs 753
Experimental status of the opt-in requirements 753
Coroutines guide 753
Table of contents 754
Additional references 754
Asynchronous programming techniques 755
Threading 755
Callbacks 756
Futures, promises, and others 756
Reactive extensions 757
Coroutines 757
29
Coroutines basics 758
Your first coroutine 758
Extract function refactoring 760
Scope builder 760
Scope builder and concurrency 761
An explicit job 762
Coroutines ARE light-weight 763
Cancellation and timeouts 763
Cancelling coroutine execution 763
Cancellation is cooperative 764
Making computation code cancellable 765
Closing resources with finally 766
Run non-cancellable block 766
Timeout 767
Asynchronous timeout and resources 769
Composing suspending functions 770
Sequential by default 770
Concurrent using async 772
Lazily started async 773
Async-style functions 774
Structured concurrency with async 775
Coroutine context and dispatchers 777
Dispatchers and threads 777
Unconfined vs confined dispatcher 778
Debugging coroutines and threads 779
Jumping between threads 781
Job in the context 782
Children of a coroutine 783
30
Parental responsibilities 784
Naming coroutines for debugging 784
Combining context elements 785
Coroutine scope 786
Asynchronous Flow 789
Representing multiple values 789
Flows are cold 792
Flow cancellation basics 793
Flow builders 793
Intermediate flow operators 794
Terminal flow operators 796
Flows are sequential 797
Flow context 798
Buffering 801
Composing multiple flows 804
Flattening flows 806
Flow exceptions 809
Exception transparency 811
Flow completion 813
Imperative versus declarative 816
Launching flow 816
Flow and Reactive Streams 819
Channels 820
Channel basics 820
Closing and iteration over channels 821
Building channel producers 821
Pipelines 822
Prime numbers with pipeline 823
Fan-out 824
31
Fan-in 826
Buffered channels 827
Channels are fair 828
Ticker channels 829
Coroutine exceptions handling 830
Exception propagation 830
CoroutineExceptionHandler 831
Cancellation and exceptions 832
Exceptions aggregation 834
Supervision 836
Shared mutable state and concurrency 839
The problem 839
Volatiles are of no help 840
Thread-safe data structures 841
Thread confinement fine-grained 842
Thread confinement coarse-grained 843
Mutual exclusion 844
Actors 845
Select expression (experimental) 847
Selecting from channels 847
Selecting on close 849
Selecting to send 850
Selecting deferred values 852
Switch over a channel of deferred values 853
Debug coroutines using IntelliJ IDEA – tutorial 855
Create coroutines 855
Debug coroutines 856
Debug Kotlin Flow using IntelliJ IDEA – tutorial 858
32
Create a Kotlin flow 858
Debug the coroutine 860
Add a concurrently running coroutine 862
Debug a Kotlin flow with two coroutines 862
Serialization 863
Libraries 864
Formats 864
Example: JSON serialization 864
Keywords and operators 866
Hard keywords 866
Soft keywords 868
Modifier keywords 869
Special identifiers 870
Operators and special symbols 870
Gradle 872
Plugin and versions 872
Targeting multiple platforms 872
Targeting the JVM 873
Targeting JavaScript 874
Targeting Android 875
Configuring dependencies 875
Annotation processing 880
Incremental compilation 880
Gradle build cache support 881
Gradle configuration cache support 881
Compiler options 881
Generating documentation 885
OSGi 885
Using Gradle Kotlin DSL 885
33
Maven 885
Plugin and versions 885
Dependencies 886
Compile Kotlin-only source code 886
Compile Kotlin and Java sources 887
Incremental compilation 888
Annotation processing 889
Jar file 889
Self-contained Jar file 889
Specifying compiler options 890
Generating documentation 892
OSGi 892
Examples 892
Ant 892
Getting the Ant tasks 892
Targeting JVM with Kotlin-only source 893
Targeting JVM with Kotlin-only source and multiple roots 893
Targeting JVM with Kotlin and Java source 893
Targeting JavaScript with single source folder 894
Targeting JavaScript with Prefix, PostFix and sourcemap options 894
Targeting JavaScript with single source folder and metaInfo option 894
References 895
Run code snippets – tutorial 896
Scratches and worksheets 896
REPL 899
Migrate to Kotlin code style 900
Kotlin coding conventions and IntelliJ IDEA formatter 900
Differences between "Kotlin coding conventions" and "IntelliJ IDEA default code style" 901
34
Migration to a new code style discussion 901
Migration to a new code style 902
Store old code style in project 903
Eclipse IDE 903
Set up the environment 904
Create a new project 906
Run the application 910
Kotlin command-line compiler 912
Install the compiler 912
Create and run an application 913
Compile a library 914
Run the REPL 914
Run scripts 914
Kotlin compiler options 915
Compiler options 915
Common options 916
Kotlin/JVM compiler options 917
Kotlin/JS compiler options 919
Kotlin/Native compiler options 920
All-open compiler plugin 923
Gradle 923
Maven 924
Spring support 925
Command-line compiler 926
No-arg compiler plugin 926
Gradle 926
Maven 927
JPA support 928
35
Command-line compiler 928
SAM-with-receiver compiler plugin 928
Gradle 929
Maven 929
Command-line compiler 930
Using kapt 930
Using in Gradle 930
Annotation processor arguments 931
Gradle build cache support 931
Improving the speed of builds that use kapt 932
Compile avoidance for kapt 933
Incremental annotation processing 933
Java compiler options 933
Non-existent type correction 934
Using in Maven 934
Using in CLI 934
Generating Kotlin sources 935
AP/Javac options encoding 936
Keeping Java compiler's annotation processors 936
Lombok compiler plugin 936
Supported annotations 937
Gradle 937
Maven 938
Using with kapt 939
Kotlin and continuous integration with TeamCity 940
Gradle, Maven, and Ant 940
IntelliJ IDEA Build System 941
Other CI servers 942
36
Document Kotlin code: KDoc and Dokka 943
Generate the documentation 943
KDoc syntax 943
Inline markup 945
Module and package documentation 945
Kotlin and OSGi 946
Maven 946
Gradle 947
FAQ 947
Learning materials overview 947
Kotlin Koans 948
Kotlin books 948
Learning Kotlin with EduTools plugin 952
Teaching Kotlin with EduTools plugin 952
FAQ 952
What is Kotlin? 953
What is the current version of Kotlin? 953
Is Kotlin free? 953
Is Kotlin an object-oriented language or a functional one? 953
What advantages does Kotlin give me over the Java programming language? 953
Is Kotlin compatible with the Java programming language? 953
What can I use Kotlin for? 953
Can I use Kotlin for Android development? 954
Can I use Kotlin for server-side development? 954
Can I use Kotlin for web development? 954
Can I use Kotlin for desktop development? 954
Can I use Kotlin for native development? 954
What IDEs support Kotlin? 954
37
What build tools support Kotlin? 955
What does Kotlin compile down to? 955
Which versions of JVM does Kotlin target? 955
Is Kotlin hard? 955
What companies are using Kotlin? 955
Who develops Kotlin? 955
Where can I learn more about Kotlin? 955
Are there any books on Kotlin? 956
Are there any online courses available for Kotlin? 956
Does Kotlin have a community? 956
Are there Kotlin events? 956
Is there a Kotlin conference? 956
Is Kotlin on social media? 956
Any other online Kotlin resources? 956
Where can I get an HD Kotlin logo? 957
Participate in the Kotlin Early Access Preview 957
Build details 957
Install the EAP Plugin for IntelliJ IDEA or Android Studio 958
Configure your build for EAP 959
Configure in Gradle 960
Configure in Maven 961
Contribution 962
Participate in Early Access Preview 962
Contribute to the compiler, standard library, and tooling 962
Contribute to other libraries and create your own 963
Contribute to the documentation 963
Create tutorials or videos 963
Translate documentation to other languages 963
38
Hold events and presentations 963
Kotlin Evolution 964
Principles of Pragmatic Evolution 964
Incompatible changes 965
Decision making 966
Feature releases and incremental releases 966
Libraries 967
Compiler keys 967
Compatibility tools 968
Stability of Kotlin components 969
Stability levels explained 969
Stability of subcomponents 969
Current stability of Kotlin components 970
Stability of Kotlin components (pre 1.4) 971
Compatibility guide for Kotlin 1.5 972
Basic terms 973
Language and stdlib 973
Tools 982
Compatibility guide for Kotlin 1.4 983
Basic terms 984
Language and stdlib 984
Tools 1004
Compatibility guide for Kotlin 1.3 1005
Basic terms 1006
Incompatible changes 1006
Compatibility modes 1018
Binary compatibility warnings 1018
39
Kotlin Foundation 1019
Scope 1019
Structure 1020
Current personnel 1020
Language Committee guidelines 1021
Review process 1021
Scope 1022
Migration aids and deprecation 1022
Changes to these guidelines 1024
Appendix A. Examples of non-issues 1024
Appendix B. Assumptions for pragmatic language evolution 1025
Guide to submitting incompatible changes 1026
Issue template 1026
Classification 1026
Kotlin brand usage guidelines 1029
General goals 1030
Permitted uses 1030
Unpermitted uses 1030
Usage guidelines 1030
Example usages 1031
Kotlin Foundation FAQ 1031
How can I contribute or provide feedback to Kotlin? 1031
How can I get more involved with the Kotlin community? 1032
How is the Kotlin Foundation governed? 1032
Do JetBrains and Google contribute financially to the foundation? 1032
Does the foundation generate any revenue? 1032
Can I license the Kotlin trademark? 1032
How can a company or an individual join the foundation? 1032
40
What resources should I follow to stay up-to-date on Kotlin? 1033
Security 1033
Kotlin documentation as PDF 1033
41
Kotlin
docs
Get started with Kotlin What's new in Kotlin
You can get started with Kotlin using an online editor. If Discover what features are available in the newest Kotlin
you already have an IDE or you are ready to install one, release. You can try out upcoming features in the preview
here are also some ways to begin using Kotlin on your versions before they are released.
local machine.
What's new in Kotlin 1.5.20
Get started with Kotlin
What's new in Kotlin plugin 2021.1
Try Kotlin online
Kotlin public roadmap
Get started with KMM in Android Studio
KMM plugin releases for Android Studio
Basics & concepts Ways to learn
Acquaint yourself with some of the concepts and the Find a way to learn Kotlin that works for you. There are
basics of Kotlin. lots of learning materials available from our team and
other authors.
Basic syntax
Kotlin by example
Basic types
Kotlin Koans
Control flow
Hands-on tutorials
Null safety
EduTools in IntelliJ IDEA
Coroutines
Books
Coding conventions
42
Kotlin YouTube Channel Stay in touch and contribute
Our YouTube channel is packed with resources for learning If you are interested in what's going with Kotlin, join us on
Kotlin! Subscribe to stay updated for shows, the latest social media, and get involved.
news, and live events!
Contribute to Kotlin
Kotlin in Spring Framework
Participate in Early Access Program
Webinars with Experts
Join Kotlin Slack
Kotlin Multiplatform Multiverse
Follow Kotlin on Twitter
Competitive Programming
Chat on Reddit
Kotlin Standard Library
Participate in Stack Overflow discussions
Talking Kotlin Podcast
Kotlin for Educators
Kotlin Online Event 2020 playlist
Get
started
with
Kotlin
Kotlin is a modern but already mature programming language aimed to make developers happier. It’s concise, safe,
interoperable with Java and other languages, and provides many ways to reuse code between multiple platforms for
productive programming.
Pick it up to start building powerful applications!
Learn
Kotlin
fundamentals
If you're already familiar with one or more programming languages and want to learn Kotlin, start with these Kotlin
learning materials.
If you are at the very beginning and Kotlin is your first programming language, you can start with reading the Atomic
Kotlin book or finding a Kotlin course.
Create
your
powerful
application
with
Kotlin
Backend app
43
Here is how you can take the first steps in developing Kotlin server-side applications.
1. Install the latest version of IntelliJ IDEA.
2. Create your first backend application:
To start from scratch, create a basic JVM application with the IntelliJ IDEA project wizard.
If you prefer more robust examples, choose one of the frameworks below and create a project:
Spring Ktor
A mature family of frameworks with an established ecosystem A lightweight framework for those who value freedom in
that is used by millions of developers worldwide. making architectural decisions.
Create a RESTful web service with Spring Boot. Create HTTP APIs with Ktor.
Build web applications with Spring Boot and Kotlin. Create a WebSocket chat with Ktor.
Use Spring Boot with Kotlin and RSocket. Create an interactive website with Ktor.
Publish server-side Kotlin applications: Ktor on Heroku.
3. Use Kotlin and third-party libraries in your application. Learn more about adding library and tool dependencies to your project.
The Kotlin standard library offers a lot of useful things such as collections or coroutines.
Take a look at the following third-party frameworks, libs and tools for Kotlin.
4. Learn more about Kotlin for server-side:
How to write your first unit test.
How to mix Kotlin and Java code in your application.
5. Join the Kotlin server-side community:
Slack: get an invite and join the #getting-started, #server, #spring, or #ktor channels.
StackOverflow: subscribe to the “kotlin”, "spring-kotlin", or "ktor" tags.
6. Follow Kotlin on Twitter, Reddit, and Youtube, and don't miss any important ecosystem updates.
If you've encountered any difficulties or problems, report an issue to ourissue tracker.
Cross-platform mobile app
Here you'll learn how to develop and improve your cross-platform mobile application usingKotlin Multiplatform Mobile (KMM).
1. Set up your environment for cross-platform development.
2. Create your first KMM application:
To start from scratch, create a basic KMM application with the project wizard.
If you have an existing Android application and want to make it cross-platform, complete theMake your Android application
work on iOS tutorial.
If you prefer real-life examples, clone and play with an existing project, for example the networking and data storage project
from the hands-on tutorial or any KMM sample.
44
3. Use a wide set of multiplatform libraries to implement the required business logic only once in the shared module. Learn more
about adding dependencies.
Library Details
Ktor Docs and sample.
Serialization Docs and sample.
Coroutines Docs and sample.
DateTime Docs.
SQLDelight Third-party library. Docs and
sample.
You can also find a multiplatform library in the community-driven list.
4. Learn more about KMM:
Learn more about Kotlin Multiplatform.
Look through KMM samples on GitHub.
Create and publish a multiplatform library.
Learn how KMM is used at Netflix, VWWare, Yandex, and many other companies.
5. Join the Kotlin Multiplatform community:
Slack: get an invite and join the #getting-started and #multiplatform channels.
StackOverflow: Subscribe to the “kotlin-multiplatform” tag.
6. Follow Kotlin on Twitter, Reddit, and Youtube, and don't miss any important ecosystem updates.
If you've encountered any difficulties or problems, report an issue to ourissue tracker.
Frontend web app
Kotlin provides an ability to transpile your Kotlin code, the Kotlin standard library, and any compatible dependencies to JavaScript.
Here you'll learn how to develop and improve your frontend web application usingKotlin/JS.
1. Install the latest version of IntelliJ IDEA.
2. Create your first frontend web application:
To start from scratch, create a basic browser application with the IntelliJ IDEA project wizard.
If you prefer more robust examples, complete the Building Web Applications with React and Kotlin/JS hands-on tutorial. It
includes a sample project that can serve as a good starting point for your own projects, and contains useful snippets and
45
templates.
3. Use libraries in your application. Learn more about adding dependencies.
Library Details
stdlib The Kotlin standard library included in all projects by default.
kotlinx.browser The Kotlin library for accessing browser-specific functionality, including typical top-level objects such as
document and window.
kotlinx.html The Kotlin library for generating DOM elements using statically-typed HTML builders.
Ktor The Kotlin multiplatform library for networking.
KVision A third-party object-oriented web framework for Kotlin/JS.
fritz2 A third-party lightweight, high-performance, independent library for building reactive web apps in Kotlin that
are heavily dependent on coroutines and flows.
Doodle A third-party vector-based UI framework that uses browser's capabilities to draw user interfaces.
Compose for Brings Google’s Jetpack Compose UI toolkit to the browser. A Technology Preview is currently available.
Web
kotlin- Provide convenient abstractions and deep integrations for one of the most popular JavaScript frameworks.
wrappers Kotlin wrappers also provide support for a number of adjacent technologies like react-redux, react-router, or
styled-components.
4. Learn more about Kotlin for frontend web development:
The new Kotlin/JS IR compiler (currently with Alpha stability).
Using dependencies from npm.
Using Kotlin code from JavaScript.
5. Join the Kotlin frontend web community:
Slack: get an invite and join the #getting-started and #javascript channels.
StackOverflow: subscribe to the “kotlin-js” tag.
6. Follow Kotlin on Twitter, Reddit, and Youtube, and don't miss any important ecosystem updates.
If you've encountered any difficulties or problems, report an issue to ourissue tracker.
Android app
If you want to start using Kotlin for Android development, readGoogle’s recommendation for getting started with Kotlin on
Android.
If you're new to Android and want to learn to create applications with Kotlin, check outthis Udacity course.
46
Follow Kotlin on Twitter, Reddit, and Youtube, and don't miss any important ecosystem updates.
Multiplatform library
Support for multiplatform programming is one of Kotlin’s key benefits. It reduces time spent writing and maintaining the same code for
different platforms while retaining the flexibility and benefits of native programming.
Here you'll learn how to develop and publish a multiplatform library:
1. Install the latest version of IntelliJ IDEA.
2. Create a multiplaform library:
To start from scratch, create a basic project.
If you prefer more robust examples, complete the Create and publish a multiplatform library tutorial. It shows how to create a
multiplatform library for JVM, JS, and Native platforms, test it and publish to a local Maven repository.
Build a full stack web application using this hands-on.
3. Use libraries in your application. Learn more about adding dependencies on libraries.
Library Details
Ktor Docs and sample.
Serialization Docs and sample.
Coroutines Docs.
DateTime Docs.
You can also find a multiplatform library in the community-driven list.
4. Learn more about Kotlin Multiplatform programming:
Introduction to Kotlin Multiplatform.
Kotlin Multiplatform supported platforms.
Kotlin Multiplatform programming benefits.
5. Join the Kotlin Multiplatform community:
Slack: get an invite and join the #getting-started and #multiplatform channels.
StackOverflow: Subscribe to the “kotlin-multiplatform” tag.
6. Follow Kotlin on Twitter, Reddit, and Youtube, and don't miss any important ecosystem updates.
If you've encountered any difficulties or problems, report an issue to ourissue tracker.
47
Is
anything
missing?
If anything is missing or seems confusing on this page, please share your feedback.
Multiplatform
programming
Multiplatform projects are in Alpha. Language features and tooling may change in future Kotlin versions.
Support for multiplatform programming is one of Kotlin’s key benefits. It reduces time spent writing and maintaining
the same code for different platforms while retaining the flexibility and benefits of native programming.
This is how Kotlin Multiplatform works.
48
Kotlin Multiplatform
Common Kotlin includes the language, core libraries, and basic tools. Code written in common Kotlin works
everywhere on all platforms.
With Kotlin Multiplatform libraries, you can reuse the multiplatform logic in common and platform-specific code.
Common code can rely on a set of libraries that cover everyday tasks such as HTTP, serialization, and managing
coroutines.
To interop with platforms, use platform-specific versions of Kotlin. Platform-specific versions of Kotlin (Kotlin/JVM,
Kotlin/JS, Kotlin/Native) include extensions to the Kotlin language, and platform-specific libraries and tools.
49
Through these platforms you can access the platform native code (JVM, JS, and Native) and leverage all native
capabilities.
With Kotlin Multiplatform, spend less time on writing and maintaining the same code for different platforms – just share
it using the mechanisms Kotlin provides:
Share code among all platforms used in your project. Use it for sharing the common business logic that applies to
all platforms.
Code shared for all platforms
Share code among some platforms included in your project but not all. Do this when you can reuse much of the
code in similar platforms.
50
Hierarchical structure
If you need to access platform-specific APIs from the shared code, use the Kotlin mechanism of expected and actual
declarations.
With this mechanism, a common source set defines an expected declaration, and platform source sets must provide
the actual declaration that corresponds to the expected declaration. This works for most Kotlin declarations, such as
functions, classes, interfaces, enumerations, properties, and annotations.
51
Expect and actual declarations
//Common
expect fun randomUUID(): String
//Android
import java.util.*
actual fun randomUUID() = UUID.randomUUID().toString()
//iOS
import platform.Foundation.NSUUID
actual fun randomUUID(): String = NSUUID().UUIDString()
Use
cases
Android
—
iOS
Sharing code between mobile platforms is one of the major Kotlin Multiplatform use cases. With Kotlin Multiplatform
Mobile (KMM), you can build multiplatform mobile applications sharing code, such as business logic, connectivity, and
more, between Android and iOS.
See KMM features, case studies and examples
52
Client
—
Server
Another scenario when code sharing may bring benefits is a connected application where the logic can be reused on
both the server and the client side running in the browser. This is covered by Kotlin Multiplatform as well.
The Ktor framework is suitable for building asynchronous servers and clients in connected systems.
What's
next?
New to Kotlin? Visit Getting started with Kotlin.
Documentation
Get started with Kotlin Multiplatform Mobile (KMM)
Create a multiplatform project
Share code on multiple platforms
Connect to platform-specific APIs
Tutorials
Creating a KMM application shows how to create a mobile application that works on Android and iOS with the help
of the KMM plugin for Android Studio. Create, run, and test your first multiplatform mobile application.
Creating a multiplatform Kotlin library teaches how to create a multiplatform library available for JVM, JS, and Native
and which can be used from any other common code (for example, shared with Android and iOS). It also shows how
to write tests which will be executed on all platforms and use an efficient implementation provided by a specific
platform.
Building a full stack web app with Kotlin Multiplatform teaches the concepts behind building an application that
targets Kotlin/JVM and Kotlin/JS by building a client-server application that makes use of shared code, serialization,
and other multiplatform paradigms. It also provides a brief introduction to working with Ktor both as a server- and
client-side framework.
Sample
projects
Kotlin Multiplatform Mobile samples
KotlinConf app
KotlinConf Spinner app
53
Kotlin
for
server
side
Kotlin is a great fit for developing server-side applications, allowing you to write concise and expressive code while
maintaining full compatibility with existing Java-based technology stacks and a smooth learning curve:
Expressiveness: Kotlin's innovative language features, such as its support for type-safe builders and delegated
properties, help build powerful and easy-to-use abstractions.
Scalability: Kotlin's support for coroutines helps build server-side applications that scale to massive numbers of
clients with modest hardware requirements.
Interoperability: Kotlin is fully compatible with all Java-based frameworks, which lets you stay on your familiar
technology stack while reaping the benefits of a more modern language.
Migration: Kotlin supports gradual, step by step migration of large codebases from Java to Kotlin. You can start
writing new code in Kotlin while keeping older parts of your system in Java.
Tooling: In addition to great IDE support in general, Kotlin offers framework-specific tooling (for example, for Spring)
in the plugin for IntelliJ IDEA Ultimate.
Learning Curve: For a Java developer, getting started with Kotlin is very easy. The automated Java to Kotlin
converter included in the Kotlin plugin helps with the first steps. Kotlin Koans offer a guide through the key features
of the language with a series of interactive exercises.
Frameworks
for
server-side
development
with
Kotlin
Spring makes use of Kotlin's language features to offer more concise APIs, starting with version 5.0. The online
project generator allows you to quickly generate a new project in Kotlin.
Vert.x, a framework for building reactive Web applications on the JVM, offers dedicated support for Kotlin, including
full documentation.
Ktor is a framework built by JetBrains for creating Web applications in Kotlin, making use of coroutines for high
scalability and offering an easy-to-use and idiomatic API.
kotlinx.html is a DSL that can be used to build HTML in a Web application. It serves as an alternative to traditional
templating systems such as JSP and FreeMarker.
Micronaut is a modern, JVM-based, full-stack framework for building modular, easily testable microservice and
serverless applications. It comes with a lot of built-in, handy features.
http4k is the functional toolkit with a tiny footprint for Kotlin HTTP applications, written in pure Kotlin. The library is
based on the "Your Server as a Function" paper from Twitter and represents modeling both HTTP Servers and
Clients as simple Kotlin functions that can be composed together.
Javalin is a very lightweight web framework for Kotlin and Java which supports WebSockets, HTTP2 and async
requests.
54
The available options for persistence include direct JDBC access, JPA, as well as using NoSQL databases through
their Java drivers. For JPA, the kotlin-jpa compiler plugin adapts Kotlin-compiled classes to the requirements of the
framework.
Deploying
Kotlin
server-side
applications
Kotlin applications can be deployed into any host that supports Java Web applications, including Amazon Web
Services, Google Cloud Platform and more.
To deploy Kotlin applications on Heroku, you can follow the official Heroku tutorial.
AWS Labs provides a sample project showing the use of Kotlin for writing AWS Lambda functions.
Google Cloud Platform offers a series of tutorials for deploying Kotlin applications to GCP, both for Ktor and App
Engine and Spring and App engine. In addition there is an interactive code lab for deploying a Kotlin Spring
application.
Users
of
Kotlin
on
the
server
side
Corda is an open-source distributed ledger platform, supported by major banks, and built entirely in Kotlin.
JetBrains Account, the system responsible for the entire license sales and validation process at JetBrains, is written in
100% Kotlin and has been running in production since 2015 with no major issues.
Next
steps
For a more in-depth introduction to the language, check out the Kotlin documentation on this site and Kotlin Koans.
Micronaut also has a lot of well-detailed guides, showing how you can build microservices in Kotlin.
http4k provides the CLI to generate fully formed projects, and a starter repo to generate an entire CD pipeline using
GitHub, Travis, and Heroku with a single bash command.
Want to migrate from Java to Kotlin? Learn how to perform typical tasks with strings in Java and Kotlin.
Kotlin
for
Android
Android mobile development has been Kotlin-first since Google I/O in 2019.
Using Kotlin for Android development, you can benefit from:
Less code combined with greater readability. Spend less time writing your code and working to understand the
code of others.
55
Mature language and environment. Since its creation in 2011, Kotlin has developed continuously, not only as a
language but as a whole ecosystem with robust tooling. Now it's seamlessly integrated in Android Studio and is
actively used by many companies for developing Android applications.
Kotlin support in Android Jetpack and other libraries. KTX extensions add Kotlin language features, such as
coroutines, extension functions, lambdas, and named parameters, to existing Android libraries.
Interoperability with Java. You can use Kotlin along with the Java programming language in your applications
without needing to migrate all your code to Kotlin.
Support for multiplatform development. You can use Kotlin for developing not only Android but also iOS, backend,
and web applications. Enjoy the benefits of sharing the common code among the platforms.
Code safety. Less code and better readability lead to fewer errors. The Kotlin compiler detects these remaining
errors, making the code safe.
Easy learning. Kotlin is very easy to learn, especially for Java developers.
Big community. Kotlin has great support and many contributions from the community, which is growing all over the
world. According to Google, over 60% of the top 1000 apps on the Play Store use Kotlin.
Many startups and Fortune 500 companies have already developed Android applications using Kotlin – see the list at
the Google website for Kotlin developers.
If you want to start using Kotlin for Android development, read Google’s recommendation for getting started with Kotlin
on Android.
If you're new to Android and want to learn to create applications with Kotlin, check out this Udacity course.
Kotlin
for
JavaScript
Kotlin/JS provides the ability to transpile your Kotlin code, the Kotlin standard library, and any compatible
dependencies to JavaScript. The current implementation of Kotlin/JS targets ES5.
The recommended way to use Kotlin/JS is via the kotlin.js and kotlin.multiplatform Gradle plugins. They provide a
central and convenient way to set up and control Kotlin projects targeting JavaScript. This includes essential
functionality such as controlling the bundling of your application, adding JavaScript dependencies directly from npm,
and more. To get an overview of the available options, check out the Kotlin/JS project setup documentation.
Use
cases
for
Kotlin/JS
There are numerous ways that Kotlin/JS can be used. To provide you some inspiration, here's a non-exhaustive list of
scenarios in which you can use Kotlin/JS.
Write frontend web applications using Kotlin/JS
Kotlin/JS allows you to leverage powerful browser and web APIs in a type-safe fashion. Create, modify and
56
interact with elements in the Document Object Model (DOM), use Kotlin code to control the rendering of canvas
or WebGL components, and enjoy access to many more of the features supported in modern browsers.
Write full, type-safe React applications with Kotlin/JS using the kotlin-wrappers provided by JetBrains, which
provide convenient abstractions and deep integrations for one of the most popular JavaScript frameworks.
kotlin-wrappers also provides support for a select number of adjacent technologies like react-redux, react-
router, or styled-components. Interoperability with the JavaScript ecosystem also means that you can also use
third-party React components and component libraries.
Use the Kotlin/JS frameworks that take full advantage of Kotlin concepts, its expressive power and conciseness.
Write server-side and serverless applications using Kotlin/JS
The Node.js target provided by Kotlin/JS enables you to create applications that run on a server or get executed
on serverless infrastructure. You benefit from the same advantages as other applications executing in a
JavaScript runtime, such as faster startup speed and a reduced memory footprint. With kotlinx-nodejs, you have
typesafe access to the Node.js API directly from your Kotlin code.
Use Kotlin's multiplatform projects to share code with other Kotlin targets
All Kotlin/JS functionality can also be accessed when using the Kotlin multiplatform Gradle plugin.
If you have a backend written in Kotlin, you can share common code such as data models or validation logic with
a frontend written in Kotlin/JS, allowing you to write and maintain full-stack web applications.
You could also share business logic between your web interface and mobile apps for Android and iOS, and avoid
duplicating commonly used functionality like providing abstractions around REST API endpoints, user
authentication, or your domain models.
Create libraries for use with JavaScript and TypeScript
You don't have to write your whole application in Kotlin/JS, either – you can also generate libraries from your
Kotlin code that can be consumed as modules from any code base written in JavaScript or TypeScript,
regardless of other frameworks or technologies used. This approach of creating hybrid applications allows you to
leverage the competencies that you and your team might already have around web development, while helping
you reduce the amount of duplicated work, and making it easier to keep your web target consistent with other
targets of your application.
Of course, this is not a complete list of how you can use Kotlin/JS to your advantage, but merely a selection of cherry-
picked cases. We invite you to experiment with combinations of these use cases, and find out what works best for your
project.
Regardless of your specific use case, Kotlin/JS projects can use compatible libraries from the Kotlin ecosystem, as
well as third-party libraries from the JavaScript and TypeScript ecosystems. To use the latter from Kotlin code, you can
either provide your own typesafe wrappers, use community-maintained wrappers, or let Dukat automatically generate
Kotlin declarations for you. Using the Kotlin/JS-exclusive dynamic type allows you to loosen the constraints of Kotlin's
type system, allowing you to skip creating detailed library wrappers - at the expense of type safety.
Kotlin/JS is also compatible with the most common module systems: UMD, CommonJS, and AMD. Being able to
57
produce and consume modules means that you can interact with the JavaScript ecosystem in a structured manner.
Kotlin/JS
frameworks
Modern web development benefits significantly from frameworks that simplify building web applications. Here are
examples of popular web frameworks for Kotlin/JS written by different authors:
KVision
KVision is an object-oriented web framework that makes it possible to write applications in Kotlin/JS with ready-to-use
components that can be used as building blocks for your application’s user interface. You can use both reactive and
imperative programming models to build your frontend, use connectors for Ktor, Spring Boot, and other frameworks to
integrate it with your server-side applications, and share code using Kotlin Multiplatform.
Visit https://kvision.io for documentation, tutorials, and examples.
For updates and discussions about the framework, join #kvision and #javascript channels in the Kotlin Slack.
fritz2
fritz2 is a standalone framework for building reactive web user interfaces. It provides its own type-safe DSL for building
and rendering HTML elements, and it makes use of Kotlin’s coroutines and flows to express components and their
data bindings. It provides state management, validation, routing, and more out of the box, and integrates with Kotlin
Multiplatform projects.
Visit https://www.fritz2.dev for documentation, tutorials, and examples.
For updates and discussions about the framework, join the #fritz2 and #javascript channels in the Kotlin Slack.
Doodle
Doodle is a vector-based UI framework for Kotlin/JS. Doodle applications use the browser’s graphics capabilities to
draw user interfaces instead of relying on DOM, CSS, or Javascript. By using this approach, Doodle gives you precise
control over the rendering of arbitrary UI elements, vector shapes, gradients, and custom visualizations.
Visit https://nacular.github.io/doodle/ for documentation, tutorials, and examples.
For updates and discussions about the framework, join #doodle and #javascript channels in the Kotlin Slack.
Compose
for
Web
Compose for Web brings Google’s Jetpack Compose UI toolkit to your browser. It allows you to build reactive web
user interfaces using the concepts introduced by Jetpack Compose. It provides a DOM API to describe your website,
as well as an experimental set of multiplatform layout primitives. Compose for Web also gives you the option to share
parts of your UI code and logic across Android, desktop, and web.
58
Compose for Web is in Technology Preview, which means it is ready for experiments but not yet ready for production
use.
You can find more information about Compose for Web on its landing page.
Join the #compose-web channel on Kotlin Slack to discuss Compose for Web, or #compose for general Compose
discussions.
Kotlin/JS,
Today
and
Tomorrow
Want to know more about Kotlin/JS?
In this video, Kotlin Developer Advocate Sebastian Aigner will explain the main Kotlin/JS benefits to you, share some
tips and use cases, and also tell you about the plans and upcoming features for Kotlin/JS.
Gif
Watch video online.
Get
started
with
Kotlin/JS
If you're new to Kotlin, a good first step would be to familiarize yourself with the basic syntax of the language.
To start using Kotlin for JavaScript, please refer to the Set up a Kotlin/JS project, or pick a hands-on lab from the next
section to work through.
Hands-on
labs
for
Kotlin/JS
59
Hands-on labs are long-form tutorials that help you get to know a technology by guiding you through a self-contained
project related to a specific topic.
They include sample projects, which can serve as jumping-off points for your own projects, and contain useful snippets
and patterns.
For Kotlin/JS, the following hands-on labs are currently available:
Building Web Applications with React and Kotlin/JS guides you through the process of building a simple web
application using the React framework, shows how a typesafe Kotlin DSL for HTML makes it convenient to build
reactive DOM elements, and illustrates how to use third-party React components, and how to obtain information
from APIs, while writing the whole application logic in pure Kotlin/JS.
Building a Full Stack Web App with Kotlin Multiplatform teaches the concepts behind building an application that
targets Kotlin/JVM and Kotlin/JS by building a client-server application that makes use of common code,
serialization, and other multiplatform paradigms. It also provides a brief introduction into working with Ktor both as
a server- and client-side framework.
New
Kotlin/JS
IR
compiler
The new Kotlin/JS IR compiler (currently with Alpha stability) comes with a number of improvements over the current
default compiler. For example, it improves the size of generated executables via dead code elimination and makes it
smoother to interoperate with the JavaScript ecosystem and its tooling. By generating TypeScript declaration files (d.ts)
from Kotlin code, the new compiler makes it easier to create “hybrid” applications that mix TypeScript and Kotlin code,
and leverage code-sharing functionality using Kotlin Multiplatform.
To learn more about the available features in the new Kotlin/JS IR compiler and how to try it for your project, visit the
Kotlin/JS IR compiler documentation page and the migration guide.
Join
the
Kotlin/JS
community
You can also join #javascript channel in the official Kotlin Slack and chat with the community and the team.
Kotlin
Native
Kotlin/Native is a technology for compiling Kotlin code to native binaries, which can run without a virtual machine. It is
an LLVM based backend for the Kotlin compiler and native implementation of the Kotlin standard library.
Why
Kotlin/Native?
Kotlin/Native is primarily designed to allow compilation for platforms where virtual machines are not desirable or
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possible, for example, embedded devices or iOS. It solves the situations when a developer needs to produce a self-
contained program that does not require an additional runtime or virtual machine.
Target
platforms
Kotlin/Native supports the following platforms:
macOS
iOS, tvOS, watchOS
Linux
Windows (MinGW)
Android NDK
The full list of supported targets is available here.
Interoperability
Kotlin/Native supports two-way interoperability with the Native world. On the one hand, the compiler creates:
an executable for many platforms
a static library or dynamic library with C headers for C/C++ projects
an Apple framework for Swift and Objective-C projects
On the other hand, Kotlin/Native supports interoperability to use existing libraries directly from Kotlin/Native:
static or dynamic C Libraries
C, Swift, and Objective-C frameworks
It is easy to include a compiled Kotlin code into existing projects written in C, C++, Swift, Objective-C, and other
languages. It is also easy to use existing native code, static or dynamic C libraries, Swift/Objective-C frameworks,
graphical engines, and anything else directly from Kotlin/Native.
Kotlin/Native libraries help to share Kotlin code between projects. POSIX, gzip, OpenGL, Metal, Foundation, and many
other popular libraries and Apple frameworks are pre-imported and included as Kotlin/Native libraries into the compiler
package.
Sharing
code
between
platforms
Multiplatform projects allow sharing common Kotlin code between multiple platforms, including Android, iOS, JVM,
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JavaScript, and native. Multiplatform libraries provide required APIs for the common Kotlin code and help develop
shared parts of a project in Kotlin code in one place and share it with all or several target platforms.
You can use Kotlin Multiplatform Mobile (KMM) to create multiplatform mobile applications with code shared between
Android and iOS.
How
to
start
Tutorials
and
documentation
New to Kotlin? Take a look at Getting started with Kotlin.
Recommended documentation:
Kotlin Multiplatform Mobile documentation
Multiplatform documentation
C interop
Swift/Objective-C interop
Recommended tutorials:
Get started with Kotlin/Native
Create your first KMM application
Types mapping between C and Kotlin/Native
Kotlin/Native as a Dynamic Library
Kotlin/Native as an Apple Framework
Sample
projects
Kotlin Multiplatform Mobile samples
Kotlin/Native sources and examples
KotlinConf app
KotlinConf Spinner app
Kotlin/Native sources and examples (.tgz)
Kotlin/Native sources and examples (.zip)
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Kotlin
for
data
science
From building data pipelines to productionizing machine learning models, Kotlin can be a great choice for working with
data:
Kotlin is concise, readable, and easy to learn.
Static typing and null safety help create reliable, maintainable code that is easy to troubleshoot.
Being a JVM language, Kotlin gives you great performance and an ability to leverage an entire ecosystem of tried
and true Java libraries.
Interactive
editors
Notebooks such as Jupyter Notebook and Apache Zeppelin provide convenient tools for data visualization and
exploratory research. Kotlin integrates with these tools to help you explore data, share your findings with colleagues, or
build up your data science and machine learning skills.
Jupyter
Kotlin
kernel
The Jupyter Notebook is an open-source web application that allows you to create and share documents (aka
"notebooks") that can contain code, visualizations, and markdown text. Kotlin-jupyter is an open source project that
brings Kotlin support to Jupyter Notebook.
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Kotlin in Jupyter notebook
Check out Kotlin kernel's GitHub repo for installation instructions, documentation, and examples.
Zeppelin
Kotlin
interpreter
Apache Zeppelin is a popular web-based solution for interactive data analytics. It provides strong support for the
Apache Spark cluster computing system, which is particularly useful for data engineering. Starting from version 0.9.0,
Apache Zeppelin comes with bundled Kotlin interpreter.
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Kotlin in Zeppelin notebook
Libraries
The ecosystem of libraries for data-related tasks created by the Kotlin community is rapidly expanding. Here are some
libraries that you may find useful:
Kotlin
libraries
Multik: multidimensional arrays in Kotlin. The library provides Kotlin-idiomatic, type- and dimension-safe API for
mathematical operations over multidimensional arrays. Multik offers swappable JVM and native computational
engines, and a combination of the two for optimal performance.
KotlinDL is a high-level Deep Learning API written in Kotlin and inspired by Keras. It offers simple APIs for training
deep learning models from scratch, importing existing Keras models for inference, and leveraging transfer learning
for tweaking existing pre-trained models to your tasks.
Kotlin for Apache Spark adds a missing layer of compatibility between Kotlin and Apache Spark. It allows Kotlin
developers to use familiar language features such as data classes, and lambda expressions as simple expressions
in curly braces or method references.
kotlin-statistics is a library providing extension functions for exploratory and production statistics. It supports basic
numeric list/sequence/array functions (from sum to skewness ), slicing operators (such as countBy,
simpleRegressionBy ), binning operations, discrete PDF sampling, naive bayes classifier, clustering, linear
regression, and much more.
kmath is a library inspired by NumPy. This library supports algebraic structures and operations, array-like structures,
math expressions, histograms, streaming operations, a wrapper around commons-math and koma, and more.
krangl is a library inspired by R's dplyr and Python's pandas. This library provides functionality for data manipulation
using a functional-style API; it also includes functions for filtering, transforming, aggregating, and reshaping tabular
data.
lets-plot is a plotting library for statistical data written in Kotlin. Lets-Plot is multiplatform and can be used not only
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with JVM, but also with JS and Python.
kravis is another library for the visualization of tabular data inspired by R's ggplot.
londogard-nlp-toolkit is a library that provides utilities when working with natural language processing such as
word/subword/sentence embeddings, word-frequencies, stopwords, stemming, and much more.
Java
libraries
Since Kotlin provides first-class interop with Java, you can also use Java libraries for data science in your Kotlin code.
Here are some examples of such libraries:
DeepLearning4J- a deep learning library for Java
ND4J- an efficient matrix math library for JVM
Dex- a Java-based data visualization tool
Smile- a comprehensive machine learning, natural language processing, linear algebra, graph, interpolation, and
visualization system. Besides Java API, Smile also provides a functional Kotlin API along with Scala and Clojure API.
Smile-NLP-kt- a Kotlin rewrite of the Scala implicits for the natural language processing part of Smile in the
format of extension functions and interfaces.
Apache Commons Math- a general math, statistics, and machine learning library for Java
OptaPlanner- a solver utility for optimization planning problems
Charts- a scientific JavaFX charting library in development
CoreNLP- a natural language processing toolkit
Apache Mahout- a distributed framework for regression, clustering and recommendation
Weka- a collection of machine learning algorithms for data mining tasks
If this list doesn’t cover your needs, you can find more options in the Kotlin Data Science Resources digest from
Thomas Nield.
Kotlin
for
competitive
programming
This tutorial is designed both for competitive programmers that did not use Kotlin before and for Kotlin developers that
did not participate in any competitive programming events before. It assumes the corresponding programming skills.
Competitive programming is a mind sport where contestants write programs to solve precisely specified algorithmic
problems within strict constraints. Problems can range from simple ones that can be solved by any software developer
and require little code to get a correct solution, to complex ones that require knowledge of special algorithms, data
structures, and a lot of practice. While not being specifically designed for competitive programming, Kotlin incidentally
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fits well in this domain, reducing the typical amount of boilerplate that a programmer needs to write and read while
working with the code almost to the level offered by dynamically-typed scripting languages, while having tooling and
performance of a statically-typed language.
See Get started with Kotlin/JVM on how to set up development environment for Kotlin. In competitive programming, a
single project is usually created and each problem's solution is written in a single source file.
Simple
example:
Reachable
Numbers
problem
Let's take a look at a concrete example.
Codeforces Round 555 was held on April 26th for 3rd Division, which means it had problems fit for any developer to
try. You can use this link to read the problems. The simplest problem in the set is the Problem A: Reachable Numbers.
It asks to implement a straightforward algorithm described in the problem statement.
We'd start solving it by creating a Kotlin source file with an arbitrary name. A.kt will do well. First, we need to
implement a function specified in the problem statement as:
Let's denote a function f(x) in such a way: we add 1 to x, then, while there is at least one trailing zero in the resulting
number, we remove that zero.
Kotlin is a pragmatic and unopinionated language, supporting both imperative and function programming styles
without pushing the developer towards either one. We can implement the function f in functional style, using such
Kotlin features as tail recursion:
tailrec fun removeZeroes(x: Int): Int =
if (x % 10 == 0) removeZeroes(x / 10) else x
fun f(x: Int) = removeZeroes(x + 1)
Alternatively, we can write an imperative implementation of the function f using the traditional while loop and mutable
variables that are denoted in Kotlin with var:
fun f(x: Int): Int {
var cur = x + 1
while (cur % 10 == 0) cur /= 10
return cur
}
Types in Kotlin are optional in many places due to pervasive use of type-inference, but every declaration still has a
well-defined static type that is known at compilation.
Now, all is left is to write the main function that reads the input and implements the rest of the algorithm that the
problem statement asks for — to compute the number of different integers that are produced while repeatedly applying
function f to the initial number n that is given in the standard input.
By default, Kotlin runs on JVM and gives direct access to a rich and efficient collections library with general-purpose
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collections and data-structures like dynamically-sized arrays (ArrayList ), hash-based maps and sets (HashMap/
HashSet ), tree-based ordered maps and sets (TreeMap/ TreeSet ), etc. Using a hash-set of integers to track values
that were already reached while applying function f, the straightforward imperative version of a solution to the problem
can be written as shown below:
fun main() {
var n = readLine()!!.toInt() // read integer from the input
val reached = HashSet<Int>() // a mutable hash set
while (reached.add(n)) n = f(n) // iterate function f
println(reached.size) // print answer to the output
}
Note the use of Kotlin's null-assertion operator !! after the readLine() function call. Kotlin's readLine() function is defined
to return a nullable type String? and returns null on the end of the input, which explicitly forces the developer to handle
the case of missing input.
There is no need to handle the case of misformatted input in competitive programming. In competitive programming,
an input format is always precisely specified and the actual input cannot deviate from the input specification in the
problem statement. That's what the null-assertion operator !! essentially does — it asserts that the input string is
present and throws an exception otherwise. Likewise, the String.toInt() function throws an exception if the input string
is not an integer.
All online competitive programming events allow the use of pre-written code, so you can define your own library of
utility functions that are geared towards competitive programming to make your actual solution code somewhat easier
to read and write. You would then use this code as a template for your solutions. For example, you can define the
following helper functions for reading inputs in competitive programming:
private fun readLn() = readLine()!!
private fun readInt() = readLn().toInt()
// etc for other types you'd use in your solutions
Note the use of private visibility modifier here. While the concept of visibility modifier is not relevant for competitive
programming at all, it allows you to place multiple solution files based on the same template without getting an error for
conflicting public declarations in the same package.
Functional
operators
example:
Long
Number
problem
For more complicated problems, Kotlin's extensive library of functional operations on collections comes in handy to
minimize the boilerplate and turn the code into a linear top-to-bottom and left-to-right fluent data transformation
pipeline. For example, the Problem B: Long Number problem takes a simple greedy algorithm to implement and it can
be written using this style without a single mutable variable:
fun main() {
// read input
val n = readLine()!!.toInt()
val s = readLine()!!
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val fl = readLine()!!.split(" ").map { it.toInt() }
// define local function f
fun f(c: Char) = '0' + fl[c - '1']
// greedily find first and last indices
val i = s.indexOfFirst { c -> f(c) > c }
.takeIf { it >= 0 } ?: s.length
val j = s.withIndex().indexOfFirst { (j, c) -> j > i && f(c) < c }
.takeIf { it >= 0 } ?: s.length
// compose and write the answer
val ans =
s.substring(0, i) +
s.substring(i, j).map { c -> f(c) }.joinToString("") +
s.substring(j)
println(ans)
}
In this dense code, in addition to collection transformations, you can see such handy Kotlin features as local functions
and the elvis operator ?: that allow to express idioms like "take the value if it is positive or else use length" with a
concise and readable expressions like .takeIf { it >= 0 } ?: s.length, yet it is perfectly fine with Kotlin to create additional
mutable variables and express the same code in imperative style, too.
To make reading the input in competitive programming tasks like this more concise, you can have the following list of
helper input-reading functions:
private fun readLn() = readLine()!! // string line
private fun readInt() = readLn().toInt() // single int
private fun readStrings() = readLn().split(" ") // list of strings
private fun readInts() = readStrings().map { it.toInt() } // list of ints
With these helpers, the part of code for reading input becomes simpler, closely following the input specification in the
problem statement line by line:
// read input
val n = readInt()
val s = readLn()
val fl = readInts()
Note that in competitive programming it is customary to give variables shorter names than it is typical in industrial
programming practice, since the code is to be written just once and not supported thereafter. However, these names
are usually still mnemonic — a for arrays, i, j, etc for indices, r, and c for row and column numbers in tables, x and y for
coordinates, etc. It is easier to keep the same names for input data as it is given in the problem statement. However,
more complex problems require more code which leads to using longer self-explanatory variable and function names.
More
tips
and
tricks
Competitive programming problems often have input like this:
The first line of the input contains two integers n and k
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In Kotlin this line can be concisely parsed with the following statement using destructuring declaration from a list of
integers:
val (n, k) = readInts()
It might be temping to use JVM's java.util.Scanner class to parse less structured input formats. Kotlin is designed to
interoperate well with JVM libraries, so that their use feels quite natural in Kotlin. However, beware that
java.util.Scanner is extremely slow. So slow, in fact, that parsing 10 5 or more integers with it might not fit into a typical
2 second time-limit, which a simple Kotlin's split(" ").map { it.toInt() } would handle.
Writing output in Kotlin is usually straightforward with println(...) calls and using Kotlin's string templates. However, care
must be taken when output contains on order of 10 5 lines or more. Issuing so many println calls is too slow, since the
output in Kotlin is automatically flushed after each line. A faster way to write many lines from an array or a list is using
joinToString() function with "\n" as the separator, like this:
println(a.joinToString("\n")) // each element of array/list of a separate line
Learning
Kotlin
Kotlin is easy to learn, especially for those who already know Java. A short introduction to the basic syntax of Kotlin for
software developers can be found directly in the reference section of the web site starting from basic syntax.
IDEA has built-in Java-to-Kotlin converter. It can be used by people familiar with Java to learn the corresponding Kotlin
syntactic constructions, but it is not perfect and it is still worth familiarizing yourself with Kotlin and learning the Kotlin
idioms.
A great resource to study Kotlin syntax and API of the Kotlin standard library are Kotlin Koans.
What's
new
in
Kotlin
1.5.20
Release date: 24 June 2021
Kotlin 1.5.20 has fixes for issues discovered in the new features of 1.5.0, and it also includes various tooling
improvements.
You can find an overview of the changes in the release blog post and this video:
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Gif
Watch video online.
Kotlin/JVM
Kotlin 1.5.20 is receiving the following updates on the JVM platform:
String concatenation via invokedynamic
Support for JSpecify nullness annotations
Support for calling Java’s Lombok-generated methods within modules that have Kotlin and Java code
String
concatenation
via
invokedynamic
Kotlin 1.5.20 compiles string concatenations into dynamic invocations (invokedynamic) on JVM 9+ targets, thereby
keeping up with modern Java versions. More precisely, it uses StringConcatFactory.makeConcatWithConstants() for
string concatenation.
To switch back to concatenation via StringBuilder.append() used in previous versions, add the compiler option -
Xstring-concat=inline.
Learn how to add compiler options in Gradle, Maven, and the command-line compiler.
Support
for
JSpecify
nullness
annotations
The Kotlin compiler can read various types of nullability annotations to pass nullability information from Java to Kotlin.
Version 1.5.20 introduces support for the JSpecify project, which includes the standard unified set of Java nullness
annotations.
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With JSpecify, you can provide more detailed nullability information to help Kotlin keep null-safety interoperating with
Java. You can set default nullability for the declaration, package, or module scope, specify parametric nullability, and
more. You can find more details about this in the JSpecify user guide.
Here is the example of how Kotlin can handle JSpecify annotations:
// JavaClass.java
import *;
@NullMarked
public class JavaClass {
public String notNullableString() { return ""; }
public @Nullable String nullableString() { return ""; }
}
// Test.kt
fun kotlinFun() = with(JavaClass()) {
notNullableString().length // OK
nullableString().length // Warning: receiver nullability mismatch
}
In 1.5.20, all nullability mismatches according to the JSpecify-provided nullability information are reported as warnings.
Use the -Xjspecify-annotations=strict and -Xtype-enhancement-improvements-strict-mode compiler options to enable
strict mode (with error reporting) when working with JSpecify. Please note that the JSpecify project is under active
development. Its API and implementation can change significantly at any time.
Learn more about null-safety and platform types.
Support
for
calling
Java’s
Lombok-generated
methods
within
modules
that
have
Kotlin
and
Java
code
The Lombok compiler plugin is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any time. Use it only for
evaluation purposes. We would appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
Kotlin 1.5.20 introduces an experimental Lombok compiler plugin. This plugin makes it possible to generate and use
Java’s Lombok declarations within modules that have Kotlin and Java code. Lombok annotations work only in Java
sources and are ignored if you use them in Kotlin code.
The plugin supports the following annotations:
@Getter, @Setter
@NoArgsConstructor, @RequiredArgsConstructor, and @AllArgsConstructor
@Data
@With
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@Value
We're continuing to work on this plugin. To find out the detailed current state, visit the Lombok compiler plugin's
README.
Currently, we don't have plans to support the @Builder annotation. However, we can consider this if you vote for
@Builder in YouTrack.
Learn how to configure the Lombok compiler plugin.
Kotlin/Native
Kotlin/Native 1.5.20 offers a preview of the new feature and the tooling improvements:
Opt-in export of KDoc comments to generated Objective-C headers
Compiler bug fixes
Improved performance of Array.copyInto() inside one array
Opt-in
export
of
KDoc
comments
to
generated
Objective-C
headers
The ability to export KDoc comments to generated Objective-C headers is Experimental. It may be dropped
or changed at any time. Opt-in is required (see the details below), and you should use it only for evaluation
purposes. We would appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
You can now set the Kotlin/Native compiler to export the documentation comments (KDoc) from Kotlin code to the
Objective-C frameworks generated from it, making them visible to the frameworks’ consumers.
For example, the following Kotlin code with KDoc:
/**
* Prints the sum of the arguments.
* Properly handles the case when the sum doesn't fit in 32-bit integer.
*/
fun printSum(a: Int, b: Int) = println(a.toLong() + b)
produces the following Objective-C headers:
/**
* Prints the sum of the arguments.
* Properly handles the case when the sum doesn't fit in 32-bit integer.
*/
+ (void)printSumA:(int32_t)a b:(int32_t)b __attribute__((swift_name("printSum(a:b:)")));
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This also works well with Swift.
To try out this ability to export KDoc comments to Objective-C headers, use the -Xexport-kdoc compiler option. Add
the following lines to build.gradle(.kts) of the Gradle projects you want to export comments from:
Groovy
kotlin {
targets.withType(org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.plugin.mpp.KotlinNativeTarget) {
compilations.get("main").kotlinOptions.freeCompilerArgs += "-Xexport-kdoc"
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
targets.withType<org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.plugin.mpp.KotlinNativeTarget> {
compilations.get("main").kotlinOptions.freeCompilerArgs += "-Xexport-kdoc"
}
}
We’d be very grateful if you would share your feedback with us using this YouTrack ticket.
Compiler
bug
fixes
The Kotlin/Native compiler has received multiple bug fixes in 1.5.20. You can find the complete list in the changelog.
There is an important bug fix that affects compatibility: in previous versions, string constants that contained incorrect
UTF surrogate pairs were losing their values during compilation. Now such values are preserved. Application
developers can safely update to 1.5.20 – nothing will break. However, libraries compiled with 1.5.20 are incompatible
with earlier compiler versions. See this YouTrack issue for details.
Improved
performance
of
Array.copyInto()
inside
one
array
We’ve improved the way Array.copyInto() works when its source and destination are the same array. Now such
operations finish up to 20 times faster (depending on the number of objects being copied) due to memory management
optimizations for this use case.
Kotlin/JS
With 1.5.20, we’re publishing a guide that will help you migrate your projects to the new IR-based backend for
Kotlin/JS.
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Migration
guide
for
the
JS
IR
backend
The new migration guide for the JS IR backend identifies issues you may encounter during migration and provides
solutions for them. If you find any issues that aren’t covered in the guide, please report them to our issue tracker.
Gradle
Kotlin 1.5.20 introduces the following features that can improve the Gradle experience:
Caching for annotation processors classloaders in kapt
Deprecation of the kotlin.parallel.tasks.in.project build property
Caching
for
annotation
processors'
classloaders
in
kapt
Caching for annotation processors' classloaders in kapt is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at
any time. Use it only for evaluation purposes. We would appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
There is now a new experimental feature that makes it possible to cache the classloaders of annotation processors in
kapt. This feature can increase the speed of kapt for consecutive Gradle runs.
To enable this feature, use the following properties in your gradle.properties file:
# positive value will enable caching
# use the same value as the number of modules that use kapt
kapt.classloaders.cache.size=5
# disable for caching to work
kapt.include.compile.classpath=false
Learn more about kapt.
Deprecation
of
the
kotlin.parallel.tasks.in.project
build
property
With this release, Kotlin parallel compilation is controlled by the Gradle parallel execution flag --parallel. Using this flag,
Gradle executes tasks concurrently, increasing the speed of compiling tasks and utilizing the resources more
efficiently.
You no longer need to use the kotlin.parallel.tasks.in.project property. This property has been deprecated and will be
removed in the next major release.
Standard
library
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Kotlin 1.5.20 changes the platform-specific implementations of several functions for working with characters and as a
result brings unification across platforms:
Support for all Unicode digits in Char.digitToInt() for Kotlin/Native and Kotlin/JS.
Unification of Char.isLowerCase()/isUpperCase() implementations across platforms.
Support
for
all
Unicode
digits
in
Char.digitToInt()
in
Kotlin/Native
and
Kotlin/JS
Char.digitToInt() returns the numeric value of the decimal digit that the character represents. Before 1.5.20, the function
supported all Unicode digit characters only for Kotlin/JVM: implementations on the Native and JS platforms supported
only ASCII digits.
From now, both with Kotlin/Native and Kotlin/JS, you can call Char.digitToInt() on any Unicode digit character and get
its numeric representation.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val ten = '\u0661'.digitToInt() + '\u0039'.digitToInt() // ARABIC-INDIC DIGIT ONE + DIGIT
NINE
println(ten)
//sampleEnd
}
Unification
of
Char.isLowerCase()/isUpperCase()
implementations
across
platforms
The functions Char.isUpperCase() and Char.isLowerCase() return a boolean value depending on the case of the
character. For Kotlin/JVM, the implementation checks both the General_Category and the Other_Uppercase/
Other_Lowercase Unicode properties.
Prior to 1.5.20, implementations for other platforms worked differently and considered only the general category. In
1.5.20, implementations are unified across platforms and use both properties to determine the character case:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val latinCapitalA = 'A' // has "Lu" general category
val circledLatinCapitalA = 'Ⓐ' // has "Other_Uppercase" property
println(latinCapitalA.isUpperCase() && circledLatinCapitalA.isUpperCase())
//sampleEnd
}
What's
new
in
Kotlin
1.5.0
Release date: 5 May 2021
Kotlin 1.5.0 introduces new language features, stable IR-based JVM compiler backend, performance improvements,
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and evolutionary changes such as stabilizing experimental features and deprecating outdated ones.
You can also find an overview of the changes in the release blog post.
Language
features
Kotlin 1.5.0 brings stable versions of the new language features presented for preview in 1.4.30:
JVM records support
Sealed interfaces and sealed class improvements
Inline classes
Detailed descriptions of these features are available in this blog post and the corresponding pages of Kotlin
documentation.
JVM
records
support
Java is evolving fast, and to make sure Kotlin remains interoperable with it, we’ve introduced support for one of its
latest features – record classes.
Kotlin’s support for JVM records includes bidirectional interoperability:
In Kotlin code, you can use Java record classes like you would use typical classes with properties.
To use a Kotlin class as a record in Java code, make it a data class and mark it with the @JvmRecord annotation.
@JvmRecord
data class User(val name: String, val age: Int)
Learn more about using JVM records in Kotlin.
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Gif
Watch video online.
Sealed
interfaces
Kotlin interfaces can now have the sealed modifier, which works on interfaces in the same way it works on classes: all
implementations of a sealed interface are known at compile time.
sealed interface Polygon
You can rely on that fact, for example, to write exhaustive when expressions.
fun draw(polygon: Polygon) = when (polygon) {
is Rectangle -> // ...
is Triangle -> // …
// else is not needed - all possible implementations are covered
}
Additionally, sealed interfaces enable more flexible restricted class hierarchies because a class can directly inherit
more than one sealed interface.
class FilledRectangle: Polygon, Fillable
Learn more about sealed interfaces.
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Gif
Watch video online.
Package-wide
sealed
class
hierarchies
Sealed classes can now have subclasses in all files of the same compilation unit and the same package. Previously, all
subclasses had to appear in the same file.
Direct subclasses may be top-level or nested inside any number of other named classes, named interfaces, or named
objects.
The subclasses of a sealed class must have a name that is properly qualified – they cannot be local or anonymous
objects.
Learn more about sealed class hierarchies.
Inline
classes
Inline classes are a subset of value-based classes that only hold values. You can use them as wrappers for a value of a
certain type without the additional overhead that comes from using memory allocations.
Inline classes can be declared with the value modifier before the name of the class:
value class Password(val s: String)
The JVM backend also requires a special @JvmInline annotation:
@JvmInline
value class Password(val s: String)
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The inline modifier is now deprecated with a warning.
Learn more about inline classes.
Gif
Watch video online.
Kotlin/JVM
Kotlin/JVM has received a number of improvements, both internal and user-facing. Here are the most notable among
them:
Stable JVM IR backend
New default JVM target: 1.8
SAM adapters via invokedynamic
Lambdas via invokedynamic
Deprecation of @JvmDefault and old Xjvm-default modes
Improvements to handling nullability annotations
Stable
JVM
IR
backend
The IR-based backend for the Kotlin/JVM compiler is now Stable and enabled by default.
Starting from Kotlin 1.4.0, early versions of the IR-based backend were available for preview, and it has now become
the default for language version 1.5. The old backend is still used by default for earlier language versions.
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You can find more details about the benefits of the IR backend and its future development in this blog post.
If you need to use the old backend in Kotlin 1.5.0, you can add the following lines to the project’s configuration file:
In Gradle:
Groovy
tasks.withType(org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.dsl.KotlinJvmCompile) {
kotlinOptions.useOldBackend = true
}
Kotlin
tasks.withType<org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.dsl.KotlinJvmCompile> {
kotlinOptions.useOldBackend = true
}
In Maven:
<configuration>
<args>
<arg>-Xuse-old-backend</arg>
</args>
</configuration>
New
default
JVM
target:
1.8
The default target version for Kotlin/JVM compilations is now 1.8. The 1.6 target is deprecated.
If you need a build for JVM 1.6, you can still switch to this target. Learn how:
in Gradle
in Maven
in the command-line compiler
SAM
adapters
via
invokedynamic
Kotlin 1.5.0 now uses dynamic invocations (invokedynamic) for compiling SAM (Single Abstract Method) conversions:
Over any expression if the SAM type is a Java interface
Over lambda if the SAM type is a Kotlin functional interface
The new implementation uses LambdaMetafactory.metafactory() and auxiliary wrapper classes are no longer generated
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during compilation. This decreases the size of the application’s JAR, which improves the JVM startup performance.
To roll back to the old implementation scheme based on anonymous class generation, add the compiler option -Xsam-
conversions=class.
Learn how to add compiler options in Gradle, Maven, and the command-line compiler.
Lambdas
via
invokedynamic
Compiling plain Kotlin lambdas into invokedynamic is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any
time. Opt-in is required (see details below), and you should use it only for evaluation purposes. We would
appreciate hearing your feedback on it in YouTrack.
Kotlin 1.5.0 is introducing experimental support for compiling plain Kotlin lambdas (which are not converted to an
instance of a functional interface) into dynamic invocations (invokedynamic ). The implementation produces lighter
binaries by using LambdaMetafactory.metafactory(), which effectively generates the necessary classes at runtime.
Currently, it has three limitations compared to ordinary lambda compilation:
A lambda compiled into invokedynamic is not serializable.
Calling toString() on such a lambda produces a less readable string representation.
Experimental reflect API does not support lambdas created with LambdaMetafactory.
To try this feature, add the -Xlambdas=indy compiler option. We’d be grateful if you could share your feedback on it
using this YouTrack ticket.
Learn how to add compiler options in Gradle, Maven, and command-line compiler.
Deprecation
of
@JvmDefault
and
old
Xjvm-default
modes
Prior to Kotlin 1.4.0, there was the @JvmDefault annotation along with -Xjvm-default=enable and -Xjvm-
default=compatibility modes. They served to create the JVM default method for any particular non-abstract member in
the Kotlin interface.
In Kotlin 1.4.0, we introduced the new Xjvm-default modes, which switch on default method generation for the whole
project.
In Kotlin 1.5.0, we are deprecating @JvmDefault and the old Xjvm-default modes: -Xjvm-default=enable and -Xjvm-
default=compatibility.
Learn more about default methods in the Java interop.
Improvements
to
handling
nullability
annotations
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Kotlin supports handling type nullability information from Java with nullability annotations. Kotlin 1.5.0 introduces a
number of improvements for the feature:
It reads nullability annotations on type arguments in compiled Java libraries that are used as dependencies.
It supports nullability annotations with the TYPE_USE target for:
Arrays
Varargs
Fields
Type parameters and their bounds
Type arguments of base classes and interfaces
If a nullability annotation has multiple targets applicable to a type, and one of these targets is TYPE_USE, then
TYPE_USE is preferred. For example, the method signature @Nullable String[] f() becomes fun f(): Array<String?>! if
@Nullable supports both TYPE_USE and METHOD as targets.
For these newly supported cases, using the wrong type nullability when calling Java from Kotlin produces warnings.
Use the -Xtype-enhancement-improvements-strict-mode compiler option to enable strict mode for these cases (with
error reporting).
Learn more about null-safety and platform types.
Kotlin/Native
Kotlin/Native is now more performant and stable. The notable changes are:
Performance improvements
Deactivation of the memory leak checker
Performance
improvements
In 1.5.0, Kotlin/Native is receiving a set of performance improvements that speed up both compilation and execution.
Compiler caches are now supported in debug mode for linuxX64 (only on Linux hosts) and iosArm64 targets. With
compiler caches enabled, most debug compilations complete much faster, except for the first one. Measurements
showed about a 200% speed increase on our test projects.
To use compiler caches for new targets, opt in by adding the following lines to the project’s gradle.properties:
For linuxX64: kotlin.native.cacheKind.linuxX64=static
For iosArm64: kotlin.native.cacheKind.iosArm64=static
If you encounter any issues after enabling the compiler caches, please report them to our issue tracker YouTrack.
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Other improvements speed up the execution of Kotlin/Native code:
Trivial property accessors are inlined.
trimIndent() on string literals is evaluated during the compilation.
Deactivation
of
the
memory
leak
checker
The built-in Kotlin/Native memory leak checker has been disabled by default.
It was initially designed for internal use, and it is able to find leaks only in a limited number of cases, not all of them.
Moreover, it later turned out to have issues that can cause application crashes. So we’ve decided to turn off the
memory leak checker.
The memory leak checker can still be useful for certain cases, for example, unit testing. For these cases, you can
enable it by adding the following line of code:
Platform.isMemoryLeakCheckerActive = true
Note that enabling the checker for the application runtime is not recommended.
Kotlin/JS
Kotlin/JS is receiving evolutionary changes in 1.5.0. We’re continuing our work on moving the JS IR compiler backend
towards stable and shipping other updates:
Upgrade of webpack to version 5
Frameworks and libraries for the IR compiler
Upgrade
to
webpack
5
The Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin now uses webpack 5 for browser targets instead of webpack 4. This is a major webpack
upgrade that brings incompatible changes. If you’re using a custom webpack configuration, be sure to check the
webpack 5 release notes.
Learn more about bundling Kotlin/JS projects with webpack.
Frameworks
and
libraries
for
the
IR
compiler
The Kotlin/JS IR compiler is in Alpha. It may change incompatibly and require manual migration in the future.
We would appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
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Along with working on the IR-based backend for Kotlin/JS compiler, we encourage and help library authors to build
their projects in both mode. This means they are able to produce artifacts for both Kotlin/JS compilers, therefore
growing the ecosystem for the new compiler.
Many well-known frameworks and libraries are already available for the IR backend: KVision, fritz2, doodle, and others.
If you’re using them in your project, you can already build it with the IR backend and see the benefits it brings.
If you’re writing your own library, compile it in the 'both' mode so that your clients can also use it with the new
compiler.
Kotlin
Multiplatform
In Kotlin 1.5.0, choosing a testing dependency for each platform has been simplified and it is now done automatically
by the Gradle plugin.
A new API for getting a char category is now available in multiplatform projects.
Standard
library
The standard library has received a range of changes and improvements, from stabilizing experimental parts to adding
new features:
Stable unsigned integer types
Stable locale-agnostic API for uppercase/lowercase text
Stable Char-to-integer conversion API
Stable Path API
Floored division and the mod operator
Duration API changes
New API for getting a char category now available in multiplatform code
New collections function firstNotNullOf()
Strict version of String?.toBoolean()
You can learn more about the standard library changes in this blog post.
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Gif
Watch video online.
Stable
unsigned
integer
types
The UInt, ULong, UByte, UShort unsigned integer types are now Stable. The same goes for operations on these types,
ranges, and progressions of them. Unsigned arrays and operations on them remain in Beta.
Learn more about unsigned integer types.
Stable
locale-agnostic
API
for
upper/lowercasing
text
This release brings a new locale-agnostic API for uppercase/lowercase text conversion. It provides an alternative to the
toLowerCase(), toUpperCase(), capitalize(), and decapitalize() API functions, which are locale-sensitive. The new API
helps you avoid errors due to different locale settings.
Kotlin 1.5.0 provides the following fully Stable alternatives:
For String functions:
Earlier
versions 1.5.0
alternative
String.toUpperCase() String.uppercase()
String.toLowerCase() String.lowercase()
String.capitalize() String.replaceFirstChar { it.uppercase()
}
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Earlier
versions 1.5.0
alternative
String.decapitalize() String.replaceFirstChar { it.lowercase() }
For Char functions:
Earlier
versions 1.5.0
alternative
Char.toUpperCase() Char.uppercaseChar():
Char
Char.uppercase(): String
Char.toLowerCase() Char.lowercaseChar(): Char
Char.lowercase(): String
Char.toTitleCase() Char.titlecaseChar(): Char
Char.titlecase(): String
For Kotlin/JVM, there are also overloaded uppercase(), lowercase(), and titlecase() functions with an explicit
Locale parameter.
The old API functions are marked as deprecated and will be removed in a future release.
See the full list of changes to the text processing functions in KEEP.
Stable
char-to-integer
conversion
API
Starting from Kotlin 1.5.0, new char-to-code and char-to-digit conversion functions are Stable. These functions replace
the current API functions, which were often confused with the similar string-to-Int conversion.
The new API removes this naming confusion, making the code behavior more transparent and unambiguous.
This release introduces Char conversions that are divided into the following sets of clearly named functions:
Functions to get the integer code of Char and to construct Char from the given code:
fun Char(code: Int): Char
fun Char(code: UShort): Char
val Char.code: Int
Functions to convert Char to the numeric value of the digit it represents:
fun Char.digitToInt(radix: Int): Int
fun Char.digitToIntOrNull(radix: Int): Int?
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An extension function for Int to convert the non-negative single digit it represents to the corresponding Char
representation:
fun Int.digitToChar(radix: Int): Char
The old conversion APIs, including Number.toChar() with its implementations (all except Int.toChar()) and Char
extensions for conversion to a numeric type, like Char.toInt(), are now deprecated.
Learn more about the char-to-integer conversion API in KEEP.
Stable
Path
API
The experimental Path API with extensions for java.nio.file.Path is now Stable.
// construct path with the div (/) operator
val baseDir = Path("/base")
val subDir = baseDir / "subdirectory"
// list files in a directory
val kotlinFiles: List<Path> = Path("/home/user").listDirectoryEntries("*.kt")
Learn more about the Path API.
Floored
division
and
the
mod
operator
New operations for modular arithmetics have been added to the standard library:
floorDiv() returns the result of floored division. It is available for integer types.
mod() returns the remainder of floored division (modulus ). It is available for all numeric types.
These operations look quite similar to the existing division of integers and rem() function (or the % operator), but they
work differently on negative numbers:
a.floorDiv(b) differs from a regular / in that floorDiv rounds the result down (towards the lesser integer), whereas /
truncates the result to the integer closer to 0.
a.mod(b) is the difference between a and a.floorDiv(b) * b. It’s either zero or has the same sign as b, while a % b can
have a different one.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
println("Floored division -5/3: ${(-5).floorDiv(3)}")
println( "Modulus: ${(-5).mod(3)}")
println("Truncated division -5/3: ${-5 / 3}")
println( "Remainder: ${-5 % 3}")
//sampleEnd
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}
Duration
API
changes
The Duration API is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any time. Use it only for evaluation
purposes. We would appreciate hearing your feedback on it in YouTrack.
There is an experimental Duration class for representing duration amounts in different time units. In 1.5.0, the Duration
API has received the following changes:
Internal value representation now uses Long instead of Double to provide better precision.
There is a new API for conversion to a particular time unit in Long. It comes to replace the old API, which operates
with Double values and is now deprecated. For example, Duration.inWholeMinutes returns the value of the duration
expressed as Long and replaces Duration.inMinutes.
There are new companion functions for constructing a Duration from a number. For example, Duration.seconds(Int)
creates a Duration object representing an integer number of seconds. Old extension properties like Int.seconds are
now deprecated.
import kotlin.time.Duration
import kotlin.time.ExperimentalTime
@ExperimentalTime
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val duration = Duration.milliseconds(120000)
println("There are ${duration.inWholeSeconds} seconds in ${duration.inWholeMinutes}
minutes")
//sampleEnd
}
New
API
for
getting
a
char
category
now
available
in
multiplatform
code
Kotlin 1.5.0 introduces the new API for getting a character’s category according to Unicode in multiplatform projects.
Several functions are now available in all the platforms and in the common code.
Functions for checking whether a char is a letter or a digit:
Char.isDigit()
Char.isLetter()
Char.isLetterOrDigit()
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fun main() {
//sampleStart
val chars = listOf('a', '1', '+')
val (letterOrDigitList, notLetterOrDigitList) = chars.partition { it.isLetterOrDigit() }
println(letterOrDigitList) // [a, 1]
println(notLetterOrDigitList) // [+]
//sampleEnd
}
Functions for checking the case of a char:
Char.isLowerCase()
Char.isUpperCase()
Char.isTitleCase()
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val chars = listOf('Dž', 'Lj', 'Nj', 'Dz', '1', 'A', 'a', '+')
val (titleCases, notTitleCases) = chars.partition { it.isTitleCase() }
println(titleCases) // [Dž, Lj, Nj, Dz]
println(notTitleCases) // [1, A, a, +]
//sampleEnd
}
Some other functions:
Char.isDefined()
Char.isISOControl()
The property Char.category and its return type enum class CharCategory, which indicates a char's general category
according to Unicode, are now also available in multiplatform projects.
Learn more about characters.
New
collections
function
firstNotNullOf()
The new firstNotNullOf() and firstNotNullOfOrNull() functions combine mapNotNull() with first() or firstOrNull(). They map
the original collection with the custom selector function and return the first non-null value. If there is no such value,
firstNotNullOf() throws an exception, and firstNotNullOfOrNull() returns null.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val data = listOf("Kotlin", "1.5")
println(data.firstNotNullOf(String::toDoubleOrNull))
println(data.firstNotNullOfOrNull(String::toIntOrNull))
//sampleEnd
}
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Strict
version
of
String?.toBoolean()
Two new functions introduce case-sensitive strict versions of the existing String?.toBoolean():
String.toBooleanStrict() throws an exception for all inputs except the literals true and false.
String.toBooleanStrictOrNull() returns null for all inputs except the literals true and false.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
println("true".toBooleanStrict())
println("1".toBooleanStrictOrNull())
// println("1".toBooleanStrict()) // Exception
//sampleEnd
}
kotlin-test
library
The kotlin-test library introduces some new features:
Simplified test dependencies usage in multiplatform projects
Automatic selection of a testing framework for Kotlin/JVM source sets
Assertion function updates
Simplified
test
dependencies
usage
in
multiplatform
projects
Now you can use the kotlin-test dependency to add dependencies for testing in the commonTest source set, and the
Gradle plugin will infer the corresponding platform dependencies for each test source set:
kotlin-test-junit for JVM source sets, see automatic choice of a testing framework for Kotlin/JVM source sets
kotlin-test-js for Kotlin/JS source sets
kotlin-test-common and kotlin-test-annotations-common for common source sets
No extra artifact for Kotlin/Native source sets
Additionally, you can use the kotlin-test dependency in any shared or platform-specific source set.
An existing kotlin-test setup with explicit dependencies will continue to work both in Gradle and in Maven.
Learn more about setting dependencies on test libraries.
Automatic
selection
of
a
testing
framework
for
Kotlin/JVM
source
sets
The Gradle plugin now chooses and adds a dependency on a testing framework automatically. All you need to do is
add the dependency kotlin-test in the common source set.
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Gradle uses JUnit 4 by default. Therefore, the kotlin("test") dependency resolves to the variant for JUnit 4, namely
kotlin-test-junit:
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets {
commonTest {
dependencies {
implementation kotlin("test") // This brings the dependency
// on JUnit 4 transitively
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
sourceSets {
val commonTest by getting {
dependencies {
implementation(kotlin("test")) // This brings the dependency
// on JUnit 4 transitively
}
}
}
}
You can choose JUnit 5 or TestNG by calling useJUnitPlatform() or useTestNG() in the test task:
tasks {
test {
// enable TestNG support
useTestNG()
// or
// enable JUnit Platform (a.k.a. JUnit 5) support
useJUnitPlatform()
}
}
You can disable automatic testing framework selection by adding the line kotlin.test.infer.jvm.variant=false to the
project’s gradle.properties.
Learn more about setting dependencies on test libraries.
Assertion
function
updates
This release brings new assertion functions and improves the existing ones.
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The kotlin-test library now has the following features:
Checking the type of a value
You can use the new assertIs<T> and assertIsNot<T> to check the type of a value:
@Test
fun testFunction() {
val s: Any = "test"
assertIs<String>(s) // throws AssertionError mentioning the actual type of s if the
assertion fails
// can now print s.length because of contract in assertIs
println("${s.length}")
}
Because of type erasure, this assert function only checks whether the value is of the List type in the following
example and doesn't check whether it's a list of the particular String element type: assertIs<List<String>>(value).
Comparing the container content for arrays, sequences, and arbitrary iterables
There is a new set of overloaded assertContentEquals() functions for comparing content for different collections that
don’t implement structural equality:
@Test
fun test() {
val expectedArray = arrayOf(1, 2, 3)
val actualArray = Array(3) { it + 1 }
assertContentEquals(expectedArray, actualArray)
}
New overloads to assertEquals() and assertNotEquals() for Double and Float numbers
There are new overloads for the assertEquals() function that make it possible to compare two Double or Float
numbers with absolute precision. The precision value is specified as the third parameter of the function:
@Test
fun test() {
val x = sin(PI)
// precision parameter
val tolerance = 0.000001
assertEquals(0.0, x, tolerance)
}
New functions for checking the content of collections and elements
You can now check whether the collection or element contains something with the assertContains() function. You
can use it with Kotlin collections and elements that have the contains() operator, such as IntRange, String, and
others:
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@Test
fun test() {
val sampleList = listOf<String>("sample", "sample2")
val sampleString = "sample"
assertContains(sampleList, sampleString) // element in collection
assertContains(sampleString, "amp") // substring in string
}
assertTrue(), assertFalse(), expect() functions are now inline
From now on, you can use these as inline functions, so it's possible to call suspend functions inside a lambda
expression:
@Test
fun test() = runBlocking<Unit> {
val deferred = async { "Kotlin is nice" }
assertTrue("Kotlin substring should be present") {
deferred.await() .contains("Kotlin")
}
}
kotlinx
libraries
Along with Kotlin 1.5.0, we are releasing new versions of the kotlinx libraries:
kotlinx.coroutines 1.5.0-RC
kotlinx.serialization 1.2.1
kotlinx-datetime 0.2.0
Coroutines
1.5.0-RC
kotlinx.coroutines 1.5.0-RC is here with:
New channels API
Stable reactive integrations
And more
Starting with Kotlin 1.5.0, experimental coroutines are disabled and the -Xcoroutines=experimental flag is no longer
supported.
Learn more in the changelog and the kotlinx.coroutines 1.5.0 release blog post.
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Gif
Watch video online.
Serialization
1.2.1
kotlinx.serialization 1.2.1 is here with:
Improvements to JSON serialization performance
Support for multiple names in JSON serialization
Experimental .proto schema generation from @Serializable classes
And more
Learn more in the changelog and the kotlinx.serialization 1.2.1 release blog post.
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Gif
Watch video online.
dateTime
0.2.0
kotlinx-datetime 0.2.0 is here with:
@Serializable Datetime objects
Normalized API of DateTimePeriod and DatePeriod
And more
Learn more in the changelog and the kotlinx-datetime 0.2.0 release blog post.
Migrating
to
Kotlin
1.5.0
IntelliJ IDEA and Android Studio will suggest updating the Kotlin plugin to 1.5.0 once it is available.
To migrate existing projects to Kotlin 1.5.0, just change the Kotlin version to 1.5.0 and re-import your Gradle or Maven
project. Learn how to update to Kotlin 1.5.0.
To start a new project with Kotlin 1.5.0, update the Kotlin plugin and run the Project Wizard from File | New | Project.
The new command-line compiler is available for downloading on the GitHub release page.
Kotlin 1.5.0 is a feature release and therefore can bring incompatible changes to the language. Find the detailed list of
such changes in the Compatibility Guide for Kotlin 1.5.
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What's
new
in
Kotlin
1.4.30
Release date: 3 February 2021
Kotlin 1.4.30 offers preview versions of new language features, promotes the new IR backend of the Kotlin/JVM
compiler to Beta, and ships various performance and functional improvements.
You can also learn about new features in this blog post.
Language
features
Kotlin 1.5.0 is going to deliver new language features – JVM records support, sealed interfaces, and Stable inline
classes. In Kotlin 1.4.30, you can try these features and improvements in preview mode. We’d be very grateful if you
share your feedback with us in the corresponding YouTrack tickets, as that will allow us to address it before the
release of 1.5.0.
JVM records support
Sealed interfaces and sealed class improvements
Improved inline classes
To enable these language features and improvements in preview mode, you need to opt in by adding specific compiler
options. See the sections below for details.
Learn more about the new features preview in this blog post.
JVM
records
support
The JVM records feature is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any time. Opt-in is required (see
the details below), and you should use it only for evaluation purposes. We would appreciate your feedback
on it in YouTrack.
The JDK 16 release includes plans to stabilize a new Java class type called record. To provide all the benefits of Kotlin
and maintain its interoperability with Java, Kotlin is introducing experimental record class support.
You can use record classes that are declared in Java just like classes with properties in Kotlin. No additional steps are
required.
Starting with 1.4.30, you can declare the record class in Kotlin using the @JvmRecord annotation for a data class:
@JvmRecord
data class User(val name: String, val age: Int)
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To try the preview version of JVM records, add the compiler options -Xjvm-enable-preview and -language-version 1.5.
We’re continuing to work on JVM records support and we’d be very grateful if you would share your feedback with us
using this YouTrack ticket.
Learn more about implementation, restrictions, and the syntax in KEEP.
Sealed
interfaces
Sealed interfaces are Experimental. They may be dropped or changed at any time. Opt-in is required (see the
details below), and you should use them only for evaluation purposes. We would appreciate your feedback
on them in YouTrack.
In Kotlin 1.4.30, we’re shipping the prototype of sealed interfaces. They complement sealed classes and make it
possible to build more flexible restricted class hierarchies.
They can serve as “internal” interfaces that cannot be implemented outside the same module. You can rely on that fact,
for example, to write exhaustive when expressions.
sealed interface Polygon
class Rectangle(): Polygon
class Triangle(): Polygon
// when() is exhaustive: no other polygon implementations can appear
// after the module is compiled
fun draw(polygon: Polygon) = when (polygon) {
is Rectangle -> // ...
is Triangle -> // ...
}
Another use-case: with sealed interfaces, you can inherit a class from two or more sealed superclasses.
sealed interface Fillable {
fun fill()
}
sealed interface Polygon {
val vertices: List<Point>
}
class Rectangle(override val vertices: List<Point>): Fillable, Polygon {
override fun fill() { /*...*/ }
}
To try the preview version of sealed interfaces, add the compiler option -language-version 1.5. Once you switch to this
version, you’ll be able to use the sealed modifier on interfaces. We’d be very grateful if you would share your feedback
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with us using this YouTrack ticket.
Learn more about sealed interfaces.
Package-wide
sealed
class
hierarchies
Package-wide hierarchies of sealed classes are Experimental. They may be dropped or changed at any time.
Opt-in is required (see the details below), and you should use them only for evaluation purposes. We would
appreciate your feedback on them in YouTrack.
Sealed classes can now form more flexible hierarchies. They can have subclasses in all files of the same compilation
unit and the same package. Previously, all subclasses had to appear in the same file.
Direct subclasses may be top-level or nested inside any number of other named classes, named interfaces, or named
objects. The subclasses of a sealed class must have a name that is properly qualified – they cannot be local nor
anonymous objects.
To try package-wide hierarchies of sealed classes, add the compiler option -language-version 1.5. We’d be very
grateful if you would share your feedback with us using this YouTrack ticket.
Learn more about package-wide hierarchies of sealed classes.
Improved
inline
classes
Inline value classes are in Beta. They are almost stable, but migration steps may be required in the future.
We'll do our best to minimize any changes you have to make. We would appreciate your feedback on the
inline classes feature in YouTrack.
Kotlin 1.4.30 promotes inline classes to Beta and brings the following features and improvements to them:
Since inline classes are value-based, you can define them using the value modifier. The inline and value modifiers
are now equivalent to each other. In future Kotlin versions, we’re planning to deprecate the inline modifier.
From now on, Kotlin requires the @JvmInline annotation before a class declaration for the JVM backend:
inline class Name(private val s: String)
value class Name(private val s: String)
// For JVM backends
@JvmInline
value class Name(private val s: String)
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Inline classes can have init blocks. You can add code to be executed right after the class is instantiated:
@JvmInline
value class Negative(val x: Int) {
init {
require(x < 0) { }
}
}
Calling functions with inline classes from Java code: before Kotlin 1.4.30, you couldn't call functions that accept
inline classes from Java because of mangling. From now on, you can disable mangling manually. To call such
functions from Java code, you should add the @JvmName annotation before the function declaration:
inline class UInt(val x: Int)
fun compute(x: Int) { }
@JvmName("computeUInt")
fun compute(x: UInt) { }
In this release, we’ve changed the mangling scheme for functions to fix the incorrect behavior. These changes led
to ABI changes.
Starting with 1.4.30, the Kotlin compiler uses a new mangling scheme by default. Use the -Xuse-14-inline-classes-
mangling-scheme compiler flag to force the compiler to use the old 1.4.0 mangling scheme and preserve binary
compatibility.
Kotlin 1.4.30 promotes inline classes to Beta and we are planning to make them Stable in future releases. We’d be very
grateful if you would share your feedback with us using this YouTrack ticket.
To try the preview version of inline classes, add the compiler option -Xinline-classes or -language-version 1.5.
Learn more about the mangling algorithm in KEEP.
Learn more about inline classes.
Kotlin/JVM
JVM
IR
compiler
backend
reaches
Beta
The IR-based compiler backend for Kotlin/JVM, which was presented in 1.4.0 in Alpha, has reached Beta. This is the
last pre-stable level before the IR backend becomes the default for the Kotlin/JVM compiler.
We’re now dropping the restriction on consuming binaries produced by the IR compiler. Previously, you could use
code compiled by the new JVM IR backend only if you had enabled the new backend. Starting from 1.4.30, there is no
such limitation, so you can use the new backend to build components for third-party use, such as libraries. Try the
Beta version of the new backend and share your feedback in our issue tracker.
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To enable the new JVM IR backend, add the following lines to the project’s configuration file:
In Gradle:
Groovy
tasks.withType(org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.dsl.KotlinJvmCompile) {
kotlinOptions.useIR = true
}
Kotlin
tasks.withType(org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.dsl.KotlinJvmCompile::class) {
kotlinOptions.useIR = true
}
In Maven:
<configuration>
<args>
<arg>-Xuse-ir</arg>
</args>
</configuration>
Learn more about the changes that the JVM IR backend brings in this blog post.
Kotlin/Native
Performance
improvements
Kotlin/Native has received a variety of performance improvements in 1.4.30, which has resulted in faster compilation
times. For example, the time required to rebuild the framework in the KMM Networking and Data Storage sample has
decreased from 9.5 seconds (in 1.4.10) to 4.5 seconds (in 1.4.30).
Apple
watchOS
64-bit
simulator
target
The x86 simulator target has been deprecated for watchOS since version 7.0. To keep up with the latest watchOS
versions, Kotlin/Native has the new target watchosX64 for running the simulator on 64-bit architecture.
Support
for
Xcode
12.2
libraries
We have added support for the new libraries delivered with Xcode 12.2. You can now use them from Kotlin code.
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Kotlin/JS
Lazy
initialization
of
top-level
properties
Lazy initialization of top-level properties is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any time. Opt-in is
required (see the details below), and you should use it only for evaluation purposes. We would appreciate
your feedback on it in YouTrack.
The IR backend for Kotlin/JS is receiving a prototype implementation of lazy initialization for top-level properties. This
reduces the need to initialize all top-level properties when the application starts, and it should significantly improve
application start-up times.
We’ll keep working on the lazy initialization, and we ask you to try the current prototype and share your thoughts and
results in this YouTrack ticket or the #javascript channel in the official Kotlin Slack (get an invite here ).
To use the lazy initialization, add the -Xir-property-lazy-initialization compiler option when compiling the code with the
JS IR compiler.
Gradle
project
improvements
Support
the
Gradle
configuration
cache
Starting with 1.4.30, the Kotlin Gradle plugin supports the configuration cache feature. It speeds up the build process:
once you run the command, Gradle executes the configuration phase and calculates the task graph. Gradle caches the
result and reuses it for subsequent builds.
To start using this feature, you can use the Gradle command or set up the IntelliJ based IDE.
Standard
library
Locale-agnostic
API
for
upper/lowercasing
text
The locale-agnostic API feature is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any time. Use it only for
evaluation purposes. We would appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
This release introduces the experimental locale-agnostic API for changing the case of strings and characters. The
current toLowerCase(), toUpperCase(), capitalize(), decapitalize() API functions are locale-sensitive. This means that
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different platform locale settings can affect code behavior. For example, in the Turkish locale, when the string “kotlin” is
converted using toUpperCase, the result is "KOTLİN", not "KOTLIN".
// current API
println("Needs to be capitalized".toUpperCase()) // NEEDS TO BE CAPITALIZED
// new API
println("Needs to be capitalized".uppercase()) // NEEDS TO BE CAPITALIZED
Kotlin 1.4.30 provides the following alternatives:
For String functions:
Earlier
versions 1.4.30
alternative
String.toUpperCase() String.uppercase()
String.toLowerCase() String.lowercase()
String.capitalize() String.replaceFirstChar { it.uppercase()
}
String.decapitalize() String.replaceFirstChar { it.lowercase() }
For Char functions:
Earlier
versions 1.4.30
alternative
Char.toUpperCase() Char.uppercaseChar():
Char
Char.uppercase(): String
Char.toLowerCase() Char.lowercaseChar(): Char
Char.lowercase(): String
Char.toTitleCase() Char.titlecaseChar(): Char
Char.titlecase(): String
For Kotlin/JVM, there are also overloaded uppercase(), lowercase(), and titlecase() functions with an explicit
Locale parameter.
See the full list of changes to the text processing functions in KEEP.
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Clear
Char-to-code
and
Char-to-digit
conversions
The unambiguous API for the Char conversion feature is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any
time. Use it only for evaluation purposes. We would appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
The current Char to numbers conversion functions, which return UTF-16 codes expressed in different numeric types,
are often confused with the similar String-to-Int conversion, which returns the numeric value of a string:
"4".toInt() // returns 4
'4'.toInt() // returns 52
// and there was no common function that would return the numeric value 4 for Char '4'
To avoid this confusion we've decided to separate Char conversions into two following sets of clearly named
functions:
Functions to get the integer code of Char and to construct Char from the given code:
fun Char(code: Int): Char
fun Char(code: UShort): Char
val Char.code: Int
Functions to convert Char to the numeric value of the digit it represents:
fun Char.digitToInt(radix: Int): Int
fun Char.digitToIntOrNull(radix: Int): Int?
An extension function for Int to convert the non-negative single digit it represents to the corresponding Char
representation:
fun Int.digitToChar(radix: Int): Char
See more details in KEEP.
Serialization
updates
Along with Kotlin 1.4.30, we are releasing kotlinx.serialization 1.1.0-RC, which includes some new features:
Inline classes serialization support
Unsigned primitive type serialization support
Inline
classes
serialization
support
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Starting with Kotlin 1.4.30, you can make inline classes serializable:
@Serializable
inline class Color(val rgb: Int)
The feature requires the new 1.4.30 IR compiler.
The serialization framework does not box serializable inline classes when they are used in other serializable classes.
Learn more in the kotlinx.serialization docs.
Unsigned
primitive
type
serialization
support
Starting from 1.4.30, you can use standard JSON serializers of kotlinx.serialization for unsigned primitive types: UInt,
ULong, UByte, and UShort:
@Serializable
class Counter(val counted: UByte, val description: String)
fun main() {
val counted = 239.toUByte()
println(Json.encodeToString(Counter(counted, "tries")))
}
Learn more in the kotlinx.serialization docs.
What's
new
in
Kotlin
1.4.20
Release date: 23 November 2020
Kotlin 1.4.20 offers a number of new experimental features and provides fixes and improvements for existing features,
including those added in 1.4.0.
You can also learn about new features with more examples in this blog post.
Kotlin/JVM
Improvements of Kotlin/JVM are intended to keep it up with the features of modern Java versions:
Java 15 target
invokedynamic string concatenation
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Java
15
target
Now Java 15 is available as a Kotlin/JVM target.
invokedynamic
string
concatenation
invokedynamic string concatenation is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any time. Opt-in is
required (see details below). Use it only for evaluation purposes. We appreciate your feedback on it in
YouTrack.
Kotlin 1.4.20 can compile string concatenations into dynamic invocations on JVM 9+ targets, therefore improving the
performance.
Currently, this feature is experimental and covers the following cases:
String.plus in the operator (a + b ), explicit (a.plus(b) ), and reference ((a::plus)(b)) form.
toString on inline and data classes.
string templates except for ones with a single non-constant argument (see KT-42457 ).
To enable invokedynamic string concatenation, add the -Xstring-concat compiler option with one of the following
values:
indy-with-constants to perform invokedynamic concatenation on strings with
StringConcatFactory.makeConcatWithConstants().
indy to perform invokedynamic concatenation on strings with StringConcatFactory.makeConcat().
inline to switch back to the classic concatenation via StringBuilder.append().
Kotlin/JS
Kotlin/JS keeps evolving fast, and in 1.4.20 you can find a number experimental features and improvements:
Gradle DSL changes
New Wizard templates
Ignoring compilation errors with IR compiler
Gradle
DSL
changes
The Gradle DSL for Kotlin/JS receives a number of updates which simplify project setup and customization. This
includes webpack configuration adjustments, modifications to the auto-generated package.json file, and improved
control over transitive dependencies.
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Single point for webpack configuration
A new configuration block commonWebpackConfig is available for the browser target. Inside it, you can adjust
common settings from a single point, instead of having to duplicate configurations for the webpackTask, runTask, and
testTask.
To enable CSS support by default for all three tasks, add the following snippet in the build.gradle(.kts) of your project:
browser {
commonWebpackConfig {
cssSupport.enabled = true
}
binaries.executable()
}
Learn more about configuring webpack bundling.
package.json customization from Gradle
For more control over your Kotlin/JS package management and distribution, you can now add properties to the project
file package.json via the Gradle DSL.
To add custom fields to your package.json, use the customField function in the compilation's packageJson block:
kotlin {
js(BOTH) {
compilations["main"].packageJson {
customField("hello", mapOf("one" to 1, "two" to 2))
}
}
}
Learn more about package.json customization.
Selective yarn dependency resolutions
Support for selective yarn dependency resolutions is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any
time. Use it only for evaluation purposes. We appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
Kotlin 1.4.20 provides a way of configuring Yarn's selective dependency resolutions- the mechanism for overriding
dependencies of the packages you depend on.
You can use it through the YarnRootExtension inside the YarnPlugin in Gradle. To affect the resolved version of a
package for your project, use the resolution function passing in the package name selector (as specified by Yarn) and
the version to which it should resolve.
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rootProject.plugins.withType<YarnPlugin> {
rootProject.the<YarnRootExtension>().apply {
resolution("react", "16.0.0")
resolution("processor/decamelize", "3.0.0")
}
}
Here, all of your npm dependencies which require react will receive version 16.0.0, and processor will receive its
dependency decamelize as version 3.0.0.
Disabling granular workspaces
Disabling granular workspaces is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any time. Use it only for
evaluation purposes. We appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
To speed up build times, the Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin only installs the dependencies which are required for a particular
Gradle task. For example, the webpack-dev-server package is only installed when you execute one of the *Run tasks,
and not when you execute the assemble task. Such behavior can potentially bring problems when you run multiple
Gradle processes in parallel. When the dependency requirements clash, the two installations of npm packages can
cause errors.
To resolve this issue, Kotlin 1.4.20 includes an option to disable these so-called granular workspaces. This feature is
currently available through the YarnRootExtension inside the YarnPlugin in Gradle. To use it, add the following snippet
to your build.gradle.kts file:
rootProject.plugins.withType<YarnPlugin> {
rootProject.the<YarnRootExtension>().disableGranularWorkspaces()
}
New
Wizard
templates
To give you more convenient ways to customize your project during creation, the project wizard for Kotlin comes with
new templates for Kotlin/JS applications:
Browser Application- a minimal Kotlin/JS Gradle project that runs in the browser.
React Application- a React app that uses the appropriate kotlin-wrappers. It provides options to enable integrations
for style-sheets, navigational components, or state containers.
Node.js Application- a minimal project for running in a Node.js runtime. It comes with the option to directly include
the experimental kotlinx-nodejs package.
Learn how to create Kotlin/JS applications from templates.
108
Ignoring
compilation
errors
with
IR
compiler
Ignore compilation errors mode is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any time. Opt-in is
required (see details below). Use it only for evaluation purposes. We appreciate your feedback on it in
YouTrack.
The IR compiler for Kotlin/JS comes with a new experimental mode - compilation with errors. In this mode, you can run
you code even if it contains errors, for example, if you want to try certain things it when the whole application is not
ready yet.
There are two tolerance policies for this mode:
SEMANTIC: the compiler will accept code which is syntactically correct, but doesn't make sense semantically, such
as val x: String = 3.
SYNTAX: the compiler will accept any code, even if it contains syntax errors.
To allow compilation with errors, add the -Xerror-tolerance-policy= compiler option with one of the values listed above.
Learn more about ignoring compilation errors with Kotlin/JS IR compiler.
Kotlin/Native
Kotlin/Native's priorities in 1.4.20 are performance and polishing existing features. These are the notable
improvements:
Escape analysis
Performance improvements and bug fixes
Opt-in wrapping of Objective-C exceptions
CocoaPods plugin improvements
Support for Xcode 12 libraries
Escape
analysis
The escape analysis mechanism is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any time. Use it only for
evaluation purposes. We appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
Kotlin/Native receives a prototype of the new escape analysis mechanism. It improves the runtime performance by
allocating certain objects on the stack instead of the heap. This mechanism shows a 10% average performance
109
increase on our benchmarks, and we continue improving it so that it speeds up the program even more.
The escape analysis runs in a separate compilation phase for the release builds (with the -opt compiler option).
If you want to disable the escape analysis phase, use the -Xdisable-phases=EscapeAnalysis compiler option.
Performance
improvements
and
bug
fixes
Kotlin/Native receives performance improvements and bug fixes in various components, including the ones added in
1.4.0, for example, the code sharing mechanism.
Opt-in
wrapping
of
Objective-C
exceptions
The Objective-C exception wrapping mechanism is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any time.
Opt-in is required (see details below). Use it only for evaluation purposes. We appreciate your feedback on it
in YouTrack.
Kotlin/Native now can handle exceptions thrown from Objective-C code in runtime to avoid program crashes.
You can opt in to wrap NSException ’s into Kotlin exceptions of type ForeignException. They hold the references to the
original NSException 's. This lets you get the information about the root cause and handle it properly.
To enable wrapping of Objective-C exceptions, specify the -Xforeign-exception-mode objc-wrap option in the cinterop
call or add foreignExceptionMode = objc-wrap property to .def file. If you use CocoaPods integration, specify the
option in the pod {} build script block of a dependency like this:
pod("foo") {
extraOpts = listOf("-Xforeign-exception-mode”, “objc-wrap")
}
The default behavior remains unchanged: the program terminates when an exception is thrown from the Objective-C
code.
CocoaPods
plugin
improvements
Kotlin 1.4.20 continues the set of improvements in CocoaPods integration. Namely, you can try the following new
features:
Improved task execution
Extended DSL
Updated integration with Xcode
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Improved task execution
CocoaPods plugin gets an improved task execution flow. For example, if you add a new CocoaPods dependency,
existing dependencies are not rebuilt. Adding an extra target also doesn't affect rebuilding dependencies for existing
ones.
Extended DSL
The DSL of adding CocoaPods dependencies to your Kotlin project receives new capabilites.
In addition to local Pods and Pods from the CocoaPods repository, you can add dependencies on the following types
of libraries:
A library from a custom spec repository.
A remote library from a Git repository.
A library from an archive (also available by arbitrary HTTP address).
A static library.
A library with custom cinterop options.
Learn more about adding CocoaPods dependencies in Kotlin projects. Find examples in the Kotlin with CocoaPods
sample.
Updated integration with Xcode
To work correctly with Xcode, Kotlin requires some Podfile changes:
If your Kotlin Pod has any Git, HTTP, or specRepo pod dependency, you should also specify it in the Podfile.
When you add a library from the custom spec, you also should specify the location of specs at the beginning of your
Podfile.
Now integration errors have a detailed description in IDEA. So if you have problems with your Podfile, you will
immediately know how to fix them.
Learn more about creating Kotlin pods.
Support
for
Xcode
12
libraries
We have added support for new libraries delivered with Xcode 12. Now you can use them from the Kotlin code.
Kotlin
Multiplatform
Updated
structure
of
multiplatform
library
publications
Starting from Kotlin 1.4.20, there is no longer a separate metadata publication. Metadata artifacts are now included in
111
the root publication which stands for the whole library and is automatically resolved to the appropriate platform-
specific artifacts when added as a dependency to the common source set.
Learn more about publishing a multiplatform library.
Compatibility with earlier versions
This change of structure breaks the compatibility between projects with hierarchical project structure. If a multiplatform
project and a library it depends on both have the hierarchical project structure, then you need to update them to Kotlin
1.4.20 or higher simultaneously. Libraries published with Kotlin 1.4.20 are not available for using from project published
with earlier versions.
Projects and libraries without the hierarchical project structure remain compatible.
Standard
library
The standard library of Kotlin 1.4.20 offers new extensions for working with files and a better performance.
Extensions for java.nio.file.Path
Improved String.replace function performance
Extensions
for
java.nio.file.Path
Extensions for java.nio.file.Path are Experimental. They may be dropped or changed at any time. Opt-in is
required (see details below). Use them only for evaluation purposes. We appreciate your feedback on them
in YouTrack.
Now the standard library provides experimental extensions for java.nio.file.Path. Working with the modern JVM file API
in an idiomatic Kotlin way is now similar to working with java.io.File extensions from the kotlin.io package.
// construct path with the div (/) operator
val baseDir = Path("/base")
val subDir = baseDir / "subdirectory"
// list files in a directory
val kotlinFiles: List<Path> = Path("/home/user").listDirectoryEntries("*.kt")
The extensions are available in the kotlin.io.path package in the kotlin-stdlib-jdk7 module. To use the extensions, opt-in
to the experimental annotation @ExperimentalPathApi.
Improved
String.replace
function
performance
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The new implementation of String.replace() speeds up the function execution. The case-sensitive variant uses a manual
replacement loop based on indexOf, while the case-insensitive one uses regular expression matching.
Kotlin
Android
Extensions
In 1.4.20 the Kotlin Android Extensions plugin becomes deprecated and Parcelable implementation generator moves to
a separate plugin.
Deprecation of synthetic views
New plugin for Parcelable implementation generator
Deprecation
of
synthetic
views
Synthetic views were presented in the Kotlin Android Extensions plugin a while ago to simplify the interaction with UI
elements and reduce boilerplate. Now Google offers a native mechanism that does the same - Android Jetpack's view
bindings, and we're deprecating synthetic views in favor of those.
We extract the Parcelable implementations generator from kotlin-android-extensions and start the deprecation cycle
for the rest of it - synthetic views. For now, they will keep working with a deprecation warning. In the future, you’ll need
to switch your project to another solution. Here are the guidelines that will help you migrate your Android project from
synthetics to view bindings.
New
plugin
for
Parcelable
implementation
generator
The Parcelable implementation generator is now available in the new kotlin-parcelize plugin. Apply this plugin instead
of kotlin-android-extensions.
kotlin-parcelize and kotlin-android-extensions can't be applied together in one module.
The @Parcelize annotation is moved to the kotlinx.parcelize package.
Learn more about Parcelable implementation generator in the Android documentation.
What's
new
in
Kotlin
1.4
Release date: 17 August 2020
In Kotlin 1.4.0, we ship a number of improvements in all of its components, with the focus on quality and performance.
Below you will find the list of the most important changes in Kotlin 1.4.0.
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Language
features
and
improvements
Kotlin 1.4.0 comes with a variety of different language features and improvements. They include:
SAM conversions for Kotlin interfaces*
Explicit API mode for library authors
Mixing named and positional arguments
Trailing comma
Callable reference improvements
break and continue inside when included in loops
SAM
conversions
for
Kotlin
interfaces
Before Kotlin 1.4.0, you could apply SAM (Single Abstract Method) conversions only when working with Java methods
and Java interfaces from Kotlin. From now on, you can use SAM conversions for Kotlin interfaces as well. To do so,
mark a Kotlin interface explicitly as functional with the fun modifier.
SAM conversion applies if you pass a lambda as an argument when an interface with only one single abstract method
is expected as a parameter. In this case, the compiler automatically converts the lambda to an instance of the class
that implements the abstract member function.
fun interface IntPredicate {
fun accept(i: Int): Boolean
}
val isEven = IntPredicate { it % 2 == 0 }
fun main() {
println("Is 7 even? - ${isEven.accept(7)}")
}
Learn more about Kotlin functional interfaces and SAM conversions.
Explicit
API
mode
for
library
authors
Kotlin compiler offers explicit API mode for library authors. In this mode, the compiler performs additional checks that
help make the library’s API clearer and more consistent. It adds the following requirements for declarations exposed to
the library’s public API:
Visibility modifiers are required for declarations if the default visibility exposes them to the public API. This helps
ensure that no declarations are exposed to the public API unintentionally.
Explicit type specifications are required for properties and functions that are exposed to the public API. This
guarantees that API users are aware of the types of API members they use.
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Depending on your configuration, these explicit APIs can produce errors (strict mode) or warnings (warning mode).
Certain kinds of declarations are excluded from such checks for the sake of readability and common sense:
primary constructors
properties of data classes
property getters and setters
override methods
Explicit API mode analyzes only the production sources of a module.
To compile your module in the explicit API mode, add the following lines to your Gradle build script:
Groovy
kotlin {
// for strict mode
explicitApi()
// or
explicitApi = 'strict'
// for warning mode
explicitApiWarning()
// or
explicitApi = 'warning'
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
// for strict mode
explicitApi()
// or
explicitApi = ExplicitApiMode.Strict
// for warning mode
explicitApiWarning()
// or
explicitApi = ExplicitApiMode.Warning
}
When using the command-line compiler, switch to explicit API mode by adding the -Xexplicit-api compiler option with
the value strict or warning.
-Xexplicit-api={strict|warning}
Find more details about the explicit API mode in the KEEP.
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Mixing
named
and
positional
arguments
In Kotlin 1.3, when you called a function with named arguments, you had to place all the arguments without names
(positional arguments) before the first named argument. For example, you could call f(1, y = 2), but you couldn't call f(x
= 1, 2).
It was really annoying when all the arguments were in their correct positions but you wanted to specify a name for one
argument in the middle. It was especially helpful for making absolutely clear which attribute a boolean or null value
belongs to.
In Kotlin 1.4, there is no such limitation – you can now specify a name for an argument in the middle of a set of
positional arguments. Moreover, you can mix positional and named arguments any way you like, as long as they
remain in the correct order.
fun reformat(
str: String,
uppercaseFirstLetter: Boolean = true,
wordSeparator: Char = ' '
) {
// ...
}
//Function call with a named argument in the middle
reformat("This is a String!", uppercaseFirstLetter = false , '-')
Trailing
comma
With Kotlin 1.4 you can now add a trailing comma in enumerations such as argument and parameter lists, when entries,
and components of destructuring declarations. With a trailing comma, you can add new items and change their order
without adding or removing commas.
This is especially helpful if you use multi-line syntax for parameters or values. After adding a trailing comma, you can
then easily swap lines with parameters or values.
fun reformat(
str: String,
uppercaseFirstLetter: Boolean = true,
wordSeparator: Character = ' ', //trailing comma
) {
// ...
}
val colors = listOf(
"red",
"green",
"blue", //trailing comma
)
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Callable
reference
improvements
Kotlin 1.4 supports more cases for using callable references:
References to functions with default argument values
Function references in Unit -returning functions
References that adapt based on the number of arguments in a function
Suspend conversion on callable references
References to functions with default argument values
Now you can use callable references to functions with default argument values. If the callable reference to the function
foo takes no arguments, the default value 0 is used.
fun foo(i: Int = 0): String = "$i!"
fun apply(func: () -> String): String = func()
fun main() {
println(apply(::foo))
}
Previously, you had to write additional overloads for the function apply to use the default argument values.
// some new overload
fun applyInt(func: (Int) -> String): String = func(0)
Function references in Unit-returning functions
In Kotlin 1.4, you can use callable references to functions returning any type in Unit -returning functions. Before Kotlin
1.4, you could only use lambda arguments in this case. Now you can use both lambda arguments and callable
references.
fun foo(f: () -> Unit) { }
fun returnsInt(): Int = 42
fun main() {
foo { returnsInt() } // this was the only way to do it before 1.4
foo(::returnsInt) // starting from 1.4, this also works
}
References that adapt based on the number of arguments in a function
Now you can adapt callable references to functions when passing a variable number of arguments (vararg) . You can
pass any number of parameters of the same type at the end of the list of passed arguments.
117
fun foo(x: Int, vararg y: String) {}
fun use0(f: (Int) -> Unit) {}
fun use1(f: (Int, String) -> Unit) {}
fun use2(f: (Int, String, String) -> Unit) {}
fun test() {
use0(::foo)
use1(::foo)
use2(::foo)
}
Suspend conversion on callable references
In addition to suspend conversion on lambdas, Kotlin now supports suspend conversion on callable references starting
from version 1.4.0.
fun call() {}
fun takeSuspend(f: suspend () -> Unit) {}
fun test() {
takeSuspend { call() } // OK before 1.4
takeSuspend(::call) // In Kotlin 1.4, it also works
}
Using
break
and
continue
inside
when
expressions
included
in
loops
In Kotlin 1.3, you could not use unqualified break and continue inside when expressions included in loops. The reason
was that these keywords were reserved for possible fall-through behavior in when expressions.
That’s why if you wanted to use break and continue inside when expressions in loops, you had to label them, which
became rather cumbersome.
fun test(xs: List<Int>) {
LOOP@for (x in xs) {
when (x) {
2 -> continue@LOOP
17 -> break@LOOP
else -> println(x)
}
}
}
In Kotlin 1.4, you can use break and continue without labels inside when expressions included in loops. They behave
as expected by terminating the nearest enclosing loop or proceeding to its next step.
fun test(xs: List<Int>) {
for (x in xs) {
when (x) {
2 -> continue
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17 -> break
else -> println(x)
}
}
}
The fall-through behavior inside when is subject to further design.
New
tools
in
the
IDE
With Kotlin 1.4, you can use the new tools in IntelliJ IDEA to simplify Kotlin development:
New flexible Project Wizard
Coroutine Debugger
New
flexible
Project
Wizard
With the flexible new Kotlin Project Wizard, you have a place to easily create and configure different types of Kotlin
projects, including multiplatform projects, which can be difficult to configure without a UI.
Kotlin Project Wizard – Multiplatform project
The new Kotlin Project Wizard is both simple and flexible:
1. Select the project template, depending on what you’re trying to do. More templates will be added in the future.
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2. Select the build system – Gradle (Kotlin or Groovy DSL), Maven, or IntelliJ IDEA.
The Kotlin Project Wizard will only show the build systems supported on the selected project template.
3. Preview the project structure directly on the main screen.
Then you can finish creating your project or, optionally, configure the project on the next screen:
4. Add/remove modules and targets supported for this project template.
5. Configure module and target settings, for example, the target JVM version, target template, and test framework.
Kotlin Project Wizard - Configure targets
In the future, we are going to make the Kotlin Project Wizard even more flexible by adding more configuration options
and templates.
You can try out the new Kotlin Project Wizard by working through these tutorials:
Create a console application based on Kotlin/JVM
Create a Kotlin/JS application for React
Create a Kotlin/Native application
Coroutine
Debugger
Many people already use coroutines for asynchronous programming. But when it came to debugging, working with
coroutines before Kotlin 1.4, could be a real pain. Since coroutines jumped between threads, it was difficult to
understand what a specific coroutine was doing and check its context. In some cases, tracking steps over breakpoints
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simply didn’t work. As a result, you had to rely on logging or mental effort to debug code that used coroutines.
In Kotlin 1.4, debugging coroutines is now much more convenient with the new functionality shipped with the Kotlin
plugin.
Debugging works for versions 1.3.8 or later of kotlinx-coroutines-core.
The Debug Tool Window now contains a new Coroutines tab. In this tab, you can find information about both currently
running and suspended coroutines. The coroutines are grouped by the dispatcher they are running on.
Debugging coroutines
Now you can:
Easily check the state of each coroutine.
See the values of local and captured variables for both running and suspended coroutines.
See a full coroutine creation stack, as well as a call stack inside the coroutine. The stack includes all frames with
variable values, even those that would be lost during standard debugging.
If you need a full report containing the state of each coroutine and its stack, right-click inside the Coroutines tab, and
then click Get Coroutines Dump. Currently, the coroutines dump is rather simple, but we’re going to make it more
readable and helpful in future versions of Kotlin.
Coroutines Dump
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Learn more about debugging coroutines in this blog post and IntelliJ IDEA documentation.
New
compiler
The new Kotlin compiler is going to be really fast; it will unify all the supported platforms and provide an API for
compiler extensions. It's a long-term project, and we've already completed several steps in Kotlin 1.4.0:
New, more powerful type inference algorithm is enabled by default.
New JVM and JS IR backends. They will become the default once we stabilize them.
New
more
powerful
type
inference
algorithm
Kotlin 1.4 uses a new, more powerful type inference algorithm. This new algorithm was already available to try in Kotlin
1.3 by specifying a compiler option, and now it’s used by default. You can find the full list of issues fixed in the new
algorithm in YouTrack. Here you can find some of the most noticeable improvements:
More cases where type is inferred automatically
Smart casts for a lambda’s last expression
Smart casts for callable references
Better inference for delegated properties
SAM conversion for Java interfaces with different arguments
Java SAM interfaces in Kotlin
More cases where type is inferred automatically
The new inference algorithm infers types for many cases where the old algorithm required you to specify them
explicitly. For instance, in the following example the type of the lambda parameter it is correctly inferred to String?:
//sampleStart
val rulesMap: Map<String, (String?) -> Boolean> = mapOf(
"weak" to { it != null },
"medium" to { !it.isNullOrBlank() },
"strong" to { it != null && "^[a-zA-Z0-9]+$".toRegex().matches(it) }
)
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
println(rulesMap.getValue("weak")("abc!"))
println(rulesMap.getValue("strong")("abc"))
println(rulesMap.getValue("strong")("abc!"))
}
In Kotlin 1.3, you needed to introduce an explicit lambda parameter or replace to with a Pair constructor with explicit
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generic arguments to make it work.
Smart casts for a lambda’s last expression
In Kotlin 1.3, the last expression inside a lambda wasn’t smart cast unless you specified the expected type. Thus, in
the following example, Kotlin 1.3 infers String? as the type of the result variable:
val result = run {
var str = currentValue()
if (str == null) {
str = "test"
}
str // the Kotlin compiler knows that str is not null here
}
// The type of 'result' is String? in Kotlin 1.3 and String in Kotlin 1.4
In Kotlin 1.4, thanks to the new inference algorithm, the last expression inside a lambda gets smart cast, and this new,
more precise type is used to infer the resulting lambda type. Thus, the type of the result variable becomes String.
In Kotlin 1.3, you often needed to add explicit casts (either !! or type casts like as String) to make such cases work, and
now these casts have become unnecessary.
Smart casts for callable references
In Kotlin 1.3, you couldn’t access a member reference of a smart cast type. Now in Kotlin 1.4 you can:
import kotlin.reflect.KFunction
sealed class Animal
class Cat : Animal() {
fun meow() {
println("meow")
}
}
class Dog : Animal() {
fun woof() {
println("woof")
}
}
//sampleStart
fun perform(animal: Animal) {
val kFunction: KFunction<*> = when (animal) {
is Cat -> animal::meow
is Dog -> animal::woof
}
kFunction.call()
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
perform(Cat())
}
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You can use different member references animal::meow and animal::woof after the animal variable has been smart cast
to specific types Cat and Dog. After type checks, you can access member references corresponding to subtypes.
Better inference for delegated properties
The type of a delegated property wasn’t taken into account while analyzing the delegate expression which follows the
by keyword. For instance, the following code didn’t compile before, but now the compiler correctly infers the types of
the old and new parameters as String?:
import kotlin.properties.Delegates
fun main() {
var prop: String? by Delegates.observable(null) { p, old, new ->
println("$old → $new")
}
prop = "abc"
prop = "xyz"
}
SAM conversion for Java interfaces with different arguments
Kotlin has supported SAM conversions for Java interfaces from the beginning, but there was one case that wasn’t
supported, which was sometimes annoying when working with existing Java libraries. If you called a Java method that
took two SAM interfaces as parameters, both arguments needed to be either lambdas or regular objects. You couldn't
pass one argument as a lambda and another as an object.
The new algorithm fixes this issue, and you can pass a lambda instead of a SAM interface in any case, which is the
way you’d naturally expect it to work.
// FILE: A.java
public class A {
public static void foo(Runnable r1, Runnable r2) {}
}
// FILE: test.kt
fun test(r1: Runnable) {
A.foo(r1) {} // Works in Kotlin 1.4
}
Java SAM interfaces in Kotlin
In Kotlin 1.4, you can use Java SAM interfaces in Kotlin and apply SAM conversions to them.
import java.lang.Runnable
fun foo(r: Runnable) {}
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fun test() {
foo { } // OK
}
In Kotlin 1.3, you would have had to declare the function foo above in Java code to perform a SAM conversion.
Unified
backends
and
extensibility
In Kotlin, we have three backends that generate executables: Kotlin/JVM, Kotlin/JS, and Kotlin/Native. Kotlin/JVM and
Kotlin/JS don't share much code since they were developed independently of each other. Kotlin/Native is based on a
new infrastructure built around an intermediate representation (IR) for Kotlin code.
We are now migrating Kotlin/JVM and Kotlin/JS to the same IR. As a result, all three backends share a lot of logic and
have a unified pipeline. This allows us to implement most features, optimizations, and bug fixes only once for all
platforms. Both new IR-based back-ends are in Alpha.
A common backend infrastructure also opens the door for multiplatform compiler extensions. You will be able to plug
into the pipeline and add custom processing and transformations that will automatically work for all platforms.
We encourage you to use our new JVM IR and JS IR backends, which are currently in Alpha, and share your feedback
with us.
Kotlin/JVM
Kotlin 1.4.0 includes a number of JVM-specific improvements, such as:
New JVM IR backend
New modes for generating default methods in interfaces
Unified exception type for null checks
Type annotations in the JVM bytecode
New
JVM
IR
backend
Along with Kotlin/JS, we are migrating Kotlin/JVM to the unified IR backend, which allows us to implement most
features and bug fixes once for all platforms. You will also be able to benefit from this by creating multiplatform
extensions that will work for all platforms.
Kotlin 1.4.0 does not provide a public API for such extensions yet, but we are working closely with our partners,
including Jetpack Compose, who are already building their compiler plugins using our new backend.
We encourage you to try out the new Kotlin/JVM backend, which is currently in Alpha, and to file any issues and
feature requests to our issue tracker. This will help us to unify the compiler pipelines and bring compiler extensions like
Jetpack Compose to the Kotlin community more quickly.
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To enable the new JVM IR backend, specify an additional compiler option in your Gradle build script:
kotlinOptions.useIR = true
If you enable Jetpack Compose, you will automatically be opted in to the new JVM backend without needing
to specify the compiler option in kotlinOptions.
When using the command-line compiler, add the compiler option -Xuse-ir.
You can use code compiled by the new JVM IR backend only if you've enabled the new backend. Otherwise,
you will get an error. Considering this, we don't recommend that library authors switch to the new backend
in production.
New
modes
for
generating
default
methods
When compiling Kotlin code to targets JVM 1.8 and above, you could compile non-abstract methods of Kotlin
interfaces into Java's default methods. For this purpose, there was a mechanism that includes the @JvmDefault
annotation for marking such methods and the -Xjvm-default compiler option that enables processing of this
annotation.
In 1.4.0, we've added a new mode for generating default methods: -Xjvm-default=all compiles all non-abstract
methods of Kotlin interfaces to default Java methods. For compatibility with the code that uses the interfaces compiled
without default, we also added all-compatibility mode.
For more information about default methods in the Java interop, see the interoperability documentation and this blog
post.
Unified
exception
type
for
null
checks
Starting from Kotlin 1.4.0, all runtime null checks will throw a java.lang.NullPointerException instead of
KotlinNullPointerException, IllegalStateException, IllegalArgumentException, and TypeCastException. This applies to:
the !! operator, parameter null checks in the method preamble, platform-typed expression null checks, and the as
operator with a non-null type. This doesn’t apply to lateinit null checks and explicit library function calls like
checkNotNull or requireNotNull.
This change increases the number of possible null check optimizations that can be performed either by the Kotlin
compiler or by various kinds of bytecode processing tools, such as the Android R8 optimizer.
Note that from a developer’s perspective, things won’t change that much: the Kotlin code will throw exceptions with
the same error messages as before. The type of exception changes, but the information passed stays the same.
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Type
annotations
in
the
JVM
bytecode
Kotlin can now generate type annotations in the JVM bytecode (target version 1.8+), so that they become available in
Java reflection at runtime. To emit the type annotation in the bytecode, follow these steps:
1. Make sure that your declared annotation has a proper annotation target (Java’s ElementType.TYPE_USE or Kotlin’s
AnnotationTarget.TYPE) and retention (AnnotationRetention.RUNTIME ).
2. Compile the annotation class declaration to JVM bytecode target version 1.8+. You can specify it with -jvm-
target=1.8 compiler option.
3. Compile the code that uses the annotation to JVM bytecode target version 1.8+ (-jvm-target=1.8) and add the -
Xemit-jvm-type-annotations compiler option.
Note that the type annotations from the standard library aren’t emitted in the bytecode for now because the standard
library is compiled with the target version 1.6.
So far, only the basic cases are supported:
Type annotations on method parameters, method return types and property types;
Invariant projections of type arguments, such as Smth<@Ann Foo>, Array<@Ann Foo>.
In the following example, the @Foo annotation on the String type can be emitted to the bytecode and then used by the
library code:
@Target(AnnotationTarget.TYPE)
annotation class Foo
class A {
fun foo(): @Foo String = "OK"
}
Kotlin/JS
On the JS platform, Kotlin 1.4.0 provides the following improvements:
New Gradle DSL
New JS IR backend
New
Gradle
DSL
The kotlin.js Gradle plugin comes with an adjusted Gradle DSL, which provides a number of new configuration options
and is more closely aligned to the DSL used by the kotlin-multiplatform plugin. Some of the most impactful changes
include:
Explicit toggles for the creation of executable files via binaries.executable(). Read more about the executing
Kotlin/JS and its environment here.
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Configuration of webpack's CSS and style loaders from within the Gradle configuration via cssSupport. Read more
about using CSS and style loaders here.
Improved management for npm dependencies, with mandatory version numbers or semver version ranges, as well
as support for development, peer, and optional npm dependencies using devNpm, optionalNpm and peerNpm.
Read more about dependency management for npm packages directly from Gradle here.
Stronger integrations for Dukat, the generator for Kotlin external declarations. External declarations can now be
generated at build time, or can be manually generated via a Gradle task. Read more about how to use the
integration here.
New
JS
IR
backend
The IR backend for Kotlin/JS, which currently has Alpha stability, provides some new functionality specific to the
Kotlin/JS target which is focused around the generated code size through dead code elimination, and improved
interoperation with JavaScript and TypeScript, among others.
To enable the Kotlin/JS IR backend, set the key kotlin.js.compiler=ir in your gradle.properties, or pass the IR compiler
type to the js function of your Gradle build script:
kotlin {
js(IR) { // or: LEGACY, BOTH
// . . .
}
binaries.executable()
}
For more detailed information about how to configure the new backend, check out the Kotlin/JS IR compiler
documentation.
With the new @JsExport annotation and the ability to generate TypeScript definitions from Kotlin code, the Kotlin/JS IR
compiler backend improves JavaScript & TypeScript interoperability. This also makes it easier to integrate Kotlin/JS
code with existing tooling, to create hybrid applications and leverage code-sharing functionality in multiplatform
projects.
Learn more about the available features in the Kotlin/JS IR compiler backend.
Kotlin/Native
In 1.4.0, Kotlin/Native got a significant number of new features and improvements, including:
Support for suspending functions in Swift and Objective-C
Objective-C generics support by default
Exception handling in Objective-C/Swift interop
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Generate release .dSYMs on Apple targets by default
Performance improvements
Simplified management of CocoaPods dependencies
Support
for
Kotlin’s
suspending
functions
in
Swift
and
Objective-C
In 1.4.0, we add the basic support for suspending functions in Swift and Objective-C. Now, when you compile a Kotlin
module into an Apple framework, suspending functions are available in it as functions with callbacks
(completionHandler in the Swift/Objective-C terminology). When you have such functions in the generated framework’s
header, you can call them from your Swift or Objective-C code and even override them.
For example, if you write this Kotlin function:
suspend fun queryData(id: Int): String = ...
…then you can call it from Swift like so:
queryData(id: 17) { result, error in
if let e = error {
print("ERROR: \(e)")
} else {
print(result!)
}
}
Learn more about using suspending functions in Swift and Objective-C.
Objective-C
generics
support
by
default
Previous versions of Kotlin provided experimental support for generics in Objective-C interop. Since 1.4.0,
Kotlin/Native generates Apple frameworks with generics from Kotlin code by default. In some cases, this may break
existing Objective-C or Swift code calling Kotlin frameworks. To have the framework header written without generics,
add the -Xno-objc-generics compiler option.
kotlin {
targets.withType<org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.plugin.mpp.KotlinNativeTarget> {
binaries.all {
freeCompilerArgs += "-Xno-objc-generics"
}
}
}
Please note that all specifics and limitations listed in the documentation on interoperability with Objective-C are still
valid.
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Exception
handling
in
Objective-C/Swift
interop
In 1.4.0, we slightly change the Swift API generated from Kotlin with respect to the way exceptions are translated.
There is a fundamental difference in error handling between Kotlin and Swift. All Kotlin exceptions are unchecked,
while Swift has only checked errors. Thus, to make Swift code aware of expected exceptions, Kotlin functions should
be marked with a @Throws annotation specifying a list of potential exception classes.
When compiling to Swift or the Objective-C framework, functions that have or are inheriting @Throws annotation are
represented as NSError* -producing methods in Objective-C and as throws methods in Swift.
Previously, any exceptions other than RuntimeException and Error were propagated as NSError. Now this behavior
changes: now NSError is thrown only for exceptions that are instances of classes specified as parameters of @Throws
annotation (or their subclasses). Other Kotlin exceptions that reach Swift/Objective-C are considered unhandled and
cause program termination.
Generate
release
.dSYMs
on
Apple
targets
by
default
Starting with 1.4.0, the Kotlin/Native compiler produces debug symbol files (.dSYM s) for release binaries on Darwin
platforms by default. This can be disabled with the -Xadd-light-debug=disable compiler option. On other platforms, this
option is disabled by default. To toggle this option in Gradle, use:
kotlin {
targets.withType<org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.plugin.mpp.KotlinNativeTarget> {
binaries.all {
freeCompilerArgs += "-Xadd-light-debug={enable|disable}"
}
}
}
Learn more about crash report symbolication.
Performance
improvements
Kotlin/Native has received a number of performance improvements that speed up both the development process and
execution. Here are some examples:
To improve the speed of object allocation, we now offer the mimalloc memory allocator as an alternative to the
system allocator. mimalloc works up to two times faster on some benchmarks. Currently, the usage of mimalloc in
Kotlin/Native is experimental; you can switch to it using the -Xallocator=mimalloc compiler option.
We’ve reworked how C interop libraries are built. With the new tooling, Kotlin/Native produces interop libraries up to
4 times as fast as before, and artifacts are 25% to 30% the size they used to be.
Overall runtime performance has improved because of optimizations in GC. This improvement will be especially
apparent in projects with a large number of long-lived objects. HashMap and HashSet collections now work faster
by escaping redundant boxing.
In 1.3.70 we introduced two new features for improving the performance of Kotlin/Native compilation: caching
project dependencies and running the compiler from the Gradle daemon. Since that time, we’ve managed to fix
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numerous issues and improve the overall stability of these features.
Simplified
management
of
CocoaPods
dependencies
Previously, once you integrated your project with the dependency manager CocoaPods, you could build an iOS,
macOS, watchOS, or tvOS part of your project only in Xcode, separate from other parts of your multiplatform project.
These other parts could be built in Intellij IDEA.
Moreover, every time you added a dependency on an Objective-C library stored in CocoaPods (Pod library), you had to
switch from IntelliJ IDEA to Xcode, call pod install, and run the Xcode build there.
Now you can manage Pod dependencies right in Intellij IDEA while enjoying the benefits it provides for working with
code, such as code highlighting and completion. You can also build the whole Kotlin project with Gradle, without
having to switch to Xcode. This means you only have to go to Xcode when you need to write Swift/Objective-C code or
run your application on a simulator or device.
Now you can also work with Pod libraries stored locally.
Depending on your needs, you can add dependencies between:
A Kotlin project and Pod libraries stored remotely in the CocoaPods repository or stored locally on your machine.
A Kotlin Pod (Kotlin project used as a CocoaPods dependency) and an Xcode project with one or more targets.
Complete the initial configuration, and when you add a new dependency to cocoapods, just re-import the project in
IntelliJ IDEA. The new dependency will be added automatically. No additional steps are required.
Learn how to add dependencies.
Kotlin
Multiplatform
Support for multiplatform projects is in Alpha. It may change incompatibly and require manual migration in
the future. We appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
Kotlin Multiplatform reduces time spent writing and maintaining the same code for different platforms while retaining
the flexibility and benefits of native programming. We continue investing our effort in multiplatform features and
improvements:
Sharing code in several targets with the hierarchical project structure
Leveraging native libs in the hierarchical structure
Specifying kotlinx dependencies only once
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Multiplatform projects require Gradle 6.0 or later.
Sharing
code
in
several
targets
with
the
hierarchical
project
structure
With the new hierarchical project structure support, you can share code among several platforms in a multiplatform
project.
Previously, any code added to a multiplatform project could be placed either in a platform-specific source set, which is
limited to one target and can’t be reused by any other platform, or in a common source set, like commonMain or
commonTest, which is shared across all the platforms in the project. In the common source set, you could only call a
platform-specific API by using an expect declaration that needs platform-specific actual implementations.
This made it easy to share code on all platforms, but it was not so easy to share between only some of the targets,
especially similar ones that could potentially reuse a lot of the common logic and third-party APIs.
For example, in a typical multiplatform project targeting iOS, there are two iOS-related targets: one for iOS ARM64
devices, and the other for the x64 simulator. They have separate platform-specific source sets, but in practice, there is
rarely a need for different code for the device and simulator, and their dependencies are much alike. So iOS-specific
code could be shared between them.
Apparently, in this setup, it would be desirable to have a shared source set for two iOS targets, with Kotlin/Native code
that could still directly call any of the APIs that are common to both the iOS device and the simulator.
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Code shared for iOS targets
Now you can do this with the hierarchical project structure support, which infers and adapts the API and language
features available in each source set based on which targets consume them.
For common combinations of targets, you can create a hierarchical structure with target shortcuts.
For example, create two iOS targets and the shared source set shown above with the ios() shortcut:
kotlin {
ios() // iOS device and simulator targets; iosMain and iosTest source sets
}
For other combinations of targets, by connecting the source sets with the dependsOn relation.
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Hierarchical structure
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets {
desktopMain {
dependsOn(commonMain)
}
linuxX64Main {
dependsOn(desktopMain)
}
mingwX64Main {
dependsOn(desktopMain)
}
macosX64Main {
dependsOn(desktopMain)
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin{
sourceSets {
val desktopMain by creating {
dependsOn(commonMain)
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}
val linuxX64Main by getting {
dependsOn(desktopMain)
}
val mingwX64Main by getting {
dependsOn(desktopMain)
}
val macosX64Main by getting {
dependsOn(desktopMain)
}
}
}
Thanks to the hierarchical project structure, libraries can also provide common APIs for a subset of targets. Learn more
about sharing code in libraries.
Leveraging
native
libs
in
the
hierarchical
structure
You can use platform-dependent libraries, such as Foundation, UIKit, and posix, in source sets shared among several
native targets. This can help you share more native code without being limited by platform-specific dependencies.
No additional steps are required – everything is done automatically. IntelliJ IDEA will help you detect common
declarations that you can use in the shared code.
Learn more about usage of platform-dependent libraries.
Specifying
dependencies
only
once
From now on, instead of specifying dependencies on different variants of the same library in shared and platform-
specific source sets where it is used, you should specify a dependency only once in the shared source set.
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets {
commonMain {
dependencies {
implementation 'org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-coroutines-core:1.5.0'
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
sourceSets {
val commonMain by getting {
dependencies {
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implementation("org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-coroutines-core:1.5.0")
}
}
}
}
Don’t use kotlinx library artifact names with suffixes specifying the platform, such as -common, -native, or similar, as
they are NOT supported anymore. Instead, use the library base artifact name, which in the example above is kotlinx-
coroutines-core.
However, the change doesn’t currently affect:
The stdlib library – starting from Kotlin 1.4.0, the stdlib dependency is added automatically.
The kotlin.test library – you should still use test-common and test-annotations-common. These dependencies will
be addressed later.
If you need a dependency only for a specific platform, you can still use platform-specific variants of standard and
kotlinx libraries with such suffixes as -jvm or -js, for example kotlinx-coroutines-core-jvm.
Learn more about configuring dependencies.
Gradle
project
improvements
Besides Gradle project features and improvements that are specific to Kotlin Multiplatform, Kotlin/JVM, Kotlin/Native,
and Kotlin/JS, there are several changes applicable to all Kotlin Gradle projects:
Dependency on the standard library is now added by default
Kotlin projects require a recent version of Gradle
Improved support for Kotlin Gradle DSL in the IDE
Dependency
on
the
standard
library
added
by
default
You no longer need to declare a dependency on the stdlib library in any Kotlin Gradle project, including a multiplatform
one. The dependency is added by default.
The automatically added standard library will be the same version of the Kotlin Gradle plugin, since they have the same
versioning.
For platform-specific source sets, the corresponding platform-specific variant of the library is used, while a common
standard library is added to the rest. The Kotlin Gradle plugin will select the appropriate JVM standard library
depending on the kotlinOptions.jvmTarget compiler option of your Gradle build script.
Learn how to change the default behavior.
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Minimum
Gradle
version
for
Kotlin
projects
To enjoy the new features in your Kotlin projects, update Gradle to the latest version. Multiplatform projects require
Gradle 6.0 or later, while other Kotlin projects work with Gradle 5.4 or later.
Improved
*.gradle.kts
support
in
the
IDE
In 1.4.0, we continued improving the IDE support for Gradle Kotlin DSL scripts (*.gradle.kts files). Here is what the new
version brings:
Explicit loading of script configurations for better performance. Previously, the changes you make to the build script
were loaded automatically in the background. To improve the performance, we've disabled the automatic loading of
build script configuration in 1.4.0. Now the IDE loads the changes only when you explicitly apply them.
In Gradle versions earlier than 6.0, you need to manually load the script configuration by clicking Load Configuration
in the editor.
*.gradle.kts – Load Configuration
In Gradle 6.0 and above, you can explicitly apply changes by clicking Load Gradle Changes or by reimporting the
Gradle project.
We’ve added one more action in IntelliJ IDEA 2020.1 with Gradle 6.0 and above – Load Script Configurations, which
loads changes to the script configurations without updating the whole project. This takes much less time than
reimporting the whole project.
*.gradle.kts – Load Script Changes and Load Gradle Changes
You should also Load Script Configurations for newly created scripts or when you open a project with new Kotlin
plugin for the first time.
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With Gradle 6.0 and above, you are now able to load all scripts at once as opposed to the previous implementation
where they were loaded individually. Since each request requires the Gradle configuration phase to be executed,
this could be resource-intensive for large Gradle projects.
Currently, such loading is limited to build.gradle.kts and settings.gradle.kts files (please vote for the related issue ).
To enable highlighting for init.gradle.kts or applied script plugins, use the old mechanism – adding them to
standalone scripts. Configuration for that scripts will be loaded separately when you need it. You can also enable
auto-reload for such scripts.
*.gradle.kts – Add to standalone scripts
Better error reporting. Previously you could only see errors from the Gradle Daemon in separate log files. Now the
Gradle Daemon returns all the information about errors directly and shows it in the Build tool window. This saves
you both time and effort.
Standard
library
Here is the list of the most significant changes to the Kotlin standard library in 1.4.0:
Common exception processing API
New functions for arrays and collections
Functions for string manipulations
Bit operations
Delegated properties improvements
Converting from KType to Java Type
Proguard configurations for Kotlin reflection
Improving the existing API
module-info descriptors for stdlib artifacts
Deprecations
Exclusion of the deprecated experimental coroutines
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Common
exception
processing
API
The following API elements have been moved to the common library:
Throwable.stackTraceToString() extension function, which returns the detailed description of this throwable with its
stack trace, and Throwable.printStackTrace(), which prints this description to the standard error output.
Throwable.addSuppressed() function, which lets you specify the exceptions that were suppressed in order to deliver
the exception, and the Throwable.suppressedExceptions property, which returns a list of all the suppressed
exceptions.
@Throws annotation, which lists exception types that will be checked when the function is compiled to a platform
method (on JVM or native platforms).
New
functions
for
arrays
and
collections
Collections
In 1.4.0, the standard library includes a number of useful functions for working with collections:
setOfNotNull(), which makes a set consisting of all the non-null items among the provided arguments.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val set = setOfNotNull(null, 1, 2, 0, null)
println(set)
//sampleEnd
}
shuffled() for sequences.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = (0 until 50).asSequence()
val result = numbers.map { it * 2 }.shuffled().take(5)
println(result.toList()) //five random even numbers below 100
//sampleEnd
}
*Indexed() counterparts for onEach() and flatMap(). The operation that they apply to the collection elements has the
element index as a parameter.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
listOf("a", "b", "c", "d").onEachIndexed {
index, item -> println(index.toString() + ":" + item)
}
val list = listOf("hello", "kot", "lin", "world")
val kotlin = list.flatMapIndexed { index, item ->
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if (index in 1..2) item.toList() else emptyList()
}
//sampleEnd
println(kotlin)
}
*OrNull() counterparts randomOrNull(), reduceOrNull(), and reduceIndexedOrNull(). They return null on empty
collections.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val empty = emptyList<Int>()
empty.reduceOrNull { a, b -> a + b }
//empty.reduce { a, b -> a + b } // Exception: Empty collection can't be reduced.
//sampleEnd
}
runningFold(), its synonym scan(), and runningReduce() apply the given operation to the collection elements
sequentially, similarly to fold() and reduce(); the difference is that these new functions return the whole sequence of
intermediate results.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
val runningReduceSum = numbers.runningReduce { sum, item -> sum + item }
val runningFoldSum = numbers.runningFold(10) { sum, item -> sum + item }
//sampleEnd
println(runningReduceSum.toString())
println(runningFoldSum.toString())
}
sumOf() takes a selector function and returns a sum of its values for all elements of a collection. sumOf() can
produce sums of the types Int, Long, Double, UInt, and ULong. On the JVM, BigInteger and BigDecimal are also
available.
data class OrderItem(val name: String, val price: Double, val count: Int)
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val order = listOf<OrderItem>(
OrderItem("Cake", price = 10.0, count = 1),
OrderItem("Coffee", price = 2.5, count = 3),
OrderItem("Tea", price = 1.5, count = 2))
val total = order.sumOf { it.price * it.count } // Double
val count = order.sumOf { it.count } // Int
//sampleEnd
println("You've ordered $count items that cost $total in total")
}
The min() and max() functions have been renamed to minOrNull() and maxOrNull() to comply with the naming
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convention used across the Kotlin collections API. An *OrNull suffix in the function name means that it returns null if
the receiver collection is empty. The same applies to minBy(), maxBy(), minWith(), maxWith() – in 1.4, they have
*OrNull() synonyms.
The new minOf() and maxOf() extension functions return the minimum and the maximum value of the given selector
function on the collection items.
data class OrderItem(val name: String, val price: Double, val count: Int)
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val order = listOf<OrderItem>(
OrderItem("Cake", price = 10.0, count = 1),
OrderItem("Coffee", price = 2.5, count = 3),
OrderItem("Tea", price = 1.5, count = 2))
val highestPrice = order.maxOf { it.price }
//sampleEnd
println("The most expensive item in the order costs $highestPrice")
}
There are also minOfWith() and maxOfWith(), which take a Comparator as an argument, and *OrNull() versions of all
four functions that return null on empty collections.
New overloads for flatMap and flatMapTo let you use transformations with return types that don’t match the receiver
type, namely:
Transformations to Sequence on Iterable, Array, and Map
Transformations to Iterable on Sequence
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val list = listOf("kot", "lin")
val lettersList = list.flatMap { it.asSequence() }
val lettersSeq = list.asSequence().flatMap { it.toList() }
//sampleEnd
println(lettersList)
println(lettersSeq.toList())
}
removeFirst() and removeLast() shortcuts for removing elements from mutable lists, and *orNull() counterparts of
these functions.
Arrays
To provide a consistent experience when working with different container types, we’ve also added new functions for
arrays:
shuffle() puts the array elements in a random order.
onEach() performs the given action on each array element and returns the array itself.
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associateWith() and associateWithTo() build maps with the array elements as keys.
reverse() for array subranges reverses the order of the elements in the subrange.
sortDescending() for array subranges sorts the elements in the subrange in descending order.
sort() and sortWith() for array subranges are now available in the common library.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
var language = ""
val letters = arrayOf("k", "o", "t", "l", "i", "n")
val fileExt = letters.onEach { language += it }
.filterNot { it in "aeuio" }.take(2)
.joinToString(prefix = ".", separator = "")
println(language) // "kotlin"
println(fileExt) // ".kt"
letters.shuffle()
letters.reverse(0, 3)
letters.sortDescending(2, 5)
println(letters.contentToString()) // [k, o, t, l, i, n]
//sampleEnd
}
Additionally, there are new functions for conversions between CharArray/ ByteArray and String:
ByteArray.decodeToString() and String.encodeToByteArray()
CharArray.concatToString() and String.toCharArray()
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val str = "kotlin"
val array = str.toCharArray()
println(array.concatToString())
//sampleEnd
}
ArrayDeque
We've also added the ArrayDeque class – an implementation of a double-ended queue. Double-ended queue lets you
can add or remove elements both at the beginning and the end of the queue in an amortized constant time. You can
use a double-ended queue by default when you need a queue or a stack in your code.
fun main() {
val deque = ArrayDeque(listOf(1, 2, 3))
deque.addFirst(0)
deque.addLast(4)
println(deque) // [0, 1, 2, 3, 4]
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println(deque.first()) // 0
println(deque.last()) // 4
deque.removeFirst()
deque.removeLast()
println(deque) // [1, 2, 3]
}
The ArrayDeque implementation uses a resizable array underneath: it stores the contents in a circular buffer, an Array,
and resizes this Array only when it becomes full.
Functions
for
string
manipulations
The standard library in 1.4.0 includes a number of improvements in the API for string manipulation:
StringBuilder has useful new extension functions: set(), setRange(), deleteAt(), deleteRange(), appendRange(), and
others.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val sb = StringBuilder("Bye Kotlin 1.3.72")
sb.deleteRange(0, 3)
sb.insertRange(0, "Hello", 0 ,5)
sb.set(15, '4')
sb.setRange(17, 19, "0")
print(sb.toString())
//sampleEnd
}
Some existing functions of StringBuilder are available in the common library. Among them are append(), insert(),
substring(), setLength(), and more.
New functions Appendable.appendLine() and StringBuilder.appendLine() have been added to the common library.
They replace the JVM-only appendln() functions of these classes.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
println(buildString {
appendLine("Hello,")
appendLine("world")
})
//sampleEnd
}
Bit
operations
New functions for bit manipulations:
countOneBits()
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countLeadingZeroBits()
countTrailingZeroBits()
takeHighestOneBit()
takeLowestOneBit()
rotateLeft() and rotateRight() (experimental)
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val number = "1010000".toInt(radix = 2)
println(number.countOneBits())
println(number.countTrailingZeroBits())
println(number.takeHighestOneBit().toString(2))
//sampleEnd
}
Delegated
properties
improvements
In 1.4.0, we have added new features to improve your experience with delegated properties in Kotlin:
Now a property can be delegated to another property.
A new interface PropertyDelegateProvider helps create delegate providers in a single declaration.
ReadWriteProperty now extends ReadOnlyProperty so you can use both of them for read-only properties.
Aside from the new API, we've made some optimizations that reduce the resulting bytecode size. These optimizations
are described in this blog post.
Learn more about delegated properties.
Converting
from
KType
to
Java
Type
A new extension property KType.javaType (currently experimental) in the stdlib helps you obtain a
java.lang.reflect.Type from a Kotlin type without using the whole kotlin-reflect dependency.
import kotlin.reflect.javaType
import kotlin.reflect.typeOf
@OptIn(ExperimentalStdlibApi::class)
inline fun <reified T> accessReifiedTypeArg() {
val kType = typeOf<T>()
println("Kotlin type: $kType")
println("Java type: ${kType.javaType}")
}
@OptIn(ExperimentalStdlibApi::class)
fun main() {
144
accessReifiedTypeArg<String>()
// Kotlin type: kotlin.String
// Java type: class java.lang.String
accessReifiedTypeArg<List<String>>()
// Kotlin type: kotlin.collections.List<kotlin.String>
// Java type: java.util.List<java.lang.String>
}
Proguard
configurations
for
Kotlin
reflection
Starting from 1.4.0, we have embedded Proguard/R8 configurations for Kotlin Reflection in kotlin-reflect.jar. With this in
place, most Android projects using R8 or Proguard should work with kotlin-reflect without needing any additional
configuration. You no longer need to copy-paste the Proguard rules for kotlin-reflect internals. But note that you still
need to explicitly list all the APIs you’re going to reflect on.
Improving
the
existing
API
Several functions now work on null receivers, for example:
toBoolean() on strings
contentEquals(), contentHashcode(), contentToString() on arrays
NaN, NEGATIVE_INFINITY, and POSITIVE_INFINITY in Double and Float are now defined as const, so you can use
them as annotation arguments.
New constants SIZE_BITS and SIZE_BYTES in Double and Float contain the number of bits and bytes used to
represent an instance of the type in binary form.
The maxOf() and minOf() top-level functions can accept a variable number of arguments ( vararg ).
module-info
descriptors
for
stdlib
artifacts
Kotlin 1.4.0 adds module-info.java module information to default standard library artifacts. This lets you use them with
jlink tool, which generates custom Java runtime images containing only the platform modules that are required for your
app. You could already use jlink with Kotlin standard library artifacts, but you had to use separate artifacts to do so –
the ones with the “modular” classifier – and the whole setup wasn’t straightforward.
In Android, make sure you use the Android Gradle plugin version 3.2 or higher, which can correctly process jar files
with module-info.
Deprecations
toShort() and toByte() of Double and Float
We've deprecated the functions toShort() and toByte() on Double and Float because they could lead to unexpected
results because of the narrow value range and smaller variable size.
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To convert floating-point numbers to Byte or Short, use the two-step conversion: first, convert them to Int, and then
convert them again to the target type.
contains(), indexOf(), and lastIndexOf() on floating-point arrays
We've deprecated the contains(), indexOf(), and lastIndexOf() extension functions of FloatArray and DoubleArray
because they use the IEEE 754 standard equality, which contradicts the total order equality in some corner cases. See
this issue for details.
min() and max() collection functions
We've deprecated the min() and max() collection functions in favor of minOrNull() and maxOrNull(), which more properly
reflect their behavior – returning null on empty collections. See this issue for details.
Exclusion
of
the
deprecated
experimental
coroutines
The kotlin.coroutines.experimental API was deprecated in favor of kotlin.coroutines in 1.3.0. In 1.4.0, we’re completing
the deprecation cycle for kotlin.coroutines.experimental by removing it from the standard library. For those who still
use it on the JVM, we've provided a compatibility artifact kotlin-coroutines-experimental-compat.jar with all the
experimental coroutines APIs. We've published it to Maven, and we include it in the Kotlin distribution alongside the
standard library.
Stable
JSON
serialization
With Kotlin 1.4.0, we are shipping the first stable version of kotlinx.serialization- 1.0.0-RC. Now we are pleased to
declare the JSON serialization API in kotlinx-serialization-core (previously known as kotlinx-serialization-runtime)
stable. Libraries for other serialization formats remain experimental, along with some advanced parts of the core
library.
We have significantly reworked the API for JSON serialization to make it more consistent and easier to use. From now
on, we'll continue developing the JSON serialization API in a backward-compatible manner. However, if you have used
previous versions of it, you'll need to rewrite some of your code when migrating to 1.0.0-RC. To help you with this, we
also offer the Kotlin Serialization Guide – the complete set of documentation for kotlinx.serialization. It will guide you
through the process of using the most important features and it can help you address any issues that you might face.
Note: kotlinx-serialization 1.0.0-RC only works with Kotlin compiler 1.4. Earlier compiler versions are not
compatible.
Scripting
and
REPL
In 1.4.0, scripting in Kotlin benefits from a number of functional and performance improvements along with other
updates. Here are some of the key changes:
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New dependencies resolution API
New REPL API
Compiled scripts cache
Artifacts renaming
To help you become more familiar with scripting in Kotlin, we’ve prepared a project with examples. It contains
examples of the standard scripts (*.main.kts) and examples of uses of the Kotlin Scripting API and custom script
definitions. Please give it a try and share your feedback using our issue tracker.
New
dependencies
resolution
API
In 1.4.0, we’ve introduced a new API for resolving external dependencies (such as Maven artifacts), along with
implementations for it. This API is published in the new artifacts kotlin-scripting-dependencies and kotlin-scripting-
dependencies-maven. The previous dependency resolution functionality in kotlin-script-util library is now deprecated.
New
REPL
API
The new experimental REPL API is now a part of the Kotlin Scripting API. There are also several implementations of it
in the published artifacts, and some have advanced functionality, such as code completion. We use this API in the
Kotlin Jupyter kernel and now you can try it in your own custom shells and REPLs.
Compiled
scripts
cache
The Kotlin Scripting API now provides the ability to implement a compiled scripts cache, significantly speeding up
subsequent executions of unchanged scripts. Our default advanced script implementation kotlin-main-kts already has
its own cache.
Artifacts
renaming
In order to avoid confusion about artifact names, we’ve renamed kotlin-scripting-jsr223-embeddable and kotlin-
scripting-jvm-host-embeddable to just kotlin-scripting-jsr223 and kotlin-scripting-jvm-host. These artifacts depend on
the kotlin-compiler-embeddable artifact, which shades the bundled third-party libraries to avoid usage conflicts. With
this renaming, we’re making the usage of kotlin-compiler-embeddable (which is safer in general) the default for
scripting artifacts. If, for some reason, you need artifacts that depend on the unshaded kotlin-compiler, use the artifact
versions with the -unshaded suffix, such as kotlin-scripting-jsr223-unshaded. Note that this renaming affects only the
scripting artifacts that are supposed to be used directly; names of other artifacts remain unchanged.
Migrating
to
Kotlin
1.4.0
The Kotlin plugin’s migration tools help you migrate your projects from earlier versions of Kotlin to 1.4.0.
Just change the Kotlin version to 1.4.0 and re-import your Gradle or Maven project. The IDE will then ask you about
147
migration.
If you agree, it will run migration code inspections that will check your code and suggest corrections for anything that
doesn't work or that is not recommended in 1.4.0.
Run migration
Code inspections have different severity levels, to help you decide which suggestions to accept and which to ignore.
Migration inspections
Kotlin 1.4.0 is a feature release and therefore can bring incompatible changes to the language. Find the detailed list of
such changes in the Compatibility Guide for Kotlin 1.4.
What's
new
in
Kotlin
1.3
Release date: 29 October 2018
Coroutines
release
After some long and extensive battle testing, coroutines are now released! It means that from Kotlin 1.3 the language
support and the API are fully stable. Check out the new coroutines overview page.
Kotlin 1.3 introduces callable references on suspend-functions and support of coroutines in the reflection API.
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Kotlin/Native
Kotlin 1.3 continues to improve and polish the Native target. See the Kotlin/Native overview for details.
Multiplatform
projects
In 1.3, we've completely reworked the model of multiplatform projects in order to improve expressiveness and
flexibility, and to make sharing common code easier. Also, Kotlin/Native is now supported as one of the targets!
The key differences to the old model are:
In the old model, common and platform-specific code needed to be placed in separate modules, linked by
expectedBy dependencies. Now, common and platform-specific code is placed in different source roots of the
same module, making projects easier to configure.
There is now a large number of preset platform configurations for different supported platforms.
The dependencies configuration has been changed; dependencies are now specified separately for each source
root.
Source sets can now be shared between an arbitrary subset of platforms (for example, in a module that targets JS,
Android and iOS, you can have a source set that is shared only between Android and iOS).
Publishing multiplatform libraries is now supported.
For more information, please refer to the multiplatform programming documentation.
Contracts
The Kotlin compiler does extensive static analysis to provide warnings and reduce boilerplate. One of the most notable
features is smartcasts — with the ability to perform a cast automatically based on the performed type checks:
fun foo(s: String?) {
if (s != null) s.length // Compiler automatically casts 's' to 'String'
}
However, as soon as these checks are extracted in a separate function, all the smartcasts immediately disappear:
fun String?.isNotNull(): Boolean = this != null
fun foo(s: String?) {
if (s.isNotNull()) s.length // No smartcast :(
}
To improve the behavior in such cases, Kotlin 1.3 introduces experimental mechanism called contracts.
149
Contracts allow a function to explicitly describe its behavior in a way which is understood by the compiler. Currently,
two wide classes of cases are supported:
Improving smartcasts analysis by declaring the relation between a function's call outcome and the passed
arguments values:
fun require(condition: Boolean) {
// This is a syntax form which tells the compiler:
// "if this function returns successfully, then the passed 'condition' is true"
contract { returns() implies condition }
if (!condition) throw IllegalArgumentException(...)
}
fun foo(s: String?) {
require(s is String)
// s is smartcast to 'String' here, because otherwise
// 'require' would have thrown an exception
}
Improving the variable initialization analysis in the presence of high-order functions:
fun synchronize(lock: Any?, block: () -> Unit) {
// It tells the compiler:
// "This function will invoke 'block' here and now, and exactly one time"
contract { callsInPlace(block, EXACTLY_ONCE) }
}
fun foo() {
val x: Int
synchronize(lock) {
x = 42 // Compiler knows that lambda passed to 'synchronize' is called
// exactly once, so no reassignment is reported
}
println(x) // Compiler knows that lambda will be definitely called, performing
// initialization, so 'x' is considered to be initialized here
}
Contracts
in
stdlib
stdlib already makes use of contracts, which leads to improvements in the analyses described above. This part of
contracts is stable, meaning that you can benefit from the improved analysis right now without any additional opt-ins:
//sampleStart
fun bar(x: String?) {
if (!x.isNullOrEmpty()) {
println("length of '$x' is ${x.length}") // Yay, smartcast to not-null!
}
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
bar(null)
bar("42")
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}
Custom
contracts
It is possible to declare contracts for your own functions, but this feature is experimental, as the current syntax is in a
state of early prototype and will most probably be changed. Also please note that currently the Kotlin compiler does
not verify contracts, so it's the responsibility of the programmer to write correct and sound contracts.
Custom contracts are introduced by a call to contract stdlib function, which provides DSL scope:
fun String?.isNullOrEmpty(): Boolean {
contract {
returns(false) implies (this@isNullOrEmpty != null)
}
return this == null || isEmpty()
}
See the details on the syntax as well as the compatibility notice in the KEEP.
Capturing
when
subject
in
a
variable
In Kotlin 1.3, it is now possible to capture the when subject into a variable:
fun Request.getBody() =
when (val response = executeRequest()) {
is Success -> response.body
is HttpError -> throw HttpException(response.status)
}
While it was already possible to extract this variable just before when, val in when has its scope properly restricted to
the body of when, and so preventing namespace pollution. See the full documentation on when here.
@JvmStatic
and
@JvmField
in
companions
of
interfaces
With Kotlin 1.3, it is possible to mark members of a companion object of interfaces with annotations @JvmStatic and
@JvmField. In the classfile, such members will be lifted to the corresponding interface and marked as static.
For example, the following Kotlin code:
interface Foo {
companion object {
@JvmField
val answer: Int = 42
@JvmStatic
fun sayHello() {
151
println("Hello, world!")
}
}
}
It is equivalent to this Java code:
interface Foo {
public static int answer = 42;
public static void sayHello() {
// ...
}
}
Nested
declarations
in
annotation
classes
In Kotlin 1.3, it is possible for annotations to have nested classes, interfaces, objects, and companions:
annotation class Foo {
enum class Direction { UP, DOWN, LEFT, RIGHT }
annotation class Bar
companion object {
fun foo(): Int = 42
val bar: Int = 42
}
}
Parameterless
main
By convention, the entry point of a Kotlin program is a function with a signature like main(args: Array<String>), where
args represent the command-line arguments passed to the program. However, not every application supports
command-line arguments, so this parameter often ends up not being used.
Kotlin 1.3 introduced a simpler form of main which takes no parameters. Now “Hello, World” in Kotlin is 19 characters
shorter!
fun main() {
println("Hello, world!")
}
Functions
with
big
arity
In Kotlin, functional types are represented as generic classes taking a different number of parameters: Function0<R>,
152
Function1<P0, R>, Function2<P0, P1, R>, ... This approach has a problem in that this list is finite, and it currently ends
with Function22.
Kotlin 1.3 relaxes this limitation and adds support for functions with bigger arity:
fun trueEnterpriseComesToKotlin(block: (Any, Any, ... /* 42 more */, Any) -> Any) {
block(Any(), Any(), ..., Any())
}
Progressive
mode
Kotlin cares a lot about stability and backward compatibility of code: Kotlin compatibility policy says that breaking
changes (e.g., a change which makes the code that used to compile fine, not compile anymore) can be introduced only
in the major releases (1.2, 1.3, etc.).
We believe that a lot of users could use a much faster cycle where critical compiler bug fixes arrive immediately,
making the code more safe and correct. So, Kotlin 1.3 introduces the progressive compiler mode, which can be
enabled by passing the argument -progressive to the compiler.
In the progressive mode, some fixes in language semantics can arrive immediately. All these fixes have two important
properties:
They preserve backward compatibility of source code with older compilers, meaning that all the code which is
compilable by the progressive compiler will be compiled fine by non-progressive one.
They only make code safer in some sense — e.g., some unsound smartcast can be forbidden, behavior of the
generated code may be changed to be more predictable/stable, and so on.
Enabling the progressive mode can require you to rewrite some of your code, but it shouldn't be too much — all the
fixes enabled under progressive are carefully handpicked, reviewed, and provided with tooling migration assistance.
We expect that the progressive mode will be a nice choice for any actively maintained codebases which are updated to
the latest language versions quickly.
Inline
classes
Inline classes are in Alpha. They may change incompatibly and require manual migration in the future. We
appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack. See details in the reference.
Kotlin 1.3 introduces a new kind of declaration — inline class. Inline classes can be viewed as a restricted version of
the usual classes, in particular, inline classes must have exactly one property:
inline class Name(val s: String)
153
The Kotlin compiler will use this restriction to aggressively optimize runtime representation of inline classes and
substitute their instances with the value of the underlying property where possible removing constructor calls, GC
pressure, and enabling other optimizations:
inline class Name(val s: String)
//sampleStart
fun main() {
// In the next line no constructor call happens, and
// at the runtime 'name' contains just string "Kotlin"
val name = Name("Kotlin")
println(name.s)
}
//sampleEnd
See reference for inline classes for details.
Unsigned
integers
Unsigned integers are in Beta. Their implementation is almost stable, but migration steps may be required in
the future. We'll do our best to minimize any changes you will have to make.
Kotlin 1.3 introduces unsigned integer types:
kotlin.UByte: an unsigned 8-bit integer, ranges from 0 to 255
kotlin.UShort: an unsigned 16-bit integer, ranges from 0 to 65535
kotlin.UInt: an unsigned 32-bit integer, ranges from 0 to 2^32 - 1
kotlin.ULong: an unsigned 64-bit integer, ranges from 0 to 2^64 - 1
Most of the functionality of signed types are supported for unsigned counterparts too:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
// You can define unsigned types using literal suffixes
val uint = 42u
val ulong = 42uL
val ubyte: UByte = 255u
// You can convert signed types to unsigned and vice versa via stdlib extensions:
val int = uint.toInt()
val byte = ubyte.toByte()
val ulong2 = byte.toULong()
// Unsigned types support similar operators:
val x = 20u + 22u
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val y = 1u shl 8
val z = "128".toUByte()
val range = 1u..5u
//sampleEnd
println("ubyte: $ubyte, byte: $byte, ulong2: $ulong2")
println("x: $x, y: $y, z: $z, range: $range")
}
See reference for details.
@JvmDefault
@JvmDefault is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any time. Use it only for evaluation purposes.
We appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
Kotlin targets a wide range of the Java versions, including Java 6 and Java 7, where default methods in the interfaces
are not allowed. For your convenience, the Kotlin compiler works around that limitation, but this workaround isn't
compatible with the default methods, introduced in Java 8.
This could be an issue for Java-interoperability, so Kotlin 1.3 introduces the @JvmDefault annotation. Methods
annotated with this annotation will be generated as default methods for JVM:
interface Foo {
// Will be generated as 'default' method
@JvmDefault
fun foo(): Int = 42
}
Warning! Annotating your API with @JvmDefault has serious implications on binary compatibility. Make sure
to carefully read the reference page before using @JvmDefault in production.
Standard
library
Multiplatform
random
Prior to Kotlin 1.3, there was no uniform way to generate random numbers on all platforms — we had to resort to
platform-specific solutions like java.util.Random on JVM. This release fixes this issue by introducing the class
kotlin.random.Random, which is available on all platforms:
import kotlin.random.Random
155
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val number = Random.nextInt(42) // number is in range [0, limit)
println(number)
//sampleEnd
}
isNullOrEmpty
and
orEmpty
extensions
isNullOrEmpty and orEmpty extensions for some types are already present in stdlib. The first one returns true if the
receiver is null or empty, and the second one falls back to an empty instance if the receiver is null. Kotlin 1.3 provides
similar extensions on collections, maps, and arrays of objects.
Copy
elements
between
two
existing
arrays
The array.copyInto(targetArray, targetOffset, startIndex, endIndex) functions for the existing array types, including the
unsigned arrays, make it easier to implement array-based containers in pure Kotlin.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val sourceArr = arrayOf("k", "o", "t", "l", "i", "n")
val targetArr = sourceArr.copyInto(arrayOfNulls<String>(6), 3, startIndex = 3, endIndex =
6)
println(targetArr.contentToString())
sourceArr.copyInto(targetArr, startIndex = 0, endIndex = 3)
println(targetArr.contentToString())
//sampleEnd
}
associateWith
It is quite a common situation to have a list of keys and want to build a map by associating each of these keys with
some value. It was possible to do it before with the associate { it to getValue(it) } function, but now we’re introducing a
more efficient and easy to explore alternative: keys.associateWith { getValue(it) }.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val keys = 'a'..'f'
val map = keys.associateWith { it.toString().repeat(5).capitalize() }
map.forEach { println(it) }
//sampleEnd
}
ifEmpty
and
ifBlank
functions
Collections, maps, object arrays, char sequences, and sequences now have an ifEmpty function, which allows
specifying a fallback value that will be used instead of the receiver if it is empty:
156
fun main() {
//sampleStart
fun printAllUppercase(data: List<String>) {
val result = data
.filter { it.all { c -> c.isUpperCase() } }
.ifEmpty { listOf("<no uppercase>") }
result.forEach { println(it) }
}
printAllUppercase(listOf("foo", "Bar"))
printAllUppercase(listOf("FOO", "BAR"))
//sampleEnd
}
Char sequences and strings in addition have an ifBlank extension that does the same thing as ifEmpty but checks for a
string being all whitespace instead of empty.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val s = " \n"
println(s.ifBlank { "<blank>" })
println(s.ifBlank { null })
//sampleEnd
}
Sealed
classes
in
reflection
We’ve added a new API to kotlin-reflect that can be used to enumerate all the direct subtypes of a sealed class,
namely KClass.sealedSubclasses.
Smaller
changes
Boolean type now has companion.
Any?.hashCode() extension that returns 0 for null.
Char now provides MIN_VALUE and MAX_VALUE constants.
SIZE_BYTES and SIZE_BITS constants in primitive type companions.
Tooling
Code
style
support
in
IDE
Kotlin 1.3 introduces support for the recommended code style in IntelliJ IDEA. Check out this page for the migration
guidelines.
157
kotlinx.serialization
kotlinx.serialization is a library which provides multiplatform support for (de)serializing objects in Kotlin. Previously, it
was a separate project, but since Kotlin 1.3, it ships with the Kotlin compiler distribution on par with the other compiler
plugins. The main difference is that you don't need to manually watch out for the Serialization IDE Plugin being
compatible with the Kotlin IDE plugin version you're using: now the Kotlin IDE plugin already includes serialization!
See here for details.
Even though kotlinx.serialization now ships with the Kotlin Compiler distribution, it is still considered to be an
experimental feature in Kotlin 1.3.
Scripting
update
Scripting is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any time. Use it only for evaluation purposes. We
appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
Kotlin 1.3 continues to evolve and improve scripting API, introducing some experimental support for scripts
customization, such as adding external properties, providing static or dynamic dependencies, and so on.
For additional details, please consult the KEEP-75.
Scratches
support
Kotlin 1.3 introduces support for runnable Kotlin scratch files. Scratch file is a kotlin script file with the .kts extension
that you can run and get evaluation results directly in the editor.
Consult the general Scratches documentation for details.
What's
new
in
Kotlin
1.2
Release date: 28 November 2017
Table
of
contents
Multiplatform projects
Other language features
Standard library
158
JVM backend
JavaScript backend
Multiplatform
projects
(experimental)
Multiplatform projects are a new experimental feature in Kotlin 1.2, allowing you to reuse code between target
platforms supported by Kotlin – JVM, JavaScript, and (in the future) Native. In a multiplatform project, you have three
kinds of modules:
A common module contains code that is not specific to any platform, as well as declarations without
implementation of platform-dependent APIs.
A platform module contains implementations of platform-dependent declarations in the common module for a
specific platform, as well as other platform-dependent code.
A regular module targets a specific platform and can either be a dependency of platform modules or depend on
platform modules.
When you compile a multiplatform project for a specific platform, the code for both the common and platform-specific
parts is generated.
A key feature of the multiplatform project support is the possibility to express dependencies of common code on
platform-specific parts through expected and actual declarations. An expected declaration specifies an API (class,
interface, annotation, top-level declaration etc.). An actual declaration is either a platform-dependent implementation of
the API or a typealias referring to an existing implementation of the API in an external library. Here's an example:
In the common code:
// expected platform-specific API:
expect fun hello(world: String): String
fun greet() {
// usage of the expected API:
val greeting = hello("multiplatform world")
println(greeting)
}
expect class URL(spec: String) {
open fun getHost(): String
open fun getPath(): String
}
In the JVM platform code:
actual fun hello(world: String): String =
"Hello, $world, on the JVM platform!"
// using existing platform-specific implementation:
actual typealias URL = java.net.URL
159
See the multiplatform programming documentation for details and steps to build a multiplatform project.
Other
language
features
Array
literals
in
annotations
Starting with Kotlin 1.2, array arguments for annotations can be passed with the new array literal syntax instead of the
arrayOf function:
@CacheConfig(cacheNames = ["books", "default"])
public class BookRepositoryImpl {
// ...
}
The array literal syntax is constrained to annotation arguments.
Lateinit
top-level
properties
and
local
variables
The lateinit modifier can now be used on top-level properties and local variables. The latter can be used, for example,
when a lambda passed as a constructor argument to one object refers to another object which has to be defined later:
class Node<T>(val value: T, val next: () -> Node<T>)
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
// A cycle of three nodes:
lateinit var third: Node<Int>
val second = Node(2, next = { third })
val first = Node(1, next = { second })
third = Node(3, next = { first })
val nodes = generateSequence(first) { it.next() }
println("Values in the cycle: ${nodes.take(7).joinToString { it.value.toString() }}, ...")
}
Check
whether
a
lateinit
var
is
initialized
You can now check whether a lateinit var has been initialized using isInitialized on the property reference:
class Foo {
lateinit var lateinitVar: String
fun initializationLogic() {
//sampleStart
println("isInitialized before assignment: " + this::lateinitVar.isInitialized)
160
lateinitVar = "value"
println("isInitialized after assignment: " + this::lateinitVar.isInitialized)
//sampleEnd
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
Foo().initializationLogic()
}
Inline
functions
with
default
functional
parameters
Inline functions are now allowed to have default values for their inlined functional parameters:
//sampleStart
inline fun <E> Iterable<E>.strings(transform: (E) -> String = { it.toString() }) =
map { transform(it) }
val defaultStrings = listOf(1, 2, 3).strings()
val customStrings = listOf(1, 2, 3).strings { "($it)" }
//sampleEnd
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
println("defaultStrings = $defaultStrings")
println("customStrings = $customStrings")
}
Information
from
explicit
casts
is
used
for
type
inference
The Kotlin compiler can now use information from type casts in type inference. If you’re calling a generic method that
returns a type parameter T and casting the return value to a specific type Foo, the compiler now understands that T for
this call needs to be bound to the type Foo.
This is particularly important for Android developers, since the compiler can now correctly analyze generic
findViewById calls in Android API level 26:
val button = findViewById(R.id.button) as Button
Smart
cast
improvements
When a variable is assigned from a safe call expression and checked for null, the smart cast is now applied to the safe
call receiver as well:
fun countFirst(s: Any): Int {
//sampleStart
val firstChar = (s as? CharSequence)?.firstOrNull()
if (firstChar != null)
return s.count { it == firstChar } // s: Any is smart cast to CharSequence
161
val firstItem = (s as? Iterable<*>)?.firstOrNull()
if (firstItem != null)
return s.count { it == firstItem } // s: Any is smart cast to Iterable<*>
//sampleEnd
return -1
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val string = "abacaba"
val countInString = countFirst(string)
println("called on \"$string\": $countInString")
val list = listOf(1, 2, 3, 1, 2)
val countInList = countFirst(list)
println("called on $list: $countInList")
}
Also, smart casts in a lambda are now allowed for local variables that are only modified before the lambda:
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
//sampleStart
val flag = args.size == 0
var x: String? = null
if (flag) x = "Yahoo!"
run {
if (x != null) {
println(x.length) // x is smart cast to String
}
}
//sampleEnd
}
Support
for
::foo
as
a
shorthand
for
this::foo
A bound callable reference to a member of this can now be written without explicit receiver, ::foo instead of this::foo.
This also makes callable references more convenient to use in lambdas where you refer to a member of the outer
receiver.
Breaking
change:
sound
smart
casts
after
try
blocks
Earlier, Kotlin used assignments made inside a try block for smart casts after the block, which could break type- and
null-safety and lead to runtime failures. This release fixes this issue, making the smart casts more strict, but breaking
some code that relied on such smart casts.
To switch to the old smart casts behavior, pass the fallback flag -Xlegacy-smart-cast-after-try as the compiler
argument. It will become deprecated in Kotlin 1.3.
Deprecation:
data
classes
overriding
copy
When a data class derived from a type that already had the copy function with the same signature, the copy
162
implementation generated for the data class used the defaults from the supertype, leading to counter-intuitive behavior,
or failed at runtime if there were no default parameters in the supertype.
Inheritance that leads to a copy conflict has become deprecated with a warning in Kotlin 1.2 and will be an error in
Kotlin 1.3.
Deprecation:
nested
types
in
enum
entries
Inside enum entries, defining a nested type that is not an inner class has been deprecated due to issues in the
initialization logic. This causes a warning in Kotlin 1.2 and will become an error in Kotlin 1.3.
Deprecation:
single
named
argument
for
vararg
For consistency with array literals in annotations, passing a single item for a vararg parameter in the named form
(foo(items = i)) has been deprecated. Please use the spread operator with the corresponding array factory functions:
foo(items = *intArrayOf(1))
There is an optimization that removes redundant arrays creation in such cases, which prevents performance
degradation. The single-argument form produces warnings in Kotlin 1.2 and is to be dropped in Kotlin 1.3.
Deprecation:
inner
classes
of
generic
classes
extending
Throwable
Inner classes of generic types that inherit from Throwable could violate type-safety in a throw-catch scenario and thus
have been deprecated, with a warning in Kotlin 1.2 and an error in Kotlin 1.3.
Deprecation:
mutating
backing
field
of
a
read-only
property
Mutating the backing field of a read-only property by assigning field = ... in the custom getter has been deprecated,
with a warning in Kotlin 1.2 and an error in Kotlin 1.3.
Standard
library
Kotlin
standard
library
artifacts
and
split
packages
The Kotlin standard library is now fully compatible with the Java 9 module system, which forbids split packages
(multiple jar files declaring classes in the same package). In order to support that, new artifacts kotlin-stdlib-jdk7 and
kotlin-stdlib-jdk8 are introduced, which replace the old kotlin-stdlib-jre7 and kotlin-stdlib-jre8.
The declarations in the new artifacts are visible under the same package names from the Kotlin point of view, but have
different package names for Java. Therefore, switching to the new artifacts will not require any changes to your source
code.
Another change made to ensure compatibility with the new module system is removing the deprecated declarations in
163
the kotlin.reflect package from the kotlin-reflect library. If you were using them, you need to switch to using the
declarations in the kotlin.reflect.full package, which is supported since Kotlin 1.1.
windowed,
chunked,
zipWithNext
New extensions for Iterable<T>, Sequence<T>, and CharSequence cover such use cases as buffering or batch
processing (chunked ), sliding window and computing sliding average (windowed) , and processing pairs of
subsequent items (zipWithNext ):
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
//sampleStart
val items = (1..9).map { it * it }
val chunkedIntoLists = items.chunked(4)
val points3d = items.chunked(3) { (x, y, z) -> Triple(x, y, z) }
val windowed = items.windowed(4)
val slidingAverage = items.windowed(4) { it.average() }
val pairwiseDifferences = items.zipWithNext { a, b -> b - a }
//sampleEnd
println("items: $items\n")
println("chunked into lists: $chunkedIntoLists")
println("3D points: $points3d")
println("windowed by 4: $windowed")
println("sliding average by 4: $slidingAverage")
println("pairwise differences: $pairwiseDifferences")
}
fill,
replaceAll,
shuffle/shuffled
A set of extension functions was added for manipulating lists: fill, replaceAll and shuffle for MutableList, and shuffled
for read-only List:
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
//sampleStart
val items = (1..5).toMutableList()
items.shuffle()
println("Shuffled items: $items")
items.replaceAll { it * 2 }
println("Items doubled: $items")
items.fill(5)
println("Items filled with 5: $items")
//sampleEnd
}
Math
operations
in
kotlin-stdlib
164
Satisfying the longstanding request, Kotlin 1.2 adds the kotlin.math API for math operations that is common for JVM
and JS and contains the following:
Constants: PI and E
Trigonometric: cos, sin, tan and inverse of them: acos, asin, atan, atan2
Hyperbolic: cosh, sinh, tanh and their inverse: acosh, asinh, atanh
Exponentation: pow (an extension function), sqrt, hypot, exp, expm1
Logarithms: log, log2, log10, ln, ln1p
Rounding:
ceil, floor, truncate, round (half to even) functions
roundToInt, roundToLong (half to integer) extension functions
Sign and absolute value:
abs and sign functions
absoluteValue and sign extension properties
withSign extension function
max and min of two values
Binary representation:
ulp extension property
nextUp, nextDown, nextTowards extension functions
toBits, toRawBits, Double.fromBits (these are in the kotlin package)
The same set of functions (but without constants) is also available for Float arguments.
Operators
and
conversions
for
BigInteger
and
BigDecimal
Kotlin 1.2 introduces a set of functions for operating with BigInteger and BigDecimal and creating them from other
numeric types. These are:
toBigInteger for Int and Long
toBigDecimal for Int, Long, Float, Double, and BigInteger
Arithmetic and bitwise operator functions:
Binary operators +, -, *, /, % and infix functions and, or, xor, shl, shr
Unary operators -, ++, --, and a function inv
165
Floating
point
to
bits
conversions
New functions were added for converting Double and Float to and from their bit representations:
toBits and toRawBits returning Long for Double and Int for Float
Double.fromBits and Float.fromBits for creating floating point numbers from the bit representation
Regex
is
now
serializable
The kotlin.text.Regex class has become Serializable and can now be used in serializable hierarchies.
Closeable.use
calls
Throwable.addSuppressed
if
available
The Closeable.use function calls Throwable.addSuppressed when an exception is thrown during closing the resource
after some other exception.
To enable this behavior you need to have kotlin-stdlib-jdk7 in your dependencies.
JVM
backend
Constructor
calls
normalization
Ever since version 1.0, Kotlin supported expressions with complex control flow, such as try-catch expressions and
inline function calls. Such code is valid according to the Java Virtual Machine specification. Unfortunately, some
bytecode processing tools do not handle such code quite well when such expressions are present in the arguments of
constructor calls.
To mitigate this problem for the users of such bytecode processing tools, we’ve added a command-line compiler
option (-Xnormalize-constructor-calls=MODE) that tells the compiler to generate more Java-like bytecode for such
constructs. Here MODE is one of:
disable (default) – generate bytecode in the same way as in Kotlin 1.0 and 1.1.
enable – generate Java-like bytecode for constructor calls. This can change the order in which the classes are
loaded and initialized.
preserve-class-initialization – generate Java-like bytecode for constructor calls, ensuring that the class initialization
order is preserved. This can affect overall performance of your application; use it only if you have some complex
state shared between multiple classes and updated on class initialization.
The “manual” workaround is to store the values of sub-expressions with control flow in variables, instead of evaluating
them directly inside the call arguments. It’s similar to -Xnormalize-constructor-calls=enable.
Java-default
method
calls
Before Kotlin 1.2, interface members overriding Java-default methods while targeting JVM 1.6 produced a warning on
166
super calls: Super calls to Java default methods are deprecated in JVM target 1.6. Recompile with '-jvm-target 1.8'. In
Kotlin 1.2, there's an error instead, thus requiring any such code to be compiled with JVM target 1.8.
Breaking
change:
consistent
behavior
of
x.equals(null)
for
platform
types
Calling x.equals(null) on a platform type that is mapped to a Java primitive (Int!, Boolean!, Short !, Long!, Float!,
Double!, Char!) incorrectly returned true when x was null. Starting with Kotlin 1.2, calling x.equals(...) on a null value of a
platform type throws an NPE (but x == ... does not).
To return to the pre-1.2 behavior, pass the flag -Xno-exception-on-explicit-equals-for-boxed-null to the compiler.
Breaking
change:
fix
for
platform
null
escaping
through
an
inlined
extension
receiver
Inline extension functions that were called on a null value of a platform type did not check the receiver for null and
would thus allow null to escape into the other code. Kotlin 1.2 forces this check at the call sites, throwing an exception
if the receiver is null.
To switch to the old behavior, pass the fallback flag -Xno-receiver-assertions to the compiler.
JavaScript
backend
TypedArrays
support
enabled
by
default
The JS typed arrays support that translates Kotlin primitive arrays, such as IntArray, DoubleArray, into JavaScript typed
arrays, that was previously an opt-in feature, has been enabled by default.
Tools
Warnings
as
errors
The compiler now provides an option to treat all warnings as errors. Use -Werror on the command line, or the following
Gradle snippet:
compileKotlin {
kotlinOptions.allWarningsAsErrors = true
}
What's
new
in
Kotlin
1.1
Release date: 15 February 2016
167
Table
of
contents
Coroutines
Other language features
Standard library
JVM backend
JavaScript backend
JavaScript
Starting with Kotlin 1.1, the JavaScript target is no longer considered experimental. All language features are
supported, and there are many new tools for integration with the frontend development environment. See below for a
more detailed list of changes.
Coroutines
(experimental)
The key new feature in Kotlin 1.1 is coroutines, bringing the support of async/ await, yield, and similar programming
patterns. The key feature of Kotlin's design is that the implementation of coroutine execution is part of the libraries, not
the language, so you aren't bound to any specific programming paradigm or concurrency library.
A coroutine is effectively a light-weight thread that can be suspended and resumed later. Coroutines are supported
through suspending functions: a call to such a function can potentially suspend a coroutine, and to start a new
coroutine we usually use an anonymous suspending functions (i.e. suspending lambdas).
Let's look at async/ await which is implemented in an external library, kotlinx.coroutines:
// runs the code in the background thread pool
fun asyncOverlay() = async(CommonPool) {
// start two async operations
val original = asyncLoadImage("original")
val overlay = asyncLoadImage("overlay")
// and then apply overlay to both results
applyOverlay(original.await(), overlay.await())
}
// launches new coroutine in UI context
launch(UI) {
// wait for async overlay to complete
val image = asyncOverlay().await()
// and then show it in UI
showImage(image)
}
Here, async { ... } starts a coroutine and, when we use await(), the execution of the coroutine is suspended while the
168
operation being awaited is executed, and is resumed (possibly on a different thread) when the operation being awaited
completes.
The standard library uses coroutines to support lazily generated sequences with yield and yieldAll functions. In such a
sequence, the block of code that returns sequence elements is suspended after each element has been retrieved, and
resumed when the next element is requested. Here's an example:
import kotlin.coroutines.experimental.*
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val seq = buildSequence {
for (i in 1..5) {
// yield a square of i
yield(i * i)
}
// yield a range
yieldAll(26..28)
}
// print the sequence
println(seq.toList())
}
Run the code above to see the result. Feel free to edit it and run again!
For more information, please refer to the coroutines documentation and tutorial.
Note that coroutines are currently considered an experimental feature, meaning that the Kotlin team is not committing
to supporting the backwards compatibility of this feature after the final 1.1 release.
Other
language
features
Type
aliases
A type alias allows you to define an alternative name for an existing type. This is most useful for generic types such as
collections, as well as for function types. Here is an example:
//sampleStart
typealias OscarWinners = Map<String, String>
fun countLaLaLand(oscarWinners: OscarWinners) =
oscarWinners.count { it.value.contains("La La Land") }
// Note that the type names (initial and the type alias) are interchangeable:
fun checkLaLaLandIsTheBestMovie(oscarWinners: Map<String, String>) =
oscarWinners["Best picture"] == "La La Land"
//sampleEnd
fun oscarWinners(): OscarWinners {
return mapOf(
"Best song" to "City of Stars (La La Land)",
169
"Best actress" to "Emma Stone (La La Land)",
"Best picture" to "Moonlight" /* ... */)
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val oscarWinners = oscarWinners()
val laLaLandAwards = countLaLaLand(oscarWinners)
println("LaLaLandAwards = $laLaLandAwards (in our small example), but actually it's 6.")
val laLaLandIsTheBestMovie = checkLaLaLandIsTheBestMovie(oscarWinners)
println("LaLaLandIsTheBestMovie = $laLaLandIsTheBestMovie")
}
See the type aliases documentation and KEEP for more details.
Bound
callable
references
You can now use the :: operator to get a member reference pointing to a method or property of a specific object
instance. Previously this could only be expressed with a lambda. Here's an example:
//sampleStart
val numberRegex = "\\d+".toRegex()
val numbers = listOf("abc", "123", "456").filter(numberRegex::matches)
//sampleEnd
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
println("Result is $numbers")
}
Read the documentation and KEEP for more details.
Sealed
and
data
classes
Kotlin 1.1 removes some of the restrictions on sealed and data classes that were present in Kotlin 1.0. Now you can
define subclasses of a top-level sealed class on the top level in the same file, and not just as nested classes of the
sealed class. Data classes can now extend other classes. This can be used to define a hierarchy of expression classes
nicely and cleanly:
//sampleStart
sealed class Expr
data class Const(val number: Double) : Expr()
data class Sum(val e1: Expr, val e2: Expr) : Expr()
object NotANumber : Expr()
fun eval(expr: Expr): Double = when (expr) {
is Const -> expr.number
is Sum -> eval(expr.e1) + eval(expr.e2)
NotANumber -> Double.NaN
}
val e = eval(Sum(Const(1.0), Const(2.0)))
170
//sampleEnd
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
println("e is $e") // 3.0
}
Read the sealed classes documentation or KEEPs for sealed class and data class for more detail.
Destructuring
in
lambdas
You can now use the destructuring declaration syntax to unpack the arguments passed to a lambda. Here's an
example:
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
//sampleStart
val map = mapOf(1 to "one", 2 to "two")
// before
println(map.mapValues { entry ->
val (key, value) = entry
"$key -> $value!"
})
// now
println(map.mapValues { (key, value) -> "$key -> $value!" })
//sampleEnd
}
Read the destructuring declarations documentation and KEEP for more details.
Underscores
for
unused
parameters
For a lambda with multiple parameters, you can use the _ character to replace the names of the parameters you don't
use:
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val map = mapOf(1 to "one", 2 to "two")
//sampleStart
map.forEach { _, value -> println("$value!") }
//sampleEnd
}
This also works in destructuring declarations:
data class Result(val value: Any, val status: String)
fun getResult() = Result(42, "ok").also { println("getResult() returns $it") }
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
//sampleStart
val (_, status) = getResult()
//sampleEnd
171
println("status is '$status'")
}
Read the KEEP for more details.
Underscores
in
numeric
literals
Just as in Java 8, Kotlin now allows to use underscores in numeric literals to separate groups of digits:
//sampleStart
val oneMillion = 1_000_000
val hexBytes = 0xFF_EC_DE_5E
val bytes = 0b11010010_01101001_10010100_10010010
//sampleEnd
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
println(oneMillion)
println(hexBytes.toString(16))
println(bytes.toString(2))
}
Read the KEEP for more details.
Shorter
syntax
for
properties
For properties with the getter defined as an expression body, the property type can now be omitted:
//sampleStart
data class Person(val name: String, val age: Int) {
val isAdult get() = age >= 20 // Property type inferred to be 'Boolean'
}
//sampleEnd
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val akari = Person("Akari", 26)
println("$akari.isAdult = ${akari.isAdult}")
}
Inline
property
accessors
You can now mark property accessors with the inline modifier if the properties don't have a backing field. Such
accessors are compiled in the same way as inline functions.
//sampleStart
public val <T> List<T>.lastIndex: Int
inline get() = this.size - 1
//sampleEnd
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val list = listOf('a', 'b')
// the getter will be inlined
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println("Last index of $list is ${list.lastIndex}")
}
You can also mark the entire property as inline- then the modifier is applied to both accessors.
Read the inline functions documentation and KEEP for more details.
Local
delegated
properties
You can now use the delegated property syntax with local variables. One possible use is defining a lazily evaluated
local variable:
import java.util.Random
fun needAnswer() = Random().nextBoolean()
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
//sampleStart
val answer by lazy {
println("Calculating the answer...")
42
}
if (needAnswer()) { // returns the random value
println("The answer is $answer.") // answer is calculated at this point
}
else {
println("Sometimes no answer is the answer...")
}
//sampleEnd
}
Read the KEEP for more details.
Interception
of
delegated
property
binding
For delegated properties, it is now possible to intercept delegate to property binding using the provideDelegate
operator. For example, if we want to check the property name before binding, we can write something like this:
class ResourceLoader<T>(id: ResourceID<T>) {
operator fun provideDelegate(thisRef: MyUI, prop: KProperty<*>): ReadOnlyProperty<MyUI, T>
{
checkProperty(thisRef, prop.name)
... // property creation
}
private fun checkProperty(thisRef: MyUI, name: String) { ... }
}
fun <T> bindResource(id: ResourceID<T>): ResourceLoader<T> { ... }
class MyUI {
val image by bindResource(ResourceID.image_id)
173
val text by bindResource(ResourceID.text_id)
}
The provideDelegate method will be called for each property during the creation of a MyUI instance, and it can perform
the necessary validation right away.
Read the delegated properties documentation for more details.
Generic
enum
value
access
It is now possible to enumerate the values of an enum class in a generic way.
//sampleStart
enum class RGB { RED, GREEN, BLUE }
inline fun <reified T : Enum<T>> printAllValues() {
print(enumValues<T>().joinToString { it.name })
}
//sampleEnd
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
printAllValues<RGB>() // prints RED, GREEN, BLUE
}
Scope
control
for
implicit
receivers
in
DSLs
The @DslMarker annotation allows to restrict the use of receivers from outer scopes in a DSL context. Consider the
canonical HTML builder example:
table {
tr {
td { + "Text" }
}
}
In Kotlin 1.0, code in the lambda passed to td has access to three implicit receivers: the one passed to table, to tr and
to td. This allows you to call methods that make no sense in the context - for example to call tr inside td and thus to put
a <tr> tag in a <td>.
In Kotlin 1.1, you can restrict that, so that only methods defined on the implicit receiver of td will be available inside the
lambda passed to td. You do that by defining your annotation marked with the @DslMarker meta-annotation and
applying it to the base class of the tag classes.
Read the type safe builders documentation and KEEP for more details.
rem
operator
The mod operator is now deprecated, and rem is used instead. See this issue for motivation.
174
Standard
library
String
to
number
conversions
There is a bunch of new extensions on the String class to convert it to a number without throwing an exception on
invalid number: String.toIntOrNull(): Int?, String.toDoubleOrNull(): Double? etc.
val port = System.getenv("PORT")?.toIntOrNull() ?: 80
Also integer conversion functions, like Int.toString(), String.toInt(), String.toIntOrNull(), each got an overload with radix
parameter, which allows to specify the base of conversion (2 to 36).
onEach()
onEach is a small, but useful extension function for collections and sequences, which allows to perform some action,
possibly with side-effects, on each element of the collection/sequence in a chain of operations. On iterables it behaves
like forEach but also returns the iterable instance further. And on sequences it returns a wrapping sequence, which
applies the given action lazily as the elements are being iterated.
inputDir.walk()
.filter { it.isFile && it.name.endsWith(".txt") }
.onEach { println("Moving $it to $outputDir") }
.forEach { moveFile(it, File(outputDir, it.toRelativeString(inputDir))) }
also(),
takeIf(),
and
takeUnless()
These are three general-purpose extension functions applicable to any receiver.
also is like apply: it takes the receiver, does some action on it, and returns that receiver. The difference is that in the
block inside apply the receiver is available as this, while in the block inside also it's available as it (and you can give it
another name if you want). This comes handy when you do not want to shadow this from the outer scope:
class Block {
lateinit var content: String
}
//sampleStart
fun Block.copy() = Block().also {
it.content = this.content
}
//sampleEnd
// using 'apply' instead
fun Block.copy1() = Block().apply {
this.content = this@copy1.content
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
175
val block = Block().apply { content = "content" }
val copy = block.copy()
println("Testing the content was copied:")
println(block.content == copy.content)
}
takeIf is like filter for a single value. It checks whether the receiver meets the predicate, and returns the receiver, if it
does or null if it doesn't. Combined with an elvis operator (?:) and early returns it allows writing constructs like:
val outDirFile = File(outputDir.path).takeIf { it.exists() } ?: return false
// do something with existing outDirFile
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val input = "Kotlin"
val keyword = "in"
//sampleStart
val index = input.indexOf(keyword).takeIf { it >= 0 } ?: error("keyword not found")
// do something with index of keyword in input string, given that it's found
//sampleEnd
println("'$keyword' was found in '$input'")
println(input)
println(" ".repeat(index) + "^")
}
takeUnless is the same as takeIf, but it takes the inverted predicate. It returns the receiver when it doesn't meet the
predicate and null otherwise. So one of the examples above could be rewritten with takeUnless as following:
val index = input.indexOf(keyword).takeUnless { it < 0 } ?: error("keyword not found")
It is also convenient to use when you have a callable reference instead of the lambda:
private fun testTakeUnless(string: String) {
//sampleStart
val result = string.takeUnless(String::isEmpty)
//sampleEnd
println("string = \"$string\"; result = \"$result\"")
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
testTakeUnless("")
testTakeUnless("abc")
}
groupingBy()
This API can be used to group a collection by key and fold each group simultaneously. For example, it can be used to
176
count the number of words starting with each letter:
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val words = "one two three four five six seven eight nine ten".split(' ')
//sampleStart
val frequencies = words.groupingBy { it.first() }.eachCount()
//sampleEnd
println("Counting first letters: $frequencies.")
// The alternative way that uses 'groupBy' and 'mapValues' creates an intermediate map,
// while 'groupingBy' way counts on the fly.
val groupBy = words.groupBy { it.first() }.mapValues { (_, list) -> list.size }
println("Comparing the result with using 'groupBy': ${groupBy == frequencies}.")
}
Map.toMap()
and
Map.toMutableMap()
These functions can be used for easy copying of maps:
class ImmutablePropertyBag(map: Map<String, Any>) {
private val mapCopy = map.toMap()
}
Map.minus(key)
The operator plus provides a way to add key-value pair(s) to a read-only map producing a new map, however there
was not a simple way to do the opposite: to remove a key from the map you have to resort to less straightforward ways
to like Map.filter() or Map.filterKeys(). Now the operator minus fills this gap. There are 4 overloads available: for
removing a single key, a collection of keys, a sequence of keys and an array of keys.
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
//sampleStart
val map = mapOf("key" to 42)
val emptyMap = map - "key"
//sampleEnd
println("map: $map")
println("emptyMap: $emptyMap")
}
minOf()
and
maxOf()
These functions can be used to find the lowest and greatest of two or three given values, where values are primitive
numbers or Comparable objects. There is also an overload of each function that take an additional Comparator
instance if you want to compare objects that are not comparable themselves.
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
//sampleStart
177
val list1 = listOf("a", "b")
val list2 = listOf("x", "y", "z")
val minSize = minOf(list1.size, list2.size)
val longestList = maxOf(list1, list2, compareBy { it.size })
//sampleEnd
println("minSize = $minSize")
println("longestList = $longestList")
}
Array-like
List
instantiation
functions
Similar to the Array constructor, there are now functions that create List and MutableList instances and initialize each
element by calling a lambda:
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
//sampleStart
val squares = List(10) { index -> index * index }
val mutable = MutableList(10) { 0 }
//sampleEnd
println("squares: $squares")
println("mutable: $mutable")
}
Map.getValue()
This extension on Map returns an existing value corresponding to the given key or throws an exception, mentioning
which key was not found. If the map was produced with withDefault, this function will return the default value instead of
throwing an exception.
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
//sampleStart
val map = mapOf("key" to 42)
// returns non-nullable Int value 42
val value: Int = map.getValue("key")
val mapWithDefault = map.withDefault { k -> k.length }
// returns 4
val value2 = mapWithDefault.getValue("key2")
// map.getValue("anotherKey") // <- this will throw NoSuchElementException
//sampleEnd
println("value is $value")
println("value2 is $value2")
}
Abstract
collections
These abstract classes can be used as base classes when implementing Kotlin collection classes. For implementing
178
read-only collections there are AbstractCollection, AbstractList, AbstractSet and AbstractMap, and for mutable
collections there are AbstractMutableCollection, AbstractMutableList, AbstractMutableSet and AbstractMutableMap.
On JVM, these abstract mutable collections inherit most of their functionality from JDK's abstract collections.
Array
manipulation
functions
The standard library now provides a set of functions for element-by-element operations on arrays: comparison
(contentEquals and contentDeepEquals ), hash code calculation (contentHashCode and contentDeepHashCode ), and
conversion to a string (contentToString and contentDeepToString ). They're supported both for the JVM (where they
act as aliases for the corresponding functions in java.util.Arrays) and for JS (where the implementation is provided in
the Kotlin standard library).
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
//sampleStart
val array = arrayOf("a", "b", "c")
println(array.toString()) // JVM implementation: type-and-hash gibberish
println(array.contentToString()) // nicely formatted as list
//sampleEnd
}
JVM
Backend
Java
8
bytecode
support
Kotlin has now the option of generating Java 8 bytecode (-jvm-target 1.8 command line option or the corresponding
options in Ant/Maven/Gradle). For now this doesn't change the semantics of the bytecode (in particular, default
methods in interfaces and lambdas are generated exactly as in Kotlin 1.0), but we plan to make further use of this later.
Java
8
standard
library
support
There are now separate versions of the standard library supporting the new JDK APIs added in Java 7 and 8. If you
need access to the new APIs, use kotlin-stdlib-jre7 and kotlin-stdlib-jre8 maven artifacts instead of the standard kotlin-
stdlib. These artifacts are tiny extensions on top of kotlin-stdlib and they bring it to your project as a transitive
dependency.
Parameter
names
in
the
bytecode
Kotlin now supports storing parameter names in the bytecode. This can be enabled using the -java-parameters
command line option.
Constant
inlining
The compiler now inlines values of const val properties into the locations where they are used.
179
Mutable
closure
variables
The box classes used for capturing mutable closure variables in lambdas no longer have volatile fields. This change
improves performance, but can lead to new race conditions in some rare usage scenarios. If you're affected by this,
you need to provide your own synchronization for accessing the variables.
javax.script
support
Kotlin now integrates with the javax.script API (JSR-223). The API allows to evaluate snippets of code at runtime:
val engine = ScriptEngineManager().getEngineByExtension("kts")!!
engine.eval("val x = 3")
println(engine.eval("x + 2")) // Prints out 5
See here for a larger example project using the API.
kotlin.reflect.full
To prepare for Java 9 support, the extension functions and properties in the kotlin-reflect.jar library have been moved
to the package kotlin.reflect.full. The names in the old package (kotlin.reflect) are deprecated and will be removed in
Kotlin 1.2. Note that the core reflection interfaces (such as KClass) are part of the Kotlin standard library, not kotlin-
reflect, and are not affected by the move.
JavaScript
backend
Unified
standard
library
A much larger part of the Kotlin standard library can now be used from code compiled to JavaScript. In particular, key
classes such as collections (ArrayList, HashMap etc.), exceptions (IllegalArgumentException etc.) and a few others
(StringBuilder, Comparator) are now defined under the kotlin package. On the JVM, the names are type aliases for the
corresponding JDK classes, and on the JS, the classes are implemented in the Kotlin standard library.
Better
code
generation
JavaScript backend now generates more statically checkable code, which is friendlier to JS code processing tools, like
minifiers, optimisers, linters, etc.
The
external
modifier
If you need to access a class implemented in JavaScript from Kotlin in a typesafe way, you can write a Kotlin
declaration using the external modifier. (In Kotlin 1.0, the @native annotation was used instead.) Unlike the JVM target,
the JS one permits to use external modifier with classes and properties. For example, here's how you can declare the
DOM Node class:
180
external class Node {
val firstChild: Node
fun appendChild(child: Node): Node
fun removeChild(child: Node): Node
// etc
}
Improved
import
handling
You can now describe declarations which should be imported from JavaScript modules more precisely. If you add the
@JsModule("<module-name>") annotation on an external declaration it will be properly imported to a module system
(either CommonJS or AMD) during the compilation. For example, with CommonJS the declaration will be imported via
require(...) function. Additionally, if you want to import a declaration either as a module or as a global JavaScript object,
you can use the @JsNonModule annotation.
For example, here's how you can import JQuery into a Kotlin module:
external interface JQuery {
fun toggle(duration: Int = definedExternally): JQuery
fun click(handler: (Event) -> Unit): JQuery
}
@JsModule("jquery")
@JsNonModule
@JsName("$")
external fun jquery(selector: String): JQuery
In this case, JQuery will be imported as a module named jquery. Alternatively, it can be used as a $-object, depending
on what module system Kotlin compiler is configured to use.
You can use these declarations in your application like this:
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
jquery(".toggle-button").click {
jquery(".toggle-panel").toggle(300)
}
}
What's
new
in
Kotlin
plugin
2021.1
This release aims to increase productivity and improve the development experience. Version 2021.1 of the Kotlin plugin
introduces the following major updates:
Performance improvements
181
Evaluation of custom getters during debugging
Improved Change Signature refactoring
Code completion for type arguments
UML diagrams for Kotlin classes
Other platform enhancements
You can also learn about new features in this blog post.
Performance
improvements
With 2021.1, the Kotlin plugin has received a number of performance improvements that speed up the development
process.
Here are some major refinements:
Faster syntax and error highlighting. The code highlighting API has been reworked, so you now get all the necessary
diagnostic information faster. See the benchmark results and share your feedback in this YouTrack issue.
Code completion speed improvements. The Kotlin plugin provides faster code completion. Check out this YouTrack
issue to see the benchmark results.
This version also introduces other improvements for code completion, particularly code completion for type
arguments.
Improved IDE responsiveness. We’ve fixed numerous issues based on your feedback, and we’ve improved the
overall stability of the plugin, as well as IDE responsiveness.
Evaluation
of
custom
getters
during
debugging
This release expands the capabilities of the debugger. One of the most notable features is the ability to display Kotlin
properties without a backing field in the Variables view.
Previously, during a debug session, you could only see the properties without a custom getter and those with a
backing field. Properties with a custom getter didn't appear because they are represented as regular methods on the
JVM. Starting with version 2021.1 of the Kotlin plugin, you can see all such properties and evaluate them on demand
by clicking on `get() near the property name.
For example, when debugging of the following code, you can execute the get() method to see the value:
class LanguageVersion(val major: Int, val minor: Int) {
val isStable: Boolean
get() = major <= 1 && minor <= 4
val isExperimental: Boolean
182
get() = !isStable
val versionString: String
get() = "$major.$minor"
override fun toString() = versionString
}
fun main() {
val version = LanguageVersion(1, 4)
}
In the Debug window, you can see the values of the properties:
Variables view
Improved
Change
Signature
refactoring
This release contains changes to the Change Signature refactoring. We’ve fixed more than 40 issues to make the
refactoring process better.
Here are some of the important improvements:
Support for warning messages for more refactoring cases.
Fixes to inheritance refactoring, including cross-language refactoring. See the YouTrack issue for details.* Improved
UX of properties processing.
Improved UX for processing properties.
Addition of a way to declare the default parameter value. See the YouTrack issue for details.
Correct backticks processing.
183
Code
completion
for
type
arguments
From now on, code completion will offer functions and properties after generic functions and will restore type
arguments where needed. When you select such a function from the list, the IDE adds the correct type argument to the
preceding code.
In the following example, there is a list of strings to be reversed:
fun typeArgumentsAtCodeCompletion() {
// Function definition from stdlib:
// public fun <T> emptyList(): List<T>
val list: List<String> = emptyList() // T is inferred from the context (explicit variable
type)
}
To reverse this list, start typing the name of the reversed() function:
Now code completion suggests functions
After you apply the code completion suggestion, the IDE automatically adds the <String> type:
fun typeArgumentsAtCodeCompletion() {
// Function definition from stdlib:
// public fun <T> emptyList(): List<T>
val list: List<String> = emptyList<String>().reversed()
}
The type argument for emptyList() is required to evaluate the expression type. Otherwise, the code will not compile.
UML
diagrams
for
Kotlin
classes
With this release, you can test Kotlin code visualization via UML Class diagrams. To build a diagram, select Diagrams |
Show Diagram... | Kotlin Classes in the Project View.
184
UML diagram for Kotlin classes
Currently, the diagrams only show inheritance and nesting relationships. All other more detailed association
connections, like aggregation, composition, dependency, and others will be available in the future releases.
Other
platform
enhancements
Since the plugin and the platform have been moved to the same codebase and now ship simultaneously, this release
also brings the following features that improve the Kotlin experience:
You can now launch the basic memory profiler that was announced in the IntelliJ IDEA 2020.3 release via Gradle
run.
To improve the experience of working with coroutines, this release provides better thread-blocking call detection.
The inspection now correctly warns you about inappropriate blocking method calls.
We’ve fixed some of the language injection issues that received the most votes. Language injection now works
correctly for the following cases:
When you use triple quotes to inject multi-line strings and add the .trimIndent(), or .trimMargin() functions at the
end. See the YouTrack issue for details.
When you concatenate strings. See the YouTrack issue for details.
185
See the What’s new in IntelliJ IDEA 2021.1 blog post or watch this video to learn more about the platform
enhancements.
What's
new
in
Kotlin
plugin
2020.3
This plugin release introduces the following features:
New types of inline refactorings
Structural search and replace
EditorConfig support
Project templates for Jetpack Compose for Desktop
New
types
of
inline
refactorings
Cross-language conversion is possible starting with version 2020.3 of the Kotlin plugin. You can now use the inline
refactoring actions for Kotlin elements defined in Java.
The Kotlin plugin can inline code from libraries with attached sources. That means you can inline refactor all the Kotlin
scope functions: also, let, run, apply, and with.
Also, this release brings refactoring improvements for lambda expressions. Now the IDE analyzes their syntax more
thoroughly and formats them correctly.
Structural
search
and
replace
Structural search and replace (SSR) actions are now available for Kotlin. The SSR feature allows you to find and replace
code patterns, taking the syntax and semantics of the source code into account.
To start using the feature, open the Structural Search dialog for your .kt file and select one of the templates or create
your own.
EditorConfig
support
From 2020.3, the Kotlin API has the full support of .editorconfig files for managing code style on a directory level.
Project
templates
for
Jetpack
Compose
for
Desktop
The new experimental Jetpack Compose for Desktop templates are now available in the Kotlin Project Wizard. You can
186
create a project using the following templates:
Desktop – a Compose project targeting the desktop JVM platform: Windows, Linux, or macOS.
Multiplatform – a Multiplatform Compose project targeting the desktop JVM platform (Windows, Linux, macOS) and
Android with shared code in common modules.
Kotlin Project Wizard – Jetpack Compose project
To create a project, select one of the templates while creating a new project and specify the Gradle build system. The
Kotlin plugin creates all the configuration files automatically. You can try out this experimental feature by working
through Getting Started with Compose for Desktop tutorial.
Read more about Jetpack Compose features in this blog post and look through the examples of Compose
applications.
Basic
syntax
Package
definition
and
imports
Package specification should be at the top of the source file.
package my.demo
187
import kotlin.text.*
// ...
It is not required to match directories and packages: source files can be placed arbitrarily in the file system.
See Packages.
Program
entry
point
An entry point of a Kotlin application is the main function.
fun main() {
println("Hello world!")
}
Another form of main accepts a variable number of String arguments.
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
println(args.contentToString())
}
Print
to
the
standard
output
print prints its argument to the standard output.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
print("Hello ")
print("world!")
//sampleEnd
}
println prints its arguments and adds a line break, so that the next thing you print appears on the next line.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
println("Hello world!")
println(42)
//sampleEnd
}
Functions
188
A function with two Int parameters and Int return type.
//sampleStart
fun sum(a: Int, b: Int): Int {
return a + b
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
print("sum of 3 and 5 is ")
println(sum(3, 5))
}
A function body can be an expression. Its return type is inferred.
//sampleStart
fun sum(a: Int, b: Int) = a + b
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
println("sum of 19 and 23 is ${sum(19, 23)}")
}
A function that returns no meaningful value.
//sampleStart
fun printSum(a: Int, b: Int): Unit {
println("sum of $a and $b is ${a + b}")
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
printSum(-1, 8)
}
Unit return type can be omitted.
//sampleStart
fun printSum(a: Int, b: Int) {
println("sum of $a and $b is ${a + b}")
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
printSum(-1, 8)
}
See Functions.
189
Variables
Read-only local variables are defined using the keyword val. They can be assigned a value only once.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val a: Int = 1 // immediate assignment
val b = 2 // `Int` type is inferred
val c: Int // Type required when no initializer is provided
c = 3 // deferred assignment
//sampleEnd
println("a = $a, b = $b, c = $c")
}
Variables that can be reassigned use the var keyword.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
var x = 5 // `Int` type is inferred
x += 1
//sampleEnd
println("x = $x")
}
You can declare variables at the top level.
//sampleStart
val PI = 3.14
var x = 0
fun incrementX() {
x += 1
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
println("x = $x; PI = $PI")
incrementX()
println("incrementX()")
println("x = $x; PI = $PI")
}
See also Properties.
Creating
classes
and
instances
To define a class, use the class keyword.
class Shape
190
Properties of a class can be listed in its declaration or body.
class Rectangle(var height: Double, var length: Double) {
var perimeter = (height + length) * 2
}
The default constructor with parameters listed in the class declaration is available automatically.
class Rectangle(var height: Double, var length: Double) {
var perimeter = (height + length) * 2
}
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val rectangle = Rectangle(5.0, 2.0)
println("The perimeter is ${rectangle.perimeter}")
//sampleEnd
}
Inheritance between classes is declared by a colon (: ). Classes are final by default; to make a class inheritable, mark it
as open.
open class Shape
class Rectangle(var height: Double, var length: Double): Shape() {
var perimeter = (height + length) * 2
}
See classes and objects and instances.
Comments
Just like most modern languages, Kotlin supports single-line (or end-of-line) and multi-line (block) comments.
// This is an end-of-line comment
/* This is a block comment
on multiple lines. */
Block comments in Kotlin can be nested.
/* The comment starts here
/* contains a nested comment */
and ends here. */
See Documenting Kotlin Code for information on the documentation comment syntax.
191
String
templates
fun main() {
//sampleStart
var a = 1
// simple name in template:
val s1 = "a is $a"
a = 2
// arbitrary expression in template:
val s2 = "${s1.replace("is", "was")}, but now is $a"
//sampleEnd
println(s2)
}
See String templates for details.
Conditional
expressions
//sampleStart
fun maxOf(a: Int, b: Int): Int {
if (a > b) {
return a
} else {
return b
}
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
println("max of 0 and 42 is ${maxOf(0, 42)}")
}
In Kotlin, if can also be used as an expression.
//sampleStart
fun maxOf(a: Int, b: Int) = if (a > b) a else b
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
println("max of 0 and 42 is ${maxOf(0, 42)}")
}
See if -expressions.
for
loop
fun main() {
192
//sampleStart
val items = listOf("apple", "banana", "kiwifruit")
for (item in items) {
println(item)
}
//sampleEnd
}
or
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val items = listOf("apple", "banana", "kiwifruit")
for (index in items.indices) {
println("item at $index is ${items[index]}")
}
//sampleEnd
}
See for loop.
while
loop
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val items = listOf("apple", "banana", "kiwifruit")
var index = 0
while (index < items.size) {
println("item at $index is ${items[index]}")
index++
}
//sampleEnd
}
See while loop.
when
expression
//sampleStart
fun describe(obj: Any): String =
when (obj) {
1 -> "One"
"Hello" -> "Greeting"
is Long -> "Long"
!is String -> "Not a string"
else -> "Unknown"
}
//sampleEnd
193
fun main() {
println(describe(1))
println(describe("Hello"))
println(describe(1000L))
println(describe(2))
println(describe("other"))
}
See when expression.
Ranges
Check if a number is within a range using in operator.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val x = 10
val y = 9
if (x in 1..y+1) {
println("fits in range")
}
//sampleEnd
}
Check if a number is out of range.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val list = listOf("a", "b", "c")
if (-1 !in 0..list.lastIndex) {
println("-1 is out of range")
}
if (list.size !in list.indices) {
println("list size is out of valid list indices range, too")
}
//sampleEnd
}
Iterate over a range.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
for (x in 1..5) {
print(x)
}
//sampleEnd
}
Or over a progression.
194
fun main() {
//sampleStart
for (x in 1..10 step 2) {
print(x)
}
println()
for (x in 9 downTo 0 step 3) {
print(x)
}
//sampleEnd
}
See Ranges and progressions.
Collections
Iterate over a collection.
fun main() {
val items = listOf("apple", "banana", "kiwifruit")
//sampleStart
for (item in items) {
println(item)
}
//sampleEnd
}
Check if a collection contains an object using in operator.
fun main() {
val items = setOf("apple", "banana", "kiwifruit")
//sampleStart
when {
"orange" in items -> println("juicy")
"apple" in items -> println("apple is fine too")
}
//sampleEnd
}
Using lambda expressions to filter and map collections:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val fruits = listOf("banana", "avocado", "apple", "kiwifruit")
fruits
.filter { it.startsWith("a") }
.sortedBy { it }
.map { it.uppercase() }
.forEach { println(it) }
//sampleEnd
}
195
See Collections overview.
Nullable
values
and
null
checks
A reference must be explicitly marked as nullable when null value is possible. Nullable type names have ? at the end.
Return null if str does not hold an integer:
fun parseInt(str: String): Int? {
// ...
}
Use a function returning nullable value:
fun parseInt(str: String): Int? {
return str.toIntOrNull()
}
//sampleStart
fun printProduct(arg1: String, arg2: String) {
val x = parseInt(arg1)
val y = parseInt(arg2)
// Using `x * y` yields error because they may hold nulls.
if (x != null && y != null) {
// x and y are automatically cast to non-nullable after null check
println(x * y)
}
else {
println("'$arg1' or '$arg2' is not a number")
}
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
printProduct("6", "7")
printProduct("a", "7")
printProduct("a", "b")
}
or
fun parseInt(str: String): Int? {
return str.toIntOrNull()
}
fun printProduct(arg1: String, arg2: String) {
val x = parseInt(arg1)
val y = parseInt(arg2)
196
//sampleStart
// ...
if (x == null) {
println("Wrong number format in arg1: '$arg1'")
return
}
if (y == null) {
println("Wrong number format in arg2: '$arg2'")
return
}
// x and y are automatically cast to non-nullable after null check
println(x * y)
//sampleEnd
}
fun main() {
printProduct("6", "7")
printProduct("a", "7")
printProduct("99", "b")
}
See Null-safety.
Type
checks
and
automatic
casts
The is operator checks if an expression is an instance of a type. If an immutable local variable or property is checked
for a specific type, there's no need to cast it explicitly:
//sampleStart
fun getStringLength(obj: Any): Int? {
if (obj is String) {
// `obj` is automatically cast to `String` in this branch
return obj.length
}
// `obj` is still of type `Any` outside of the type-checked branch
return null
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
fun printLength(obj: Any) {
println("Getting the length of '$obj'. Result: ${getStringLength(obj) ?: "Error: The
object is not a string"} ")
}
printLength("Incomprehensibilities")
printLength(1000)
printLength(listOf(Any()))
}
or
197
//sampleStart
fun getStringLength(obj: Any): Int? {
if (obj !is String) return null
// `obj` is automatically cast to `String` in this branch
return obj.length
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
fun printLength(obj: Any) {
println("Getting the length of '$obj'. Result: ${getStringLength(obj) ?: "Error: The
object is not a string"} ")
}
printLength("Incomprehensibilities")
printLength(1000)
printLength(listOf(Any()))
}
or even
//sampleStart
fun getStringLength(obj: Any): Int? {
// `obj` is automatically cast to `String` on the right-hand side of `&&`
if (obj is String && obj.length > 0) {
return obj.length
}
return null
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
fun printLength(obj: Any) {
println("Getting the length of '$obj'. Result: ${getStringLength(obj) ?: "Error: The
object is not a string"} ")
}
printLength("Incomprehensibilities")
printLength("")
printLength(1000)
}
See Classes and Type casts.
Idioms
A collection of random and frequently used idioms in Kotlin. If you have a favorite idiom, contribute it by sending a pull
request.
198
Create
DTOs
(POJOs/POCOs)
data class Customer(val name: String, val email: String)
provides a Customer class with the following functionality:
getters (and setters in case of var s) for all properties
equals()
hashCode()
toString()
copy()
component1(), component2(), ..., for all properties (see Data classes)
Default
values
for
function
parameters
fun foo(a: Int = 0, b: String = "") { ... }
Filter
a
list
val positives = list.filter { x -> x > 0 }
Or alternatively, even shorter:
val positives = list.filter { it > 0 }
Learn the difference between Java and Kotlin filtering.
Check
the
presence
of
an
element
in
a
collection
if ("john@example.com" in emailsList) { ... }
if ("jane@example.com" !in emailsList) { ... }
String
interpolation
199
println("Name $name")
Learn the difference between Java and Kotlin string concatenation.
Instance
checks
when (x) {
is Foo -> ...
is Bar -> ...
else -> ...
}
Read-only
list
val list = listOf("a", "b", "c")
Read-only
map
val map = mapOf("a" to 1, "b" to 2, "c" to 3)
Access
a
map
entry
println(map["key"])
map["key"] = value
Traverse
a
map
or
a
list
of
pairs
for ((k, v) in map) {
println("$k -> $v")
}
k and v can be any convenient names, such as name and age.
Iterate
over
a
range
200
for (i in 1..100) { ... } // closed range: includes 100
for (i in 1 until 100) { ... } // half-open range: does not include 100
for (x in 2..10 step 2) { ... }
for (x in 10 downTo 1) { ... }
if (x in 1..10) { ... }
Lazy
property
val p: String by lazy {
// compute the string
}
Extension
functions
fun String.spaceToCamelCase() { ... }
"Convert this to camelcase".spaceToCamelCase()
Create
a
singleton
object Resource {
val name = "Name"
}
Instantiate
an
abstract
class
abstract class MyAbstractClass {
abstract fun doSomething()
abstract fun sleep()
}
fun main() {
val myObject = object : MyAbstractClass() {
override fun doSomething() {
// ...
}
override fun sleep() { // ...
}
}
myObject.doSomething()
}
201
If-not-null
shorthand
val files = File("Test").listFiles()
println(files?.size) // size is printed if files is not null
If-not-null-else
shorthand
val files = File("Test").listFiles()
println(files?.size ?: "empty") // if files is null, this prints "empty"
Execute
a
statement
if
null
val values = ...
val email = values["email"] ?: throw IllegalStateException("Email is missing!")
Get
first
item
of
a
possibly
empty
collection
val emails = ... // might be empty
val mainEmail = emails.firstOrNull() ?: ""
Execute
if
not
null
val value = ...
value?.let {
... // execute this block if not null
}
Map
nullable
value
if
not
null
val value = ...
val mapped = value?.let { transformValue(it) } ?: defaultValue
// defaultValue is returned if the value or the transform result is null.
202
Return
on
when
statement
fun transform(color: String): Int {
return when (color) {
"Red" -> 0
"Green" -> 1
"Blue" -> 2
else -> throw IllegalArgumentException("Invalid color param value")
}
}
try-catch
expression
fun test() {
val result = try {
count()
} catch (e: ArithmeticException) {
throw IllegalStateException(e)
}
// Working with result
}
if
expression
fun foo(param: Int) {
val result = if (param == 1) {
"one"
} else if (param == 2) {
"two"
} else {
"three"
}
}
Builder-style
usage
of
methods
that
return
Unit
fun arrayOfMinusOnes(size: Int): IntArray {
return IntArray(size).apply { fill(-1) }
}
Single-expression
functions
203
fun theAnswer() = 42
This is equivalent to
fun theAnswer(): Int {
return 42
}
This can be effectively combined with other idioms, leading to shorter code. For example, with the when expression:
fun transform(color: String): Int = when (color) {
"Red" -> 0
"Green" -> 1
"Blue" -> 2
else -> throw IllegalArgumentException("Invalid color param value")
}
Call
multiple
methods
on
an
object
instance
(with)
class Turtle {
fun penDown()
fun penUp()
fun turn(degrees: Double)
fun forward(pixels: Double)
}
val myTurtle = Turtle()
with(myTurtle) { //draw a 100 pix square
penDown()
for (i in 1..4) {
forward(100.0)
turn(90.0)
}
penUp()
}
Configure
properties
of
an
object
(apply)
val myRectangle = Rectangle().apply {
length = 4
breadth = 5
color = 0xFAFAFA
}
This is useful for configuring properties that aren't present in the object constructor.
204
Java
7's
try-with-resources
val stream = Files.newInputStream(Paths.get("/some/file.txt"))
stream.buffered().reader().use { reader ->
println(reader.readText())
}
Generic
function
that
requires
the
generic
type
information
// public final class Gson {
// ...
// public <T> T fromJson(JsonElement json, Class<T> classOfT) throws JsonSyntaxException {
// ...
inline fun <reified T: Any> Gson.fromJson(json: JsonElement): T = this.fromJson(json,
T::class.java)
Nullable
Boolean
val b: Boolean? = ...
if (b == true) {
...
} else {
// `b` is false or null
}
Swap
two
variables
var a = 1
var b = 2
a = b.also { b = a }
Mark
code
as
incomplete
(TODO)
Kotlin's standard library has a TODO() function that will always throw a NotImplementedError. Its return type is Nothing
so it can be used regardless of expected type. There's also an overload that accepts a reason parameter:
fun calcTaxes(): BigDecimal = TODO("Waiting for feedback from accounting")
IntelliJ IDEA's kotlin plugin understands the semantics of TODO() and automatically adds a code pointer in the TODO
205
tool window.
What’s
next?
Learn how to perform typical tasks with strings in Java and Kotlin.
Coding
conventions
Commonly known and easy-to-follow coding conventions are vital for any programming language. Here we provide
guidelines on the code style and code organization for projects that use Kotlin.
Configure
style
in
IDE
Two most popular IDEs for Kotlin - IntelliJ IDEA and Android Studio provide powerful support for code styling. You can
configure them to automatically format your code in consistence with the given code style.
Apply
the
style
guide
1. Go to Settings | Editor | Code Style | Kotlin.
2. Click Set from....
3. Select Kotlin style guide.
Verify
that
your
code
follows
the
style
guide
1. Go to Settings | Editor | Inspections | Kotlin.
2. Open Kotlin | Style issues.
3. Switch on File is not formatted according to project settings inspection. Additional inspections that verify other
issues described in the style guide (such as naming conventions) are enabled by default.
Source
code
organization
Directory
structure
In pure Kotlin projects, the recommended directory structure follows the package structure with the common root
package omitted. For example, if all the code in the project is in the org.example.kotlin package and its subpackages,
files with the org.example.kotlin package should be placed directly under the source root, and files in
org.example.kotlin.network.socket should be in the network/socket subdirectory of the source root.
206
On JVM: In projects where Kotlin is used together with Java, Kotlin source files should reside in the same
source root as the Java source files, and follow the same directory structure: each file should be stored in
the directory corresponding to each package statement.
Source
file
names
If a Kotlin file contains a single class (potentially with related top-level declarations), its name should be the same as
the name of the class, with the .kt extension appended. If a file contains multiple classes, or only top-level declarations,
choose a name describing what the file contains, and name the file accordingly. Use upper camel case with an
uppercase first letter (also known as Pascal case), for example, ProcessDeclarations.kt.
The name of the file should describe what the code in the file does. Therefore, you should avoid using meaningless
words such as Util in file names.
Source
file
organization
Placing multiple declarations (classes, top-level functions or properties) in the same Kotlin source file is encouraged as
long as these declarations are closely related to each other semantically, and the file size remains reasonable (not
exceeding a few hundred lines).
In particular, when defining extension functions for a class which are relevant for all clients of this class, put them in the
same file with the class itself. When defining extension functions that make sense only for a specific client, put them
next to the code of that client. Avoid creating files just to hold all extensions of some class.
Class
layout
The contents of a class should go in the following order:
1. Property declarations and initializer blocks
2. Secondary constructors
3. Method declarations
4. Companion object
Do not sort the method declarations alphabetically or by visibility, and do not separate regular methods from extension
methods. Instead, put related stuff together, so that someone reading the class from top to bottom can follow the logic
of what's happening. Choose an order (either higher-level stuff first, or vice versa) and stick to it.
Put nested classes next to the code that uses those classes. If the classes are intended to be used externally and
aren't referenced inside the class, put them in the end, after the companion object.
Interface
implementation
layout
When implementing an interface, keep the implementing members in the same order as members of the interface (if
207
necessary, interspersed with additional private methods used for the implementation).
Overload
layout
Always put overloads next to each other in a class.
Naming
rules
Package and class naming rules in Kotlin are quite simple:
Names of packages are always lowercase and do not use underscores (org.example.project ). Using multi-word
names is generally discouraged, but if you do need to use multiple words, you can either just concatenate them
together or use camel case (org.example.myProject ).
Names of classes and objects start with an uppercase letter and use camel case:
open class DeclarationProcessor { /*...*/ }
object EmptyDeclarationProcessor : DeclarationProcessor() { /*...*/ }
Function
names
Names of functions, properties and local variables start with a lowercase letter and use camel case and no
underscores:
fun processDeclarations() { /*...*/ }
var declarationCount = 1
Exception: factory functions used to create instances of classes can have the same name as the abstract return type:
interface Foo { /*...*/ }
class FooImpl : Foo { /*...*/ }
fun Foo(): Foo { return FooImpl() }
Names
for
test
methods
In tests (and only in tests), you can use method names with spaces enclosed in backticks. Note that such method
names are currently not supported by the Android runtime. Underscores in method names are also allowed in test
code.
class MyTestCase {
@Test fun `ensure everything works`() { /*...*/ }
208
@Test fun ensureEverythingWorks_onAndroid() { /*...*/ }
}
Property
names
Names of constants (properties marked with const, or top-level or object val properties with no custom get function
that hold deeply immutable data) should use uppercase underscore-separated names (screaming snake case) names:
const val MAX_COUNT = 8
val USER_NAME_FIELD = "UserName"
Names of top-level or object properties which hold objects with behavior or mutable data should use camel case
names:
val mutableCollection: MutableSet<String> = HashSet()
Names of properties holding references to singleton objects can use the same naming style as object declarations:
val PersonComparator: Comparator<Person> = /*...*/
For enum constants, it's OK to use either uppercase underscore-separated names ( screaming snake case) (enum
class Color { RED, GREEN }) or upper camel case names, depending on the usage.
Names
for
backing
properties
If a class has two properties which are conceptually the same but one is part of a public API and another is an
implementation detail, use an underscore as the prefix for the name of the private property:
class C {
private val _elementList = mutableListOf<Element>()
val elementList: List<Element>
get() = _elementList
}
Choose
good
names
The name of a class is usually a noun or a noun phrase explaining what the class is: List, PersonReader.
The name of a method is usually a verb or a verb phrase saying what the method does: close, readPersons. The name
should also suggest if the method is mutating the object or returning a new one. For instance sort is sorting a collection
in place, while sorted is returning a sorted copy of the collection.
The names should make it clear what the purpose of the entity is, so it's best to avoid using meaningless words
(Manager, Wrapper) in names.
209
When using an acronym as part of a declaration name, capitalize it if it consists of two letters ( IOStream ); capitalize
only the first letter if it is longer (XmlFormatter, HttpInputStream ).
Formatting
Indentation
Use four spaces for indentation. Do not use tabs.
For curly braces, put the opening brace in the end of the line where the construct begins, and the closing brace on a
separate line aligned horizontally with the opening construct.
if (elements != null) {
for (element in elements) {
// ...
}
}
In Kotlin, semicolons are optional, and therefore line breaks are significant. The language design assumes
Java-style braces, and you may encounter surprising behavior if you try to use a different formatting style.
Horizontal
whitespace
Put spaces around binary operators (a + b ). Exception: don't put spaces around the "range to" operator (0..i ).
Do not put spaces around unary operators (a++ ).
Put spaces between control flow keywords (if, when, for, and while) and the corresponding opening parenthesis.
Do not put a space before an opening parenthesis in a primary constructor declaration, method declaration or
method call.
class A(val x: Int)
fun foo(x: Int) { ... }
fun bar() {
foo(1)
}
Never put a space after (, [, or before ], )
Never put a space around . or ?.: foo.bar().filter { it > 2 }.joinToString(), foo?.bar()
Put a space after //: // This is a comment
210
Do not put spaces around angle brackets used to specify type parameters: class Map<K, V> { ... }
Do not put spaces around ::: Foo::class, String::length
Do not put a space before ? used to mark a nullable type: String?
As a general rule, avoid horizontal alignment of any kind. Renaming an identifier to a name with a different length
should not affect the formatting of either the declaration or any of the usages.
Colon
Put a space before : in the following cases:
when it's used to separate a type and a supertype
when delegating to a superclass constructor or a different constructor of the same class
after the object keyword
Don't put a space before : when it separates a declaration and its type.
Always put a space after :.
abstract class Foo<out T : Any> : IFoo {
abstract fun foo(a: Int): T
}
class FooImpl : Foo() {
constructor(x: String) : this(x) { /*...*/ }
val x = object : IFoo { /*...*/ }
}
Class
headers
Classes with a few primary constructor parameters can be written in a single line:
class Person(id: Int, name: String)
Classes with longer headers should be formatted so that each primary constructor parameter is in a separate line with
indentation. Also, the closing parenthesis should be on a new line. If you use inheritance, the superclass constructor
call or the list of implemented interfaces should be located on the same line as the parenthesis:
class Person(
id: Int,
name: String,
surname: String
) : Human(id, name) { /*...*/ }
211
For multiple interfaces, the superclass constructor call should be located first and then each interface should be
located in a different line:
class Person(
id: Int,
name: String,
surname: String
) : Human(id, name),
KotlinMaker { /*...*/ }
For classes with a long supertype list, put a line break after the colon and align all supertype names horizontally:
class MyFavouriteVeryLongClassHolder :
MyLongHolder<MyFavouriteVeryLongClass>(),
SomeOtherInterface,
AndAnotherOne {
fun foo() { /*...*/ }
}
To clearly separate the class header and body when the class header is long, either put a blank line following the class
header (as in the example above), or put the opening curly brace on a separate line:
class MyFavouriteVeryLongClassHolder :
MyLongHolder<MyFavouriteVeryLongClass>(),
SomeOtherInterface,
AndAnotherOne
{
fun foo() { /*...*/ }
}
Use regular indent (four spaces) for constructor parameters. This ensures that properties declared in the primary
constructor have the same indentation as properties declared in the body of a class.
Modifiers
order
If a declaration has multiple modifiers, always put them in the following order:
public / protected / private / internal
expect / actual
final / open / abstract / sealed / const
external
override
lateinit
tailrec
vararg
suspend
inner
enum / annotation / fun // as a modifier in `fun interface`
companion
inline / value
212
infix
operator
data
Place all annotations before modifiers:
@Named("Foo")
private val foo: Foo
Unless you're working on a library, omit redundant modifiers (for example, public ).
Annotations
Place annotations on separate lines before the declaration to which they are attached, and with the same indentation:
@Target(AnnotationTarget.PROPERTY)
annotation class JsonExclude
Annotations without arguments may be placed on the same line:
@JsonExclude @JvmField
var x: String
A single annotation without arguments may be placed on the same line as the corresponding declaration:
@Test fun foo() { /*...*/ }
File
annotations
File annotations are placed after the file comment (if any), before the package statement, and are separated from
package with a blank line (to emphasize the fact that they target the file and not the package).
/** License, copyright and whatever */
@file:JvmName("FooBar")
package foo.bar
Functions
If the function signature doesn't fit on a single line, use the following syntax:
fun longMethodName(
argument: ArgumentType = defaultValue,
argument2: AnotherArgumentType,
): ReturnType {
213
// body
}
Use regular indent (four spaces) for function parameters. It helps ensure consistency with constructor parameters.
Prefer using an expression body for functions with the body consisting of a single expression.
fun foo(): Int { // bad
return 1
}
fun foo() = 1 // good
Expression
bodies
If the function has an expression body whose first line doesn't fit on the same line as the declaration, put the = sign on
the first line and indent the expression body by four spaces.
fun f(x: String, y: String, z: String) =
veryLongFunctionCallWithManyWords(andLongParametersToo(), x, y, z)
Properties
For very simple read-only properties, consider one-line formatting:
val isEmpty: Boolean get() = size == 0
For more complex properties, always put get and set keywords on separate lines:
val foo: String
get() { /*...*/ }
For properties with an initializer, if the initializer is long, add a line break after the = sign and indent the initializer by four
spaces:
private val defaultCharset: Charset? =
EncodingRegistry.getInstance().getDefaultCharsetForPropertiesFiles(file)
Control
flow
statements
If the condition of an if or when statement is multiline, always use curly braces around the body of the statement.
Indent each subsequent line of the condition by four spaces relative to statement begin. Put the closing parentheses of
the condition together with the opening curly brace on a separate line:
214
if (!component.isSyncing &&
!hasAnyKotlinRuntimeInScope(module)
) {
return createKotlinNotConfiguredPanel(module)
}
This helps align the condition and statement bodies.
Put the else, catch, finally keywords, as well as the while keyword of a do-while loop, on the same line as the
preceding curly brace:
if (condition) {
// body
} else {
// else part
}
try {
// body
} finally {
// cleanup
}
In a when statement, if a branch is more than a single line, consider separating it from adjacent case blocks with a
blank line:
private fun parsePropertyValue(propName: String, token: Token) {
when (token) {
is Token.ValueToken ->
callback.visitValue(propName, token.value)
Token.LBRACE -> { // ...
}
}
}
Put short branches on the same line as the condition, without braces.
when (foo) {
true -> bar() // good
false -> { baz() } // bad
}
Method
calls
In long argument lists, put a line break after the opening parenthesis. Indent arguments by four spaces. Group multiple
closely related arguments on the same line.
drawSquare(
x = 10, y = 10,
215
width = 100, height = 100,
fill = true
)
Put spaces around the = sign separating the argument name and value.
Wrap
chained
calls
When wrapping chained calls, put the . character or the ?. operator on the next line, with a single indent:
val anchor = owner
?.firstChild!!
.siblings(forward = true)
.dropWhile { it is PsiComment || it is PsiWhiteSpace }
The first call in the chain usually should have a line break before it, but it's OK to omit it if the code makes more sense
that way.
Lambdas
In lambda expressions, spaces should be used around the curly braces, as well as around the arrow which separates
the parameters from the body. If a call takes a single lambda, pass it outside of parentheses whenever possible.
list.filter { it > 10 }
If assigning a label for a lambda, do not put a space between the label and the opening curly brace:
fun foo() {
ints.forEach lit@{
// ...
}
}
When declaring parameter names in a multiline lambda, put the names on the first line, followed by the arrow and the
newline:
appendCommaSeparated(properties) { prop ->
val propertyValue = prop.get(obj) // ...
}
If the parameter list is too long to fit on a line, put the arrow on a separate line:
foo {
context: Context,
environment: Env
->
context.configureEnv(environment)
216
}
Trailing
commas
A trailing comma is a comma symbol after the last item of a series of elements:
class Person(
val firstName: String,
val lastName: String,
val age: Int, // trailing comma
)
Using trailing commas has several benefits:
It makes version-control diffs cleaner – as all the focus is on the changed value.
It makes it easy to add and reorder elements – there is no need to add or delete the comma if you manipulate
elements.
It simplifies code generation, for example, for object initializers. The last element can also have a comma.
Trailing commas are entirely optional – your code will still work without them. The Kotlin style guide encourages the use
of trailing commas at the declaration site and leaves it at your discretion for the call site.
To enable trailing commas in the IntelliJ IDEA formatter, go to Settings | Editor | Code Style | Kotlin, open the Other tab
and select the Use trailing comma option.
Enumerations
enum class Direction {
NORTH,
SOUTH,
WEST,
EAST, // trailing comma
}
Value arguments
fun shift(x: Int, y: Int) { /*...*/ }
shift(
25,
20, // trailing comma
)
val colors = listOf(
"red",
"green",
"blue", // trailing comma
)
217
Class properties and parameters
class Customer(
val name: String,
val lastName: String, // trailing comma
)
class Customer(
val name: String,
lastName: String, // trailing comma
)
Function value parameters
fun powerOf(
number: Int,
exponent: Int, // trailing comma
) { /*...*/ }
constructor(
x: Comparable<Number>,
y: Iterable<Number>, // trailing comma
) {}
fun print(
vararg quantity: Int,
description: String, // trailing comma
) {}
Parameters with optional type (including setters)
val sum: (Int, Int, Int) -> Int = fun(
x,
y,
z, // trailing comma
): Int {
return x + y + x
}
println(sum(8, 8, 8))
Indexing suffix
class Surface {
operator fun get(x: Int, y: Int) = 2 * x + 4 * y - 10
}
fun getZValue(mySurface: Surface, xValue: Int, yValue: Int) =
mySurface[
xValue,
yValue, // trailing comma
218
]
Parameters in lambdas
fun main() {
val x = {
x: Comparable<Number>,
y: Iterable<Number>, // trailing comma
->
println("1")
}
println(x)
}
when entry
fun isReferenceApplicable(myReference: KClass<*>) = when (myReference) {
Comparable::class,
Iterable::class,
String::class, // trailing comma
-> true
else -> false
}
Collection literals (in annotations)
annotation class ApplicableFor(val services: Array<String>)
@ApplicableFor([
"serializer",
"balancer",
"database",
"inMemoryCache", // trailing comma
])
fun run() {}
Type arguments
fun <T1, T2> foo() {}
fun main() {
foo<
Comparable<Number>,
Iterable<Number>, // trailing comma
>()
}
219
Type parameters
class MyMap<
MyKey,
MyValue, // trailing comma
> {}
Destructuring declarations
data class Car(val manufacturer: String, val model: String, val year: Int)
val myCar = Car("Tesla", "Y", 2019)
val (
manufacturer,
model,
year, // trailing comma
) = myCar
val cars = listOf<Car>()
fun printMeanValue() {
var meanValue: Int = 0
for ((
_,
_,
year, // trailing comma
) in cars) {
meanValue += year
}
println(meanValue/cars.size)
}
printMeanValue()
Documentation
comments
For longer documentation comments, place the opening /** on a separate line and begin each subsequent line with an
asterisk:
/**
* This is a documentation comment
* on multiple lines.
*/
Short comments can be placed on a single line:
/** This is a short documentation comment. */
Generally, avoid using @param and @return tags. Instead, incorporate the description of parameters and return values
directly into the documentation comment, and add links to parameters wherever they are mentioned. Use @param and
@return only when a lengthy description is required which doesn't fit into the flow of the main text.
220
// Avoid doing this:
/**
* Returns the absolute value of the given number.
* @param number The number to return the absolute value for.
* @return The absolute value.
*/
fun abs(number: Int) { /*...*/ }
// Do this instead:
/**
* Returns the absolute value of the given [number].
*/
fun abs(number: Int) { /*...*/ }
Avoid
redundant
constructs
In general, if a certain syntactic construction in Kotlin is optional and highlighted by the IDE as redundant, you should
omit it in your code. Do not leave unnecessary syntactic elements in code just "for clarity".
Unit
return
type
If a function returns Unit, the return type should be omitted:
fun foo() { // ": Unit" is omitted here
Semicolons
Omit semicolons whenever possible.
String
templates
Don't use curly braces when inserting a simple variable into a string template. Use curly braces only for longer
expressions.
println("$name has ${children.size} children")
Idiomatic
use
of
language
features
Immutability
221
Prefer using immutable data to mutable. Always declare local variables and properties as val rather than var if they are
not modified after initialization.
Always use immutable collection interfaces (Collection, List, Set, Map) to declare collections which are not mutated.
When using factory functions to create collection instances, always use functions that return immutable collection
types when possible:
// Bad: use of mutable collection type for value which will not be mutated
fun validateValue(actualValue: String, allowedValues: HashSet<String>) { ... }
// Good: immutable collection type used instead
fun validateValue(actualValue: String, allowedValues: Set<String>) { ... }
// Bad: arrayListOf() returns ArrayList<T>, which is a mutable collection type
val allowedValues = arrayListOf("a", "b", "c")
// Good: listOf() returns List<T>
val allowedValues = listOf("a", "b", "c")
Default
parameter
values
Prefer declaring functions with default parameter values to declaring overloaded functions.
// Bad
fun foo() = foo("a")
fun foo(a: String) { /*...*/ }
// Good
fun foo(a: String = "a") { /*...*/ }
Type
aliases
If you have a functional type or a type with type parameters which is used multiple times in a codebase, prefer defining
a type alias for it:
typealias MouseClickHandler = (Any, MouseEvent) -> Unit
typealias PersonIndex = Map<String, Person>
If you use a private or internal type alias for avoiding name collision, prefer the import … as … mentioned in Packages
and Imports.
Lambda
parameters
In lambdas which are short and not nested, it's recommended to use the it convention instead of declaring the
parameter explicitly. In nested lambdas with parameters, always declare parameters explicitly.
222
Returns
in
a
lambda
Avoid using multiple labeled returns in a lambda. Consider restructuring the lambda so that it will have a single exit
point. If that's not possible or not clear enough, consider converting the lambda into an anonymous function.
Do not use a labeled return for the last statement in a lambda.
Named
arguments
Use the named argument syntax when a method takes multiple parameters of the same primitive type, or for
parameters of Boolean type, unless the meaning of all parameters is absolutely clear from context.
drawSquare(x = 10, y = 10, width = 100, height = 100, fill = true)
Conditional
statements
Prefer using the expression form of try, if, and when.
return if (x) foo() else bar()
return when(x) {
0 -> "zero"
else -> "nonzero"
}
The above is preferable to:
if (x)
return foo()
else
return bar()
when(x) {
0 -> return "zero"
else -> return "nonzero"
}
if
versus
when
Prefer using if for binary conditions instead of when. For example, use this syntax with if:
if (x == null) ... else ...
instead of this one with when:
223
when (x) {
null -> // ...
else -> // ...
}
Prefer using when if there are three or more options.
Nullable
Boolean
values
in
conditions
If you need to use a nullable Boolean in a conditional statement, use if (value == true) or if (value == false) checks.
Loops
Prefer using higher-order functions (filter, map etc.) to loops. Exception: forEach (prefer using a regular for loop
instead, unless the receiver of forEach is nullable or forEach is used as part of a longer call chain).
When making a choice between a complex expression using multiple higher-order functions and a loop, understand
the cost of the operations being performed in each case and keep performance considerations in mind.
Loops
on
ranges
Use the until function to loop over an open range:
for (i in 0..n - 1) { /*...*/ } // bad
for (i in 0 until n) { /*...*/ } // good
Strings
Prefer string templates to string concatenation.
Prefer multiline strings to embedding \n escape sequences into regular string literals.
To maintain indentation in multiline strings, use trimIndent when the resulting string does not require any internal
indentation, or trimMargin when internal indentation is required:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
println("""
Not
trimmed
text
"""
)
println("""
Trimmed
text
""".trimIndent()
224
)
println()
val a = """Trimmed to margin text:
|if(a > 1) {
| return a
|}""".trimMargin()
println(a)
//sampleEnd
}
Learn the difference between Java and Kotlin multiline strings.
Functions
vs
properties
In some cases functions with no arguments might be interchangeable with read-only properties. Although the
semantics are similar, there are some stylistic conventions on when to prefer one to another.
Prefer a property over a function when the underlying algorithm:
does not throw
is cheap to calculate (or cached on the first run)
returns the same result over invocations if the object state hasn't changed
Extension
functions
Use extension functions liberally. Every time you have a function that works primarily on an object, consider making it
an extension function accepting that object as a receiver. To minimize API pollution, restrict the visibility of extension
functions as much as it makes sense. As necessary, use local extension functions, member extension functions, or
top-level extension functions with private visibility.
Infix
functions
Declare a function as infix only when it works on two objects which play a similar role. Good examples: and, to, zip.
Bad example: add.
Do not declare a method as infix if it mutates the receiver object.
Factory
functions
If you declare a factory function for a class, avoid giving it the same name as the class itself. Prefer using a distinct
name making it clear why the behavior of the factory function is special. Only if there is really no special semantics, you
can use the same name as the class.
class Point(val x: Double, val y: Double) {
225
companion object {
fun fromPolar(angle: Double, radius: Double) = Point(...)
}
}
If you have an object with multiple overloaded constructors that don't call different superclass constructors and can't
be reduced to a single constructor with default argument values, prefer to replace the overloaded constructors with
factory functions.
Platform
types
A public function/method returning an expression of a platform type must declare its Kotlin type explicitly:
fun apiCall(): String = MyJavaApi.getProperty("name")
Any property (package-level or class-level) initialized with an expression of a platform type must declare its Kotlin type
explicitly:
class Person {
val name: String = MyJavaApi.getProperty("name")
}
A local value initialized with an expression of a platform type may or may not have a type declaration:
fun main() {
val name = MyJavaApi.getProperty("name")
println(name)
}
Scope
functions
apply/with/run/also/let
Kotlin provides a set of functions to execute a block of code in the context of a given object: let, run, with, apply, and
also. For the guidance on choosing the right scope function for your case, refer to Scope Functions.
Coding
conventions
for
libraries
When writing libraries, it's recommended to follow an additional set of rules to ensure API stability:
Always explicitly specify member visibility (to avoid accidentally exposing declarations as public API)
Always explicitly specify function return types and property types (to avoid accidentally changing the return type
when the implementation changes)
Provide KDoc comments for all public members, with the exception of overrides that do not require any new
documentation (to support generating documentation for the library)
226
Basic
types
In Kotlin, everything is an object in the sense that we can call member functions and properties on any variable. Some
types can have a special internal representation - for example, numbers, characters and booleans can be represented
as primitive values at runtime - but to the user they look like ordinary classes. In this section we describe the basic
types used in Kotlin: numbers, booleans, characters, strings, and arrays.
Numbers
Integer
types
Kotlin provides a set of built-in types that represent numbers.
For integer numbers, there are four types with different sizes and, hence, value ranges.
Type Size (bits) Min value Max value
Byte 8 -128 127
Short 16 -32768 32767
Int 32 -2,147,483,648 (-2 31) 2,147,483,647 (2 31- 1)
Long 64 -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 (-2 63) 9,223,372,036,854,775,807 (2 63- 1)
All variables initialized with integer values not exceeding the maximum value of Int have the inferred type Int. If the initial
value exceeds this value, then the type is Long. To specify the Long value explicitly, append the suffix L to the value.
val one = 1 // Int
val threeBillion = 3000000000 // Long
val oneLong = 1L // Long
val oneByte: Byte = 1
Floating-point
types
For real numbers, Kotlin provides floating-point types Float and Double. According to the IEEE 754 standard, floating
point types differ by their decimal place, that is, how many decimal digits they can store. Float reflects the IEEE 754
single precision, while Double provides double precision.
Type Size (bits) Significant bits Exponent bits Decimal digits
Float 32 24 8 6-7
227
Type Size (bits) Significant bits Exponent bits Decimal digits
Double 64 53 11 15-16
You can initialize Double and Float variables with numbers having a fractional part. It's separated from the integer part
by a period (.) For variables initialized with fractional numbers, the compiler infers the Double type.
val pi = 3.14 // Double
// val one: Double = 1 // Error: type mismatch
val oneDouble = 1.0 // Double
To explicitly specify the Float type for a value, add the suffix f or F. If such a value contains more than 6-7 decimal
digits, it will be rounded.
val e = 2.7182818284 // Double
val eFloat = 2.7182818284f // Float, actual value is 2.7182817
Note that unlike some other languages, there are no implicit widening conversions for numbers in Kotlin. For example,
a function with a Double parameter can be called only on Double values, but not Float, Int, or other numeric values.
fun main() {
fun printDouble(d: Double) { print(d) }
val i = 1
val d = 1.0
val f = 1.0f
printDouble(d)
// printDouble(i) // Error: Type mismatch
// printDouble(f) // Error: Type mismatch
}
To convert numeric values to different types, use Explicit conversions.
Literal
constants
There are the following kinds of literal constants for integral values:
Decimals: 123
Longs are tagged by a capital L: 123L
Hexadecimals: 0x0F
Binaries: 0b00001011
Octal literals are not supported.
228
Kotlin also supports a conventional notation for floating-point numbers:
Doubles by default: 123.5, 123.5e10
Floats are tagged by f or F: 123.5f
You can use underscores to make number constants more readable:
val oneMillion = 1_000_000
val creditCardNumber = 1234_5678_9012_3456L
val socialSecurityNumber = 999_99_9999L
val hexBytes = 0xFF_EC_DE_5E
val bytes = 0b11010010_01101001_10010100_10010010
Numbers
representation
on
the
JVM
On the JVM platform, numbers are stored as primitive types: int, double, and so on. Exceptions are cases when you
create a nullable number reference such as Int? or use generics. In these cases numbers are boxed in Java classes
Integer, Double, and so on.
Note that nullable references to the same number can be different objects:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val a: Int = 100
val boxedA: Int? = a
val anotherBoxedA: Int? = a
val b: Int = 10000
val boxedB: Int? = b
val anotherBoxedB: Int? = b
println(boxedA === anotherBoxedA) // true
println(boxedB === anotherBoxedB) // false
//sampleEnd
}
All nullable references to a are actually the same object because of the memory optimization that JVM applies to
Integer s between -128 and 127. It doesn't apply to the b references, so they are different objects.
On the other hand, they are still equal:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val b: Int = 10000
println(b == b) // Prints 'true'
val boxedB: Int? = b
val anotherBoxedB: Int? = b
println(boxedB == anotherBoxedB) // Prints 'true'
//sampleEnd
}
229
Explicit
conversions
Due to different representations, smaller types are not subtypes of bigger ones. If they were, we would have troubles of
the following sort:
// Hypothetical code, does not actually compile:
val a: Int? = 1 // A boxed Int (java.lang.Integer)
val b: Long? = a // implicit conversion yields a boxed Long (java.lang.Long)
print(b == a) // Surprise! This prints "false" as Long's equals() checks whether the other is
Long as well
So equality would have been lost silently, not to mention identity.
As a consequence, smaller types are NOT implicitly converted to bigger types. This means that assigning a value of
type Byte to an Int variable requires an explicit conversion.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val b: Byte = 1 // OK, literals are checked statically
// val i: Int = b // ERROR
val i1: Int = b.toInt()
//sampleEnd
}
All number types support conversions to other types:
toByte(): Byte
toShort(): Short
toInt(): Int
toLong(): Long
toFloat(): Float
toDouble(): Double
toChar(): Char
In many cases, there is no need in explicit conversions because the type is inferred from the context, and arithmetical
operations are overloaded for appropriate conversions, for example:
val l = 1L + 3 // Long + Int => Long
Operations
Kotlin supports the standard set of arithmetical operations over numbers: +, -, *, /, %. They are declared as members
of appropriate classes.
230
fun main() {
//sampleStart
println(1 + 2)
println(2_500_000_000L - 1L)
println(3.14 * 2.71)
println(10.0 / 3)
//sampleEnd
}
You can also override these operators for custom classes. See Operator overloading for details.
Division of integers
Division between integers numbers always returns an integer number. Any fractional part is discarded.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val x = 5 / 2
//println(x == 2.5) // ERROR: Operator '==' cannot be applied to 'Int' and 'Double'
println(x == 2)
//sampleEnd
}
This is true for a division between any two integer types.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val x = 5L / 2
println(x == 2L)
//sampleEnd
}
To return a floating-point type, explicitly convert one of the arguments to a floating-point type.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val x = 5 / 2.toDouble()
println(x == 2.5)
//sampleEnd
}
Bitwise operations
Kotlin provides a set of bitwise operations on integer numbers. They operate on the binary level directly with bits of the
numbers' representation. Bitwise operations are represented by functions that can be called in infix form. They can be
applied only to Int and Long.
val x = (1 shl 2) and 0x000FF000
231
Here is the complete list of bitwise operations:
shl(bits) – signed shift left
shr(bits) – signed shift right
ushr(bits) – unsigned shift right
and(bits) – bitwise and
or(bits) – bitwise or
xor(bits) – bitwise xor
inv() – bitwise inversion
Floating-point
numbers
comparison
The operations on floating-point numbers discussed in this section are:
Equality checks: a == b and a != b
Comparison operators: a < b, a > b, a <= b, a >= b
Range instantiation and range checks: a..b, x in a..b, x !in a..b
When the operands a and b are statically known to be Float or Double or their nullable counterparts (the type is
declared or inferred or is a result of a smart cast ), the operations on the numbers and the range that they form follow
the IEEE 754 Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic.
However, to support generic use cases and provide total ordering, when the operands are not statically typed as
floating point numbers (e.g. Any, Comparable<...>, a type parameter), the operations use the equals and compareTo
implementations for Float and Double, which disagree with the standard, so that:
NaN is considered equal to itself
NaN is considered greater than any other element including POSITIVE_INFINITY
-0.0 is considered less than 0.0
Unsigned
integers
In addition to integer types, Kotlin provides the following types for unsigned integer numbers:
UByte: an unsigned 8-bit integer, ranges from 0 to 255
UShort: an unsigned 16-bit integer, ranges from 0 to 65535
UInt: an unsigned 32-bit integer, ranges from 0 to 2^32 - 1
ULong: an unsigned 64-bit integer, ranges from 0 to 2^64 - 1
232
Unsigned types support most of the operations of their signed counterparts.
Changing type from unsigned type to signed counterpart (and vice versa) is a binary incompatible change.
Unsigned arrays and ranges
Unsigned arrays and operations on them are in Beta. They can be changed incompatibly at any time. Opt-in
is required (see the details below).
Same as for primitives, each of unsigned type has corresponding type that represents arrays of that type:
UByteArray: an array of unsigned bytes
UShortArray: an array of unsigned shorts
UIntArray: an array of unsigned ints
ULongArray: an array of unsigned longs
Same as for signed integer arrays, they provide similar API to Array class without boxing overhead.
When you use unsigned arrays, you'll get a warning that indicates that this feature is not stable yet. To remove the
warning, opt in using the @ExperimentalUnsignedTypes annotation. It's up to you to decide if your clients have to
explicitly opt-in into usage of your API, but keep in mind that unsigned array are not a stable feature, so API which uses
them can be broken by changes in the language. Learn more about opt-in requirements.
Ranges and progressions are supported for UInt and ULong by classes UIntRange, UIntProgression, ULongRange, and
ULongProgression. Together with the unsigned integer types, these classes are stable.
Literals
To make unsigned integers easier to use, Kotlin provides an ability to tag an integer literal with a suffix indicating a
specific unsigned type (similarly to Float or Long ):
u and U tag unsigned literals. The exact type is determined based on the expected type. If no expected type is
provided, compiler will use UInt or ULong depending on the size of literal.
val b: UByte = 1u // UByte, expected type provided
val s: UShort = 1u // UShort, expected type provided
val l: ULong = 1u // ULong, expected type provided
val a1 = 42u // UInt: no expected type provided, constant fits in UInt
val a2 = 0xFFFF_FFFF_FFFFu // ULong: no expected type provided, constant doesn't fit in UInt
uL and UL explicitly tag literal as unsigned long.
233
val a = 1UL // ULong, even though no expected type provided and constant fits into UInt
Further discussion
See language proposal for unsigned types for technical details and further discussion.
Booleans
The type Boolean represents boolean objects that can have two values: true and false.
Boolean has a nullable counterpart Boolean? that also has the null value.
Built-in operations on booleans include:
|| – disjunction (logical OR)
&& – conjunction (logical AND)
!- negation (logical NOT)
|| and && work lazily.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val myTrue: Boolean = true
val myFalse: Boolean = false
val boolNull: Boolean? = null
println(myTrue || myFalse)
println(myTrue && myFalse)
println(!myTrue)
//sampleEnd
}
On JVM: nullable references to boolean objects are boxed similarly to numbers.
Characters
Characters are represented by the type Char. Character literals go in single quotes: '1'.
Special characters start from an escaping backslash \. The following escape sequences are supported: \t, \b, \n, \r, \',
\", \\ and \$.
To encode any other character, use the Unicode escape sequence syntax: '\uFF00'.
234
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val aChar: Char = 'a'
println(aChar)
println('\n') //prints an extra newline character
println('\uFF00')
//sampleEnd
}
If a value of character variable is a digit, you can explicitly convert it to an Int number using the digitToInt() function.
On JVM: Like numbers, characters are boxed when a nullable reference is needed. Identity is not preserved
by the boxing operation.
Strings
Strings in Kotlin are represented by the type String. Generally, a string value is a sequence of characters in double
quotes (" ).
val str = "abcd 123"
Elements of a string are characters that you can access via the indexing operation: s[i]. You can iterate over these
characters with a for loop:
fun main() {
val str = "abcd"
//sampleStart
for (c in str) {
println(c)
}
//sampleEnd
}
Strings are immutable. Once you initialize a string, you can't change its value or assign a new value to it. All operations
that transform strings return their results in a new String object, leaving the original string unchanged.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val str = "abcd"
println(str.uppercase()) // Create and print a new String object
println(str) // the original string remains the same
//sampleEnd
}
To concatenate strings, use the + operator. This also works for concatenating strings with values of other types, as
235
long as the first element in the expression is a string:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val s = "abc" + 1
println(s + "def")
//sampleEnd
}
Note that in most cases using string templates or raw strings is preferable to string concatenation.
String
literals
Kotlin has two types of string literals:
escaped strings that may contain escaped characters
raw strings that can contain newlines and arbitrary text
Here's an example of an escaped string:
val s = "Hello, world!\n"
Escaping is done in the conventional way, with a backslash (\ ). See Characters above for the list of supported escape
sequences.
A raw string is delimited by a triple quote (""" ), contains no escaping and can contain newlines and any other
characters:
val text = """
for (c in "foo")
print(c)
"""
To remove leading whitespace from raw strings, use the trimMargin() function:
val text = """
|Tell me and I forget.
|Teach me and I remember.
|Involve me and I learn.
|(Benjamin Franklin)
""".trimMargin()
By default, | is used as margin prefix, but you can choose another character and pass it as a parameter, like
trimMargin(">").
String
templates
236
String literals may contain template expressions - pieces of code that are evaluated and whose results are
concatenated into the string. A template expression starts with a dollar sign ($) and consists of either a name:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val i = 10
println("i = $i") // prints "i = 10"
//sampleEnd
}
or an expression in curly braces:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val s = "abc"
println("$s.length is ${s.length}") // prints "abc.length is 3"
//sampleEnd
}
You can use templates both in raw and escaped strings. To insert the $ character in a raw string (which doesn't
support backslash escaping) before any symbol, which is allowed as a beginning of an identifier, use the following
syntax:
val price = """
${'$'}_9.99
"""
Arrays
Arrays in Kotlin are represented by the Array class. It has get and set functions that turn into [] by operator overloading
conventions, and the size property, along with other useful member functions:
class Array<T> private constructor() {
val size: Int
operator fun get(index: Int): T
operator fun set(index: Int, value: T): Unit
operator fun iterator(): Iterator<T>
// ...
}
To create an array, use the function arrayOf() and pass the item values to it, so that arrayOf(1, 2, 3) creates an array [1,
2, 3]. Alternatively, the arrayOfNulls() function can be used to create an array of a given size filled with null elements.
Another option is to use the Array constructor that takes the array size and the function that returns values of array
elements given its index:
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fun main() {
//sampleStart
// Creates an Array<String> with values ["0", "1", "4", "9", "16"]
val asc = Array(5) { i -> (i * i).toString() }
asc.forEach { println(it) }
//sampleEnd
}
As we said above, the [] operation stands for calls to member functions get() and set().
Arrays in Kotlin are invariant. This means that Kotlin does not let us assign an Array<String> to an Array<Any>, which
prevents a possible runtime failure (but you can use Array<out Any>, see Type Projections ).
Primitive
type
arrays
Kotlin also has classes that represent arrays of primitive types without boxing overhead: ByteArray, ShortArray,
IntArray, and so on. These classes have no inheritance relation to the Array class, but they have the same set of
methods and properties. Each of them also has a corresponding factory function:
val x: IntArray = intArrayOf(1, 2, 3)
x[0] = x[1] + x[2]
// Array of int of size 5 with values [0, 0, 0, 0, 0]
val arr = IntArray(5)
// e.g. initialise the values in the array with a constant
// Array of int of size 5 with values [42, 42, 42, 42, 42]
val arr = IntArray(5) { 42 }
// e.g. initialise the values in the array using a lambda
// Array of int of size 5 with values [0, 1, 2, 3, 4] (values initialised to their index value)
var arr = IntArray(5) { it * 1 }
Type
checks
and
casts
is
and
!is
operators
To perform a runtime check whether an object conforms to a given type, use the is operator or its negated form !is:
if (obj is String) {
print(obj.length)
}
if (obj !is String) { // same as !(obj is String)
print("Not a String")
} else {
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print(obj.length)
}
Smart
casts
In most cases, you don't need to use explicit cast operators in Kotlin because the compiler tracks the is -checks and
explicit casts for immutable values and inserts (safe) casts automatically when needed:
fun demo(x: Any) {
if (x is String) {
print(x.length) // x is automatically cast to String
}
}
The compiler is smart enough to know a cast to be safe if a negative check leads to a return:
if (x !is String) return
print(x.length) // x is automatically cast to String
or in the right-hand side of && and ||:
// x is automatically cast to string on the right-hand side of `||`
if (x !is String || x.length == 0) return
// x is automatically cast to string on the right-hand side of `&&`
if (x is String && x.length > 0) {
print(x.length) // x is automatically cast to String
}
Such smart casts work for when expressions and while loops as well:
when (x) {
is Int -> print(x + 1)
is String -> print(x.length + 1)
is IntArray -> print(x.sum())
}
Note that smart casts work only when the compiler can guarantee that the variable won't change between the check
and the usage. More specifically, smart casts are applicable according to the following rules:
val local variables - always except for local delegated properties.
val properties - if the property is private or internal or the check is performed in the same module where the property
is declared. Smart casts aren't applicable to open properties or properties that have custom getters.
var local variables - if the variable is not modified between the check and the usage, is not captured in a lambda
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that modifies it, and is not a local delegated property.
var properties - never because the variable can be modified at any time by other code.
"Unsafe"
cast
operator
Usually, the cast operator throws an exception if the cast isn't possible. Thus, it's called unsafe. The unsafe cast in
Kotlin is done by the infix operator as.
val x: String = y as String
Note that null cannot be cast to String as this type is not nullable. If y is null, the code above throws an exception. To
make such code correct for null values, use the nullable type on the right hand side of the cast:
val x: String? = y as String?
"Safe"
(nullable)
cast
operator
To avoid exceptions, use the safe cast operator as? that returns null on failure.
val x: String? = y as? String
Note that despite the fact that the right-hand side of as? is a non-null type String, the result of the cast is nullable.
Type
erasure
and
generic
type
checks
Kotlin ensures type safety of operations involving generics at compile time, while, at runtime, instances of generic
types don't hold information about their actual type arguments. For example, List<Foo> is erased to just List<*>. In
general, there is no way to check whether an instance belongs to a generic type with certain type arguments at
runtime.
Given that, the compiler prohibits is -checks that cannot be performed at runtime due to type erasure, such as ints is
List<Int> or list is T (type parameter). You can, however, check an instance against a star-projected type:
if (something is List<*>) {
something.forEach { println(it) } // The items are typed as `Any?`
}
Similarly, when you already have the type arguments of an instance checked statically (at compile time), you can make
an is -check or a cast that involves the non-generic part of the type. Note that angle brackets are omitted in this case:
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fun handleStrings(list: List<String>) {
if (list is ArrayList) {
// `list` is smart-cast to `ArrayList<String>`
}
}
The same syntax with omitted type arguments can be used for casts that do not take type arguments into account: list
as ArrayList.
Inline functions with reified type parameters have their actual type arguments inlined at each call site. This enables arg
is T checks for the type parameters, but if arg is an instance of a generic type itself, its type arguments are still erased.
//sampleStart
inline fun <reified A, reified B> Pair<*, *>.asPairOf(): Pair<A, B>? {
if (first !is A || second !is B) return null
return first as A to second as B
}
val somePair: Pair<Any?, Any?> = "items" to listOf(1, 2, 3)
val stringToSomething = somePair.asPairOf<String, Any>()
val stringToInt = somePair.asPairOf<String, Int>()
val stringToList = somePair.asPairOf<String, List<*>>()
val stringToStringList = somePair.asPairOf<String, List<String>>() // Compiles but breaks type
safety!
// Expand the sample for more details
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
println("stringToSomething = " + stringToSomething)
println("stringToInt = " + stringToInt)
println("stringToList = " + stringToList)
println("stringToStringList = " + stringToStringList)
//println(stringToStringList?.second?.forEach() {it.length}) // This will throw
ClassCastException as list items are not String
}
Unchecked
casts
As said above, type erasure makes checking actual type arguments of a generic type instance impossible at runtime.
Additionally, generic types in the code might be connected to each other not closely enough for the compiler to ensure
type safety.
Even so, sometimes we have high-level program logic that implies type safety instead. For example:
fun readDictionary(file: File): Map<String, *> = file.inputStream().use {
TODO("Read a mapping of strings to arbitrary elements.")
}
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// We saved a map with `Int`s into that file
val intsFile = File("ints.dictionary")
// Warning: Unchecked cast: `Map<String, *>` to `Map<String, Int>`
val intsDictionary: Map<String, Int> = readDictionary(intsFile) as Map<String, Int>
A warning appears for the cast in the last line. The compiler can't fully check it at runtime and provides no guarantee
that the values in the map are Int.
To avoid unchecked casts, you can redesign the program structure: in the example above, there you could use
interfaces DictionaryReader<T> and DictionaryWriter<T> with type-safe implementations for different types. You can
introduce reasonable abstractions to move unchecked casts from calling code to the implementation details. Proper
use of generic variance can also help.
For generic functions, using reified type parameters makes the casts such as arg as T checked, unless arg 's type has
its own type arguments that are erased.
An unchecked cast warning can be suppressed by annotating the statement or the declaration where it occurs with
@Suppress("UNCHECKED_CAST"):
inline fun <reified T> List<*>.asListOfType(): List<T>? =
if (all { it is T })
@Suppress("UNCHECKED_CAST")
this as List<T> else
null
On JVM: the array types (Array<Foo>) retain the information about the erased type of their elements, and the
type casts to an array type are partially checked: the nullability and actual type arguments of the elements
type are still erased. For example, the cast foo as Array<List<String>?> will succeed if foo is an array holding
any List<*>, nullable or not.
Conditions
and
loops
If
expression
In Kotlin, if is an expression: it returns a value. Therefore, there is no ternary operator (condition ? then : else) because
ordinary if works fine in this role.
var max = a
if (a < b) max = b
// With else
var max: Int
if (a > b) {
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max = a
} else {
max = b
}
// As expression
val max = if (a > b) a else b
Branches of if branches can be blocks. In this case, the last expression is the value of a block:
val max = if (a > b) {
print("Choose a")
a
} else {
print("Choose b")
b
}
If you're using if as an expression, for example, for returning its value or assigning it to a variable, the else branch is
mandatory.
When
expression
when defines a conditional expression with multiple branches. It is similar to the switch statement in C-like languages.
Its simple form looks like this.
when (x) {
1 -> print("x == 1")
2 -> print("x == 2")
else -> { // Note the block
print("x is neither 1 nor 2")
}
}
when matches its argument against all branches sequentially until some branch condition is satisfied.
when can be used either as an expression or as a statement. If it is used as an expression, the value of the first
matching branch becomes the value of the overall expression. If it is used as a statement, the values of individual
branches are ignored. Just like with if, each branch can be a block, and its value is the value of the last expression in
the block.
The else branch is evaluated if none of the other branch conditions are satisfied. If when is used as an expression, the
else branch is mandatory, unless the compiler can prove that all possible cases are covered with branch conditions, for
example, with enum class entries and sealed class subtypes).
To define a common behavior for multiple cases, combine their conditions in a single line with a comma:
when (x) {
243
0, 1 -> print("x == 0 or x == 1")
else -> print("otherwise")
}
You can use arbitrary expressions (not only constants) as branch conditions
when (x) {
parseInt(s) -> print("s encodes x")
else -> print("s does not encode x")
}
You can also check a value for being in or !in a range or a collection:
when (x) {
in 1..10 -> print("x is in the range")
in validNumbers -> print("x is valid")
!in 10..20 -> print("x is outside the range")
else -> print("none of the above")
}
Another option is checking that a value is or !is of a particular type. Note that, due to smart casts, you can access the
methods and properties of the type without any extra checks.
fun hasPrefix(x: Any) = when(x) {
is String -> x.startsWith("prefix")
else -> false
}
when can also be used as a replacement for an if- else if chain. If no argument is supplied, the branch conditions are
simply boolean expressions, and a branch is executed when its condition is true:
when {
x.isOdd() -> print("x is odd")
y.isEven() -> print("y is even")
else -> print("x+y is odd")
}
You can capture when subject in a variable using following syntax:
fun Request.getBody() =
when (val response = executeRequest()) {
is Success -> response.body
is HttpError -> throw HttpException(response.status)
}
The scope of variable introduced in when subject is restricted to the body of this when.
244
For
loops
The for loop iterates through anything that provides an iterator. This is equivalent to the foreach loop in languages like
C#. The syntax of for is the following:
for (item in collection) print(item)
The body of for can be a block.
for (item: Int in ints) {
// ...
}
As mentioned before, for iterates through anything that provides an iterator. This means that it:
has a member or an extension function iterator() that returns Iterator<>:
has a member or an extension function next()
has a member or an extension function hasNext() that returns Boolean.
All of these three functions need to be marked as operator.
To iterate over a range of numbers, use a range expression:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
for (i in 1..3) {
println(i)
}
for (i in 6 downTo 0 step 2) {
println(i)
}
//sampleEnd
}
A for loop over a range or an array is compiled to an index-based loop that does not create an iterator object.
If you want to iterate through an array or a list with an index, you can do it this way:
fun main() {
val array = arrayOf("a", "b", "c")
//sampleStart
for (i in array.indices) {
println(array[i])
}
//sampleEnd
}
Alternatively, you can use the withIndex library function:
245
fun main() {
val array = arrayOf("a", "b", "c")
//sampleStart
for ((index, value) in array.withIndex()) {
println("the element at $index is $value")
}
//sampleEnd
}
While
loops
while and do-while loops execute their body continuously while their condition is satisfied. The difference between
them is the condition checking time:
while checks the condition and, if it's satisfied, executes the body and then returns to the condition check.
do-while executes the body and then checks the condition. If it's satisfied, the loop repeats. So, the body of do-
while executes at least once regardless of the condition.
while (x > 0) {
x--
}
do {
val y = retrieveData()
} while (y != null) // y is visible here!
Break
and
continue
in
loops
Kotlin supports traditional break and continue operators in loops. See Returns and jumps.
Returns
and
jumps
Kotlin has three structural jump expressions:
return by default returns from the nearest enclosing function or anonymous function
break terminates the nearest enclosing loop
continue proceeds to the next step of the nearest enclosing loop
All of these expressions can be used as part of larger expressions:
val s = person.name ?: return
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The type of these expressions is the Nothing type.
Break
and
continue
labels
Any expression in Kotlin may be marked with a label. Labels have the form of an identifier followed by the @ sign, for
example: abc@, fooBar@. To label an expression, just add a label in front of it.
loop@ for (i in 1..100) {
// ...
}
Now, we can qualify a break or a continue with a label:
loop@ for (i in 1..100) {
for (j in 1..100) {
if (...) break@loop
}
}
A break qualified with a label jumps to the execution point right after the loop marked with that label. A continue
proceeds to the next iteration of that loop.
Return
at
labels
With function literals, local functions and object expressions, functions can be nested in Kotlin. Qualified return s allow
us to return from an outer function. The most important use case is returning from a lambda expression. Recall that
when we write this:
//sampleStart
fun foo() {
listOf(1, 2, 3, 4, 5).forEach {
if (it == 3) return // non-local return directly to the caller of foo()
print(it)
}
println("this point is unreachable")
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
foo()
}
The return -expression returns from the nearest enclosing function - foo. Note that such non-local returns are
supported only for lambda expressions passed to inline functions. To return from a lambda expression, label it and
qualify the return:
247
//sampleStart
fun foo() {
listOf(1, 2, 3, 4, 5).forEach lit@{
if (it == 3) return@lit // local return to the caller of the lambda - the forEach loop
print(it)
}
print(" done with explicit label")
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
foo()
}
Now, it returns only from the lambda expression. Oftentimes it is more convenient to use implicit labels: such a label
has the same name as the function to which the lambda is passed.
//sampleStart
fun foo() {
listOf(1, 2, 3, 4, 5).forEach {
if (it == 3) return@forEach // local return to the caller of the lambda - the forEach
loop
print(it)
}
print(" done with implicit label")
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
foo()
}
Alternatively, you can replace the lambda expression with an anonymous function. A return statement in an anonymous
function will return from the anonymous function itself.
//sampleStart
fun foo() {
listOf(1, 2, 3, 4, 5).forEach(fun(value: Int) {
if (value == 3) return // local return to the caller of the anonymous function - the
forEach loop
print(value)
})
print(" done with anonymous function")
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
foo()
}
Note that the use of local returns in previous three examples is similar to the use of continue in regular loops. There is
no direct equivalent for break, but it can be simulated by adding another nesting lambda and non-locally returning from
it:
248
//sampleStart
fun foo() {
run loop@{
listOf(1, 2, 3, 4, 5).forEach {
if (it == 3) return@loop // non-local return from the lambda passed to run
print(it)
}
}
print(" done with nested loop")
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
foo()
}
When returning a value, the parser gives preference to the qualified return:
return@a 1
This means "return 1 at label @a" and not "return a labeled expression (@a 1) ".
Exceptions
Exception
classes
All exception classes in Kotlin inherit the class Throwable. Every exception has a message, a stack trace, and an
optional cause.
To throw an exception object, use the throw expression:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
throw Exception("Hi There!")
//sampleEnd
}
To catch an exception, use the try ... catch expression:
try {
// some code
} catch (e: SomeException) {
// handler
} finally {
// optional finally block
}
249
There may be zero or more catch blocks. finally block may be omitted. However, at least one catch or finally block
should be present.
Try
is
an
expression
try is an expression; thus, it can have a return value:
val a: Int? = try { parseInt(input) } catch (e: NumberFormatException) { null }
The returned value of a try -expression is either the last expression in the try block or the last expression in the catch
block (or blocks). Contents of the finally block do not affect the result of the expression.
Checked
exceptions
Kotlin does not have checked exceptions. There are many reasons for this, but we will provide a simple example.
The following is an example interface of the JDK implemented by StringBuilder class:
Appendable append(CharSequence csq) throws IOException;
What does this signature say? It says that every time I append a string to something (a StringBuilder, some kind of a
log, a console, etc.) I have to catch those IOExceptions. Why? Because it might be performing IO (Writer also
implements Appendable )... So it results in this kind of code all over the place:
try {
log.append(message)
} catch (IOException e) {
// Must be safe
}
And this is no good, see Effective Java, 3rd Edition, Item 77: Don't ignore exceptions.
Bruce Eckel says about checked exceptions:
Examination of small programs leads to the conclusion that requiring exception specifications could both
enhance developer productivity and enhance code quality, but experience with large software projects
suggests a different result – decreased productivity and little or no increase in code quality.
Other citations of this sort:
Java's checked exceptions were a mistake (Rod Waldhoff)
The Trouble with Checked Exceptions (Anders Hejlsberg)
250
If you want to alert callers of possible exceptions when calling Kotlin code from Java, Swift, or Objective-C, you can
use the @Throws annotation. Read more about using this annotation for Java as well as for Swift and Objective-C.
The
Nothing
type
throw is an expression in Kotlin, so you can use it, for example, as part of an Elvis expression:
val s = person.name ?: throw IllegalArgumentException("Name required")
The type of the throw expression is the special type Nothing. The type has no values and is used to mark code
locations that can never be reached. In your own code, you can use Nothing to mark a function that never returns:
fun fail(message: String): Nothing {
throw IllegalArgumentException(message)
}
When you call this function, the compiler will know that the execution doesn't continue beyond the call:
val s = person.name ?: fail("Name required")
println(s) // 's' is known to be initialized at this point
Another case where you may encounter this type is type inference. The nullable variant of this type, Nothing?, has
exactly one possible value, which is null. If you use null to initialize a value of an inferred type and there's no other
information that can be used to determine a more specific type, the compiler will infer the Nothing? type:
val x = null // 'x' has type `Nothing?`
val l = listOf(null) // 'l' has type `List<Nothing?>
Java
interoperability
Please see the section on exceptions in the Java Interoperability section for information about Java interoperability.
Packages
and
imports
A source file may start with a package declaration:
package org.example
fun printMessage() { /*...*/ }
class Message { /*...*/ }
251
// ...
All the contents, such as classes and functions, of the source file are included in this package. So, in the example
above, the full name of printMessage() is org.example.printMessage, and the full name of Message is
org.example.Message.
If the package is not specified, the contents of such a file belong to the default package with no name.
Default
imports
A number of packages are imported into every Kotlin file by default:
kotlin.*
kotlin.annotation.*
kotlin.collections.*
kotlin.comparisons.*
kotlin.io.*
kotlin.ranges.*
kotlin.sequences.*
kotlin.text.*
Additional packages are imported depending on the target platform:
JVM:
java.lang.*
kotlin.jvm.*
JS:
kotlin.js.*
Imports
Apart from the default imports, each file may contain its own import directives.
You can import either a single name:
import org.example.Message // Message is now accessible without qualification
252
or all the accessible contents of a scope: package, class, object, and so on:
import org.example.* // everything in 'org.example' becomes accessible
If there is a name clash, you can disambiguate by using as keyword to locally rename the clashing entity:
import org.example.Message // Message is accessible
import org.test.Message as testMessage // testMessage stands for 'org.test.Message'
The import keyword is not restricted to importing classes; you can also use it to import other declarations:
top-level functions and properties
functions and properties declared in object declarations
enum constants
Visibility
of
top-level
declarations
If a top-level declaration is marked private, it is private to the file it's declared in (see Visibility modifiers ).
Classes
Classes in Kotlin are declared using the keyword class:
class Person { /*...*/ }
The class declaration consists of the class name, the class header (specifying its type parameters, the primary
constructor etc.) and the class body, surrounded by curly braces. Both the header and the body are optional; if the
class has no body, curly braces can be omitted.
class Empty
Constructors
A class in Kotlin can have a primary constructor and one or more secondary constructors. The primary constructor is
part of the class header: it goes after the class name (and optional type parameters).
class Person constructor(firstName: String) { /*...*/ }
253
If the primary constructor does not have any annotations or visibility modifiers, the constructor keyword can be
omitted:
class Person(firstName: String) { /*...*/ }
The primary constructor cannot contain any code. Initialization code can be placed in initializer blocks, which are
prefixed with the init keyword.
During an instance initialization, the initializer blocks are executed in the same order as they appear in the class body,
interleaved with the property initializers:
//sampleStart
class InitOrderDemo(name: String) {
val firstProperty = "First property: $name".also(::println)
init {
println("First initializer block that prints ${name}")
}
val secondProperty = "Second property: ${name.length}".also(::println)
init {
println("Second initializer block that prints ${name.length}")
}
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
InitOrderDemo("hello")
}
Parameters of the primary constructor can be used in the initializer blocks. They can also be used in property initializers
declared in the class body:
class Customer(name: String) {
val customerKey = name.uppercase()
}
Kotlin has a concise syntax for declaring properties and initializing them from the primary constructor:
class Person(val firstName: String, val lastName: String, var age: Int)
Such declarations can also include default values of the class properties:
class Person(val firstName: String, val lastName: String, var isEmployed: Boolean = true)
You can use a trailing comma when you declare class properties:
254
class Person(
val firstName: String,
val lastName: String,
var age: Int, // trailing comma
) { /*...*/ }
Much the same way as regular properties, the properties declared in the primary constructor can be mutable (var) or
read-only (val ).
If the constructor has annotations or visibility modifiers, the constructor keyword is required, and the modifiers go
before it:
class Customer public @Inject constructor(name: String) { /*...*/ }
Learn more about visibility modifiers.
Secondary
constructors
The class can also declare secondary constructors, which are prefixed with constructor:
class Person(val pets: MutableList<Pet> = mutableListOf())
class Pet {
constructor(owner: Person) {
owner.pets.add(this) // adds this pet to the list of its owner's pets
}
}
If the class has a primary constructor, each secondary constructor needs to delegate to the primary constructor, either
directly or indirectly through another secondary constructor(s). Delegation to another constructor of the same class is
done using the this keyword:
class Person(val name: String) {
var children: MutableList<Person> = mutableListOf()
constructor(name: String, parent: Person) : this(name) {
parent.children.add(this)
}
}
Code in initializer blocks effectively becomes part of the primary constructor. Delegation to the primary constructor
happens as the first statement of a secondary constructor, so the code in all initializer blocks and property initializers is
executed before the secondary constructor body.
Even if the class has no primary constructor, the delegation still happens implicitly, and the initializer blocks are still
executed:
//sampleStart
255
class Constructors {
init {
println("Init block")
}
constructor(i: Int) {
println("Constructor $i")
}
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
Constructors(1)
}
If a non-abstract class does not declare any constructors (primary or secondary), it will have a generated primary
constructor with no arguments. The visibility of the constructor will be public.
If you don't want your class to have a public constructor, declare an empty primary constructor with non-default
visibility:
class DontCreateMe private constructor () { /*...*/ }
On the JVM, if all of the parameters of the primary constructor have default values, the compiler will generate
an additional parameterless constructor which will use the default values. This makes it easier to use Kotlin
with libraries such as Jackson or JPA that create class instances through parameterless constructors.
class Customer(val customerName: String = "")
Creating
instances
of
classes
To create an instance of a class, call the constructor as if it were a regular function:
val invoice = Invoice()
val customer = Customer("Joe Smith")
Kotlin does not have a new keyword.
Creating instances of nested, inner and anonymous inner classes is described in Nested classes.
256
Class
members
Classes can contain:
Constructors and initializer blocks
Functions
Properties
Nested and inner classes
Object declarations
Inheritance
Classes can be derived from each other and form inheritance hierarchies. Learn more about inheritance in Kotlin.
Abstract
classes
A class and some of its members may be declared abstract. An abstract member does not have an implementation in
its class. You don't need to annotate an abstract class or function with open.
You can override a non-abstract open member with an abstract one.
open class Polygon {
open fun draw() {}
}
abstract class Rectangle : Polygon() {
abstract override fun draw()
}
Companion
objects
If you need to write a function that can be called without having a class instance but needs access to the internals of a
class (for example, a factory method), you can write it as a member of an object declaration inside that class.
Even more specifically, if you declare a companion object inside your class, you can access its members using only the
class name as a qualifier.
Inheritance
257
All classes in Kotlin have a common superclass Any, that is the default superclass for a class with no supertypes
declared:
class Example // Implicitly inherits from Any
Any has three methods: equals(), hashCode() and toString(). Thus, they are defined for all Kotlin classes.
By default, Kotlin classes are final: they can’t be inherited. To make a class inheritable, mark it with the open keyword.
open class Base //Class is open for inheritance
To declare an explicit supertype, place the type after a colon in the class header:
open class Base(p: Int)
class Derived(p: Int) : Base(p)
If the derived class has a primary constructor, the base class can (and must) be initialized right there, using the
parameters of the primary constructor.
If the derived class has no primary constructor, then each secondary constructor has to initialize the base type using
the super keyword, or to delegate to another constructor which does that. Note that in this case different secondary
constructors can call different constructors of the base type:
class MyView : View {
constructor(ctx: Context) : super(ctx)
constructor(ctx: Context, attrs: AttributeSet) : super(ctx, attrs)
}
Overriding
methods
Kotlin requires explicit modifiers for overridable members and overrides:
open class Shape {
open fun draw() { /*...*/ }
fun fill() { /*...*/ }
}
class Circle() : Shape() {
override fun draw() { /*...*/ }
}
The override modifier is required for Circle.draw(). If it were missing, the compiler would complain. If there is no open
modifier on a function, like Shape.fill(), declaring a method with the same signature in a subclass is illegal, either with
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override or without it. The open modifier has no effect when added on members of a final class (i.e.. a class with no
open modifier).
A member marked override is itself open, i.e. it may be overridden in subclasses. If you want to prohibit re-overriding,
use final:
open class Rectangle() : Shape() {
final override fun draw() { /*...*/ }
}
Overriding
properties
Overriding properties works in a similar way to overriding methods; properties declared on a superclass that are then
redeclared on a derived class must be prefaced with override, and they must have a compatible type. Each declared
property can be overridden by a property with an initializer or by a property with a get method.
open class Shape {
open val vertexCount: Int = 0
}
class Rectangle : Shape() {
override val vertexCount = 4
}
You can also override a val property with a var property, but not vice versa. This is allowed because a val property
essentially declares a get method, and overriding it as a var additionally declares a set method in the derived class.
Note that you can use the override keyword as part of the property declaration in a primary constructor.
interface Shape {
val vertexCount: Int
}
class Rectangle(override val vertexCount: Int = 4) : Shape // Always has 4 vertices
class Polygon : Shape {
override var vertexCount: Int = 0 // Can be set to any number later
}
Derived
class
initialization
order
During construction of a new instance of a derived class, the base class initialization is done as the first step (preceded
only by evaluation of the arguments for the base class constructor) and thus happens before the initialization logic of
the derived class is run.
259
//sampleStart
open class Base(val name: String) {
init { println("Initializing a base class") }
open val size: Int =
name.length.also { println("Initializing size in the base class: $it") }
}
class Derived(
name: String,
val lastName: String,
) : Base(name.replaceFirstChar { it.uppercase() }.also { println("Argument for the base class:
$it") }) {
init { println("Initializing a derived class") }
override val size: Int =
(super.size + lastName.length).also { println("Initializing size in the derived class:
$it") }
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
println("Constructing the derived class(\"hello\", \"world\")")
Derived("hello", "world")
}
It means that, by the time of the base class constructor execution, the properties declared or overridden in the derived
class are not yet initialized. If any of those properties are used in the base class initialization logic (either directly or
indirectly, through another overridden open member implementation), it may lead to incorrect behavior or a runtime
failure. When designing a base class, you should therefore avoid using open members in the constructors, property
initializers, and init blocks.
Calling
the
superclass
implementation
Code in a derived class can call its superclass functions and property accessors implementations using the super
keyword:
open class Rectangle {
open fun draw() { println("Drawing a rectangle") }
val borderColor: String get() = "black"
}
class FilledRectangle : Rectangle() {
override fun draw() {
super.draw()
println("Filling the rectangle")
}
val fillColor: String get() = super.borderColor
}
260
Inside an inner class, accessing the superclass of the outer class is done with the super keyword qualified with the
outer class name: super@Outer:
open class Rectangle {
open fun draw() { println("Drawing a rectangle") }
val borderColor: String get() = "black"
}
//sampleStart
class FilledRectangle: Rectangle() {
override fun draw() {
val filler = Filler()
filler.drawAndFill()
}
inner class Filler {
fun fill() { println("Filling") }
fun drawAndFill() {
super@FilledRectangle.draw() // Calls Rectangle's implementation of draw()
fill()
println("Drawn a filled rectangle with color
${super@FilledRectangle.borderColor}") // Uses Rectangle's implementation of borderColor's
get()
}
}
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
val fr = FilledRectangle()
fr.draw()
}
Overriding
rules
In Kotlin, implementation inheritance is regulated by the following rule: if a class inherits multiple implementations of
the same member from its immediate superclasses, it must override this member and provide its own implementation
(perhaps, using one of the inherited ones).
To denote the supertype from which the inherited implementation is taken, use super qualified by the supertype name
in angle brackets, e.g. super<Base>:
open class Rectangle {
open fun draw() { /* ... */ }
}
interface Polygon {
fun draw() { /* ... */ } // interface members are 'open' by default
}
class Square() : Rectangle(), Polygon {
// The compiler requires draw() to be overridden:
override fun draw() {
261
super<Rectangle>.draw() // call to Rectangle.draw()
super<Polygon>.draw() // call to Polygon.draw()
}
}
It's fine to inherit from both Rectangle and Polygon, but both of them have their implementations of draw(), so you need
to override draw() in Square and provide its own implementation that eliminates the ambiguity.
Properties
Declaring
properties
Properties in Kotlin classes can be declared either as mutable using the var keyword, or as read-only using the val
keyword.
class Address {
var name: String = "Holmes, Sherlock"
var street: String = "Baker"
var city: String = "London"
var state: String? = null
var zip: String = "123456"
}
To use a property, simply refer to it by its name:
fun copyAddress(address: Address): Address {
val result = Address() // there's no 'new' keyword in Kotlin
result.name = address.name // accessors are called
result.street = address.street
// ...
return result
}
Getters
and
setters
The full syntax for declaring a property is the following.
var <propertyName>[: <PropertyType>] [= <property_initializer>]
[<getter>]
[<setter>]
The initializer, getter and setter are optional. Property type is optional if it can be inferred from the initializer (or from the
getter return type, as shown below).
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var initialized = 1 // has type Int, default getter and setter
// var allByDefault // ERROR: explicit initializer required, default getter and setter implied
The full syntax of a read-only property declaration differs from a mutable one in two ways: it starts with val instead of
var and does not allow a setter:
val simple: Int? // has type Int, default getter, must be initialized in constructor
val inferredType = 1 // has type Int and a default getter
You can define custom accessors for a property. If you define a custom getter, it will be called every time you access
the property (this way you can implement a computed property). Here's an example of a custom getter:
val isEmpty: Boolean
get() = this.size == 0
If you define a custom setter, it will be called every time you assign a value to the property except its initialization. A
custom setter looks like this:
var stringRepresentation: String
get() = this.toString()
set(value) {
setDataFromString(value) // parses the string and assigns values to other properties
}
By convention, the name of the setter parameter is value, but you can choose a different name if you prefer.
You can omit the property type if it can be inferred from the getter:
val isEmpty get() = this.size == 0 // has type Boolean
If you need to change the visibility of an accessor or to annotate it, but don't need to change the default
implementation, you can define the accessor without defining its body:
var setterVisibility: String = "abc"
private set // the setter is private and has the default implementation
var setterWithAnnotation: Any? = null
@Inject set // annotate the setter with Inject
Backing
fields
In Kotlin, a field is only used as a part of a property to hold its value in memory. Fields can not be declared directly.
However, when a property needs a backing field, Kotlin provides it automatically. This backing field can be referenced
in the accessors using the field identifier:
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var counter = 0 // the initializer assigns the backing field directly
set(value) {
if (value >= 0)
field = value
// counter = value // ERROR StackOverflow: Using actual name 'counter' would make
setter recursive
}
The field identifier can only be used in the accessors of the property.
A backing field will be generated for a property if it uses the default implementation of at least one of the accessors, or
if a custom accessor references it through the field identifier.
For example, in the following case there will be no backing field:
val isEmpty: Boolean
get() = this.size == 0
Backing
properties
If you want to do something that does not fit into this implicit backing field scheme, you can always fall back to having
a backing property:
private var _table: Map<String, Int>? = null
public val table: Map<String, Int>
get() {
if (_table == null) {
_table = HashMap() // Type parameters are inferred
}
return _table ?: throw AssertionError("Set to null by another thread")
}
On JVM: Access to private properties with default getters and setters is optimized to avoid function call
overhead.
Compile-time
constants
If the value of a read-only property is known at the compile time, mark it as a compile time constant using the const
modifier. Such properties need to fulfil the following requirements:
Top-level, or member of an object declaration or a companion object.
Initialized with a value of type String or a primitive type
No custom getter
264
Such properties can be used in annotations:
const val SUBSYSTEM_DEPRECATED: String = "This subsystem is deprecated"
@Deprecated(SUBSYSTEM_DEPRECATED) fun foo() { ... }
Late-initialized
properties
and
variables
Normally, properties declared as having a non-null type must be initialized in the constructor. However, fairly often this
is not convenient. For example, properties can be initialized through dependency injection, or in the setup method of a
unit test. In this case, you cannot supply a non-null initializer in the constructor, but you still want to avoid null checks
when referencing the property inside the body of a class.
To handle this case, you can mark the property with the lateinit modifier:
public class MyTest {
lateinit var subject: TestSubject
@SetUp fun setup() {
subject = TestSubject()
}
@Test fun test() {
subject.method() // dereference directly
}
}
The modifier can be used on var properties declared inside the body of a class (not in the primary constructor, and only
when the property does not have a custom getter or setter) as well as for top-level properties and local variables. The
type of the property or variable must be non-null, and it must not be a primitive type.
Accessing a lateinit property before it has been initialized throws a special exception that clearly identifies the property
being accessed and the fact that it hasn't been initialized.
Checking
whether
a
lateinit
var
is
initialized
To check whether a lateinit var has already been initialized, use .isInitialized on the reference to that property:
if (foo::bar.isInitialized) {
println(foo.bar)
}
This check is only available for the properties that are lexically accessible, when declared in the same type or in one of
the outer types, or at top level in the same file.
265
Overriding
properties
See Overriding properties
Delegated
properties
The most common kind of properties simply reads from (and maybe writes to) a backing field. On the other hand, with
custom getters and setters one can implement any behaviour of a property. Somewhere in between, there are certain
common patterns of how a property may work. A few examples: lazy values, reading from a map by a given key,
accessing a database, notifying listener on access, etc.
Such common behaviours can be implemented as libraries using delegated properties.
Interfaces
Interfaces in Kotlin can contain declarations of abstract methods, as well as method implementations. What makes
them different from abstract classes is that interfaces cannot store state. They can have properties but these need to
be abstract or to provide accessor implementations.
An interface is defined using the keyword interface
interface MyInterface {
fun bar()
fun foo() {
// optional body
}
}
Implementing
interfaces
A class or object can implement one or more interfaces
class Child : MyInterface {
override fun bar() {
// body
}
}
Properties
in
interfaces
You can declare properties in interfaces. A property declared in an interface can either be abstract, or it can provide
266
implementations for accessors. Properties declared in interfaces can't have backing fields, and therefore accessors
declared in interfaces can't reference them.
interface MyInterface {
val prop: Int // abstract
val propertyWithImplementation: String
get() = "foo"
fun foo() {
print(prop)
}
}
class Child : MyInterface {
override val prop: Int = 29
}
Interfaces
Inheritance
An interface can derive from other interfaces and thus both provide implementations for their members and declare
new functions and properties. Quite naturally, classes implementing such an interface are only required to define the
missing implementations:
interface Named {
val name: String
}
interface Person : Named {
val firstName: String
val lastName: String
override val name: String get() = "$firstName $lastName"
}
data class Employee(
// implementing 'name' is not required
override val firstName: String,
override val lastName: String,
val position: Position
) : Person
Resolving
overriding
conflicts
When you declare many types in your supertype list, you may inherit more than one implementation of the same
method. See the following example.
interface A {
fun foo() { print("A") }
267
fun bar()
}
interface B {
fun foo() { print("B") }
fun bar() { print("bar") }
}
class C : A {
override fun bar() { print("bar") }
}
class D : A, B {
override fun foo() {
super<A>.foo()
super<B>.foo()
}
override fun bar() {
super<B>.bar()
}
}
Interfaces A and B both declare functions foo() and bar(). Both of them implement foo(), but only B implements bar()
(bar() is not marked abstract in A, because this is the default for interfaces, if the function has no body). Now, if you
derive a concrete class C from A, you, obviously, have to override bar() and provide an implementation.
However, if you derive D from A and B, you need to implement all the methods which you have inherited from multiple
interfaces, and to specify how exactly D should implement them. This rule applies both to methods for which you've
inherited a single implementation (bar()) and multiple implementations (foo() ).
Functional
(SAM)
interfaces
An interface with only one abstract method is called a functional interface, or a Single Abstract Method (SAM)
interface. The functional interface can have several non-abstract members but only one abstract member.
To declare a functional interface in Kotlin, use the fun modifier.
fun interface KRunnable {
fun invoke()
}
SAM
conversions
For functional interfaces, you can use SAM conversions that help make your code more concise and readable by using
lambda expressions.
Instead of creating a class that implements a functional interface manually, you can use a lambda expression. With a
268
SAM conversion, Kotlin can convert any lambda expression whose signature matches the signature of the interface's
single method into the code, which dynamically instantiates the interface implementation.
For example, consider the following Kotlin functional interface:
fun interface IntPredicate {
fun accept(i: Int): Boolean
}
If you don't use a SAM conversion, you will need to write code like this:
// Creating an instance of a class
val isEven = object : IntPredicate {
override fun accept(i: Int): Boolean {
return i % 2 == 0
}
}
By leveraging Kotlin's SAM conversion, you can write the following equivalent code instead:
// Creating an instance using lambda
val isEven = IntPredicate { it % 2 == 0 }
A short lambda expression replaces all the unnecessary code.
fun interface IntPredicate {
fun accept(i: Int): Boolean
}
val isEven = IntPredicate { it % 2 == 0 }
fun main() {
println("Is 7 even? - ${isEven.accept(7)}")
}
You can also use SAM conversions for Java interfaces.
Functional
interfaces
vs.
type
aliases
Functional interfaces and type aliases serve different purposes. Type aliases are just names for existing types – they
don't create a new type, while functional interfaces do. You can provide extensions that are specific to a particular
functional interface to be inapplicable for plain functions or their type aliases.
Type aliases can have only one member, while functional interfaces can have multiple non-abstract members and one
abstract member. Functional interfaces can also implement and extend other interfaces.
Functional interfaces are more flexible and provide more capabilities than type aliases, but they can be more costly
269
both syntactically and at runtime because they can require conversions to a specific interface. When you choose which
one to use in your code, consider your needs:
If your API needs to accept a function (any function) with some specific parameter and return types – use a simple
functional type or define a type alias to give a shorter name to the corresponding functional type.
If your API accepts a more complex entity than a function – for example, it has non-trivial contracts and/or
operations on it that can't be expressed in a functional type's signature – declare a separate functional interface for
it.
Visibility
modifiers
Classes, objects, interfaces, constructors, functions, properties and their setters can have visibility modifiers. Getters
always have the same visibility as the property.
There are four visibility modifiers in Kotlin: private, protected, internal and public. The default visibility is public.
On this page, you'll learn how the modifiers apply to different types of declaring scopes.
Packages
Functions, properties and classes, objects and interfaces can be declared at the "top-level" directly inside a package:
// file name: example.kt
package foo
fun baz() { ... }
class Bar { ... }
If you do not specify any visibility modifier, public is used by default, which means that your declarations will be
visible everywhere.
If you mark a declaration private, it will only be visible inside the file containing the declaration.
If you mark it internal, it is visible everywhere in the same module.
protected is not available for top-level declarations.
To use a visible top-level declaration from another package, you should still import it.
Examples:
// file name: example.kt
270
package foo
private fun foo() { ... } // visible inside example.kt
public var bar: Int = 5 // property is visible everywhere
private set // setter is visible only in example.kt
internal val baz = 6 // visible inside the same module
Classes
and
interfaces
For members declared inside a class:
private means visible inside this class only (including all its members).
protected is the same as private but is also visible in subclasses.
internal means that any client inside this module who sees the declaring class sees its internal members.
public means that any client who sees the declaring class sees its public members.
In Kotlin, outer class does not see private members of its inner classes.
If you override a protected member and do not specify the visibility explicitly, the overriding member will also have
protected visibility.
Examples:
open class Outer {
private val a = 1
protected open val b = 2
internal val c = 3
val d = 4 // public by default
protected class Nested {
public val e: Int = 5
}
}
class Subclass : Outer() {
// a is not visible
// b, c and d are visible
// Nested and e are visible
override val b = 5 // 'b' is protected
}
class Unrelated(o: Outer) {
// o.a, o.b are not visible
// o.c and o.d are visible (same module)
271
// Outer.Nested is not visible, and Nested::e is not visible either
}
Constructors
To specify a visibility of the primary constructor of a class, use the following syntax:
You need to add an explicit constructor keyword.
class C private constructor(a: Int) { ... }
Here the constructor is private. By default, all constructors are public, which effectively amounts to them being visible
everywhere where the class is visible (this means that a constructor of an internal class is only visible within the same
module).
Local
declarations
Local variables, functions and classes can't have visibility modifiers.
Modules
The internal visibility modifier means that the member is visible within the same module. More specifically, a module is
a set of Kotlin files compiled together:
an IntelliJ IDEA module
a Maven project
a Gradle source set (with the exception that the test source set can access the internal declarations of main)
a set of files compiled with one invocation of the <kotlinc> Ant task
Extensions
Kotlin provides an ability to extend a class with new functionality without having to inherit from the class or use design
patterns such as Decorator. This is done via special declarations called extensions.
For example, you can write new functions for a class from a third-party library that you can't modify. Such functions are
available for calling in the usual way as if they were methods of the original class. This mechanism is called extension
functions. There are also extension properties that let you define new properties for existing classes.
272
Extension
functions
To declare an extension function, prefix its name with a receiver type, that means the type being extended. The
following adds a swap function to MutableList<Int>:
fun MutableList<Int>.swap(index1: Int, index2: Int) {
val tmp = this[index1] // 'this' corresponds to the list
this[index1] = this[index2]
this[index2] = tmp
}
The this keyword inside an extension function corresponds to the receiver object (the one that is passed before the
dot). Now, you can call such a function on any MutableList<Int>:
val list = mutableListOf(1, 2, 3)
list.swap(0, 2) // 'this' inside 'swap()' will hold the value of 'list'
This function makes sense for any MutableList<T>, and you can make it generic:
fun <T> MutableList<T>.swap(index1: Int, index2: Int) {
val tmp = this[index1] // 'this' corresponds to the list
this[index1] = this[index2]
this[index2] = tmp
}
You declare the generic type parameter before the function name to make it available in the receiver type expression.
See Generic functions.
Extensions
are
resolved
statically
Extensions do not actually modify classes they extend. By defining an extension, you do not insert new members into a
class, but merely make new functions callable with the dot-notation on variables of this type.
Extension functions are dispatched statically, that means that they are not virtual by receiver type. An extension
function being called is determined by the type of the expression on which the function is invoked, not by the type of
the result of evaluating that expression at runtime. For example:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
open class Shape
class Rectangle: Shape()
fun Shape.getName() = "Shape"
fun Rectangle.getName() = "Rectangle"
273
fun printClassName(s: Shape) {
println(s.getName())
}
printClassName(Rectangle())
//sampleEnd
}
This example prints Shape, because the called extension function depends only on the declared type of the parameter
s, which is the Shape class.
If a class has a member function, and an extension function is defined which has the same receiver type, the same
name, and is applicable to given arguments, the member always wins. For example:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
class Example {
fun printFunctionType() { println("Class method") }
}
fun Example.printFunctionType() { println("Extension function") }
Example().printFunctionType()
//sampleEnd
}
This code prints Class method.
However, it's perfectly OK for extension functions to overload member functions which have the same name but a
different signature:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
class Example {
fun printFunctionType() { println("Class method") }
}
fun Example.printFunctionType(i: Int) { println("Extension function") }
Example().printFunctionType(1)
//sampleEnd
}
Nullable
receiver
Note that extensions can be defined with a nullable receiver type. Such extensions can be called on an object variable
even if its value is null, and can check for this == null inside the body.
This way you can call toString() in Kotlin without checking for null: the check happens inside the extension function.
274
fun Any?.toString(): String {
if (this == null) return "null"
// after the null check, 'this' is autocast to a non-null type, so the toString() below
// resolves to the member function of the Any class
return toString()
}
Extension
properties
Similarly to functions, Kotlin supports extension properties:
val <T> List<T>.lastIndex: Int
get() = size - 1
Since extensions do not actually insert members into classes, there's no efficient way for an extension
property to have a backing field. This is why initializers are not allowed for extension properties. Their
behavior can only be defined by explicitly providing getters/setters.
Example:
val House.number = 1 // error: initializers are not allowed for extension properties
Companion
object
extensions
If a class has a companion object defined, you can also define extension functions and properties for the companion
object. Just like regular members of the companion object, they can be called using only the class name as the
qualifier:
class MyClass {
companion object { } // will be called "Companion"
}
fun MyClass.Companion.printCompanion() { println("companion") }
fun main() {
MyClass.printCompanion()
}
Scope
of
extensions
275
In most cases, you define extensions on the top level - directly under packages:
package org.example.declarations
fun List<String>.getLongestString() { /*...*/}
To use such an extension outside its declaring package, import it at the call site:
package org.example.usage
import org.example.declarations.getLongestString
fun main() {
val list = listOf("red", "green", "blue")
list.getLongestString()
}
See Imports for more information.
Declaring
extensions
as
members
Inside a class, you can declare extensions for another class. Inside such an extension, there are multiple implicit
receivers- objects members of which can be accessed without a qualifier. The instance of the class in which the
extension is declared is called dispatch receiver, and the instance of the receiver type of the extension method is
called extension receiver.
class Host(val hostname: String) {
fun printHostname() { print(hostname) }
}
class Connection(val host: Host, val port: Int) {
fun printPort() { print(port) }
fun Host.printConnectionString() {
printHostname() // calls Host.printHostname()
print(":")
printPort() // calls Connection.printPort()
}
fun connect() {
/*...*/
host.printConnectionString() // calls the extension function
}
}
fun main() {
Connection(Host("kotl.in"), 443).connect()
//Host("kotl.in").printConnectionString(443) // error, the extension function is
unavailable outside Connection
}
276
In case of a name conflict between the members of the dispatch receiver and the extension receiver, the extension
receiver takes precedence. To refer to the member of the dispatch receiver, you can use the qualified this syntax.
class Connection {
fun Host.getConnectionString() {
toString() // calls Host.toString()
this@Connection.toString() // calls Connection.toString()
}
}
Extensions declared as members can be declared as open and overridden in subclasses. This means that the dispatch
of such functions is virtual with regard to the dispatch receiver type, but static with regard to the extension receiver
type.
open class Base { }
class Derived : Base() { }
open class BaseCaller {
open fun Base.printFunctionInfo() {
println("Base extension function in BaseCaller")
}
open fun Derived.printFunctionInfo() {
println("Derived extension function in BaseCaller")
}
fun call(b: Base) {
b.printFunctionInfo() // call the extension function
}
}
class DerivedCaller: BaseCaller() {
override fun Base.printFunctionInfo() {
println("Base extension function in DerivedCaller")
}
override fun Derived.printFunctionInfo() {
println("Derived extension function in DerivedCaller")
}
}
fun main() {
BaseCaller().call(Base()) // "Base extension function in BaseCaller"
DerivedCaller().call(Base()) // "Base extension function in DerivedCaller" - dispatch
receiver is resolved virtually
DerivedCaller().call(Derived()) // "Base extension function in DerivedCaller" - extension
receiver is resolved statically
}
Note
on
visibility
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Extensions utilize the same visibility of other entities as regular functions declared in the same scope would. For
example:
An extension declared at the top level of a file has access to the other private top-level declarations in the same file.
If an extension is declared outside its receiver type, such an extension cannot access the receiver's private
members.
Data
classes
You often create classes whose main purpose is to hold data. In such classes, some standard functionality and utility
functions are often mechanically derivable from the data. In Kotlin, these are called data classes and are marked with
data:
data class User(val name: String, val age: Int)
The compiler automatically derives the following members from all properties declared in the primary constructor:
equals()/ hashCode() pair
toString() of the form "User(name=John, age=42)"
componentN() functions corresponding to the properties in their order of declaration.
copy() function (see below).
To ensure consistency and meaningful behavior of the generated code, data classes have to fulfill the following
requirements:
The primary constructor needs to have at least one parameter.
All primary constructor parameters need to be marked as val or var.
Data classes cannot be abstract, open, sealed or inner.
Additionally, the members generation follows these rules with regard to the members inheritance:
If there are explicit implementations of equals(), hashCode() or toString() in the data class body or final
implementations in a superclass, then these functions are not generated, and the existing implementations are used.
If a supertype has the componentN() functions that are open and return compatible types, the corresponding
functions are generated for the data class and override those of the supertype. If the functions of the supertype
cannot be overridden due to incompatible signatures or being final, an error is reported.
Providing explicit implementations for the componentN() and copy() functions is not allowed.
Data classes may extend other classes (see Sealed classes for examples).
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On the JVM, if the generated class needs to have a parameterless constructor, default values for all
properties have to be specified (see Constructors ).
data class User(val name: String = "", val age: Int = 0)
Properties
declared
in
the
class
body
The compiler only uses the properties defined inside the primary constructor for the automatically generated functions.
To exclude a property from the generated implementations, declare it inside the class body:
data class Person(val name: String) {
var age: Int = 0
}
Only the property name will be used inside the toString(), equals(), hashCode(), and copy() implementations, and there
will only be one component function component1(). While two Person objects can have different ages, they will be
treated as equal.
data class Person(val name: String) {
var age: Int = 0
}
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val person1 = Person("John")
val person2 = Person("John")
person1.age = 10
person2.age = 20
//sampleEnd
println("person1 == person2: ${person1 == person2}")
println("person1 with age ${person1.age}: ${person1}")
println("person2 with age ${person2.age}: ${person2}")
}
Copying
To copy an object for changing some of its properties, but keeping the rest unchanged, use
the copy() function. For the User class above, its implementation would be as follows:
fun copy(name: String = this.name, age: Int = this.age) = User(name, age)
You can write the following:
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val jack = User(name = "Jack", age = 1)
val olderJack = jack.copy(age = 2)
Data
classes
and
destructuring
declarations
Component functions generated for data classes enable their use in destructuring declarations:
val jane = User("Jane", 35)
val (name, age) = jane
println("$name, $age years of age") // prints "Jane, 35 years of age"
Standard
data
classes
The standard library provides Pair and Triple. In most cases, though, named data classes are a better design choice,
because they make the code more readable by providing meaningful names for properties.
Sealed
classes
Sealed classes and interfaces represent restricted class hierarchies that provide more control over inheritance. All
subclasses of a sealed class are known at compile time. No other subclasses may appear after a module with the
sealed class is compiled. For example, third-party clients can't extend your sealed class in their code. Thus, each
instance of a sealed class has a type from a limited set that is known when this class is compiled.
The same works for sealed interfaces and their implementations: once a module with a sealed interface is compiled, no
new implementations can appear.
In some sense, sealed classes are similar to enum classes: the set of values for an enum type is also restricted, but
each enum constant exists only as a single instance, whereas a subclass of a sealed class can have multiple
instances, each with its own state.
To declare a sealed class or interface, put the sealed modifier before its name:
sealed interface Expr
sealed class MathExpr(): Expr
data class Const(val number: Double) : MathExpr()
data class Sum(val e1: Expr, val e2: Expr) : MathExpr()
object NotANumber : Expr
A sealed class is abstract by itself, it cannot be instantiated directly and can have abstract members.
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Constructors of sealed classes can have one of two visibilities: protected (by default) or private:
sealed class MathExpr {
constructor() { /*...*/ } // protected by default
private constructor(vararg operands: Number): this() { /*...*/ } // private is OK
// public constructor(s: String): this() {} // Error: public and internal are not allowed
}
Location
of
direct
subclasses
Direct subclasses of sealed classes and interfaces must be declared in the same package. They may be top-level or
nested inside any number of other named classes, named interfaces, or named objects. Subclasses can have any
visibility as long as they are compatible with normal inheritance rules in Kotlin.
Subclasses of sealed classes must have a proper qualified name. They can't be local nor anonymous objects.
enum classes can't extend a sealed class (as well as any other class), but they can implement sealed
interfaces.
Inheritance
in
multiplatform
projects
There is one more inheritance restriction in multiplatform projects: direct subclasses of sealed classes must reside in
the same source set. It applies to sealed classes without the expect and actual modifiers.
If a sealed class is declared as expect in a common source set and have actual implementations in platform source
sets, both expect and actual versions can have subclasses in their source sets. Moreover, if you use a hierarchical
structure, you can create subclasses in any source set between the expect and actual declarations.
Learn more about the hierarchical structure of multiplatform projects.
Sealed
classes
and
when
expression
The key benefit of using sealed classes comes into play when you use them in a when expression. If it's possible to
verify that the statement covers all cases, you don't need to add an else clause to the statement. However, this works
only if you use when as an expression (using the result) and not as a statement:
fun eval(expr: Expr): Double = when(expr) {
is Const -> expr.number
is Sum -> eval(expr.e1) + eval(expr.e2)
NotANumber -> Double.NaN
// the `else` clause is not required because we've covered all the cases
}
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when expressions on expect sealed classes in the common code of multiplatform projects still require an
else branch. This happens because subclasses of actual platform implementations aren't known in the
common code.
Generics:
in,
out,
where
As in Java, classes in Kotlin can have type parameters:
class Box<T>(t: T) {
var value = t
}
In general, to create an instance of such a class, provide the type arguments:
val box: Box<Int> = Box<Int>(1)
But if the parameters may be inferred, for example, from the constructor arguments or by some other means, you can
omit the type arguments:
val box = Box(1) // 1 has type Int, so the compiler figures out that it is Box<Int>
Variance
One of the most tricky parts of Java's type system is wildcard types (see Java Generics FAQ ). And Kotlin doesn't have
any. Instead, it has two other things: declaration-site variance and type projections.
First, let's think about why Java needs those mysterious wildcards. The problem is explained in Effective Java, 3rd
Edition, Item 31: Use bounded wildcards to increase API flexibility. First, generic types in Java are invariant, meaning
that List<String> is not a subtype of List<Object>. Why so? If List was not invariant, it would have been no better than
Java's arrays, since the following code would have compiled and caused an exception at runtime:
// Java
List<String> strs = new ArrayList<String>();
List<Object> objs = strs; // !!! A compile-time error here saves us from a runtime exception
later.
objs.add(1); // Put an Integer into a list of Strings
String s = strs.get(0); // !!! ClassCastException: Cannot cast Integer to String
So, Java prohibits such things in order to guarantee run-time safety. But this has some implications. For example,
consider the addAll() method from Collection interface. What's the signature of this method? Intuitively, you'd put it this
way:
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// Java
interface Collection<E> ... {
void addAll(Collection<E> items);
}
But then, you are not able to do the following simple thing (which is perfectly safe):
// Java
void copyAll(Collection<Object> to, Collection<String> from) {
to.addAll(from);
// !!! Would not compile with the naive declaration of addAll:
// Collection<String> is not a subtype of Collection<Object>
}
(In Java, you learned this lesson the hard way, see Effective Java, 3rd Edition, Item 28: Prefer lists to arrays)
That's why the actual signature of addAll() is the following:
// Java
interface Collection<E> ... {
void addAll(Collection<? extends E> items);
}
The wildcard type argument ? extends E indicates that this method accepts a collection of objects of E or some
subtype of E, not just E itself. This means that you can safely read E 's from items (elements of this collection are
instances of a subclass of E), but cannot write to it since you don't know what objects comply to that unknown
subtype of E. In return for this limitation, you have the desired behaviour: Collection<String> is a subtype of
Collection<? extends Object>. In other words, the wildcard with an extends -bound (upper bound) makes the type
covariant.
The key to understanding why this trick works is rather simple: if you can only take items from a collection, then using a
collection of String s and reading Object s from it is fine. Conversely, if you can only put items into the collection, it's
OK to take a collection of Object s and put String s into it: there is List<? super String> in Java, a supertype of
List<Object>.
The latter is called contravariance, and you can only call methods that take String as an argument on List<? super
String> (for example, you can call add(String) or set(int, String) ). If you call something that returns T in List<T>, you
don't get a String, but an Object.
Joshua Bloch calls those objects you only read from Producers, and those you only write to Consumers. He
recommends:
"For maximum flexibility, use wildcard types on input parameters that represent producers or consumers",
and proposes the following mnemonic:
PECS stands for Producer-Extends, Consumer-Super.
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If you use a producer-object, say, List<? extends Foo>, you are not allowed to call add() or set() on this
object, but this does not mean that this object is immutable: for example, nothing prevents you from calling
clear() to remove all items from the list, since clear() does not take any parameters at all.
The only thing guaranteed by wildcards (or other types of variance) is type safety. Immutability is a
completely different story.
Declaration-site
variance
Let's suppose that there is a generic interface Source<T> that does not have any methods that take T as a parameter,
only methods that return T:
// Java
interface Source<T> {
T nextT();
}
Then, it would be perfectly safe to store a reference to an instance of Source<String> in a variable of type
Source<Object>- there are no consumer-methods to call. But Java does not know this, and still prohibits it:
// Java
void demo(Source<String> strs) {
Source<Object> objects = strs; // !!! Not allowed in Java
// ...
}
To fix this, you should declare objects of type Source<? extends Object>, which is meaningless, because you can call
all the same methods on such a variable as before, so there's no value added by the more complex type. But the
compiler does not know that.
In Kotlin, there is a way to explain this sort of thing to the compiler. This is called declaration-site variance: you can
annotate the type parameter T of Source to make sure that it is only returned (produced) from members of Source<T>,
and never consumed. To do this, use the out modifier:
interface Source<out T> {
fun nextT(): T
}
fun demo(strs: Source<String>) {
val objects: Source<Any> = strs // This is OK, since T is an out-parameter
// ...
}
The general rule is: when a type parameter T of a class C is declared out, it may occur only in out -position in the
members of C, but in return C<Base> can safely be a supertype of C<Derived>.
In other words, you can say that the class C is covariant in the parameter T, or that T is a covariant type parameter.
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You can think of C as being a producer of T 's, and NOT a consumer of T 's.
The out modifier is called a variance annotation, and since it is provided at the type parameter declaration site, it
provides declaration-site variance. This is in contrast with Java's use-site variance where wildcards in the type usages
make the types covariant.
In addition to out, Kotlin provides a complementary variance annotation: in. It makes a type parameter contravariant: it
can only be consumed and never produced. A good example of a contravariant type is Comparable:
interface Comparable<in T> {
operator fun compareTo(other: T): Int
}
fun demo(x: Comparable<Number>) {
x.compareTo(1.0) // 1.0 has type Double, which is a subtype of Number
// Thus, you can assign x to a variable of type Comparable<Double>
val y: Comparable<Double> = x // OK!
}
The words in and out seem to be self-explaining (as they were successfully used in C# for quite some time already),
thus the mnemonic mentioned above is not really needed, and one can rephrase it for a higher purpose:
The Existential Transformation: Consumer in, Producer out! :-)
Type
projections
Use-site
variance:
type
projections
It is very convenient to declare a type parameter T as out and avoid trouble with subtyping on the use site, but some
classes can't actually be restricted to only return T 's! A good example of this is Array:
class Array<T>(val size: Int) {
operator fun get(index: Int): T { ... }
operator fun set(index: Int, value: T) { ... }
}
This class cannot be either co- or contravariant in T. And this imposes certain inflexibilities. Consider the following
function:
fun copy(from: Array<Any>, to: Array<Any>) {
assert(from.size == to.size)
for (i in from.indices)
to[i] = from[i]
}
This function is supposed to copy items from one array to another. Let's try to apply it in practice:
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val ints: Array<Int> = arrayOf(1, 2, 3)
val any = Array<Any>(3) { "" }
copy(ints, any)
// ^ type is Array<Int> but Array<Any> was expected
Here you run into the same familiar problem: Array<T> is invariant in T, thus neither of Array<Int> and Array<Any> is a
subtype of the other. Why? Again, because copy may have an unexpected behavior, for example, it may attempt to
write a String to from, and if you actually pass an array of Int there, a ClassCastException 'll be thrown sometime later.
To prohibit the copy function from writing to from, do the following:
fun copy(from: Array<out Any>, to: Array<Any>) { ... }
This is type projection, that means that from is not simply an array, but a restricted (projected) one. You can only call
those methods that return the type parameter T, in this case it means that you can only call get(). This is our approach
to use-site variance, and corresponds to Java's Array<? extends Object>, but in a slightly simpler way.
You can project a type with in as well:
fun fill(dest: Array<in String>, value: String) { ... }
Array<in String> corresponds to Java's Array<? super String>. This means that you can pass an array of
CharSequence or an array of Object to the fill() function.
Star-projections
Sometimes you want to say that you know nothing about the type argument, but still want to use it in a safe way. The
safe way here is to define such a projection of the generic type, that every concrete instantiation of that generic type
would be a subtype of that projection.
Kotlin provides so called star-projection syntax for this:
For Foo<out T : TUpper>, where T is a covariant type parameter with the upper bound TUpper, Foo<*> is equivalent
to Foo<out TUpper>. It means that when the T is unknown you can safely read values of TUpper from Foo<*>.
For Foo<in T>, where T is a contravariant type parameter, Foo<*> is equivalent to Foo<in Nothing>. It means there
is nothing you can write to Foo<*> in a safe way when T is unknown.
For Foo<T : TUpper>, where T is an invariant type parameter with the upper bound TUpper, Foo<*> is equivalent to
Foo<out TUpper> for reading values and to Foo<in Nothing> for writing values.
If a generic type has several type parameters each of them can be projected independently. For example, if the type is
declared as interface Function<in T, out U> you can imagine the following star-projections:
Function<*, String> means Function<in Nothing, String>.
Function<Int, *> means Function<Int, out Any?>.
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Function<*, *> means Function<in Nothing, out Any?>.
Star-projections are very much like Java's raw types, but safe.
Generic
functions
Not only classes can have type parameters. Functions can, too. Type parameters are placed before the name of the
function:
fun <T> singletonList(item: T): List<T> {
// ...
}
fun <T> T.basicToString(): String { // extension function
// ...
}
To call a generic function, specify the type arguments at the call site after the name of the function:
val l = singletonList<Int>(1)
Type arguments can be omitted if they can be inferred from the context, so the following example works as well:
val l = singletonList(1)
Generic
constraints
The set of all possible types that can be substituted for a given type parameter may be restricted by generic
constraints.
Upper
bounds
The most common type of constraint is an upper bound that corresponds to Java's extends keyword:
fun <T : Comparable<T>> sort(list: List<T>) { ... }
The type specified after a colon is the upper bound: only a subtype of Comparable<T> can be substituted for T. For
example:
sort(listOf(1, 2, 3)) // OK. Int is a subtype of Comparable<Int>
sort(listOf(HashMap<Int, String>())) // Error: HashMap<Int, String> is not a subtype of
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Comparable<HashMap<Int, String>>
The default upper bound (if none specified) is Any?. Only one upper bound can be specified inside the angle brackets.
If the same type parameter needs more than one upper bound, you need a separate where -clause:
fun <T> copyWhenGreater(list: List<T>, threshold: T): List<String>
where T : CharSequence,
T : Comparable<T> {
return list.filter { it > threshold }.map { it.toString() }
}
The passed type must satisfy all conditions of the where clause simultaneously. In the above example, the T type must
implement both CharSequence and Comparable.
Type
erasure
The type safety checks that Kotlin performs for generic declaration usages are only done at compile time. At runtime,
the instances of generic types do not hold any information about their actual type arguments. The type information is
said to be erased. For example, the instances of Foo<Bar> and Foo<Baz?> are erased to just Foo<*>.
Therefore, there is no general way to check whether an instance of a generic type was created with certain type
arguments at runtime, and the compiler prohibits such is -checks.
Type casts to generic types with concrete type arguments, for example, foo as List<String>, cannot be checked at
runtime.
These unchecked casts can be used when type safety is implied by the high-level program logic but cannot be inferred
directly by the compiler. The compiler issues a warning on unchecked casts, and at runtime, only the non-generic part
is checked (equivalent to foo as List<*> ).
The type arguments of a generic function calls are also only checked at compile time. Inside the function bodies, the
type parameters cannot be used for type checks, and type casts to type parameters (foo as T) are unchecked.
However, reified type parameters of inline functions are substituted by the actual type arguments in the inlined function
body at the call sites and thus can be used for type checks and casts, with the same restrictions for instances of
generic types as described above.
Nested
and
inner
classes
Classes can be nested in other classes:
class Outer {
private val bar: Int = 1
class Nested {
fun foo() = 2
}
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}
val demo = Outer.Nested().foo() // == 2
You can also use interfaces with nesting. All combinations of classes and interfaces are possible: You can nest
interfaces in classes, classes in interfaces, and interfaces in interfaces.
interface OuterInterface {
class InnerClass
interface InnerInterface
}
class OuterClass {
class InnerClass
interface InnerInterface
}
Inner
classes
A nested class marked as inner can access the members of its outer class. Inner classes carry a reference to an object
of an outer class:
class Outer {
private val bar: Int = 1
inner class Inner {
fun foo() = bar
}
}
val demo = Outer().Inner().foo() // == 1
See Qualified this expressions to learn about disambiguation of this in inner classes.
Anonymous
inner
classes
Anonymous inner class instances are created using an object expression:
window.addMouseListener(object : MouseAdapter() {
override fun mouseClicked(e: MouseEvent) { ... }
override fun mouseEntered(e: MouseEvent) { ... }
})
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On the JVM, if the object is an instance of a functional Java interface (that means a Java interface with a
single abstract method), you can create it using a lambda expression prefixed with the type of the interface:
val listener = ActionListener { println("clicked") }
Enum
classes
The most basic usage of enum classes is implementing type-safe enums:
enum class Direction {
NORTH, SOUTH, WEST, EAST
}
Each enum constant is an object. Enum constants are separated with commas.
Since each enum is an instance of the enum class, it can be initialized as:
enum class Color(val rgb: Int) {
RED(0xFF0000),
GREEN(0x00FF00),
BLUE(0x0000FF)
}
Anonymous
classes
Enum constants can also declare their own anonymous classes with their corresponding methods, as well as
overriding base methods.
enum class ProtocolState {
WAITING {
override fun signal() = TALKING
},
TALKING {
override fun signal() = WAITING
};
abstract fun signal(): ProtocolState
}
If the enum class defines any members, separate the enum constant definitions from the member definitions with a
semicolon.
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Implementing
interfaces
in
enum
classes
An enum class can implement an interface (but not derive from a class), providing either a single interface members
implementation for all of the entries, or separate ones for each entry within its anonymous class. This is done by adding
the interfaces to the enum class declaration as follows:
import java.util.function.BinaryOperator
import java.util.function.IntBinaryOperator
//sampleStart
enum class IntArithmetics : BinaryOperator<Int>, IntBinaryOperator {
PLUS {
override fun apply(t: Int, u: Int): Int = t + u
},
TIMES {
override fun apply(t: Int, u: Int): Int = t * u
};
override fun applyAsInt(t: Int, u: Int) = apply(t, u)
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
val a = 13
val b = 31
for (f in IntArithmetics.values()) {
println("$f($a, $b) = ${f.apply(a, b)}")
}
}
Working
with
enum
constants
Enum classes in Kotlin have synthetic methods for listing the defined enum constants and getting an enum constant by
its name. The signatures of these methods are as follows (assuming the name of the enum class is EnumClass ):
EnumClass.valueOf(value: String): EnumClass
EnumClass.values(): Array<EnumClass>
The valueOf() method throws an IllegalArgumentException if the specified name does not match any of the enum
constants defined in the class.
You can access the constants in an enum class in a generic way, using the enumValues<T>() and enumValueOf<T>()
functions:
enum class RGB { RED, GREEN, BLUE }
inline fun <reified T : Enum<T>> printAllValues() {
print(enumValues<T>().joinToString { it.name })
}
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printAllValues<RGB>() // prints RED, GREEN, BLUE
Every enum constant has properties to obtain its name and position in the enum class declaration:
val name: String
val ordinal: Int
The enum constants also implement the Comparable interface, with the natural order being the order in which they are
defined in the enum class.
Inline
classes
Sometimes it is necessary for business logic to create a wrapper around some type. However, it introduces runtime
overhead due to additional heap allocations. Moreover, if the wrapped type is primitive, the performance hit is terrible,
because primitive types are usually heavily optimized by the runtime, while their wrappers don't get any special
treatment.
To solve such issues, Kotlin introduces a special kind of class called an inline class. Inline classes are a subset of
value-based classes. They don't have an identity and can only hold values.
To declare an inline class, use the value modifier before the name of the class:
value class Password(private val s: String)
To declare an inline class for the JVM backend, use the value modifier along with the @JvmInline annotation before the
class declaration:
// For JVM backends
@JvmInline
value class Password(private val s: String)
The inline modifier for inline classes is deprecated.
An inline class must have a single property initialized in the primary constructor. At runtime, instances of the inline class
will be represented using this single property (see details about runtime representation below ):
// No actual instantiation of class 'Password' happens
// At runtime 'securePassword' contains just 'String'
val securePassword = Password("Don't try this in production")
This is the main feature of inline classes, which inspired the name inline: data of the class is inlined into its usages
292
(similar to how content of inline functions is inlined to call sites).
Members
Inline classes support some functionality of regular classes. In particular, they are allowed to declare properties and
functions, and have the init block:
@JvmInline
value class Name(val s: String) {
init {
require(s.length > 0) { }
}
val length: Int
get() = s.length
fun greet() {
println("Hello, $s")
}
}
fun main() {
val name = Name("Kotlin")
name.greet() // method `greet` is called as a static method
println(name.length) // property getter is called as a static method
}
Inline class properties cannot have backing fields. They can only have simple computable properties (no lateinit
/delegated properties).
Inheritance
Inline classes are allowed to inherit from interfaces:
interface Printable {
fun prettyPrint(): String
}
@JvmInline
value class Name(val s: String) : Printable {
override fun prettyPrint(): String = "Let's $s!"
}
fun main() {
val name = Name("Kotlin")
println(name.prettyPrint()) // Still called as a static method
}
It is forbidden for inline classes to participate in a class hierarchy. This means that inline classes cannot extend other
classes and must be final.
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Representation
In generated code, the Kotlin compiler keeps a wrapper for each inline class. Inline class instances can be represented
at runtime either as wrappers or as the underlying type. This is similar to how Int can be represented either as a
primitive int or as the wrapper Integer.
The Kotlin compiler will prefer using underlying types instead of wrappers to produce the most performant and
optimized code. However, sometimes it is necessary to keep wrappers around. As a rule of thumb, inline classes are
boxed whenever they are used as another type.
interface I
@JvmInline
value class Foo(val i: Int) : I
fun asInline(f: Foo) {}
fun <T> asGeneric(x: T) {}
fun asInterface(i: I) {}
fun asNullable(i: Foo?) {}
fun <T> id(x: T): T = x
fun main() {
val f = Foo(42)
asInline(f) // unboxed: used as Foo itself
asGeneric(f) // boxed: used as generic type T
asInterface(f) // boxed: used as type I
asNullable(f) // boxed: used as Foo?, which is different from Foo
// below, 'f' first is boxed (while being passed to 'id') and then unboxed (when returned
from 'id')
// In the end, 'c' contains unboxed representation (just '42'), as 'f'
val c = id(f)
}
Because inline classes may be represented both as the underlying value and as a wrapper, referential equality is
pointless for them and is therefore prohibited.
Mangling
Since inline classes are compiled to their underlying type, it may lead to various obscure errors, for example
unexpected platform signature clashes:
@JvmInline
value class UInt(val x: Int)
// Represented as 'public final void compute(int x)' on the JVM
fun compute(x: Int) { }
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// Also represented as 'public final void compute(int x)' on the JVM!
fun compute(x: UInt) { }
To mitigate such issues, functions using inline classes are mangled by adding some stable hashcode to the function
name. Therefore, fun compute(x: UInt) will be represented as public final void compute-<hashcode>(int x), which solves
the clash problem.
The mangling scheme has been changed in Kotlin 1.4.30. Use the -Xuse-14-inline-classes-mangling-scheme
compiler flag to force the compiler to use the old 1.4.0 mangling scheme and preserve binary compatibility.
Calling
from
Java
code
You can call functions that accept inline classes from Java code. To do so, you should manually disable mangling: add
the @JvmName annotation before the function declaration:
@JvmInline
value class UInt(val x: Int)
fun compute(x: Int) { }
@JvmName("computeUInt")
fun compute(x: UInt) { }
Inline
classes
vs
type
aliases
At first sight, inline classes seem very similar to type aliases. Indeed, both seem to introduce a new type and both will
be represented as the underlying type at runtime.
However, the crucial difference is that type aliases are assignment-compatible with their underlying type (and with
other type aliases with the same underlying type), while inline classes are not.
In other words, inline classes introduce a truly new type, contrary to type aliases which only introduce an alternative
name (alias) for an existing type:
typealias NameTypeAlias = String
@JvmInline
value class NameInlineClass(val s: String)
fun acceptString(s: String) {}
fun acceptNameTypeAlias(n: NameTypeAlias) {}
fun acceptNameInlineClass(p: NameInlineClass) {}
fun main() {
val nameAlias: NameTypeAlias = ""
val nameInlineClass: NameInlineClass = NameInlineClass("")
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val string: String = ""
acceptString(nameAlias) // OK: pass alias instead of underlying type
acceptString(nameInlineClass) // Not OK: can't pass inline class instead of underlying type
// And vice versa:
acceptNameTypeAlias(string) // OK: pass underlying type instead of alias
acceptNameInlineClass(string) // Not OK: can't pass underlying type instead of inline class
}
Object
expressions
and
declarations
Sometimes you need to create an object of a slight modification of some class, without explicitly declaring a new
subclass for it. Kotlin handles this case with object expressions and object declarations.
Object
expressions
Object expressions create objects of anonymous classes, that is, classes that aren't explicitly declared with the class
declaration. Such classes are handy for one-time use. You can define them from scratch, inherit from existing classes,
or implement interfaces. Instances of anonymous classes are also called anonymous objects because they are defined
by an expression, not a name.
Creating
anonymous
objects
from
scratch
Object expressions start with the object keyword.
If you need just an object with no nontrivial supertypes, write its members in curly braces after object:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val helloWorld = object {
val hello = "Hello"
val world = "World"
// object expressions extend Any, so `override` is required on `toString()`
override fun toString() = "$hello $world"
}
//sampleEnd
print(helloWorld)
}
Inheriting
anonymous
objects
from
supertypes
To create an object of an anonymous class that inherits from some type (or types), specify this type after object and
colon (: ). Then implement or override the members of this class as if you were inheriting from it:
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window.addMouseListener(object : MouseAdapter() {
override fun mouseClicked(e: MouseEvent) { /*...*/ }
override fun mouseEntered(e: MouseEvent) { /*...*/ }
})
If a supertype has a constructor, appropriate constructor parameters must be passed to it. Multiple supertypes can be
specified as a comma-delimited list after the colon:
open class A(x: Int) {
public open val y: Int = x
}
interface B { /*...*/ }
val ab: A = object : A(1), B {
override val y = 15
}
Using
anonymous
object
as
return
and
value
types
When an anonymous object is used as a type of a local or private but not inline declaration (function or property), all its
members are accessible via this function or property:
class C {
private fun getObject() = object {
val x: String = "x"
}
fun printX() {
println(getObject().x)
}
}
If this function or property is public or private inline, its actual type is:
Any if the anonymous object doesn't have a declared supertype
the declared supertype of the anonymous object if there is exactly one such type
the explicitly declared type if there is more than one declared supertype
In all these cases, members added in the anonymous object are not accessible. Overriden members are accessible if
they are declared in the actual type of the function or property:
interface A {
fun funFromA() {}
}
interface B
class C {
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// The return type is Any. x is not accessible
fun getObject() = object {
val x: String = "x"
}
// The return type is A; x is not accessible
fun getObjectA() = object: A {
override fun funFromA() {}
val x: String = "x"
}
// The return type is B; funFromA() and x are not accessible
fun getObjectB(): B = object: A, B { // explicit return type is required
override fun funFromA() {}
val x: String = "x"
}
}
Accessing
variables
from
anonymous
objects
The code in object expressions can access variables from the enclosing scope:
fun countClicks(window: JComponent) {
var clickCount = 0
var enterCount = 0
window.addMouseListener(object : MouseAdapter() {
override fun mouseClicked(e: MouseEvent) {
clickCount++
}
override fun mouseEntered(e: MouseEvent) {
enterCount++
}
})
// ...
}
Object
declarations
Singleton can be useful in several cases, and Kotlin (after Scala) makes it easy to declare singletons:
object DataProviderManager {
fun registerDataProvider(provider: DataProvider) {
// ...
}
val allDataProviders: Collection<DataProvider>
get() = // ...
}
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This is called an object declaration, and it always has a name following the object keyword. Just like a variable
declaration, an object declaration is not an expression, and cannot be used on the right hand side of an assignment
statement.
Object declaration's initialization is thread-safe and done at first access.
To refer to the object, use its name directly:
DataProviderManager.registerDataProvider(...)
Such objects can have supertypes:
object DefaultListener : MouseAdapter() {
override fun mouseClicked(e: MouseEvent) { ... }
override fun mouseEntered(e: MouseEvent) { ... }
}
Object declarations can't be local (i.e. be nested directly inside a function), but they can be nested into other
object declarations or non-inner classes.
Companion
objects
An object declaration inside a class can be marked with the companion keyword:
class MyClass {
companion object Factory {
fun create(): MyClass = MyClass()
}
}
Members of the companion object can be called by using simply the class name as the qualifier:
val instance = MyClass.create()
The name of the companion object can be omitted, in which case the name Companion will be used:
class MyClass {
companion object { }
}
val x = MyClass.Companion
Class members can access the private fields of a corresponding companion object.
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The name of a class used by itself (not as a qualifier to another name) acts as a reference to the companion object of
the class (whether named or not):
class MyClass1 {
companion object Named { }
}
val x = MyClass1
class MyClass2 {
companion object { }
}
val y = MyClass2
Note that, even though the members of companion objects look like static members in other languages, at runtime
those are still instance members of real objects, and can, for example, implement interfaces:
interface Factory<T> {
fun create(): T
}
class MyClass {
companion object : Factory<MyClass> {
override fun create(): MyClass = MyClass()
}
}
val f: Factory<MyClass> = MyClass
However, on the JVM you can have members of companion objects generated as real static methods and fields, if you
use the @JvmStatic annotation. See the Java interoperability section for more details.
Semantic
difference
between
object
expressions
and
declarations
There is one important semantic difference between object expressions and object declarations:
Object expressions are executed (and initialized) immediately, where they are used.
Object declarations are initialized lazily, when accessed for the first time.
A companion object is initialized when the corresponding class is loaded (resolved), matching the semantics of a
Java static initializer.
Delegation
The Delegation pattern has proven to be a good alternative to implementation inheritance, and Kotlin supports it
natively requiring zero boilerplate code.
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A class Derived can implement an interface Base by delegating all of its public members to a specified object:
interface Base {
fun print()
}
class BaseImpl(val x: Int) : Base {
override fun print() { print(x) }
}
class Derived(b: Base) : Base by b
fun main() {
val b = BaseImpl(10)
Derived(b).print()
}
The by -clause in the supertype list for Derived indicates that b will be stored internally in objects of Derived and the
compiler will generate all the methods of Base that forward to b.
Overriding
a
member
of
an
interface
implemented
by
delegation
Overrides work as you expect: the compiler will use your override implementations instead of those in the delegate
object. If you want to add override fun printMessage() { print("abc") } to Derived, the program would print abc instead of
10 when printMessage is called:
interface Base {
fun printMessage()
fun printMessageLine()
}
class BaseImpl(val x: Int) : Base {
override fun printMessage() { print(x) }
override fun printMessageLine() { println(x) }
}
class Derived(b: Base) : Base by b {
override fun printMessage() { print("abc") }
}
fun main() {
val b = BaseImpl(10)
Derived(b).printMessage()
Derived(b).printMessageLine()
}
Note, however, that members overridden in this way do not get called from the members of the delegate object, which
can only access its own implementations of the interface members:
interface Base {
val message: String
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fun print()
}
class BaseImpl(val x: Int) : Base {
override val message = "BaseImpl: x = $x"
override fun print() { println(message) }
}
class Derived(b: Base) : Base by b {
// This property is not accessed from b's implementation of `print`
override val message = "Message of Derived"
}
fun main() {
val b = BaseImpl(10)
val derived = Derived(b)
derived.print()
println(derived.message)
}
Learn more about delegated properties.
Delegated
properties
There are certain common kinds of properties, that, though you can implement them manually every time you need
them, it would be helpful to implement them once and add to a library. Examples include:
Lazy properties: the value gets computed only upon first access.
Observable properties: listeners get notified about changes to this property.
Storing properties in a map, instead of a separate field for each property.
To cover these (and other) cases, Kotlin supports delegated properties:
class Example {
var p: String by Delegate()
}
The syntax is: val/var <property name>: <Type> by <expression>. The expression after by is a delegate, because get()
(and set()) corresponding to the property will be delegated to its getValue() and setValue() methods. Property delegates
don’t have to implement any interface, but they have to provide a getValue() function (and setValue() --- for var s).
For example:
import kotlin.reflect.KProperty
class Delegate {
operator fun getValue(thisRef: Any?, property: KProperty<*>): String {
return "$thisRef, thank you for delegating '${property.name}' to me!"
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}
operator fun setValue(thisRef: Any?, property: KProperty<*>, value: String) {
println("$value has been assigned to '${property.name}' in $thisRef.")
}
}
When you read from p that delegates to an instance of Delegate, the getValue() function from Delegate is called, so that
its first parameter is the object you read p from and the second parameter holds a description of p itself (for example,
you can take its name).
val e = Example()
println(e.p)
This prints:
Example@33a17727, thank you for delegating ‘p’ to me!
Similarly, when you assign to p, the setValue() function is called. The first two parameters are the same, and the third
holds the value being assigned:
e.p = "NEW"
This prints
NEW has been assigned to ‘p’ in Example@33a17727.
The specification of the requirements to the delegated object can be found below.
Note that you can declare a delegated property inside a function or code block, it shouldn't necessarily be a member
of a class. Below you can find an example.
Standard
delegates
The Kotlin standard library provides factory methods for several useful kinds of delegates.
Lazy
properties
lazy() is a function that takes a lambda and returns an instance of Lazy<T> which can serve as a delegate for
implementing a lazy property: the first call to get() executes the lambda passed to lazy() and remembers the result,
subsequent calls to get() simply return the remembered result.
val lazyValue: String by lazy {
println("computed!")
"Hello"
}
fun main() {
println(lazyValue)
println(lazyValue)
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}
By default, the evaluation of lazy properties is synchronized: the value is computed only in one thread, and all threads
will see the same value. If the synchronization of initialization delegate is not required, so that multiple threads can
execute it simultaneously, pass LazyThreadSafetyMode.PUBLICATION as a parameter to the lazy() function.
And if you're sure that the initialization will always happen on the same thread as the one where you use the property,
you can use LazyThreadSafetyMode.NONE: it doesn't incur any thread-safety guarantees and the related overhead.
Observable
properties
Delegates.observable() takes two arguments: the initial value and a handler for modifications.
The handler is called every time you assign to the property (after the assignment has been performed). It has three
parameters: a property being assigned to, the old value and the new one:
import kotlin.properties.Delegates
class User {
var name: String by Delegates.observable("<no name>") {
prop, old, new ->
println("$old -> $new")
}
}
fun main() {
val user = User()
user.name = "first"
user.name = "second"
}
If you want to intercept assignments and veto them, use vetoable() instead of observable(). The handler passed to the
vetoable is called before the assignment of a new property value.
Delegating
to
another
property
A property can delegate its getter and setter to another property. Such delegation is available for both top-level and
class properties (member and extension). The delegate property can be:
a top-level property
a member or an extension property of the same class
a member or an extension property of another class
To delegate a property to another property, use the proper :: qualifier in the delegate name, for example, this::delegate
or MyClass::delegate.
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var topLevelInt: Int = 0
class ClassWithDelegate(val anotherClassInt: Int)
class MyClass(var memberInt: Int, val anotherClassInstance: ClassWithDelegate) {
var delegatedToMember: Int by this::memberInt
var delegatedToTopLevel: Int by ::topLevelInt
val delegatedToAnotherClass: Int by anotherClassInstance::anotherClassInt
}
var MyClass.extDelegated: Int by ::topLevelInt
This may be useful, for example, when you want to rename a property in a backward-compatible way: you introduce a
new property, annotate the old one with the @Deprecated annotation, and delegate its implementation.
class MyClass {
var newName: Int = 0
@Deprecated("Use 'newName' instead", ReplaceWith("newName"))
var oldName: Int by this::newName
}
fun main() {
val myClass = MyClass()
// Notification: 'oldName: Int' is deprecated.
// Use 'newName' instead
myClass.oldName = 42
println(myClass.newName) // 42
}
Storing
properties
in
a
map
One common use case is storing the values of properties in a map. This comes up often in applications like parsing
JSON or doing other “dynamic” things. In this case, you can use the map instance itself as the delegate for a
delegated property.
class User(val map: Map<String, Any?>) {
val name: String by map
val age: Int by map
}
In this example, the constructor takes a map:
val user = User(mapOf(
"name" to "John Doe",
"age" to 25
))
Delegated properties take values from this map (by the string keys – names of properties):
class User(val map: Map<String, Any?>) {
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val name: String by map
val age: Int by map
}
fun main() {
val user = User(mapOf(
"name" to "John Doe",
"age" to 25
))
//sampleStart
println(user.name) // Prints "John Doe"
println(user.age) // Prints 25
//sampleEnd
}
This works also for var ’s properties if you use a MutableMap instead of read-only Map:
class MutableUser(val map: MutableMap<String, Any?>) {
var name: String by map
var age: Int by map
}
Local
delegated
properties
You can declare local variables as delegated properties. For example, you can make a local variable lazy:
fun example(computeFoo: () -> Foo) {
val memoizedFoo by lazy(computeFoo)
if (someCondition && memoizedFoo.isValid()) {
memoizedFoo.doSomething()
}
}
The memoizedFoo variable will be computed on the first access only. If someCondition fails, the variable won't be
computed at all.
Property
delegate
requirements
Here are requirements for delegating properties.
For a read-only property (val ), a delegate should provide an operator function getValue() with the following parameters:
thisRef must be the same or a supertype of the property owner (for extension properties, it should be the type being
extended).
property must be of type KProperty<*> or its supertype.
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getValue() must return the same type as the property (or its subtype).
class Resource
class Owner {
val valResource: Resource by ResourceDelegate()
}
class ResourceDelegate {
operator fun getValue(thisRef: Owner, property: KProperty<*>): Resource {
return Resource()
}
}
For a mutable property (var ), a delegate has to additionally provide an operator function setValue() with the following
parameters:
thisRef must be the same or a supertype of the property owner (for extension properties, it should be the type being
extended).
property must be of type KProperty<*> or its supertype.
value must be of the same type as the property (or its supertype).
class Resource
class Owner {
var varResource: Resource by ResourceDelegate()
}
class ResourceDelegate(private var resource: Resource = Resource()) {
operator fun getValue(thisRef: Owner, property: KProperty<*>): Resource {
return resource
}
operator fun setValue(thisRef: Owner, property: KProperty<*>, value: Any?) {
if (value is Resource) {
resource = value
}
}
}
getValue() and/or setValue() functions can be provided either as member functions of the delegate class or extension
functions. The latter is handy when you need to delegate property to an object which doesn't originally provide these
functions. Both of the functions need to be marked with the operator keyword.
You can create delegates as anonymous objects without creating new classes using the interfaces ReadOnlyProperty
and ReadWriteProperty from the Kotlin standard library. They provide the required methods: getValue() is declared in
ReadOnlyProperty; ReadWriteProperty extends it and adds setValue(). Thus, you can pass a ReadWriteProperty
whenever a ReadOnlyProperty is expected.
fun resourceDelegate(): ReadWriteProperty<Any?, Int> =
object : ReadWriteProperty<Any?, Int> {
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var curValue = 0
override fun getValue(thisRef: Any?, property: KProperty<*>): Int = curValue
override fun setValue(thisRef: Any?, property: KProperty<*>, value: Int) {
curValue = value
}
}
val readOnly: Int by resourceDelegate() // ReadWriteProperty as val
var readWrite: Int by resourceDelegate()
Translation
rules
Under the hood for every delegated property the Kotlin compiler generates an auxiliary property and delegates to it.
For example, for the property prop the hidden property prop$delegate is generated, and the code of the accessors
simply delegates to this additional property:
class C {
var prop: Type by MyDelegate()
}
// this code is generated by the compiler instead:
class C {
private val prop$delegate = MyDelegate()
var prop: Type
get() = prop$delegate.getValue(this, this::prop)
set(value: Type) = prop$delegate.setValue(this, this::prop, value)
}
The Kotlin compiler provides all the necessary information about prop in the arguments: the first argument this refers to
an instance of the outer class C and this::prop is a reflection object of the KProperty type describing prop itself.
Providing
a
delegate
By defining the provideDelegate operator you can extend the logic of creating the object to which the property
implementation is delegated. If the object used on the right-hand side of by defines provideDelegate as a member or
extension function, that function will be called to create the property delegate instance.
One of the possible use cases of provideDelegate is to check the consistency of the property upon its initialization.
For example, if you want to check the property name before binding, you can write something like this:
class ResourceDelegate<T> : ReadOnlyProperty<MyUI, T> {
override fun getValue(thisRef: MyUI, property: KProperty<*>): T { ... }
}
class ResourceLoader<T>(id: ResourceID<T>) {
operator fun provideDelegate(
thisRef: MyUI,
prop: KProperty<*>
): ReadOnlyProperty<MyUI, T> {
checkProperty(thisRef, prop.name)
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// create delegate
return ResourceDelegate()
}
private fun checkProperty(thisRef: MyUI, name: String) { ... }
}
class MyUI {
fun <T> bindResource(id: ResourceID<T>): ResourceLoader<T> { ... }
val image by bindResource(ResourceID.image_id)
val text by bindResource(ResourceID.text_id)
}
The parameters of provideDelegate are the same as for getValue:
thisRef must be the same or a supertype of the property owner (for extension properties, it should be the type being
extended);
property must be of type KProperty<*> or its supertype.
The provideDelegate method is called for each property during the creation of the MyUI instance, and it performs the
necessary validation right away.
Without this ability to intercept the binding between the property and its delegate, to achieve the same functionality
you'd have to pass the property name explicitly, which isn't very convenient:
// Checking the property name without "provideDelegate" functionality
class MyUI {
val image by bindResource(ResourceID.image_id, "image")
val text by bindResource(ResourceID.text_id, "text")
}
fun <T> MyUI.bindResource(
id: ResourceID<T>,
propertyName: String
): ReadOnlyProperty<MyUI, T> {
checkProperty(this, propertyName)
// create delegate
}
In the generated code, the provideDelegate method is called to initialize the auxiliary prop$delegate property. Compare
the generated code for the property declaration val prop: Type by MyDelegate() with the generated code above (when
the provideDelegate method is not present):
class C {
var prop: Type by MyDelegate()
}
// this code is generated by the compiler
// when the 'provideDelegate' function is available:
class C {
// calling "provideDelegate" to create the additional "delegate" property
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private val prop$delegate = MyDelegate().provideDelegate(this, this::prop)
var prop: Type
get() = prop$delegate.getValue(this, this::prop)
set(value: Type) = prop$delegate.setValue(this, this::prop, value)
}
Note that the provideDelegate method affects only the creation of the auxiliary property and doesn't affect the code
generated for getter or setter.
With the PropertyDelegateProvider interface from the standard library, you can create delegate providers without
creating new classes.
val provider = PropertyDelegateProvider { thisRef: Any?, property ->
ReadOnlyProperty<Any?, Int> {_, property -> 42 }
}
val delegate: Int by provider
Type
aliases
Type aliases provide alternative names for existing types. If the type name is too long you can introduce a different
shorter name and use the new one instead.
It's useful to shorten long generic types. For instance, it's often tempting to shrink collection types:
typealias NodeSet = Set<Network.Node>
typealias FileTable<K> = MutableMap<K, MutableList<File>>
You can provide different aliases for function types:
typealias MyHandler = (Int, String, Any) -> Unit
typealias Predicate<T> = (T) -> Boolean
You can have new names for inner and nested classes:
class A {
inner class Inner
}
class B {
inner class Inner
}
typealias AInner = A.Inner
typealias BInner = B.Inner
Type aliases do not introduce new types. They are equivalent to the corresponding underlying types. When you add
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typealias Predicate<T> and use Predicate<Int> in your code, the Kotlin compiler always expands it to (Int) -> Boolean.
Thus you can pass a variable of your type whenever a general function type is required and vice versa:
typealias Predicate<T> = (T) -> Boolean
fun foo(p: Predicate<Int>) = p(42)
fun main() {
val f: (Int) -> Boolean = { it > 0 }
println(foo(f)) // prints "true"
val p: Predicate<Int> = { it > 0 }
println(listOf(1, -2).filter(p)) // prints "[1]"
}
Functions
Functions in Kotlin are declared using the fun keyword:
fun double(x: Int): Int {
return 2 * x
}
Function
usage
Calling functions uses the traditional approach:
val result = double(2)
Calling member functions uses the dot notation:
Stream().read() // create instance of class Stream and call read()
Parameters
Function parameters are defined using Pascal notation - name: type. Parameters are separated using commas. Each
parameter must be explicitly typed:
fun powerOf(number: Int, exponent: Int): Int { /*...*/ }
You can use a trailing comma when you declare function parameters:
fun powerOf(
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number: Int,
exponent: Int, // trailing comma
) { /*...*/ }
Default
arguments
Function parameters can have default values, which are used when you skip the corresponding argument. This reduces
a number of overloads compared to other languages:
fun read(
b: ByteArray,
off: Int = 0,
len: Int = b.size,
) { /*...*/ }
A default value is defined using the = after the type.
Overriding methods always use the same default parameter values as the base method. When overriding a method
with default parameter values, the default parameter values must be omitted from the signature:
open class A {
open fun foo(i: Int = 10) { /*...*/ }
}
class B : A() {
override fun foo(i: Int) { /*...*/ } // No default value is allowed.
}
If a default parameter precedes a parameter with no default value, the default value can only be used by calling the
function with named arguments:
fun foo(
bar: Int = 0,
baz: Int,
) { /*...*/ }
foo(baz = 1) // The default value bar = 0 is used
If the last argument after default parameters is a lambda, you can pass it either as a named argument or outside the
parentheses:
fun foo(
bar: Int = 0,
baz: Int = 1,
qux: () -> Unit,
) { /*...*/ }
foo(1) { println("hello") } // Uses the default value baz = 1
foo(qux = { println("hello") }) // Uses both default values bar = 0 and baz = 1
foo { println("hello") } // Uses both default values bar = 0 and baz = 1
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Named
arguments
When calling a function, you can name one or more of its arguments. This may be helpful when a function has a large
number of arguments, and it's difficult to associate a value with an argument, especially if it's a boolean or null value.
When you use named arguments in a function call, you can freely change the order they are listed in, and if you want to
use their default values you can just leave them out altogether.
Consider the following function reformat() that has 4 arguments with default values.
fun reformat(
str: String,
normalizeCase: Boolean = true,
upperCaseFirstLetter: Boolean = true,
divideByCamelHumps: Boolean = false,
wordSeparator: Char = ' ',
) { /*...*/ }
When calling this function, you don’t have to name all its arguments:
reformat(
"String!",
false,
upperCaseFirstLetter = false,
divideByCamelHumps = true,
'_'
)
You can skip all arguments with default values:
reformat("This is a long String!")
You can skip some arguments with default values. However, after the first skipped argument, you must name all
subsequent arguments:
reformat("This is a short String!", upperCaseFirstLetter = false, wordSeparator = '_')
You can pass a variable number of arguments ( vararg) with names using the spread operator:
fun foo(vararg strings: String) { /*...*/ }
foo(strings = *arrayOf("a", "b", "c"))
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On the JVM: You can't use the named argument syntax when calling Java functions because Java bytecode
does not always preserve names of function parameters.
Unit-returning
functions
If a function does not return any useful value, its return type is Unit. Unit is a type with only one value - Unit. This value
does not have to be returned explicitly:
fun printHello(name: String?): Unit {
if (name != null)
println("Hello $name")
else
println("Hi there!")
// `return Unit` or `return` is optional
}
The Unit return type declaration is also optional. The above code is equivalent to:
fun printHello(name: String?) { ... }
Single-expression
functions
When a function returns a single expression, the curly braces can be omitted and the body is specified after a =
symbol:
fun double(x: Int): Int = x * 2
Explicitly declaring the return type is optional when this can be inferred by the compiler:
fun double(x: Int) = x * 2
Explicit
return
types
Functions with block body must always specify return types explicitly, unless it's intended for them to return Unit, in
which case it is optional.
Kotlin does not infer return types for functions with block bodies because such functions may have complex control
flow in the body, and the return type will be non-obvious to the reader (and sometimes even for the compiler).
Variable
number
of
arguments
(Varargs)
You can mark a parameter of a function (usually the last one) with the vararg modifier:
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fun <T> asList(vararg ts: T): List<T> {
val result = ArrayList<T>()
for (t in ts) // ts is an Array
result.add(t)
return result
}
In this case, you can pass a variable number of arguments to the function:
val list = asList(1, 2, 3)
Inside a function a vararg -parameter of type T is visible as an array of T, i.e. the ts variable in the example above has
type Array<out T>.
Only one parameter can be marked as vararg. If a vararg parameter is not the last one in the list, values for the
following parameters can be passed using the named argument syntax, or, if the parameter has a function type, by
passing a lambda outside parentheses.
When you call a vararg -function, you can pass arguments one-by-one, for example asList(1, 2, 3). If you already have
an array and want to pass its contents to the function, use the spread operator (prefix the array with * ):
val a = arrayOf(1, 2, 3)
val list = asList(-1, 0, *a, 4)
Infix
notation
Functions marked with the infix keyword can also be called using the infix notation (omitting the dot and the
parentheses for the call). Infix functions must meet the following requirements:
They must be member functions or extension functions.
They must have a single parameter.
The parameter must not accept variable number of arguments and must have no default value.
infix fun Int.shl(x: Int): Int { ... }
// calling the function using the infix notation
1 shl 2
// is the same as
1.shl(2)
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Infix function calls have lower precedence than the arithmetic operators, type casts, and the rangeTo
operator. The following expressions are equivalent:
1 shl 2 + 3 is equivalent to 1 shl (2 + 3)
0 until n * 2 is equivalent to 0 until (n * 2)
xs union ys as Set<*> is equivalent to xs union (ys as Set<*>)
On the other hand, infix function call's precedence is higher than that of the boolean operators && and ||, is-
and in -checks, and some other operators. These expressions are equivalent as well:
a && b xor c is equivalent to a && (b xor c)
a xor b in c is equivalent to (a xor b) in c
Note that infix functions always require both the receiver and the parameter to be specified. When you're calling a
method on the current receiver using the infix notation, use this explicitly. This is required to ensure unambiguous
parsing.
class MyStringCollection {
infix fun add(s: String) { /*...*/ }
fun build() {
this add "abc" // Correct
add("abc") // Correct
//add "abc" // Incorrect: the receiver must be specified
}
}
Function
scope
Kotlin functions can be declared at the top level in a file, meaning you do not need to create a class to hold a function,
which you are required to do in languages such as Java, C# or Scala. In addition to top level functions, Kotlin functions
can also be declared locally, as member functions and extension functions.
Local
functions
Kotlin supports local functions, which are functions inside another function:
fun dfs(graph: Graph) {
fun dfs(current: Vertex, visited: MutableSet<Vertex>) {
if (!visited.add(current)) return
for (v in current.neighbors)
dfs(v, visited)
}
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dfs(graph.vertices[0], HashSet())
}
A local function can access local variables of outer functions (the closure). In the case above, the visited can be a local
variable:
fun dfs(graph: Graph) {
val visited = HashSet<Vertex>()
fun dfs(current: Vertex) {
if (!visited.add(current)) return
for (v in current.neighbors)
dfs(v)
}
dfs(graph.vertices[0])
}
Member
functions
A member function is a function that is defined inside a class or object:
class Sample {
fun foo() { print("Foo") }
}
Member functions are called with dot notation:
Sample().foo() // creates instance of class Sample and calls foo
For more information on classes and overriding members see Classes and Inheritance.
Generic
functions
Functions can have generic parameters which are specified using angle brackets before the function name:
fun <T> singletonList(item: T): List<T> { /*...*/ }
For more information on generic functions, see Generics.
Tail
recursive
functions
Kotlin supports a style of functional programming known as tail recursion. For some algorithms that would normally
use loops you can use a recursive function instead without a risk of stack overflow. When a function is marked with the
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tailrec modifier and meets the required form, the compiler optimizes out the recursion, leaving behind a fast and
efficient loop based version instead:
val eps = 1E-10 // "good enough", could be 10^-15
tailrec fun findFixPoint(x: Double = 1.0): Double =
if (Math.abs(x - Math.cos(x)) < eps) x else findFixPoint(Math.cos(x))
This code calculates the fixpoint of cosine, which is a mathematical constant. It simply calls Math.cos repeatedly
starting at 1.0 until the result doesn't change anymore, yielding a result of 0.7390851332151611 for the specified eps
precision. The resulting code is equivalent to this more traditional style:
val eps = 1E-10 // "good enough", could be 10^-15
private fun findFixPoint(): Double {
var x = 1.0
while (true) {
val y = Math.cos(x)
if (Math.abs(x - y) < eps) return x
x = Math.cos(x)
}
}
To be eligible for the tailrec modifier, a function must call itself as the last operation it performs. You cannot use tail
recursion when there is more code after the recursive call, and you cannot use it within try/ catch/ finally blocks.
Currently, tail recursion is supported by Kotlin for JVM and Kotlin/Native.
See also:
Inline functions
Extension functions
Higher-order functions and lambdas
High-order
functions
and
lambdas
Kotlin functions are first-class, which means that they can be stored in variables and data structures, passed as
arguments to and returned from other higher-order functions. You can operate with functions in any way that is
possible for other non-function values.
To facilitate this, Kotlin, as a statically typed programming language, uses a family of function types to represent
functions and provides a set of specialized language constructs, such as lambda expressions.
Higher-order
functions
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A higher-order function is a function that takes functions as parameters, or returns a function.
A good example is the functional programming idiom fold for collections, which takes an initial accumulator value and a
combining function and builds its return value by consecutively combining current accumulator value with each
collection element, replacing the accumulator:
fun <T, R> Collection<T>.fold(
initial: R,
combine: (acc: R, nextElement: T) -> R
): R {
var accumulator: R = initial
for (element: T in this) {
accumulator = combine(accumulator, element)
}
return accumulator
}
In the code above, the parameter combine has a function type (R, T) -> R, so it accepts a function that takes two
arguments of types R and T and returns a value of type R. It is invoked inside the for -loop, and the return value is then
assigned to accumulator.
To call fold, you need to pass it an instance of the function type as an argument, and lambda expressions (described in
more detail below) are widely used for this purpose at higher-order function call sites:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val items = listOf(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
// Lambdas are code blocks enclosed in curly braces.
items.fold(0, {
// When a lambda has parameters, they go first, followed by '->'
acc: Int, i: Int ->
print("acc = $acc, i = $i, ")
val result = acc + i
println("result = $result")
// The last expression in a lambda is considered the return value:
result
})
// Parameter types in a lambda are optional if they can be inferred:
val joinedToString = items.fold("Elements:", { acc, i -> acc + " " + i })
// Function references can also be used for higher-order function calls:
val product = items.fold(1, Int::times)
//sampleEnd
println("joinedToString = $joinedToString")
println("product = $product")
}
The following sections explain in more detail the concepts mentioned so far.
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Function
types
Kotlin uses a family of function types like (Int) -> String for declarations that deal with functions: val onClick: () -> Unit =
....
These types have a special notation that corresponds to the signatures of the functions - their parameters and return
values:
All function types have a parenthesized parameter types list and a return type: (A, B) -> C denotes a type that
represents functions taking two arguments of types A and B and returning a value of type C. The parameter types
list may be empty, as in () -> A. The Unit return type cannot be omitted.
Function types can optionally have an additional receiver type, which is specified before a dot in the notation: the
type A.(B) -> C represents functions that can be called on a receiver object of A with a parameter of B and return a
value of C. Function literals with receiver are often used along with these types.
Suspending functions belong to function types of a special kind, which have a suspend modifier in the notation,
such as suspend () -> Unit or suspend A.(B) -> C.
The function type notation can optionally include names for the function parameters: (x: Int, y: Int) -> Point. These
names can be used for documenting the meaning of the parameters.
To specify that a function type is nullable, use parentheses: ((Int, Int) -> Int)?.
Function types can be combined using parentheses: (Int) -> ((Int) -> Unit).
The arrow notation is right-associative, (Int) -> (Int) -> Unit is equivalent to the previous example, but not to
((Int) -> (Int)) -> Unit.
You can also give a function type an alternative name by using a type alias:
typealias ClickHandler = (Button, ClickEvent) -> Unit
Instantiating
a
function
type
There are several ways to obtain an instance of a function type:
Using a code block within a function literal, in one of the forms:
a lambda expression: { a, b -> a + b } ,
an anonymous function: fun(s: String): Int { return s.toIntOrNull() ?: 0 }
Function literals with receiver can be used as values of function types with receiver.
Using a callable reference to an existing declaration:
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a top-level, local, member, or extension function: ::isOdd, String::toInt,
a top-level, member, or extension property: List<Int>::size,
a constructor: ::Regex
These include bound callable references that point to a member of a particular instance: foo::toString.
Using instances of a custom class that implements a function type as an interface:
class IntTransformer: (Int) -> Int {
override operator fun invoke(x: Int): Int = TODO()
}
val intFunction: (Int) -> Int = IntTransformer()
The compiler can infer the function types for variables if there is enough information:
val a = { i: Int -> i + 1 } // The inferred type is (Int) -> Int
Non-literal values of function types with and without receiver are interchangeable, so that the receiver can stand in for
the first parameter, and vice versa. For instance, a value of type (A, B) -> C can be passed or assigned where a A.(B) ->
C is expected and the other way around:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val repeatFun: String.(Int) -> String = { times -> this.repeat(times) }
val twoParameters: (String, Int) -> String = repeatFun // OK
fun runTransformation(f: (String, Int) -> String): String {
return f("hello", 3)
}
val result = runTransformation(repeatFun) // OK
//sampleEnd
println("result = $result")
}
A function type with no receiver is inferred by default, even if a variable is initialized with a reference to an
extension function. To alter that, specify the variable type explicitly.
Invoking
a
function
type
instance
A value of a function type can be invoked by using its invoke(...) operator: f.invoke(x) or just f(x).
If the value has a receiver type, the receiver object should be passed as the first argument. Another way to invoke a
value of a function type with receiver is to prepend it with the receiver object, as if the value were an extension
function: 1.foo(2),
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Example:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val stringPlus: (String, String) -> String = String::plus
val intPlus: Int.(Int) -> Int = Int::plus
println(stringPlus.invoke("<-", "->"))
println(stringPlus("Hello, ", "world!"))
println(intPlus.invoke(1, 1))
println(intPlus(1, 2))
println(2.intPlus(3)) // extension-like call
//sampleEnd
}
Inline
functions
Sometimes it is beneficial to use inline functions, which provide flexible control flow, for higher-order functions.
Lambda
expressions
and
anonymous
functions
Lambda expressions and anonymous functions are function literals. Function literals are functions that are not declared
but passed immediately as an expression. Consider the following example:
max(strings, { a, b -> a.length < b.length })
Function max is a higher-order function, it takes a function value as the second argument. This second argument is an
expression that is itself a function, called a function literal, which is equivalent to the following named function:
fun compare(a: String, b: String): Boolean = a.length < b.length
Lambda
expression
syntax
The full syntactic form of lambda expressions is as follows:
val sum: (Int, Int) -> Int = { x: Int, y: Int -> x + y }
A lambda expression is always surrounded by curly braces.
Parameter declarations in the full syntactic form go inside curly braces and have optional type annotations.
The body goes after an -> sign.
If the inferred return type of the lambda is not Unit, the last (or possibly single) expression inside the lambda body is
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treated as the return value.
If you leave all the optional annotations out, what's left looks like this:
val sum = { x: Int, y: Int -> x + y }
Passing
trailing
lambdas
In Kotlin, there is a convention: if the last parameter of a function is a function, then a lambda expression passed as the
corresponding argument can be placed outside the parentheses:
val product = items.fold(1) { acc, e -> acc * e }
Such syntax is also known as trailing lambda.
If the lambda is the only argument to that call, the parentheses can be omitted entirely:
run { println("...") }
it:
implicit
name
of
a
single
parameter
It's very common that a lambda expression has only one parameter.
If the compiler can figure the signature out itself, it is allowed not to declare the only parameter and omit ->. The
parameter will be implicitly declared under the name it:
ints.filter { it > 0 } // this literal is of type '(it: Int) -> Boolean'
Returning
a
value
from
a
lambda
expression
You can explicitly return a value from the lambda using the qualified return syntax. Otherwise, the value of the last
expression is implicitly returned.
Therefore, the two following snippets are equivalent:
ints.filter {
val shouldFilter = it > 0
shouldFilter
}
ints.filter {
val shouldFilter = it > 0
return@filter shouldFilter
}
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This convention, along with passing a lambda expression outside parentheses, allows for LINQ-style code:
strings.filter { it.length == 5 }.sortedBy { it }.map { it.uppercase() }
Underscore
for
unused
variables
If the lambda parameter is unused, you can place an underscore instead of its name:
map.forEach { _, value -> println("$value!") }
Destructuring
in
lambdas
Destructuring in lambdas is described as a part of destructuring declarations.
Anonymous
functions
One thing missing from the lambda expression syntax presented above is the ability to specify the return type of the
function. In most cases, this is unnecessary because the return type can be inferred automatically. However, if you do
need to specify it explicitly, you can use an alternative syntax: an anonymous function.
fun(x: Int, y: Int): Int = x + y
An anonymous function looks very much like a regular function declaration, except that its name is omitted. Its body
can be either an expression (as shown above) or a block:
fun(x: Int, y: Int): Int {
return x + y
}
The parameters and the return type are specified in the same way as for regular functions, except that the parameter
types can be omitted if they can be inferred from context:
ints.filter(fun(item) = item > 0)
The return type inference for anonymous functions works just like for normal functions: the return type is inferred
automatically for anonymous functions with an expression body and has to be specified explicitly (or is assumed to be
Unit) for anonymous functions with a block body.
Anonymous function parameters are always passed inside the parentheses. The shorthand syntax allowing
to leave the function outside the parentheses works only for lambda expressions.
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One other difference between lambda expressions and anonymous functions is the behavior of non-local returns. A
return statement without a label always returns from the function declared with the fun keyword. This means that a
return inside a lambda expression will return from the enclosing function, whereas a return inside an anonymous
function will return from the anonymous function itself.
Closures
A lambda expression or anonymous function (as well as a local function and an object expression) can access its
closure, which includes the variables declared in the outer scope. The variables captured in the closure can be
modified in the lambda:
var sum = 0
ints.filter { it > 0 }.forEach {
sum += it
}
print(sum)
Function
literals
with
receiver
Function types with receiver, such as A.(B) -> C, can be instantiated with a special form of function literals – function
literals with receiver.
As said above, Kotlin provides the ability to call an instance of a function type with receiver providing the receiver
object.
Inside the body of the function literal, the receiver object passed to a call becomes an implicit this, so that you can
access the members of that receiver object without any additional qualifiers, or access the receiver object using a this
expression.
This behavior is similar to extension functions, which also allow you to access the members of the receiver object
inside the body of the function.
Here is an example of a function literal with receiver along with its type, where plus is called on the receiver object:
val sum: Int.(Int) -> Int = { other -> plus(other) }
The anonymous function syntax allows you to specify the receiver type of a function literal directly. This can be useful if
you need to declare a variable of a function type with receiver, and to use it later.
val sum = fun Int.(other: Int): Int = this + other
Lambda expressions can be used as function literals with receiver when the receiver type can be inferred from context.
One of the most important examples of their usage is type-safe builders:
class HTML {
fun body() { ... }
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}
fun html(init: HTML.() -> Unit): HTML {
val html = HTML() // create the receiver object
html.init() // pass the receiver object to the lambda
return html
}
html { // lambda with receiver begins here
body() // calling a method on the receiver object
}
Inline
functions
Using higher-order functions imposes certain runtime penalties: each function is an object, and it captures a closure. A
closure means those variables that are accessed in the body of the function. Memory allocations (both for function
objects and classes) and virtual calls introduce runtime overhead.
But it appears that in many cases this kind of overhead can be eliminated by inlining the lambda expressions. The
functions shown below are good examples of this situation. The lock() function could be easily inlined at call-sites.
Consider the following case:
lock(l) { foo() }
Instead of creating a function object for the parameter and generating a call, the compiler could emit the following
code:
l.lock()
try {
foo()
} finally {
l.unlock()
}
To make the compiler do this, you need to mark the lock() function with the inline modifier:
inline fun <T> lock(lock: Lock, body: () -> T): T { ... }
The inline modifier affects both the function itself and the lambdas passed to it: all of those will be inlined into the call
site.
Inlining may cause the generated code to grow; however, if you do it in a reasonable way (avoiding inlining large
functions), it will pay off in performance, especially at "megamorphic" call-sites inside loops.
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noinline
In case you want only some of the lambdas passed to an inline function to be inlined, you can mark some of your
function parameters with the noinline modifier:
inline fun foo(inlined: () -> Unit, noinline notInlined: () -> Unit) { ... }
Inlinable lambdas can only be called inside the inline functions or passed as inlinable arguments, but noinline ones can
be manipulated in any way you like such as stored in fields or passed around.
If an inline function has no inlinable function parameters and no reified type parameters, the compiler will
issue a warning, since inlining such functions is very unlikely to be beneficial (you can suppress the warning
if you are sure the inlining is needed using the annotation @Suppress("NOTHING_TO_INLINE") ).
Non-local
returns
In Kotlin, you can only use a normal, unqualified return to exit a named function or an anonymous function. To exit a
lambda, use a label. A bare return is forbidden inside a lambda because a lambda cannot make the enclosing function
return:
fun ordinaryFunction(block: () -> Unit) {
println("hi!")
}
//sampleStart
fun foo() {
ordinaryFunction {
return // ERROR: cannot make `foo` return here
}
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
foo()
}
But if the function the lambda is passed to is inlined, the return can be inlined as well. So it is allowed:
inline fun inlined(block: () -> Unit) {
println("hi!")
}
//sampleStart
fun foo() {
inlined {
return // OK: the lambda is inlined
}
}
//sampleEnd
fun main() {
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foo()
}
Such returns (located in a lambda, but exiting the enclosing function) are called non-local returns. This sort of construct
in loops, which inline functions often enclose:
fun hasZeros(ints: List<Int>): Boolean {
ints.forEach {
if (it == 0) return true // returns from hasZeros
}
return false
}
Note that some inline functions may call the lambdas passed to them as parameters not directly from the function
body, but from another execution context, such as a local object or a nested function. In such cases, non-local control
flow is also not allowed in the lambdas. To indicate that, the lambda parameter needs to be marked with the crossinline
modifier:
inline fun f(crossinline body: () -> Unit) {
val f = object: Runnable {
override fun run() = body()
}
// ...
}
break and continue are not yet available in inlined lambdas, but we are planning to support them too.
Reified
type
parameters
Sometimes you need to access a type passed as a parameter:
fun <T> TreeNode.findParentOfType(clazz: Class<T>): T? {
var p = parent
while (p != null && !clazz.isInstance(p)) {
p = p.parent
}
@Suppress("UNCHECKED_CAST")
return p as T?
}
Here, you walk up a tree and use reflection to check if a node has a certain type. It’s all fine, but the call site is not very
pretty:
treeNode.findParentOfType(MyTreeNode::class.java)
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What you actually want is simply pass a type to this function. You can call it like this:
treeNode.findParentOfType<MyTreeNode>()
To enable this, inline functions support reified type parameters, so you can write something like this:
inline fun <reified T> TreeNode.findParentOfType(): T? {
var p = parent
while (p != null && p !is T) {
p = p.parent
}
return p as T?
}
You qualified the type parameter with the reified modifier to make it accessible inside the function, almost as if it were a
normal class. Since the function is inlined, no reflection is needed, normal operators like !is and as are working now.
Also, you can call it as mentioned above: myTree.findParentOfType<MyTreeNodeType>().
Though reflection may not be needed in many cases, you can still use it with a reified type parameter:
inline fun <reified T> membersOf() = T::class.members
fun main(s: Array<String>) {
println(membersOf<StringBuilder>().joinToString("\n"))
}
Normal functions (not marked as inline) cannot have reified parameters. A type that does not have a run-time
representation (for example, a non-reified type parameter or a fictitious type like Nothing) cannot be used as an
argument for a reified type parameter.
Inline
properties
The inline modifier can be used on accessors of properties that don't have a backing field. You can annotate individual
property accessors:
val foo: Foo
inline get() = Foo()
var bar: Bar
get() = ...
inline set(v) { ... }
You can also annotate an entire property, which marks both of its accessors as inline:
inline var bar: Bar
get() = ...
set(v) { ... }
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At the call site, inline accessors are inlined as regular inline functions.
Restrictions
for
public
API
inline
functions
When an inline function is public or protected and is not a part of a private or internal declaration, it is considered a
module 's public API. It can be called in other modules and is inlined at such call sites as well.
This imposes certain risks of binary incompatibility caused by changes in the module that declares an inline function in
case the calling module is not re-compiled after the change.
To eliminate the risk of such incompatibility being introduced by a change in non -public API of a module, the public
API inline functions are not allowed to use non-public-API declarations, i.e. private and internal declarations and their
parts, in their bodies.
An internal declaration can be annotated with @PublishedApi, which allows its use in public API inline functions. When
an internal inline function is marked as @PublishedApi, its body is checked too, as if it were public.
Null
safety
Nullable
types
and
non-null
types
Kotlin's type system is aimed at eliminating the danger of null references from code, also known as the The Billion
Dollar Mistake.
One of the most common pitfalls in many programming languages, including Java, is that accessing a member of a null
reference will result in a null reference exception. In Java this would be the equivalent of a NullPointerException or NPE
for short.
Kotlin's type system is aimed to eliminate NullPointerException 's from our code. The only possible causes of NPE's
may be:
An explicit call to throw NullPointerException().
Usage of the !! operator that is described below.
Some data inconsistency with regard to initialization, such as when:
An uninitialized this available in a constructor is passed and used somewhere ("leaking this ").
A superclass constructor calls an open member whose implementation in the derived class uses uninitialized
state.
Java interoperation:
Attempts to access a member on a null reference of a platform type;
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Generic types used for Java interoperation with incorrect nullability, for example, a piece of Java code might add
null into a Kotlin MutableList<String>, meaning that MutableList<String?> should be used for working with it.
Other issues caused by external Java code.
In Kotlin, the type system distinguishes between references that can hold null (nullable references) and those that
cannot (non-null references). For example, a regular variable of type String cannot hold null:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
var a: String = "abc" // Regular initialization means non-null by default
a = null // compilation error
//sampleEnd
}
To allow nulls, you can declare a variable as nullable string, written String?:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
var b: String? = "abc" // can be set null
b = null // ok
print(b)
//sampleEnd
}
Now, if you call a method or access a property on a, it's guaranteed not to cause an NPE, so you can safely say:
val l = a.length
But if you want to access the same property on b, that would not be safe, and the compiler reports an error:
val l = b.length // error: variable 'b' can be null
But you still need to access that property, right? There are a few ways of doing that.
Checking
for
null
in
conditions
First, you can explicitly check if b is null, and handle the two options separately:
val l = if (b != null) b.length else -1
The compiler tracks the information about the check you performed, and allows the call to length inside the if. More
complex conditions are supported as well:
fun main() {
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//sampleStart
val b: String? = "Kotlin"
if (b != null && b.length > 0) {
print("String of length ${b.length}")
} else {
print("Empty string")
}
//sampleEnd
}
Note that this only works where b is immutable (that means a local variable which is not modified between the check
and the usage or a member val which has a backing field and is not overridable), because otherwise it might happen
that b changes to null after the check.
Safe
calls
Your second option is the safe call operator, written ?.:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val a = "Kotlin"
val b: String? = null
println(b?.length)
println(a?.length) // Unnecessary safe call
//sampleEnd
}
This returns b.length if b is not null, and null otherwise. The type of this expression is Int?.
Safe calls are useful in chains. For example, if Bob, an Employee, may be assigned to a Department (or not), that in
turn may have another Employee as a department head, then to obtain the name of Bob's department head (if any),
you write the following:
bob?.department?.head?.name
Such a chain returns null if any of the properties in it is null.
To perform a certain operation only for non-null values, you can use the safe call operator together with let:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val listWithNulls: List<String?> = listOf("Kotlin", null)
for (item in listWithNulls) {
item?.let { println(it) } // prints Kotlin and ignores null
}
//sampleEnd
}
A safe call can also be placed on the left side of an assignment. Then, if one of the receivers in the safe calls chain is
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null, the assignment is skipped, and the expression on the right is not evaluated at all:
// If either `person` or `person.department` is null, the function is not called:
person?.department?.head = managersPool.getManager()
Elvis
operator
When you have a nullable reference b, you can say "if b is not null, use it, otherwise use some non-null value":
val l: Int = if (b != null) b.length else -1
Along with the complete if -expression, this can be expressed with the Elvis operator, written ?::
val l = b?.length ?: -1
If the expression to the left of ?: is not null, the elvis operator returns it, otherwise it returns the expression to the right.
Note that the right-hand side expression is evaluated only if the left-hand side is null.
Since throw and return are expressions in Kotlin, they can also be used on the right hand side of the elvis operator. This
can be very handy, for example, for checking function arguments:
fun foo(node: Node): String? {
val parent = node.getParent() ?: return null
val name = node.getName() ?: throw IllegalArgumentException("name expected")
// ...
}
The
!!
operator
The third option is for NPE-lovers: the not-null assertion operator (!!) converts any value to a non-null type and throws
an exception if the value is null. You can write b!!, and this will return a non-null value of b (for example, a String in our
example) or throw an NPE if b is null:
val l = b!!.length
Thus, if you want an NPE, you can have it, but you have to ask for it explicitly, and it does not appear out of the blue.
Safe
casts
Regular casts may result into a ClassCastException if the object is not of the target type. Another option is to use safe
casts that return null if the attempt was not successful:
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val aInt: Int? = a as? Int
Collections
of
a
nullable
type
If you have a collection of elements of a nullable type and want to filter non-null elements, you can do so by using
filterNotNull:
val nullableList: List<Int?> = listOf(1, 2, null, 4)
val intList: List<Int> = nullableList.filterNotNull()
Equality
In Kotlin there are two types of equality:
Structural equality (==- a check for equals())
Referential equality (===- two references point to the same object)
Structural
equality
Structural equality is checked by the == operation and its negated counterpart !=. By convention, an expression like a
== b is translated to:
a?.equals(b) ?: (b === null)
If a is not null, it calls the equals(Any?) function, otherwise (a is null) it checks that b is referentially equal to null.
Note that there's no point in optimizing your code when comparing to null explicitly: a == null will be automatically
translated to a === null.
To provide a custom equals check implementation, override the equals(other: Any?): Boolean function. Functions with
the same name and other signatures, like equals(other: Foo), don't affect equality checks with the operators == and !=.
Structural equality has nothing to do with comparison defined by the Comparable<...> interface, so only a custom
equals(Any?) implementation may affect the behavior of the operator.
Referential
equality
Referential equality is checked by the === operation and its negated counterpart !==. a === b evaluates to true if and
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only if a and b point to the same object. For values represented by primitive types at runtime (for example, Int ), the ===
equality check is equivalent to the == check.
Floating-point
numbers
equality
When an equality check operands are statically known to be Float or Double (nullable or not), the check follows the
IEEE 754 Standard for Floating-Point Arithmetic.
Otherwise, the structural equality is used, which disagrees with the standard so that NaN is equal to itself, and -0.0 is
not equal to 0.0.
See: Floating-point numbers comparison.
This
expressions
To denote the current receiver, you use this expressions:
In a member of a class, this refers to the current object of that class.
In an extension function or a function literal with receiver this denotes the receiver parameter that is passed on the
left-hand side of a dot.
If this has no qualifiers, it refers to the innermost enclosing scope. To refer to this in other scopes, label qualifiers are
used:
Qualified
this
To access this from an outer scope (a class, extension function, or labeled function literal with receiver) you write
this@label, where @label is a label on the scope this is meant to be from:
class A { // implicit label @A
inner class B { // implicit label @B
fun Int.foo() { // implicit label @foo
val a = this@A // A's this
val b = this@B // B's this
val c = this // foo()'s receiver, an Int
val c1 = this@foo // foo()'s receiver, an Int
val funLit = lambda@ fun String.() {
val d = this // funLit's receiver
}
val funLit2 = { s: String ->
// foo()'s receiver, since enclosing lambda expression
// doesn't have any receiver
val d1 = this
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}
}
}
}
Implicit
this
When you call a member function on this, you can skip the this. part. If you have a non-member function with the same
name, use this with caution because in some cases it can be called instead:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
fun printLine() { println("Top-level function") }
class A {
fun printLine() { println("Member function") }
fun invokePrintLine(omitThis: Boolean = false) {
if (omitThis) printLine()
else this.printLine()
}
}
A().invokePrintLine() // Member function
A().invokePrintLine(omitThis = true) // Top-level function
//sampleEnd()
}
Coroutines
Asynchronous or non-blocking programming is the new reality. When creating server-side, desktop or mobile
applications, it's important to provide an experience that is not only fluid from the user's perspective, but scalable
when needed.
Kotlin solves this problem in a flexible way by providing coroutine support at the language level and delegating most of
the functionality to libraries.
As a bonus, coroutines not only open the doors to asynchronous programming, but also provide a wealth of other
possibilities such as concurrency and actors.
How
to
start
New to Kotlin? Take a look at the Getting started page.
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Documentation
Coroutines guide
Basics
Channels
Coroutine context and dispatchers
Shared mutable state and concurrency
Asynchronous flow
Tutorials
Asynchronous programming techniques
Introduction to coroutines and channels
Debug coroutines using IntelliJ IDEA
Debug Kotlin Flow using IntelliJ IDEA – tutorial
Sample
projects
kotlinx.coroutines examples and sources
KotlinConf app
Type-safe
builders
By using well-named functions as builders in combination with function literals with receiver it is possible to create
type-safe, statically-typed builders in Kotlin.
Type-safe builders allow creating Kotlin-based domain-specific languages (DSLs) suitable for building complex
hierarchical data structures in a semi-declarative way. Sample use cases for the builders are:
Generating markup with Kotlin code, such as HTML or XML
Programmatically laying out UI components: Anko
Configuring routes for a web server: Ktor
Consider the following code:
import com.example.html.* // see declarations below
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fun result() =
html {
head {
title {+"XML encoding with Kotlin"}
}
body {
h1 {+"XML encoding with Kotlin"}
p {+"this format can be used as an alternative markup to XML"}
// an element with attributes and text content
a(href = "https://kotlinlang.org") {+"Kotlin"}
// mixed content
p {
+"This is some"
b {+"mixed"}
+"text. For more see the"
a(href = "https://kotlinlang.org") {+"Kotlin"}
+"project"
}
p {+"some text"}
// content generated by
p {
for (arg in args)
+arg
}
}
}
This is completely legitimate Kotlin code. You can play with this code online (modify it and run in the browser) here.
How
it
works
Assume that you need to implement a type-safe builder in Kotlin. First of all, define the model you want to build. In this
case you need to model HTML tags. It is easily done with a bunch of classes. For example, HTML is a class that
describes the <html> tag defining children like <head> and <body>. (See its declaration below .)
Now, let's recall why you can say something like this in the code:
html {
// ...
}
html is actually a function call that takes a lambda expression as an argument. This function is defined as follows:
fun html(init: HTML.() -> Unit): HTML {
val html = HTML()
html.init()
return html
}
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This function takes one parameter named init, which is itself a function. The type of the function is HTML.() -> Unit,
which is a function type with receiver. This means that you need to pass an instance of type HTML (a receiver) to the
function, and you can call members of that instance inside the function.
The receiver can be accessed through the this keyword:
html {
this.head { ... }
this.body { ... }
}
(head and body are member functions of HTML .)
Now, this can be omitted, as usual, and you get something that looks very much like a builder already:
html {
head { ... }
body { ... }
}
So, what does this call do? Let's look at the body of html function as defined above. It creates a new instance of
HTML, then it initializes it by calling the function that is passed as an argument (in this example this boils down to
calling head and body on the HTML instance), and then it returns this instance. This is exactly what a builder should
do.
The head and body functions in the HTML class are defined similarly to html. The only difference is that they add the
built instances to the children collection of the enclosing HTML instance:
fun head(init: Head.() -> Unit) : Head {
val head = Head()
head.init()
children.add(head)
return head
}
fun body(init: Body.() -> Unit) : Body {
val body = Body()
body.init()
children.add(body)
return body
}
Actually these two functions do just the same thing, so you can have a generic version, initTag:
protected fun <T : Element> initTag(tag: T, init: T.() -> Unit): T {
tag.init()
children.add(tag)
return tag
}
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So, now your functions are very simple:
fun head(init: Head.() -> Unit) = initTag(Head(), init)
fun body(init: Body.() -> Unit) = initTag(Body(), init)
And you can use them to build <head> and <body> tags.
One other thing to be discussed here is how you add text to tag bodies. In the example above you say something like:
html {
head {
title {+"XML encoding with Kotlin"}
}
// ...
}
So basically, you just put a string inside a tag body, but there is this little + in front of it, so it is a function call that
invokes a prefix unaryPlus() operation. That operation is actually defined by an extension function unaryPlus() that is a
member of the TagWithText abstract class (a parent of Title ):
operator fun String.unaryPlus() {
children.add(TextElement(this))
}
So, what the prefix + does here is wrapping a string into an instance of TextElement and adding it to the children
collection, so that it becomes a proper part of the tag tree.
All this is defined in a package com.example.html that is imported at the top of the builder example above. In the last
section you can read through the full definition of this package.
Scope
control:
@DslMarker
When using DSLs, one might have come across the problem that too many functions can be called in the context. You
can call methods of every available implicit receiver inside a lambda and therefore get an inconsistent result, like the
tag head inside another head:
html {
head {
head {} // should be forbidden
}
// ...
}
In this example only members of the nearest implicit receiver this@head must be available; head() is a member of the
outer receiver this@html, so it must be illegal to call it.
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To address this problem, there is a special mechanism to control receiver scope.
To make the compiler start controlling scopes you only have to annotate the types of all receivers used in the DSL with
the same marker annotation. For instance, for HTML Builders you declare an annotation @HTMLTagMarker:
@DslMarker
annotation class HtmlTagMarker
An annotation class is called a DSL marker if it is annotated with the @DslMarker annotation.
In our DSL all the tag classes extend the same superclass Tag. It's enough to annotate only the superclass with
@HtmlTagMarker and after that the Kotlin compiler will treat all the inherited classes as annotated:
@HtmlTagMarker
abstract class Tag(val name: String) { ... }
You don't have to annotate the HTML or Head classes with @HtmlTagMarker because their superclass is already
annotated:
class HTML() : Tag("html") { ... } class Head() : Tag("head") { ... }
After you've added this annotation, the Kotlin compiler knows which implicit receivers are part of the same DSL and
allows to call members of the nearest receivers only:
html {
head {
head { } // error: a member of outer receiver
}
// ...
}
Note that it's still possible to call the members of the outer receiver, but to do that you have to specify this receiver
explicitly:
html {
head {
this@html.head { } // possible
}
// ...
}
Full
definition
of
the
com.example.html
package
This is how the package com.example.html is defined (only the elements used in the example above). It builds an
HTML tree. It makes heavy use of extension functions and lambdas with receiver.
package com.example.html
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interface Element {
fun render(builder: StringBuilder, indent: String)
}
class TextElement(val text: String) : Element {
override fun render(builder: StringBuilder, indent: String) {
builder.append("$indent$text\n")
}
}
@DslMarker
annotation class HtmlTagMarker
@HtmlTagMarker
abstract class Tag(val name: String) : Element {
val children = arrayListOf<Element>()
val attributes = hashMapOf<String, String>()
protected fun <T : Element> initTag(tag: T, init: T.() -> Unit): T {
tag.init()
children.add(tag)
return tag
}
override fun render(builder: StringBuilder, indent: String) {
builder.append("$indent<$name${renderAttributes()}>\n")
for (c in children) {
c.render(builder, indent + " ")
}
builder.append("$indent</$name>\n")
}
private fun renderAttributes(): String {
val builder = StringBuilder()
for ((attr, value) in attributes) {
builder.append(" $attr=\"$value\"")
}
return builder.toString()
}
override fun toString(): String {
val builder = StringBuilder()
render(builder, "")
return builder.toString()
}
}
abstract class TagWithText(name: String) : Tag(name) {
operator fun String.unaryPlus() {
children.add(TextElement(this))
}
}
class HTML : TagWithText("html") {
fun head(init: Head.() -> Unit) = initTag(Head(), init)
fun body(init: Body.() -> Unit) = initTag(Body(), init)
}
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class Head : TagWithText("head") {
fun title(init: Title.() -> Unit) = initTag(Title(), init)
}
class Title : TagWithText("title")
abstract class BodyTag(name: String) : TagWithText(name) {
fun b(init: B.() -> Unit) = initTag(B(), init)
fun p(init: P.() -> Unit) = initTag(P(), init)
fun h1(init: H1.() -> Unit) = initTag(H1(), init)
fun a(href: String, init: A.() -> Unit) {
val a = initTag(A(), init)
a.href = href
}
}
class Body : BodyTag("body")
class B : BodyTag("b")
class P : BodyTag("p")
class H1 : BodyTag("h1")
class A : BodyTag("a") {
var href: String
get() = attributes["href"]!!
set(value) {
attributes["href"] = value
}
}
fun html(init: HTML.() -> Unit): HTML {
val html = HTML()
html.init()
return html
}
Operator
overloading
Kotlin allows you to provide custom implementations for the predefined set of operators on types. These operators
have predefined symbolic representation (like + or *) and precedence. To implement an operator, provide a member
function or an extension function with a specific name for the corresponding type. This type becomes the left-hand
side type for binary operations and the argument type for the unary ones.
To overload an operator, mark the corresponding function with the operator modifier:
interface IndexedContainer {
operator fun get(index: Int)
}
When overriding your operator overloads, you can omit operator:
class OrdersList: IndexedContainer {
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override fun get(index: Int) { /*...*/ }
}
Unary
operations
Unary
prefix
operators
Expression Translated to
+a a.unaryPlus()
-a a.unaryMinus()
!a a.not()
This table says that when the compiler processes, for example, an expression +a, it performs the following steps:
Determines the type of a, let it be T.
Looks up a function unaryPlus() with the operator modifier and no parameters for the receiver T, that means a
member function or an extension function.
If the function is absent or ambiguous, it is a compilation error.
If the function is present and its return type is R, the expression +a has type R.
These operations, as well as all the others, are optimized for basic types and do not introduce overhead of
function calls for them.
As an example, here's how you can overload the unary minus operator:
data class Point(val x: Int, val y: Int)
operator fun Point.unaryMinus() = Point(-x, -y)
val point = Point(10, 20)
fun main() {
println(-point) // prints "Point(x=-10, y=-20)"
}
Increments
and
decrements
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Expression Translated to
a++ a.inc() + see below
a-- a.dec() + see below
The inc() and dec() functions must return a value, which will be assigned to the variable on which the ++ or -- operation
was used. They shouldn't mutate the object on which the inc or dec was invoked.
The compiler performs the following steps for resolution of an operator in the postfix form, for example a++:
Determines the type of a, let it be T.
Looks up a function inc() with the operator modifier and no parameters, applicable to the receiver of type T.
Checks that the return type of the function is a subtype of T.
The effect of computing the expression is:
Store the initial value of a to a temporary storage a0.
Assign the result of a0.inc() to a.
Return a0 as the result of the expression.
For a-- the steps are completely analogous.
For the prefix forms ++a and --a resolution works the same way, and the effect is:
Assign the result of a.inc() to a.
Return the new value of a as a result of the expression.
Binary
operations
Arithmetic
operators
Expression Translated to
a + b a.plus(b)
a - b a.minus(b)
a * b a.times(b)
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Expression Translated to
a / b a.div(b)
a % b a.rem(b)
a..b a.rangeTo(b)
For the operations in this table, the compiler just resolves the expression in the Translated to column.
Below is an example Counter class that starts at a given value and can be incremented using the overloaded +
operator:
data class Counter(val dayIndex: Int) {
operator fun plus(increment: Int): Counter {
return Counter(dayIndex + increment)
}
}
in
operator
Expression Translated to
a in b b.contains(a)
a !in b !b.contains(a)
For in and !in the procedure is the same, but the order of arguments is reversed.
Indexed
access
operator
Expression Translated to
a[i] a.get(i)
a[i, j] a.get(i, j)
a[i_1, ..., i_n] a.get(i_1, ..., i_n)
a[i] = b a.set(i, b)
a[i, j] = b a.set(i, j, b)
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Expression Translated to
a[i_1, ..., i_n] = b a.set(i_1, ..., i_n, b)
Square brackets are translated to calls to get and set with appropriate numbers of arguments.
invoke
operator
Expression Translated to
a() a.invoke()
a(i) a.invoke(i)
a(i, j) a.invoke(i, j)
a(i_1, ..., i_n) a.invoke(i_1, ..., i_n)
Parentheses are translated to calls to invoke with appropriate number of arguments.
Augmented
assignments
Expression Translated to
a += b a.plusAssign(b)
a -= b a.minusAssign(b)
a *= b a.timesAssign(b)
a /= b a.divAssign(b)
a %= b a.remAssign(b)
For the assignment operations, for example a += b, the compiler performs the following steps:
If the function from the right column is available:
If the corresponding binary function (that means plus() for plusAssign()) is available too, report error (ambiguity).
Make sure its return type is Unit, and report an error otherwise.
Generate code for a.plusAssign(b).
Otherwise, try to generate code for a = a + b (this includes a type check: the type of a + b must be a subtype of a ).
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Assignments are NOT expressions in Kotlin.
Equality
and
inequality
operators
Expression Translated to
a == b a?.equals(b) ?: (b === null)
a != b !(a?.equals(b) ?: (b === null))
These operators only work with the function equals(other: Any?): Boolean, which can be overridden to provide custom
equality check implementation. Any other function with the same name (like equals(other: Foo)) will not be called.
=== and !== (identity checks) are not overloadable, so no conventions exist for them.
The == operation is special: it is translated to a complex expression that screens for null 's. null == null is always true,
and x == null for a non-null x is always false and won't invoke x.equals().
Comparison
operators
Expression Translated to
a > b a.compareTo(b) > 0
a < b a.compareTo(b) < 0
a >= b a.compareTo(b) >= 0
a <= b a.compareTo(b) <= 0
All comparisons are translated into calls to compareTo, that is required to return Int.
Property
delegation
operators
provideDelegate, getValue and setValue operator functions are described in Delegated properties.
Infix
calls
for
named
functions
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You can simulate custom infix operations by using infix function calls.
Annotations
Annotations are means of attaching metadata to code. To declare an annotation, put the annotation modifier in front of
a class:
annotation class Fancy
Additional attributes of the annotation can be specified by annotating the annotation class with meta-annotations:
@Target specifies the possible kinds of elements which can be annotated with the annotation (such as classes,
functions, properties, and expressions);
@Retention specifies whether the annotation is stored in the compiled class files and whether it's visible through
reflection at runtime (by default, both are true);
@Repeatable allows using the same annotation on a single element multiple times;
@MustBeDocumented specifies that the annotation is part of the public API and should be included in the class or
method signature shown in the generated API documentation.
@Target(AnnotationTarget.CLASS, AnnotationTarget.FUNCTION,
AnnotationTarget.VALUE_PARAMETER, AnnotationTarget.EXPRESSION)
@Retention(AnnotationRetention.SOURCE)
@MustBeDocumented
annotation class Fancy
Usage
@Fancy class Foo {
@Fancy fun baz(@Fancy foo: Int): Int {
return (@Fancy 1)
}
}
If you need to annotate the primary constructor of a class, you need to add the constructor keyword to the constructor
declaration, and add the annotations before it:
class Foo @Inject constructor(dependency: MyDependency) { ... }
You can also annotate property accessors:
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class Foo {
var x: MyDependency? = null
@Inject set
}
Constructors
Annotations can have constructors that take parameters.
annotation class Special(val why: String)
@Special("example") class Foo {}
Allowed parameter types are:
Types that correspond to Java primitive types (Int, Long etc.)
Strings
Classes (Foo::class)
Enums
Other annotations
Arrays of the types listed above
Annotation parameters cannot have nullable types, because the JVM does not support storing null as a value of an
annotation attribute.
If an annotation is used as a parameter of another annotation, its name is not prefixed with the @ character:
annotation class ReplaceWith(val expression: String)
annotation class Deprecated(
val message: String,
val replaceWith: ReplaceWith = ReplaceWith(""))
@Deprecated("This function is deprecated, use === instead", ReplaceWith("this === other"))
If you need to specify a class as an argument of an annotation, use a Kotlin class ( KClass ). The Kotlin compiler will
automatically convert it to a Java class, so that the Java code can access the annotations and arguments normally.
import kotlin.reflect.KClass
annotation class Ann(val arg1: KClass<*>, val arg2: KClass<out Any>)
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@Ann(String::class, Int::class) class MyClass
Lambdas
Annotations can also be used on lambdas. They will be applied to the invoke() method into which the body of the
lambda is generated. This is useful for frameworks like Quasar, which uses annotations for concurrency control.
annotation class Suspendable
val f = @Suspendable { Fiber.sleep(10) }
Annotation
use-site
targets
When you're annotating a property or a primary constructor parameter, there are multiple Java elements which are
generated from the corresponding Kotlin element, and therefore multiple possible locations for the annotation in the
generated Java bytecode. To specify how exactly the annotation should be generated, use the following syntax:
class Example(@field:Ann val foo, // annotate Java field
@get:Ann val bar, // annotate Java getter
@param:Ann val quux) // annotate Java constructor parameter
The same syntax can be used to annotate the entire file. To do this, put an annotation with the target file at the top level
of a file, before the package directive or before all imports if the file is in the default package:
@file:JvmName("Foo")
package org.jetbrains.demo
If you have multiple annotations with the same target, you can avoid repeating the target by adding brackets after the
target and putting all the annotations inside the brackets:
class Example {
@set:[Inject VisibleForTesting]
var collaborator: Collaborator
}
The full list of supported use-site targets is:
file
property (annotations with this target are not visible to Java)
field
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get (property getter)
set (property setter)
receiver (receiver parameter of an extension function or property)
param (constructor parameter)
setparam (property setter parameter)
delegate (the field storing the delegate instance for a delegated property)
To annotate the receiver parameter of an extension function, use the following syntax:
fun @receiver:Fancy String.myExtension() { ... }
If you don't specify a use-site target, the target is chosen according to the @Target annotation of the annotation being
used. If there are multiple applicable targets, the first applicable target from the following list is used:
param
property
field
Java
annotations
Java annotations are 100% compatible with Kotlin:
import org.junit.Test
import org.junit.Assert.*
import org.junit.Rule
import org.junit.rules.*
class Tests {
// apply @Rule annotation to property getter
@get:Rule val tempFolder = TemporaryFolder()
@Test fun simple() {
val f = tempFolder.newFile()
assertEquals(42, getTheAnswer())
}
}
Since the order of parameters for an annotation written in Java is not defined, you can't use a regular function call
syntax for passing the arguments. Instead, you need to use the named argument syntax:
// Java
public @interface Ann {
int intValue();
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String stringValue();
}
// Kotlin
@Ann(intValue = 1, stringValue = "abc") class C
Just like in Java, a special case is the value parameter; its value can be specified without an explicit name:
// Java
public @interface AnnWithValue {
String value();
}
// Kotlin
@AnnWithValue("abc") class C
Arrays
as
annotation
parameters
If the value argument in Java has an array type, it becomes a vararg parameter in Kotlin:
// Java
public @interface AnnWithArrayValue {
String[] value();
}
// Kotlin
@AnnWithArrayValue("abc", "foo", "bar") class C
For other arguments that have an array type, you need to use the array literal syntax or arrayOf(...):
// Java
public @interface AnnWithArrayMethod {
String[] names();
}
@AnnWithArrayMethod(names = ["abc", "foo", "bar"])
class C
Accessing
properties
of
an
annotation
instance
Values of an annotation instance are exposed as properties to Kotlin code:
// Java
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public @interface Ann {
int value();
}
// Kotlin
fun foo(ann: Ann) {
val i = ann.value
}
Destructuring
declarations
Sometimes it is convenient to destructure an object into a number of variables, for example:
val (name, age) = person
This syntax is called a destructuring declaration. A destructuring declaration creates multiple variables at once. You
have declared two new variables: name and age, and can use them independently:
println(name)
println(age)
A destructuring declaration is compiled down to the following code:
val name = person.component1()
val age = person.component2()
The component1() and component2() functions are another example of the principle of conventions widely used in
Kotlin (see operators like + and *, for -loops as an example). Anything can be on the right-hand side of a destructuring
declaration, as long as the required number of component functions can be called on it. And, of course, there can be
component3() and component4() and so on.
The componentN() functions need to be marked with the operator keyword to allow using them in a
destructuring declaration.
Destructuring declarations also work in for -loops:
for ((a, b) in collection) { ... }
Variables a and b get the values returned by component1() and component2() called on elements of the collection.
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Example:
returning
two
values
from
a
function
Assume that you need to return two things from a function - for example, a result object and a status of some sort. A
compact way of doing this in Kotlin is to declare a data class and return its instance:
data class Result(val result: Int, val status: Status)
fun function(...): Result {
// computations
return Result(result, status)
}
// Now, to use this function:
val (result, status) = function(...)
Since data classes automatically declare componentN() functions, destructuring declarations work here.
You could also use the standard class Pair and have function() return Pair<Int, Status>, but it's often better to
have your data named properly.
Example:
destructuring
declarations
and
maps
Probably the nicest way to traverse a map is this:
for ((key, value) in map) {
// do something with the key and the value
}
To make this work, you should
Present the map as a sequence of values by providing an iterator() function.
Present each of the elements as a pair by providing functions component1() and component2().
And indeed, the standard library provides such extensions:
operator fun <K, V> Map<K, V>.iterator(): Iterator<Map.Entry<K, V>> = entrySet().iterator()
operator fun <K, V> Map.Entry<K, V>.component1() = getKey()
operator fun <K, V> Map.Entry<K, V>.component2() = getValue()
So you can freely use destructuring declarations in for -loops with maps (as well as collections of data class instances
or similar).
Underscore
for
unused
variables
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If you don't need a variable in the destructuring declaration, you can place an underscore instead of its name:
val (_, status) = getResult()
The componentN() operator functions are not called for the components that are skipped in this way.
Destructuring
in
lambdas
You can use the destructuring declarations syntax for lambda parameters. If a lambda has a parameter of the Pair type
(or Map.Entry, or any other type that has the appropriate componentN functions), you can introduce several new
parameters instead of one by putting them in parentheses:
map.mapValues { entry -> "${entry.value}!" }
map.mapValues { (key, value) -> "$value!" }
Note the difference between declaring two parameters and declaring a destructuring pair instead of a parameter:
{ a -> ... } // one parameter
{ a, b -> ... } // two parameters
{ (a, b) -> ... } // a destructured pair
{ (a, b), c -> ... } // a destructured pair and another parameter
If a component of the destructured parameter is unused, you can replace it with the underscore to avoid inventing its
name:
map.mapValues { (_, value) -> "$value!" }
You can specify the type for the whole destructured parameter or for a specific component separately:
map.mapValues { (_, value): Map.Entry<Int, String> -> "$value!" }
map.mapValues { (_, value: String) -> "$value!" }
Reflection
Reflection is a set of language and library features that allows for introspecting the structure of your own program at
runtime. Kotlin makes functions and properties first-class citizens in the language, and introspecting them (for example,
learning a name or a type of a property or function at runtime) is closely intertwined with simply using a functional or
reactive style.
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Kotlin/JS provides the limited support for reflection features. Learn more about reflection in Kotlin/JS.
JVM
dependency
On the JVM platform, the runtime component required for using the reflection features is distributed as a separate
artifact kotlin-reflect.jar in the Kotlin compiler distribution. This is done to reduce the required size of the runtime library
for applications that do not use reflection features.
To use reflection in a Gradle or Maven project, add the dependency on kotlin-reflect:
In Gradle:
Groovy
dependencies {
implementation "org.jetbrains.kotlin:kotlin-reflect:1.5.20"
}
Kotlin
dependencies {
implementation("org.jetbrains.kotlin:kotlin-reflect:1.5.20")
}
In Maven:
<dependencies>
<dependency>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<artifactId>kotlin-reflect</artifactId>
</dependency>
</dependencies>
If you don't use Gradle or Maven, make sure you have kotlin-reflect.jar in the classpath of your project. In other
supported cases (IntelliJ IDEA projects, using command-line compiler or Ant), it is added by default. In command-line
compiler and Ant, you can use -no-reflect compiler option to exclude kotlin-reflect.jar from the classpath.
Class
references
The most basic reflection feature is getting the runtime reference to a Kotlin class. To obtain the reference to a
statically known Kotlin class, you can use the class literal syntax:
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val c = MyClass::class
The reference is a value of type KClass.
On JVM: a Kotlin class reference is not the same as a Java class reference. To obtain a Java class reference,
use the .java property on a KClass instance.
Bound
class
references
You can get the reference to a class of a specific object with the same ::class syntax by using the object as a receiver:
val widget: Widget = ...
assert(widget is GoodWidget) { "Bad widget: ${widget::class.qualifiedName}" }
You obtain the reference to an exact class of an object, for instance GoodWidget or BadWidget, despite the type of the
receiver expression (Widget ).
Callable
references
References to functions, properties, and constructors, apart from introspecting the program structure, can also be
called or used as instances of function types.
The common supertype for all callable references is KCallable<out R>, where R is the return value type, which is the
property type for properties, and the constructed type for constructors.
Function
references
When you have a named function declared like this:
fun isOdd(x: Int) = x % 2 != 0
You can call it directly (isOdd(5) ). Alternatively, you can use it as a function type value: pass it to another function. To
do this, use the :: operator:
fun isOdd(x: Int) = x % 2 != 0
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf(1, 2, 3)
println(numbers.filter(::isOdd))
//sampleEnd
}
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Here ::isOdd is a value of function type (Int) -> Boolean.
Function references belong to one of the KFunction<out R> subtypes, depending on the parameter count, for example,
KFunction3<T1, T2, T3, R>.
:: can be used with overloaded functions when the expected type is known from the context. For example:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
fun isOdd(x: Int) = x % 2 != 0
fun isOdd(s: String) = s == "brillig" || s == "slithy" || s == "tove"
val numbers = listOf(1, 2, 3)
println(numbers.filter(::isOdd)) // refers to isOdd(x: Int)
//sampleEnd
}
Alternatively, you can provide the necessary context by storing the method reference in a variable with an explicitly
specified type:
val predicate: (String) -> Boolean = ::isOdd // refers to isOdd(x: String)
If you need to use a member of a class, or an extension function, it needs to be qualified: String::toCharArray.
Note that even if you initialize a variable with a reference to an extension function, the inferred function type will have
no receiver (it will have an additional parameter accepting a receiver object). To have a function type with receiver
instead, specify the type explicitly:
val isEmptyStringList: List<String>.() -> Boolean = List<String>::isEmpty
Example: function composition
Consider the following function:
fun <A, B, C> compose(f: (B) -> C, g: (A) -> B): (A) -> C {
return { x -> f(g(x)) }
}
It returns a composition of two functions passed to it: compose(f, g) = f(g(*)). Now, you can apply it to callable
references:
fun <A, B, C> compose(f: (B) -> C, g: (A) -> B): (A) -> C {
return { x -> f(g(x)) }
}
fun isOdd(x: Int) = x % 2 != 0
fun main() {
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//sampleStart
fun length(s: String) = s.length
val oddLength = compose(::isOdd, ::length)
val strings = listOf("a", "ab", "abc")
println(strings.filter(oddLength))
//sampleEnd
}
Property
references
To access properties as first-class objects in Kotlin, use the :: operator:
val x = 1
fun main() {
println(::x.get())
println(::x.name)
}
The expression ::x evaluates to a property object of type KProperty<Int>. You can read its value using get() or retrieve
the property name using the name property. For more information, see the docs on the KProperty class.
For a mutable property such as var y = 1, ::y returns a value of type KMutableProperty<Int>, which has a set() method:
var y = 1
fun main() {
::y.set(2)
println(y)
}
A property reference can be used where a function with a single generic parameter is expected:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val strs = listOf("a", "bc", "def")
println(strs.map(String::length))
//sampleEnd
}
To access a property that is a member of a class, qualify it:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
class A(val p: Int)
val prop = A::p
println(prop.get(A(1)))
//sampleEnd
}
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For an extension property:
val String.lastChar: Char
get() = this[length - 1]
fun main() {
println(String::lastChar.get("abc"))
}
Interoperability
with
Java
reflection
On the JVM platform, standard library contains extensions for reflection classes that provide a mapping to and from
Java reflection objects (see package kotlin.reflect.jvm ). For example, to find a backing field or a Java method that
serves as a getter for a Kotlin property, you can write something like this:
import kotlin.reflect.jvm.*
class A(val p: Int)
fun main() {
println(A::p.javaGetter) // prints "public final int A.getP()"
println(A::p.javaField) // prints "private final int A.p"
}
To get the Kotlin class corresponding to a Java class, use the .kotlin extension property:
fun getKClass(o: Any): KClass<Any> = o.javaClass.kotlin
Constructor
references
Constructors can be referenced just like methods and properties. You can use them wherever an object of function
type is expected that takes the same parameters as the constructor and returns an object of the appropriate type.
Constructors are referenced by using the :: operator and adding the class name. Consider the following function that
expects a function parameter with no parameters and return type Foo:
class Foo
fun function(factory: () -> Foo) {
val x: Foo = factory()
}
Using ::Foo, the zero-argument constructor of the class Foo, you can call it like this:
function(::Foo)
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Callable references to constructors are typed as one of the KFunction<out R> subtypes depending on the parameter
count.
Bound
function
and
property
references
You can refer to an instance method of a particular object:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numberRegex = "\\d+".toRegex()
println(numberRegex.matches("29"))
val isNumber = numberRegex::matches
println(isNumber("29"))
//sampleEnd
}
Instead of calling the method matches directly, the example uses a reference to it. Such reference is bound to its
receiver. It can be called directly (like in the example above) or used whenever an expression of function type is
expected:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numberRegex = "\\d+".toRegex()
val strings = listOf("abc", "124", "a70")
println(strings.filter(numberRegex::matches))
//sampleEnd
}
Compare the types of bound and the corresponding unbound references. Bound callable reference has its receiver
"attached" to it, so the type of the receiver is no longer a parameter:
val isNumber: (CharSequence) -> Boolean = numberRegex::matches
val matches: (Regex, CharSequence) -> Boolean = Regex::matches
Property reference can be bound as well:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val prop = "abc"::length
println(prop.get())
//sampleEnd
}
You don't need to specify this as the receiver: this::foo and ::foo are equivalent.
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Bound
constructor
references
A bound callable reference to a constructor of an inner class can be obtained by providing an instance of the outer
class:
class Outer {
inner class Inner
}
val o = Outer()
val boundInnerCtor = o::Inner
Kotlin
Multiplatform
Multiplatform projects are in Alpha. Language features and tooling may change in future Kotlin versions.
Support for multiplatform programming is one of Kotlin’s key benefits. It reduces time spent writing and maintaining
the same code for different platforms while retaining the flexibility and benefits of native programming. Learn more
about Kotlin Multiplatform benefits.
With Kotlin Multiplatform, share the code using the mechanisms Kotlin provides:
Share code among all platforms used in your project. Use it for sharing the common business logic that applies to
all platforms.
Code shared for all platforms
Share code among some platforms included in your project but not all. You can reuse much of the code in similar
platforms using a hierarchical structure. You can use target shortcuts for common combinations of targets or create
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the hierarchical structure manually.
Code shared for iOS targets
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Hierarchical structure
If you need to access platform-specific APIs from the shared code, use the Kotlin mechanism of expected and actual
declarations.
Tutorials
Creating a multiplatform Kotlin library teaches how to create a multiplatform library available for JVM, JS, and Native
and which can be used from any other common code (for example, shared with Android and iOS). It also shows how
to write tests which will be executed on all platforms and use an efficient implementation provided by a specific
platform.
Building a Full Stack Web App with Kotlin Multiplatform teaches the concepts behind building an application that
targets Kotlin/JVM and Kotlin/JS by building a client-server application that makes use of shared code, serialization,
and other multiplatform paradigms. It also provides a brief introduction to working with Ktor both as a server- and
client-side framework.
Create
a
multiplatform
library
This section provides steps for creating a multiplatform library. You can also complete the tutorial where you will create
a multiplatform library, test it, and publish it to Maven.
1. In IntelliJ IDEA, select File | New | Project.
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2. In the panel on the left, select Kotlin.
3. Enter a project name, then in the Multiplatform section select Library as the project template.
Select a project template
4. Select the Gradle DSL – Kotlin or Groovy.
5. Click Next.
You can finish creating the project by clicking Finish on the next screen or configure it if necessary:
6. Add the target platforms and modules by clicking the + icon.
7. Configure target settings, such as the target template, JVM target version, and test framework.
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Configure the project
8. If necessary, specify dependencies between modules:
Multiplatform and Android modules
Multiplatform and iOS modules
JVM modules
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Add module dependencies
9. Click Finish.
The new project opens.
What's
next?
Understand the multiplatform project structure.
Create and publish a multiplatform library – tutorial.
Create your first KMM application for Android and iOS – tutorial.
Create a full-stack web app with Kotlin Multiplatform – hands-on tutorial.
Discover
your
project
Discover main parts of your multiplatform project:
Multiplatform plugin
Targets
Source sets
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Compilations
Multiplatform
plugin
When you create a multiplatform project, the Project Wizard automatically applies the kotlin-multiplatform Gradle
plugin in the file build.gradle (.kts ).
You can also apply it manually.
The kotlin-multiplatform plugin works with Gradle 6.1 or later.
Groovy
plugins {
id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.multiplatform' version '1.5.20'
}
Kotlin
plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform") version "1.5.20"
}
The kotlin-multiplatform plugin configures the project for creating an application or library to work on multiple platforms
and prepares it for building on these platforms.
In the file build.gradle (.kts ), it creates the kotlin extension at the top level, which includes configuration for targets,
source sets, and dependencies.
Targets
A multiplatform project is aimed at multiple platforms that are represented by different targets. A target is part of the
build that is responsible for building, testing, and packaging the application for a specific platform, such as macOS,
iOS, or Android. See the list of supported platforms.
When you create a multiplatform project, targets are added to the kotlin block in the file build.gradle (build.gradle.kts ).
kotlin {
jvm()
js {
browser {}
}
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}
Learn how to set up targets manually.
Source
sets
The project includes the directory src with Kotlin source sets, which are collections of Kotlin code files, along with their
resources, dependencies, and language settings. A source set can be used in Kotlin compilations for one or more
target platforms.
Each source set directory includes Kotlin code files (the kotlin directory) and resources. The Project Wizard creates
default source sets for the main and test compilations of the common code and all added targets.
Source sets
Source set names are case sensitive.
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Source sets are added to the sourceSets block of the top-level kotlin block.
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets {
commonMain { /* ... */}
commonTest { /* ... */}
jvmMain { /* ... */}
jvmTest { /* ... */ }
jsMain { /* ... */}
jsTest { /* ... */}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
sourceSets {
val commonMain by getting { /* ... */ }
val commonTest by getting { /* ... */ }
val jvmMain by getting { /* ... */ }
val jvmTest by getting { /* ... */ }
val jsMain by getting { /* ... */ }
val jsTest by getting { /* ... */ }
}
}
Source sets form a hierarchy, which is used for sharing the common code. In a source set shared among several
targets, you can use the platform-specific language features and dependencies that are available for all these targets.
For example, all Kotlin/Native features are available in the desktopMain source set, which targets the Linux (linuxX64 ),
Windows (mingwX64 ), and macOS (macosX64) platforms.
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Hierarchical structure
Learn how to build the hierarchy of source sets.
Compilations
Each target can have one or more compilations, for example, for production and test purposes.
For each target, default compilations include:
main and test compilations for JVM, JS, and Native targets.
A compilation per Android build variant, for Android targets.
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Compilations
Each compilation has a default source set, which contains sources and dependencies specific to that compilation.
Learn how to configure compilations.
Share
code
on
platforms
With Kotlin Multiplatform, you can share the code using the mechanisms Kotlin provides:
Share code among all platforms used in your project. Use it for sharing the common business logic that applies to
all platforms.
Share code among some platforms included in your project but not all. You can reuse much of the code in similar
platforms using a hierarchical structure. You can use target shortcuts for common combinations of targets or create
the hierarchical structure manually.
If you need to access platform-specific APIs from the shared code, use the Kotlin mechanism of expected and actual
declarations.
Share
code
on
all
platforms
If you have business logic that is common for all platforms, you don’t need to write the same code for each platform –
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just share it in the common source set.
Code shared for all platforms
All platform-specific source sets depend on the common source set by default. You don’t need to specify any
dependsOn relations manually for default source sets, such as jvmMain, macosX64Main, and others.
If you need to access platform-specific APIs from the shared code, use the Kotlin mechanism of expected and actual
declarations.
Share
code
on
similar
platforms
You often need to create several native targets that could potentially reuse a lot of the common logic and third-party
APIs.
For example, in a typical multiplatform project targeting iOS, there are two iOS-related targets: one is for iOS ARM64
devices, the other is for the x64 simulator. They have separate platform-specific source sets, but in practice there is
rarely a need for different code for the device and simulator, and their dependencies are much the same. So iOS-
specific code could be shared between them.
Evidently, in this setup it would be desirable to have a shared source set for two iOS targets, with Kotlin/Native code
that could still directly call any of the APIs that are common to both the iOS device and the simulator.
In this case, you can share code across native targets in your project using the hierarchical structure.
To enable the hierarchy structure support, add the following flag to your gradle.properties.
kotlin.mpp.enableGranularSourceSetsMetadata=true
There are two ways you can create the hierarchical structure:
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Use target shortcuts to easily create the hierarchy structure for common combinations of native targets.
Configure the hierarchical structure manually.
Learn more about sharing code in libraries and using Native libraries in the hierarchical structure.
Due to a known issue, you won't be able to use IDE features, such as code completion and highlighting, for
the shared native source set in a multiplatform project with hierarchical structure support if your project
depends on:
Multiplatform libraries that don't support the hierarchical structure.
Third-party native libraries, with the exception of platform libraries supported out of the box.
This issue applies only to the shared native source set. The IDE will correctly support the rest of the code.
Learn how to work around this issue for similar source sets, such as iosArm64 and iosX64.
Use
target
shortcuts
In a typical multiplatform project with two iOS-related targets – iosArm64 and iosX64, the hierarchical structure
includes an intermediate source set (iosMain ), which is used by the platform-specific source sets.
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Code shared for iOS targets
The kotlin-multiplatform plugin provides target shortcuts for creating structures for common combinations of targets.
Target shortcut Targets
ios iosArm64, iosX64
watchos watchosArm32, watchosArm64, watchosX64
tvos tvosArm64, tvosX64
All shortcuts create similar hierarchical structures in the code. For example, the ios shortcut creates the following
hierarchical structure:
Groovy
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kotlin {
sourceSets{
iosMain {
dependsOn(commonMain)
iosX64Main.dependsOn(it)
iosArm64Main.dependsOn(it)
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
sourceSets{
val commonMain by sourceSets.getting
val iosX64Main by sourceSets.getting
val iosArm64Main by sourceSets.getting
val iosMain by sourceSets.creating {
dependsOn(commonMain)
iosX64Main.dependsOn(this)
iosArm64Main.dependsOn(this)
}
}
}
Configure
the
hierarchical
structure
manually
To create the hierarchical structure manually, introduce an intermediate source set that holds the shared code for
several targets and create a structure of the source sets including the intermediate one.
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Hierarchical structure
For example, if you want to share code among native Linux, Windows, and macOS targets – linuxX64M, mingwX64,
and macosX64:
1. Add the intermediate source set desktopMain that holds the shared logic for these targets.
2. Specify the hierarchy of source sets using the dependsOn relation.
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets {
desktopMain {
dependsOn(commonMain)
}
linuxX64Main {
dependsOn(desktopMain)
}
mingwX64Main {
dependsOn(desktopMain)
}
macosX64Main {
dependsOn(desktopMain)
}
}
}
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Kotlin
kotlin{
sourceSets {
val desktopMain by creating {
dependsOn(commonMain)
}
val linuxX64Main by getting {
dependsOn(desktopMain)
}
val mingwX64Main by getting {
dependsOn(desktopMain)
}
val macosX64Main by getting {
dependsOn(desktopMain)
}
}
}
You can have a shared source set for the following combinations of targets:
JVM + JS + Native
JVM + Native
JS + Native
JVM + JS
Native
Kotlin doesn’t currently support sharing a source set for these combinations:
Several JVM targets
JVM + Android targets
Several JS targets
If you need to access platform-specific APIs from a shared native source set, IntelliJ IDEA will help you detect common
declarations that you can use in the shared native code. For other cases, use the Kotlin mechanism of expected and
actual declarations.
Share
code
in
libraries
Thanks to the hierarchical project structure, libraries can also provide common APIs for a subset of targets. When a
library is published, the API of its intermediate source sets is embedded into the library artifacts along with information
about the project structure. When you use this library, the intermediate source sets of your project access only those
APIs of the library which are available to the targets of each source set.
For example, check out the following source set hierarchy from the kotlinx.coroutines repository:
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Library hierarchical structure
The concurrent source set declares the function runBlocking and is compiled for the JVM and the native targets. Once
the kotlinx.coroutines library is updated and published with the hierarchical project structure, you can depend on it and
call runBlocking from a source set that is shared between the JVM and native targets since it matches the “targets
signature” of the library’s concurrent source set.
Use
native
libraries
in
the
hierarchical
structure
You can use platform-dependent libraries like Foundation, UIKit, and POSIX in source sets shared among several
native targets. This helps you share more native code without being limited by platform-specific dependencies.
No additional steps are required – everything is done automatically. IntelliJ IDEA will help you detect common
declarations that you can use in the shared code.
However, note that there are some limitations:
This approach works only for a native source set that is shared among platform-specific source sets. It doesn’t work
for native source sets shared at higher levels of the source set hierarchy.
For example, if you have nativeDarwinMain that is a parent of watchosMain and iosMain, where iosMain has two
children – iosArm64Main and iosX64Main, you can use platform-dependent libraries only for iosMain but not for
nativeDarwinMain.
It works only for interop libraries shipped with Kotlin/Native.
To enable usage of platform-dependent libraries in shared source sets, add the following to your gradle.properties:
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kotlin.mpp.enableGranularSourceSetsMetadata=true
kotlin.native.enableDependencyPropagation=false
Learn more about the technical details.
Connect
to
platform-specific
APIs
The expect/ actual feature is in Beta. It is almost stable, but migration steps may be required in the future.
We'll do our best to minimize any changes you will have to make.
If you’re developing a multiplatform application that needs to access platform-specific APIs that implement the
required functionality, use the Kotlin mechanism of expected and actual declarations.
With this mechanism, a common source set defines an expected declaration, and platform source sets must provide
the actual declaration that corresponds to the expected declaration. This works for most Kotlin declarations, such as
functions, classes, interfaces, enumerations, properties, and annotations.
Expect and actual declarations
// Common
expect fun randomUUID(): String
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// Android
import java.util.*
actual fun randomUUID() = UUID.randomUUID().toString()
// iOS
import platform.Foundation.NSUUID
actual fun randomUUID(): String = NSUUID().UUIDString()
Here's another example of code sharing and interaction between the common and platform logic in a minimalistic
logging framework.
// Common
enum class LogLevel {
DEBUG, WARN, ERROR
}
internal expect fun writeLogMessage(message: String, logLevel: LogLevel)
fun logDebug(message: String) = writeLogMessage(message, LogLevel.DEBUG)
fun logWarn(message: String) = writeLogMessage(message, LogLevel.WARN)
fun logError(message: String) = writeLogMessage(message, LogLevel.ERROR)
// JVM
internal actual fun writeLogMessage(message: String, logLevel: LogLevel) {
println("[$logLevel]: $message")
}
For JavaScript, a completely different set of APIs is available, and the actual declaration will look like this.
// JS
internal actual fun writeLogMessage(message: String, logLevel: LogLevel) {
when (logLevel) {
LogLevel.DEBUG -> console.log(message)
LogLevel.WARN -> console.warn(message)
LogLevel.ERROR -> console.error(message)
}
}
Rules
for
expected
and
actual
declarations
The main rules regarding expected and actual declarations are:
An expected declaration is marked with the expect keyword; the actual declaration is marked with the actual
keyword.
expect and actual declarations have the same name and are located in the same package (have the same fully
qualified name).
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expect declarations never contain any implementation code.
During each platform compilation, the compiler ensures that every declaration marked with the expect keyword in the
common or intermediate source set has the corresponding declarations marked with the actual keyword in all platform
source sets. The IDE provides tools that help you create the missing actual declarations.
If you have a platform-specific library that you want to use in shared code while providing your own implementation for
another platform, you can provide a typealias to an existing class as the actual declaration:
expect class AtomicRef<V>(value: V) {
fun get(): V
fun set(value: V)
fun getAndSet(value: V): V
fun compareAndSet(expect: V, update: V): Boolean
}
actual typealias AtomicRef<V> = java.util.concurrent.atomic.AtomicReference<V>
Use expected and actual declarations only for Kotlin declarations that have platform-specific dependencies.
It is better to implement as much functionality as possible in the shared module even if doing so takes more
time.
Don’t overuse expected and actual declarations – in some cases, an interface may be a better choice
because it is more flexible and easier to test.
Set
up
targets
manually
You can add targets when creating a project with the Project Wizard. If you need to add a target later, you can do this
manually using target presets for supported platforms.
Learn more about additional settings for targets.
kotlin {
jvm() // Create a JVM target with the default name 'jvm'
linuxX64() {
/* Specify additional settings for the 'linux' target here */
}
}
Each target can have one or more compilations. In addition to default compilations for test and production purposes,
you can create custom compilations.
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Distinguish
several
targets
for
one
platform
You can have several targets for one platform in a multiplatform library. For example, these targets can provide the
same API but use different libraries during runtime, such as testing frameworks and logging solutions. Dependencies
on such a multiplatform library may fail to resolve because it isn’t clear which target to choose.
To solve this, mark the targets on both the library author and consumer sides with a custom attribute, which Gradle
uses during dependency resolution.
For example, consider a testing library that supports both JUnit and TestNG in the two targets. The library author
needs to add an attribute to both targets as follows:
Groovy
def testFrameworkAttribute = Attribute.of('com.example.testFramework', String)
kotlin {
jvm('junit') {
attributes.attribute(testFrameworkAttribute, 'junit')
}
jvm('testng') {
attributes.attribute(testFrameworkAttribute, 'testng')
}
}
Kotlin
val testFrameworkAttribute = Attribute.of("com.example.testFramework", String::class.java)
kotlin {
jvm("junit") {
attributes.attribute(testFrameworkAttribute, "junit")
}
jvm("testng") {
attributes.attribute(testFrameworkAttribute, "testng")
}
}
The consumer has to add the attribute to a single target where the ambiguity arises.
Add
dependencies
To add a dependency on a library, set a dependency of the required type (for example, implementation) in the
dependencies block in your Gradle build script.
Groovy
384
kotlin {
sourceSets {
commonMain {
dependencies {
implementation 'com.example:my-library:1.0'
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
sourceSets {
val commonMain by getting {
dependencies {
implementation("com.example:my-library:1.0")
}
}
}
}
Alternatively, you can set dependencies at the top level.
Dependency
on
the
standard
library
A dependency on a standard library (stdlib) in each source set is added automatically. The version of the standard
library is the same as the version of the kotlin-multiplatform plugin.
For platform-specific source sets, the corresponding platform-specific variant of the library is used, while a common
standard library is added to the rest. The Kotlin Gradle plugin will select the appropriate JVM standard library
depending on the kotlinOptions.jvmTarget compiler option of your Gradle build script
Learn how to change the default behavior.
Set
dependencies
on
test
libraries
The kotlin.test API is available for multiplatform tests. When you create a multiplatform project, the Project Wizard
automatically adds test dependencies to common and platform-specific source sets.
If you didn’t use the Project Wizard to create your project, you can add the dependencies manually.
Set
a
dependency
on
a
kotlinx
library
385
If you use a kotlinx library and need a platform-specific dependency, you can use platform-specific variants of libraries
with suffixes such as -jvm or -js, for example, kotlinx-coroutines-core-jvm. You can also use the library base artifact
name instead – kotlinx-coroutines-core.
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets {
jvmMain {
dependencies {
implementation 'org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-coroutines-core-jvm:1.5.0'
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
sourceSets {
val jvmMain by getting {
dependencies {
implementation("org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-coroutines-core-jvm:1.5.0")
}
}
}
}
If you use a multiplatform library and need to depend on the shared code, set the dependency only once in the shared
source set. Use the library base artifact name, such as kotlinx-coroutines-core or ktor-client-core.
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets {
commonMain {
dependencies {
implementation 'org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-coroutines-core:1.5.0'
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
sourceSets {
386
val commonMain by getting {
dependencies {
implementation("org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-coroutines-core:1.5.0")
}
}
}
}
Configure
compilations
Kotlin multiplatform projects use compilations for producing artifacts. Each target can have one or more compilations,
for example, for production and test purposes.
For each target, default compilations include:
main and test compilations for JVM, JS, and Native targets.
A compilation per Android build variant, for Android targets.
Compilations
If you need to compile something other than production code and unit tests, for example, integration or performance
tests, you can create a custom compilation.
387
You can configure how artifacts are produced in:
All compilations in your project at once.
Compilations for one target since one target can have multiple compilations.
A specific compilation.
See the list of compilation parameters and compiler options available for all or specific targets.
Configure
all
compilations
kotlin {
targets.all {
compilations.all {
kotlinOptions {
allWarningsAsErrors = true
}
}
}
}
Configure
compilations
for
one
target
Groovy
kotlin {
jvm().compilations.all {
kotlinOptions {
sourceMap = true
metaInfo = true
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
targets.jvm.compilations.all {
kotlinOptions {
sourceMap = true
metaInfo = true
}
}
}
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Configure
one
compilation
Groovy
kotlin {
jvm().compilations.main {
kotlinOptions {
jvmTarget = "1.8"
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
jvm {
val main by compilations.getting {
kotlinOptions {
jvmTarget = "1.8"
}
}
}
}
Create
a
custom
compilation
If you need to compile something other than production code and unit tests, for example, integration or performance
tests, create a custom compilation.
For example, to create a custom compilation for integration tests of the jvm() target, add a new item to the
compilations collection.
For custom compilations, you need to set up all dependencies manually. The default source set of a custom
compilation does not depend on the commonMain and the commonTest source sets.
Groovy
kotlin {
jvm() {
compilations.create('integrationTest') {
defaultSourceSet {
dependencies {
def main = compilations.main
// Compile against the main compilation's compile classpath and outputs:
implementation(main.compileDependencyFiles + main.output.classesDirs)
implementation kotlin('test-junit')
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/* ... */
}
}
// Create a test task to run the tests produced by this compilation:
tasks.register('jvmIntegrationTest', Test) {
// Run the tests with the classpath containing the compile dependencies
(including 'main'),
// runtime dependencies, and the outputs of this compilation:
classpath = compileDependencyFiles + runtimeDependencyFiles +
output.allOutputs
// Run only the tests from this compilation's outputs:
testClassesDirs = output.classesDirs
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
jvm() {
compilations {
val main by getting
val integrationTest by compilations.creating {
defaultSourceSet {
dependencies {
// Compile against the main compilation's compile classpath and
outputs:
implementation(main.compileDependencyFiles + main.output.classesDirs)
implementation(kotlin("test-junit"))
/* ... */
}
}
// Create a test task to run the tests produced by this compilation:
tasks.register<Test>("integrationTest") {
// Run the tests with the classpath containing the compile dependencies
(including 'main'),
// runtime dependencies, and the outputs of this compilation:
classpath = compileDependencyFiles + runtimeDependencyFiles +
output.allOutputs
// Run only the tests from this compilation's outputs:
testClassesDirs = output.classesDirs
}
}
}
}
}
You also need to create a custom compilation in other cases, for example, if you want to combine compilations for
different JVM versions in your final artifact, or you have already set up source sets in Gradle and want to migrate to a
390
multiplatform project.
Include
Java
sources
in
JVM
compilations
By default, the JVM target ignores Java sources and compiles only Kotlin source files.
To include Java sources in the compilations of the JVM target, explicitly enable the Java language support for the
target:
When creating a project with the Project Wizard.
Enable Java language support
In the build script of an existing project.
kotlin {
jvm {
withJava()
}
}
This applies the Gradle java plugin and configures the target to cooperate with it.
The Java source files are placed in the child directories of the Kotlin source roots. For example, the paths are:
391
Java source files
The common source sets cannot include Java sources.
Due to current limitations, the Kotlin plugin replaces some tasks configured by the Java plugin:
The target's JAR task instead of jar (for example, jvmJar ).
The target's test task instead of test (for example, jvmTest ).
The resources are processed by the equivalent tasks of the compilations instead of *ProcessResources tasks.
The publication of this target is handled by the Kotlin plugin and doesn't require steps that are specific for the Java
plugin.
Configure
interop
with
native
languages
Kotlin provides interoperability with native languages and DSL to configure this for a specific compilation.
Native language Supported platforms Comments
C All platforms, except for WebAssembly
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Native language Supported platforms Comments
Objective-C Apple platforms (macOS, iOS, watchOS,
tvOS)
Swift via Apple platforms (macOS, iOS, watchOS, Kotlin can use only Swift declarations marked with the @objc
Objective-C tvOS) attribute.
A compilation can interact with several native libraries. Configure interoperability in the cinterops block of the
compilation with available parameters.
Groovy
kotlin {
linuxX64 { // Replace with a target you need.
compilations.main {
cinterops {
myInterop {
// Def-file describing the native API.
// The default path is src/nativeInterop/cinterop/<interop-name>.def
defFile project.file("def-file.def")
// Package to place the Kotlin API generated.
packageName 'org.sample'
// Options to be passed to compiler by cinterop tool.
compilerOpts '-Ipath/to/headers'
// Directories for header search (an eqivalent of the -I<path> compiler
option).
includeDirs.allHeaders("path1", "path2")
// Additional directories to search headers listed in the 'headerFilter'
def-file option.
// -headerFilterAdditionalSearchPrefix command line option equivalent.
includeDirs.headerFilterOnly("path1", "path2")
// A shortcut for includeDirs.allHeaders.
includeDirs("include/directory", "another/directory")
}
anotherInterop { /* ... */ }
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
linuxX64 { // Replace with a target you need.
compilations.getByName("main") {
393
val myInterop by cinterops.creating {
// Def-file describing the native API.
// The default path is src/nativeInterop/cinterop/<interop-name>.def
defFile(project.file("def-file.def"))
// Package to place the Kotlin API generated.
packageName("org.sample")
// Options to be passed to compiler by cinterop tool.
compilerOpts("-Ipath/to/headers")
// Directories to look for headers.
includeDirs.apply {
// Directories for header search (an equivalent of the -I<path> compiler
option).
allHeaders("path1", "path2")
// Additional directories to search headers listed in the 'headerFilter'
def-file option.
// -headerFilterAdditionalSearchPrefix command line option equivalent.
headerFilterOnly("path1", "path2")
}
// A shortcut for includeDirs.allHeaders.
includeDirs("include/directory", "another/directory")
}
val anotherInterop by cinterops.creating { /* ... */ }
}
}
}
Compilation
for
Android
The compilations created for an Android target by default are tied to Android build variants: for each build variant, a
Kotlin compilation is created under the same name.
Then, for each Android source set compiled for each of the variants, a Kotlin source set is created under that source
set name prepended by the target name, like the Kotlin source set androidDebug for an Android source set debug and
the Kotlin target named android. These Kotlin source sets are added to the variants’ compilations accordingly.
The default source set commonMain is added to each production (application or library) variant's compilation. The
commonTest source set is similarly added to the compilations of unit test and instrumented test variants.
Annotation processing with kapt is also supported, but due to current limitations it requires that the Android target is
created before the kapt dependencies are configured, which needs to be done in a top-level dependencies block rather
than within Kotlin source set dependencies.
kotlin {
android { /* ... */ }
}
dependencies {
394
kapt("com.my.annotation:processor:1.0.0")
}
Compilation
of
the
source
set
hierarchy
Kotlin can build a source set hierarchy with the dependsOn relation.
Source set hierarchy
If the source set jvmMain depends on a source set commonMain then:
Whenever jvmMain is compiled for a certain target, commonMain takes part in that compilation as well and is also
compiled into the same target binary form, such as JVM class files.
Sources of jvmMain 'see' the declarations of commonMain, including internal declarations, and also see the
dependencies of commonMain, even those specified as implementation dependencies.
jvmMain can contain platform-specific implementations for the expected declarations of commonMain.
The resources of commonMain are always processed and copied along with the resources of jvmMain.
The language settings of jvmMain and commonMain should be consistent.
Language settings are checked for consistency in the following ways:
395
jvmMain should set a languageVersion that is greater than or equal to that of commonMain.
jvmMain should enable all unstable language features that commonMain enables (there's no such requirement for
bugfix features).
jvmMain should use all experimental annotations that commonMain uses.
apiVersion, bugfix language features, and progressiveMode can be set arbitrarily.
Run
tests
By default, Kotlin supports running tests for JVM, JS, Android, Linux, Windows, macOS as well as iOS, watchOS, and
tvOS simulators. To run tests for other Kotlin/Native targets, you need to configure them manually in an appropriate
environment, emulator, or test framework.
Required
dependencies
The kotlin.test API is available for multiplatform tests. When you create a multiplatform project, the Project Wizard
automatically adds test dependencies to common and platform-specific source sets.
If you didn’t use the Project Wizard to create your project, you can add the dependencies manually.
Run
tests
for
one
or
more
targets
To run tests for all targets, run the check task.
To run tests for a particular target suitable for testing, run a test task <targetName>Test.
Test
shared
code
For testing shared code, you can use actual declarations in your tests.
For example, to test the shared code in commonMain:
expect object Platform {
val name: String
}
fun hello(): String = "Hello from ${Platform.name}"
class Proxy {
fun proxyHello() = hello()
}
396
You can use the following test in commonTest:
import kotlin.test.Test
import kotlin.test.assertTrue
class SampleTests {
@Test
fun testProxy() {
assertTrue(Proxy().proxyHello().isNotEmpty())
}
}
And the following test in iosTest:
import kotlin.test.Test
import kotlin.test.assertTrue
class SampleTestsIOS {
@Test
fun testHello() {
assertTrue("iOS" in hello())
}
}
You can also learn how to create and run multiplatform tests in the Create and publish a multiplatform library – tutorial.
Publish
a
multiplatform
library
You can publish a multiplatform library to a Maven repository with the maven-publish Gradle plugin. Specify the group,
version, and the repositories where the library should be published. The plugin creates publications automatically.
plugins {
//...
id("maven-publish")
}
group = "com.example"
version = "1.0"
publishing {
repositories {
maven {
//...
}
}
}
Complete the tutorial on creating and publishing a multiplatform library to get hands-on experience.
397
Structure
of
publications
When used with maven-publish, the Kotlin plugin automatically creates publications for each target that can be built on
the current host, except for the Android target, which needs an additional step to configure publishing.
Publications of a multiplatform library include an additional root publication kotlinMultiplatform that stands for the
whole library and is automatically resolved to the appropriate platform-specific artifacts when added as a dependency
to the common source set. Learn more about adding dependencies.
This kotlinMultiplatform publication includes metadata artifacts and references the other publications as its variants.
Some repositories, such as Maven Central, require that the root module contains a JAR artifact without a
classifier, for example kotlinMultiplatform-1.0.jar.
The Kotlin Multiplatform plugin automatically produces the required artifact with the embedded metadata
artifacts.
This means you don't have to customize your build by adding an empty artifact to the root module of your
library to meet the repository’s requirements.
The kotlinMultiplatform publication may also need the sources and documentation artifacts if that is required by the
repository. In that case, add those artifacts by using artifact(...) in the publication's scope.
Avoid
duplicate
publications
To avoid duplicate publications of modules that can be built on several platforms (like JVM and JS), configure the
publishing tasks for these modules to run conditionally.
You can detect the platform in the script, introduce a flag such as isMainHost and set it to true for the main target
platform. Alternatively, you can pass the flag from an external source, for example, from CI configuration.
This simplified example ensures that publications are only uploaded when isMainHost=true is passed. This means that
a publication that can be published from multiple platforms will be published only once – from the main host.
Groovy
kotlin {
jvm()
js()
mingwX64()
linuxX64()
def publicationsFromMainHost =
[jvm(), js()].collect { it.name } + "kotlinMultiplatform"
publishing {
publications {
matching { it.name in publicationsFromMainHost }.all { targetPublication ->
tasks.withType(AbstractPublishToMaven)
398
.matching { it.publication == targetPublication }
.configureEach { onlyIf { findProperty("isMainHost") == "true" } }
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
jvm()
js()
mingwX64()
linuxX64()
val publicationsFromMainHost =
listOf(jvm(), js()).map { it.name } + "kotlinMultiplatform"
publishing {
publications {
matching { it.name in publicationsFromMainHost }.all {
val targetPublication = this@all
tasks.withType<AbstractPublishToMaven>()
.matching { it.publication == targetPublication }
.configureEach { onlyIf { findProperty("isMainHost") == "true" } }
}
}
}
}
By default, each publication includes a sources JAR that contains the sources used by the main compilation of the
target.
Publish
an
Android
library
To publish an Android library, you need to provide additional configuration.
By default, no artifacts of an Android library are published. To publish artifacts produced by a set of Android variants,
specify the variant names in the Android target block:
kotlin {
android {
publishLibraryVariants("release", "debug")
}
}
The example works for Android libraries without product flavors. For a library with product flavors, the variant names
also contain the flavors, like fooBarDebug or fooBazRelease.
399
If a library consumer defines variants that are missing in the library, they need to provide matching fallbacks.
For example, if a library does not have or does not publish a staging build type, the library consumer must
provide a fallback for the consumers who have such a build type, specifying at least one of the build types
that the library publishes:
Groovy
android {
buildTypes {
staging {
// ...
matchingFallbacks = ['release', 'debug']
}
}
}
Kotlin
android {
buildTypes {
val staging by creating {
// ...
matchingFallbacks = listOf("release", "debug")
}
}
}
Similarly, a library consumer needs to provide matching fallbacks for custom product flavors if some are missing in the
library publications.
You can also publish variants grouped by the product flavor, so that the outputs of the different build types are placed
in a single module, with the build type becoming a classifier for the artifacts (the release build type is still published
with no classifier). This mode is disabled by default and can be enabled as follows:
kotlin {
android {
publishLibraryVariantsGroupedByFlavor = true
}
}
It is not recommended that you publish variants grouped by the product flavor in case they have different
dependencies, as those will be merged into one dependencies list.
400
Create
and
publish
a
multiplatform
library
–
tutorial
In this tutorial, you will learn how to create a multiplatform library for JVM, JS, and Native platforms, write common
tests for all platforms, and publish the library to a local Maven repository.
This library converts raw data – strings and byte arrays – to the Base64 format. It can be used on Kotlin/JVM, Kotlin/JS,
and any available Kotlin/Native platform.
You will use different ways to implement the conversion to the Base64 format on different platforms:
For JVM – the java.util.Base64 class.
For JS – the Buffer API.
For Kotlin/Native – your own implementation.
You will also test your code using common tests, and then publish the library to your local Maven repository.
Set
up
the
environment
You can complete this tutorial on any operating system. Download and install the latest version of IntelliJ IDEA with the
latest Kotlin plugin.
Create
a
project
1. In IntelliJ IDEA, select File | New | Project.
2. In the left-hand panel, select Kotlin.
3. Enter a project name, then in the Multiplatform section select Library as the project template.
401
Select a project template
4. Select the Gradle DSL – Kotlin or Groovy.
5. Specify the JDK, which is required for developing Kotlin projects.
6. Click Next, and then click Finish.
The wizard will create a sample multiplatform library with the following structure:
402
Multiplatform library structure
Write
cross-platform
code
Define the classes and interfaces you are going to implement in the common code.
1. In the commonMain/kotlin directory, create the org.jetbrains.base64 package.
2. Create the Base64.kt file in the new package.
3. Define the Base64Encoder interface that converts bytes to the Base64 format:
package org.jetbrains.base64
interface Base64Encoder {
fun encode(src: ByteArray): ByteArray
}
4. Define the Base64Factory object to provide an instance of the Base64Encoder interface to the common code:
expect object Base64Factory {
fun createEncoder(): Base64Encoder
}
The factory object is marked with the expect keyword in the cross-platform code. For each platform, you should
provide an actual implementation of the Base64Factory object with the platform-specific encoder. Learn more about
platform-specific implementations.
403
Provide
platform-specific
implementations
Now you will create the actual implementations of the Base64Factory object for each platform:
JVM
JS
Native
JVM
1. In the jvmMain/kotlin directory, create the org.jetbrains.base64 package.
2. Create the Base64.kt file in the new package.
3. Provide a simple implementation of the Base64Factory object that delegates to the java.util.Base64 class:
IDEA inspections help create actual implementations for an expect declaration.
package org.jetbrains.base64
import java.util.*
actual object Base64Factory {
actual fun createEncoder(): Base64Encoder = JvmBase64Encoder
}
object JvmBase64Encoder : Base64Encoder {
override fun encode(src: ByteArray): ByteArray = Base64.getEncoder().encode(src)
}
Pretty simple, right? You've provided a platform-specific implementation by using a straightforward delegation to a
third-party implementation.
JS
The JS implementation will be very similar to the JVM one.
1. In the jsMain/kotlin directory, create the org.jetbrains.base64 package.
2. Create the Base64.kt file in the new package.
3. Provide a simple implementation of the Base64Factory object that delegates to the NodeJS Buffer API:
package org.jetbrains.base64
actual object Base64Factory {
actual fun createEncoder(): Base64Encoder = JsBase64Encoder
404
}
object JsBase64Encoder : Base64Encoder {
override fun encode(src: ByteArray): ByteArray {
val buffer = js("Buffer").from(src)
val string = buffer.toString("base64") as String
return ByteArray(string.length) { string[it].toByte() }
}
}
Native
Unfortunately, there is no third-party implementation available for all Kotlin/Native targets, so you need to write it
yourself.
1. In the nativeMain/kotlin directory, create the org.jetbrains.base64 package.
2. Create the Base64.kt file in the new package.
3. Provide your own implementation for the Base64Factory object:
package org.jetbrains.base64
private val BASE64_ALPHABET: String =
"ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZabcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz0123456789+/"
private val BASE64_MASK: Byte = 0x3f
private val BASE64_PAD: Char = '='
private val BASE64_INVERSE_ALPHABET = IntArray(256) {
BASE64_ALPHABET.indexOf(it.toChar())
}
private fun Int.toBase64(): Char = BASE64_ALPHABET[this]
actual object Base64Factory {
actual fun createEncoder(): Base64Encoder = NativeBase64Encoder
}
object NativeBase64Encoder : Base64Encoder {
override fun encode(src: ByteArray): ByteArray {
fun ByteArray.getOrZero(index: Int): Int = if (index >= size) 0 else
get(index).toInt()
// 4n / 3 is expected Base64 payload
val result = ArrayList<Byte>(4 * src.size / 3)
var index = 0
while (index < src.size) {
val symbolsLeft = src.size - index
val padSize = if (symbolsLeft >= 3) 0 else (3 - symbolsLeft) * 8 / 6
val chunk = (src.getOrZero(index) shl 16) or (src.getOrZero(index + 1) shl 8)
or src.getOrZero(index + 2)
index += 3
for (i in 3 downTo padSize) {
val char = (chunk shr (6 * i)) and BASE64_MASK.toInt()
result.add(char.toBase64().code.toByte())
}
// Fill the pad with '='
405
repeat(padSize) { result.add(BASE64_PAD.code.toByte()) }
}
return result.toByteArray()
}
}
Test
your
library
Now when you have actual implementations of the Base64Factory object for all platforms, it's time to test your
multiplatform library.
To save time on testing, you can write common tests that will be executed on all platforms instead of testing each
platform separately.
Prerequisites
Before writing tests, add the encodeToString method with the default implementation to the Base64Encoder interface,
which is defined in commonMain/kotlin/org/jetbrains/base64/Base64.kt. This implementation converts byte arrays to
strings, which are much easier to test.
interface Base64Encoder {
fun encode(src: ByteArray): ByteArray
fun encodeToString(src: ByteArray): String {
val encoded = encode(src)
return buildString(encoded.size) {
encoded.forEach { append(it.toChar()) }
}
}
}
You can also provide a more efficient implementation of this method for a specific platform, for example, for JVM in
jvmMain/kotlin/org/jetbrains/base64/Base64.kt:
object JvmBase64Encoder : Base64Encoder {
override fun encode(src: ByteArray): ByteArray = Base64.getEncoder().encode(src)
override fun encodeToString(src: ByteArray): String =
Base64.getEncoder().encodeToString(src)
}
One of the benefits of a multiplatform library is having a default implementation with optional platform-specific
overrides.
Write
common
tests
Now you have a string-based API that you can cover with basic tests.
406
1. In the commonTest/kotlin directory, create the org.jetbrains.base64 package.
2. Create the Base64Test.kt file in the new package.
3. Add tests to this file:
package org.jetbrains.base64
import kotlin.test.Test
class Base64Test {
@Test
fun testEncodeToString() {
checkEncodeToString("Kotlin is awesome", "S290bGluIGlzIGF3ZXNvbWU=")
}
@Test
fun testPaddedStrings() {
checkEncodeToString("", "")
checkEncodeToString("1", "MQ==")
checkEncodeToString("22", "MjI=")
checkEncodeToString("333", "MzMz")
checkEncodeToString("4444", "NDQ0NA==")
}
private fun checkEncodeToString(input: String, expectedOutput: String) {
assertEquals(expectedOutput,
Base64Factory.createEncoder().encodeToString(input.asciiToByteArray()))
}
private fun String.asciiToByteArray() = ByteArray(length) {
get(it).toByte()
}
}
4. In the Terminal, execute the check Gradle task:
./gradlew check
You can also run the check Gradle task by double-clicking it in the list of Gradle tasks.
The tests will run on all platforms (JVM, JS, and Native).
Add
platform-specific
tests
You can also add tests that will be run only for a specific platform. For example, you can add UTF-16 tests on JVM.
Just follow the same steps as for common tests, but create the Base64Test file in jvmTest/kotlin/org/jetbrains/base64:
package org.jetbrains.base64
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import org.junit.Test
import kotlin.test.assertEquals
class Base64JvmTest {
@Test
fun testNonAsciiString() {
val utf8String = "Gödel"
val actual = Base64Factory.createEncoder().encodeToString(utf8String.toByteArray())
assertEquals("R8O2ZGVs", actual)
}
}
This test will automatically run on the JVM platform in addition to the common tests.
Publish
your
library
to
the
local
Maven
repository
Your multiplatform library is ready for publishing so that you can use it in other projects.
To publish your library, use the maven-publish Gradle plugin.
1. In the build.gradle(.kts) file, apply the maven-publish plugin and specify the group and version of your library:
Groovy
plugins {
id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.multiplatform' version '1.5.20'
id 'maven-publish'
}
group = 'org.jetbrains.base64'
version = '1.0.0'
Kotlin
plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform") version "1.5.20"
id("maven-publish")
}
group = "org.jetbrains.base64"
version = "1.0.0"
2. In the Terminal, run the publishToMavenLocal Gradle task to publish your library to your local Maven repository:
./gradlew publishToMavenLocal
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You can also run the publishToMavenLocal Gradle task by double-clicking it in the list of Gradle tasks.
Your library will be published to the local Maven repository.
Add
a
dependency
on
the
published
library
Now you can add your library to other multiplatform projects as a dependency.
Add the mavenLocal() repository and add a dependency on your library to the build.gradle(.kts) file.
Groovy
repositories {
mavenCentral()
mavenLocal()
}
kotlin {
sourceSets {
commonMain {
dependencies {
implementation 'org.jetbrains.base64:Base64:1.0.0'
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
repositories {
mavenCentral()
mavenLocal()
}
kotlin {
sourceSets {
val commonMain by getting {
dependencies {
implementation("org.jetbrains.base64:Base64:1.0.0")
}
}
}
}
Summary
In this tutorial, you:
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Created a multiplatform library with platform-specific implementations.
Wrote common tests that are executed on all platforms.
Published your library to the local Maven repository.
What’s
next?
Learn more about publishing multiplatform libraries.
Learn more about Kotlin Multiplatform.
Create your first KMM application for Android and iOS – tutorial.
Create a full-stack web app with Kotlin Multiplatform – hands-on tutorial.
Build
final
native
binaries
By default, a Kotlin/Native target is compiled down to a *.klib library artifact, which can be consumed by Kotlin/Native
itself as a dependency but cannot be executed or used as a native library.
To declare final native binaries such as executables or shared libraries, use the binaries property of a native target. This
property represents a collection of native binaries built for this target in addition to the default *.klib artifact and
provides a set of methods for declaring and configuring them.
The kotlin-multiplatform plugin doesn't create any production binaries by default. The only binary available by
default is a debug test executable that lets you run unit tests from the test compilation.
Declare
binaries
Use the following factory methods to declare elements of the binaries collection.
Factory method Binary kind Available for
executable Product executable All native targets
test Test executable All native targets
sharedLib Shared native library All native targets, except for WebAssembly
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Factory method Binary kind Available for
staticLib Static native library All native targets, except for WebAssembly
framework Objective-C framework macOS, iOS, watchOS, and tvOS targets only
The simplest version doesn't require any additional parameters and creates one binary for each build type. Currently,
two build types are available:
DEBUG – produces a non-optimized binary with debug information
RELEASE – produces an optimized binary without debug information
The following snippet creates two executable binaries: debug and release.
kotlin {
linuxX64 { // Use your target instead.
binaries {
executable {
// Binary configuration.
}
}
}
}
You can drop the lambda if there is no need for additional configuration:
binaries {
executable()
}
You can specify for which build types to create binaries. In the following example, only the debug executable is
created.
Groovy
binaries {
executable([DEBUG]) {
// Binary configuration.
}
}
Kotlin
binaries {
executable(listOf(DEBUG)) {
// Binary configuration.
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}
}
You can also declare binaries with custom names.
Groovy
binaries {
executable('foo', [DEBUG]) {
// Binary configuration.
}
// It's possible to drop the list of build types (in which case, all the available build
types will be used).
executable('bar') {
// Binary configuration.
}
}
Kotlin
binaries {
executable("foo", listOf(DEBUG)) {
// Binary configuration.
}
// It's possible to drop the list of build types (in which case, all the available build
types will be used).
executable("bar") {
// Binary configuration.
}
}
The first argument sets a name prefix, which is the default name for the binary file. For example, for Windows the code
produces the files foo.exe and bar.exe. You can also use the name prefix to access the binary in the build script.
Access
binaries
You can access binaries to configure them or get their properties (for example, the path to an output file).
You can get a binary by its unique name. This name is based on the name prefix (if it is specified), build type, and
binary kind following the pattern: <optional-name-prefix><build-type><binary-kind>, for example, releaseFramework or
testDebugExecutable.
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Static and shared libraries have the suffixes static and shared respectively, for example, fooDebugStatic or
barReleaseShared.
Groovy
// Fails if there is no such binary.
binaries['fooDebugExecutable']
binaries.fooDebugExecutable
binaries.getByName('fooDebugExecutable')
// Returns null if there is no such binary.
binaries.findByName('fooDebugExecutable')
Kotlin
// Fails if there is no such binary.
binaries["fooDebugExecutable"]
binaries.getByName("fooDebugExecutable")
// Returns null if there is no such binary.
binaries.findByName("fooDebugExecutable")
Alternatively, you can access a binary by its name prefix and build type using typed getters.
Groovy
// Fails if there is no such binary.
binaries.getExecutable('foo', DEBUG)
binaries.getExecutable(DEBUG) // Skip the first argument if the name prefix isn't set.
binaries.getExecutable('bar', 'DEBUG') // You also can use a string for build type.
// Similar getters are available for other binary kinds:
// getFramework, getStaticLib and getSharedLib.
// Returns null if there is no such binary.
binaries.findExecutable('foo', DEBUG)
// Similar getters are available for other binary kinds:
// findFramework, findStaticLib and findSharedLib.
Kotlin
// Fails if there is no such binary.
binaries.getExecutable("foo", DEBUG)
binaries.getExecutable(DEBUG) // Skip the first argument if the name prefix isn't set.
binaries.getExecutable("bar", "DEBUG") // You also can use a string for build type.
// Similar getters are available for other binary kinds:
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// getFramework, getStaticLib and getSharedLib.
// Returns null if there is no such binary.
binaries.findExecutable("foo", DEBUG)
// Similar getters are available for other binary kinds:
// findFramework, findStaticLib and findSharedLib.
Export
dependencies
to
binaries
When building an Objective-C framework or a native library (shared or static), you may need to pack not just the
classes of the current project, but also the classes of its dependencies. Specify which dependencies to export to a
binary using the export method.
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets {
macosMain.dependencies {
// Will be exported.
api project(':dependency')
api 'org.example:exported-library:1.0'
// Will not be exported.
api 'org.example:not-exported-library:1.0'
}
}
macosX64("macos").binaries {
framework {
export project(':dependency')
export 'org.example:exported-library:1.0'
}
sharedLib {
// It's possible to export different sets of dependencies to different binaries.
export project(':dependency')
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
sourceSets {
macosMain.dependencies {
// Will be exported.
api(project(":dependency"))
api("org.example:exported-library:1.0")
// Will not be exported.
api("org.example:not-exported-library:1.0")
}
}
macosX64("macos").binaries {
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framework {
export(project(":dependency"))
export("org.example:exported-library:1.0")
}
sharedLib {
// It's possible to export different sets of dependencies to different binaries.
export(project(':dependency'))
}
}
}
You can export only api dependencies of the corresponding source set.
You can export maven dependencies, but due to current limitations of Gradle metadata, such a dependency
should be either a platform dependency (for example, kotlinx-coroutines-core-native_debug_macos_x64
instead of kotlinx-coroutines-core-native) or be exported transitively.
By default, export works non-transitively. This means that if you export the library foo depending on the library bar, only
methods of foo are added to the output framework.
You can change this behavior using the transitiveExport flag. If set to true, the declarations of the library bar are
exported as well.
Groovy
binaries {
framework {
export project(':dependency')
// Export transitively.
transitiveExport = true
}
}
Kotlin
binaries {
framework {
export(project(":dependency"))
// Export transitively.
transitiveExport = true
}
}
For example, assume that you write several modules in Kotlin and then want to access them from Swift. Since usage of
several Kotlin/Native frameworks in one Swift application is limited, you can create a single umbrella framework and
export all these modules to it.
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Build
universal
frameworks
By default, an Objective-C framework produced by Kotlin/Native supports only one platform. However, you can merge
such frameworks into a single universal (fat) binary using the lipo tool. This operation especially makes sense for 32-bit
and 64-bit iOS frameworks. In this case, you can use the resulting universal framework on both 32-bit and 64-bit
devices.
The fat framework must have the same base name as the initial frameworks.
Groovy
import org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.tasks.FatFrameworkTask
kotlin {
// Create and configure the targets.
targets {
iosArm32("ios32")
iosArm64("ios64")
configure([ios32, ios64]) {
binaries.framework {
baseName = "my_framework"
}
}
}
// Create a task building a fat framework.
tasks.register("debugFatFramework", FatFrameworkTask) {
// The fat framework must have the same base name as the initial frameworks.
baseName = "my_framework"
// The default destination directory is "<build directory>/fat-framework".
destinationDir = file("$buildDir/fat-framework/debug")
// Specify the frameworks to be merged.
from(
targets.ios32.binaries.getFramework("DEBUG"),
targets.ios64.binaries.getFramework("DEBUG")
)
}
}
Kotlin
import org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.tasks.FatFrameworkTask
kotlin {
// Create and configure the targets.
val ios32 = iosArm32("ios32")
val ios64 = iosArm64("ios64")
configure(listOf(ios32, ios64)) {
binaries.framework {
baseName = "my_framework"
}
}
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// Create a task to build a fat framework.
tasks.register<FatFrameworkTask>("debugFatFramework") {
// The fat framework must have the same base name as the initial frameworks.
baseName = "my_framework"
// The default destination directory is "<build directory>/fat-framework".
destinationDir = buildDir.resolve("fat-framework/debug")
// Specify the frameworks to be merged.
from(
ios32.binaries.getFramework("DEBUG"),
ios64.binaries.getFramework("DEBUG")
)
}
}
Supported
platforms
Kotlin supports the following platforms and provides target presets for each platform. See how to use a target preset.
Target platform Target preset Comments
Kotlin/JVM jvm
Kotlin/JS js Select the execution environment:
browser {} for applications running in the browser.
nodejs{} for applications running on Node.js.
Learn more in Setting up a Kotlin/JS project.
Android android Manually apply an Android Gradle plugin –
applications and
com.android.application or com.android.library.
libraries
You can only create one Android target per Gradle
subproject.
Android NDK androidNativeArm32, The 64-bit target requires a Linux or macOS host.
androidNativeArm64
You can build the 32-bit target on any supported host.
iOS iosArm32, iosArm64, iosX64 Requires a macOS host.
watchOS watchosArm32, watchosArm64, Requires a macOS host.
watchosX86, watchosX64
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Target platform Target preset Comments
tvOS tvosArm64, tvosX64 Requires a macOS host.
macOS macosX64 Requires a macOS host.
Linux linuxArm64, linuxArm32Hfp, Linux MIPS targets (linuxMips32 and linuxMipsel32)
linuxMips32, linuxMipsel32, linuxX64 require a Linux host.
You can build other Linux targets on any supported
host.
Windows mingwX64, mingwX86 Requires a Windows host.
WebAssembly wasm32
A target that is not supported by the current host is ignored during building and therefore not published.
Multiplatform
Gradle
DSL
reference
Multiplatform projects are in Alpha. Language features and tooling may change in future Kotlin versions.
The Kotlin Multiplatform Gradle plugin is a tool for creating Kotlin multiplatform projects. Here we provide a reference
of its contents; use it as a reminder when writing Gradle build scripts for Kotlin multiplatform projects. Learn the
concepts of Kotlin multiplatform projects, how to create and configure them.
Id
and
version
The fully qualified name of the Kotlin Multiplatform Gradle plugin is org.jetbrains.kotlin.multiplatform. If you use the
Kotlin Gradle DSL, you can apply the plugin with kotlin(“multiplatform”). The plugin versions match the Kotlin release
versions. The most recent version is 1.5.20.
Groovy
plugins {
id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.multiplatform' version '1.5.20'
}
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Kotlin
plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform") version "1.5.20"
}
Top-level
blocks
kotlin is the top-level block for multiplatform project configuration in the Gradle build script. Inside kotlin, you can write
the following blocks:
Block Description
<targetName> Declares a particular target of a project. The names of available targets are listed in the Targets section.
targets All targets of the project.
presets All predefined targets. Use this for configuring multiple predefined targets at once.
sourceSets Configures predefined and declares custom source sets of the project.
Targets
Target is a part of the build responsible for compiling, testing, and packaging a piece of software aimed for one of the
supported platforms.
Each target can have one or more compilations. In addition to default compilations for test and production purposes,
you can create custom compilations.
The targets of a multiplatform project are described in the corresponding blocks inside kotlin, for example, jvm,
android, iosArm64. The complete list of available targets is the following:
Name Description
jvm Java Virtual Machine
js JavaScript
android Android (APK)
androidNativeArm32 Android NDK on ARM (ARM32) platforms
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Name Description
androidNativeArm64 Android NDK on ARM64 platforms
androidNativeX86 Android NDK on x86 platforms
androidNativeX64 Android NDK on x86_64 platforms
iosArm32 Apple iOS on ARM (ARM32) platforms (Apple iPhone 5 and earlier)
iosArm64 Apple iOS on ARM64 platforms (Apple iPhone 5s and newer)
iosX64 Apple iOS 64-bit simulator
watchosArm32 Apple watchOS on ARM (ARM32) platforms (Apple Watch Series 3 and earlier)
watchosArm64 Apple watchOS on ARM64_32 platforms (Apple Watch Series 4 and newer)
watchosX86 Apple watchOS 32-bit simulator (watchOS 6.3 and earlier)
watchosX64 Apple watchOS 64-bit simulator (watchOS 7.0 and newer)
tvosArm64 Apple tvOS on ARM64 platforms (Apple TV 4th generation and newer)
tvosX64 Apple tvOS simulator
linuxArm64 Linux on ARM64 platforms, for example, Raspberry Pi
linuxArm32Hfp Linux on hard-float ARM (ARM32) platforms
linuxMips32 Linux on MIPS platforms
linuxMipsel32 Linux on little-endian MIPS (mipsel) platforms
linuxX64 Linux on x86_64 platforms
macosX64 Apple macOS
mingwX64 64-bit Microsoft Windows
mingwX86 32-bit Microsoft Windows
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Name Description
wasm32 WebAssembly
kotlin {
jvm()
iosX64()
macosX64()
js().browser()
}
Configuration of a target can include two parts:
Common configuration available for all targets.
Target-specific configuration.
Each target can have one or more compilations.
Common
target
configuration
In any target block, you can use the following declarations:
Name Description
attributes Attributes used for disambiguating targets for a single platform.
preset The preset that the target has been created from, if any.
platformType Designates the Kotlin platform of this target. Avaiable values: jvm, androidJvm, js, native, common.
artifactsTaskName The name of the task that builds the resulting artifacts of this target.
components The components used to setup Gradle publications.
JVM
targets
In addition to common target configuration, jvm targets have a specific function:
Name Description
withJava() Includes Java sources into the JVM target’s compilations.
Use this function for projects that contain both Java and Kotlin source files. Note that the default source directories for
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Java sources don't follow the Java plugin's defaults. Instead, they are derived from the Kotlin source sets. For
example, if the JVM target has the default name jvm, the paths are src/jvmMain/java (for production Java sources) and
src/jvmTest/java for test Java sources. Learn how to include Java sources in JVM compilations.
kotlin {
jvm {
withJava()
}
}
JavaScript
targets
The js block describes the configuration of JavaScript targets. It can contain one of two blocks depending on the target
execution environment:
Name Description
browser Configuration of the browser target.
nodejs Configuration of the Node.js target.
Learn more about configuring Kotlin/JS projects.
Browser
browser can contain the following configuration blocks:
Name Description
testRuns Configuration of test execution.
runTask Configuration of project running.
webpackTask Configuration of project bundling with Webpack.
dceTask Configuration of Dead Code Elimination.
distribution Path to output files.
kotlin {
js().browser {
webpackTask { /* ... */ }
testRuns { /* ... */ }
dceTask {
keep("myKotlinJsApplication.org.example.keepFromDce")
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}
distribution {
directory = File("$projectDir/customdir/")
}
}
}
Node.js
nodejs can contain configurations of test and run tasks:
Name Description
testRuns Configuration of test execution.
runTask Configuration of project running.
kotlin {
js().nodejs {
runTask { /* ... */ }
testRuns { /* ... */ }
}
}
Native
targets
For native targets, the following specific blocks are available:
Name Description
binaries Configuration of binaries to produce.
cinterops Configuration of interop with C libraries.
Binaries
There are the following kinds of binaries:
Name Description
executable Product executable.
test Test executable.
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Name Description
sharedLib Shared library.
staticLib Static library.
framework Objective-C framework.
kotlin {
linuxX64 { // Use your target instead.
binaries {
executable {
// Binary configuration.
}
}
}
}
For binaries configuration, the following parameters are available:
Name Description
compilation The compilation from which the binary is built. By default, test binaries are based on the test compilation while
other binaries - on the main compilation.
linkerOpts Options passed to a system linker during binary building.
baseName Custom base name for the output file. The final file name will be formed by adding system-dependent prefix
and postfix to this base name.
entryPoint The entry point function for executable binaries. By default, it's main() in the root package.
outputFile Access to the output file.
linkTask Access to the link task.
runTask Access to the run task for executable binaries. For targets other than linuxX64, macosX64, or mingwX64 the
value is null.
isStatic For Objective-C frameworks. Includes a static library instead of a dynamic one.
Groovy
binaries {
executable('my_executable', [RELEASE]) {
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// Build a binary on the basis of the test compilation.
compilation = compilations.test
// Custom command line options for the linker.
linkerOpts = ['-L/lib/search/path', '-L/another/search/path', '-lmylib']
// Base name for the output file.
baseName = 'foo'
// Custom entry point function.
entryPoint = 'org.example.main'
// Accessing the output file.
println("Executable path: ${outputFile.absolutePath}")
// Accessing the link task.
linkTask.dependsOn(additionalPreprocessingTask)
// Accessing the run task.
// Note that the runTask is null for non-host platforms.
runTask?.dependsOn(prepareForRun)
}
framework('my_framework' [RELEASE]) {
// Include a static library instead of a dynamic one into the framework.
isStatic = true
}
}
Kotlin
binaries {
executable("my_executable", listOf(RELEASE)) {
// Build a binary on the basis of the test compilation.
compilation = compilations["test"]
// Custom command line options for the linker.
linkerOpts = mutableListOf("-L/lib/search/path", "-L/another/search/path", "-lmylib")
// Base name for the output file.
baseName = "foo"
// Custom entry point function.
entryPoint = "org.example.main"
// Accessing the output file.
println("Executable path: ${outputFile.absolutePath}")
// Accessing the link task.
linkTask.dependsOn(additionalPreprocessingTask)
// Accessing the run task.
// Note that the runTask is null for non-host platforms.
runTask?.dependsOn(prepareForRun)
}
framework("my_framework" listOf(RELEASE)) {
// Include a static library instead of a dynamic one into the framework.
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isStatic = true
}
}
Learn more about building native binaries.
CInterops
cinterops is a collection of descriptions for interop with native libraries. To provide an interop with a library, add an
entry to cinterops and define its parameters:
Name Description
defFile def file describing the native API.
packageName Package prefix for the generated Kotlin API.
compilerOpts Options to pass to the compiler by the cinterop tool.
includeDirs Directories to look for headers.
Learn more how to configure interop with native languages.
Groovy
kotlin {
linuxX64 { // Replace with a target you need.
compilations.main {
cinterops {
myInterop {
// Def-file describing the native API.
// The default path is src/nativeInterop/cinterop/<interop-name>.def
defFile project.file("def-file.def")
// Package to place the Kotlin API generated.
packageName 'org.sample'
// Options to be passed to compiler by cinterop tool.
compilerOpts '-Ipath/to/headers'
// Directories for header search (an analogue of the -I<path> compiler
option).
includeDirs.allHeaders("path1", "path2")
// A shortcut for includeDirs.allHeaders.
includeDirs("include/directory", "another/directory")
}
anotherInterop { /* ... */ }
}
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}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
linuxX64 { // Replace with a target you need.
compilations.getByName("main") {
val myInterop by cinterops.creating {
// Def-file describing the native API.
// The default path is src/nativeInterop/cinterop/<interop-name>.def
defFile(project.file("def-file.def"))
// Package to place the Kotlin API generated.
packageName("org.sample")
// Options to be passed to compiler by cinterop tool.
compilerOpts("-Ipath/to/headers")
// Directories for header search (an analogue of the -I<path> compiler option).
includeDirs.allHeaders("path1", "path2")
// A shortcut for includeDirs.allHeaders.
includeDirs("include/directory", "another/directory")
}
val anotherInterop by cinterops.creating { /* ... */ }
}
}
}
Android
targets
The Kotlin multiplatform plugin contains two specific functions for android targets. Two functions help you configure
build variants:
Name Description
publishLibraryVariants() Specifies build variants to publish. Learn more about publishing Android libraries.
publishAllLibraryVariants() Publishes all build variants.
kotlin {
android {
publishLibraryVariants("release", "debug")
}
}
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Learn more about compilation for Android.
The android configuration inside kotlin doesn’t replace the build configuration of any Android project. Learn
more about writing build scripts for Android projects in Android developer documentation.
Source
sets
The sourceSets block describes source sets of the project. A source set contains Kotlin source files that participate in
compilations together, along with their resources, dependencies, and language settings.
A multiplatform project contains predefined source sets for its targets; developers can also create custom source sets
for their needs.
Predefined
source
sets
Predefined source sets are set up automatically upon creation of a multiplatform project. Available predefined source
sets are the following:
Name Description
commonMain Code and resources shared between all platforms. Available in all multiplatform projects. Used in all
main compilations of a project.
commonTest Test code and resources shared between all platforms. Available in all multiplatform projects. Used in
all test compilations of a project.
<targetName> Target-specific sources for a compilation. <targetName> is the name of a predefined target and
<compilationName> <compilationName> is the name of a compilation for this target. Examples: jsTest, jvmMain.
With Kotlin Gradle DSL, the sections of predefined source sets should be marked by getting.
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets {
commonMain { /* ... */ }
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
sourceSets {
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val commonMain by getting { /* ... */ }
}
}
Learn more about source sets.
Custom
source
sets
Custom source sets are created by the project developers manually. To create a custom source set, add a section with
its name inside the sourceSets section. If using Kotlin Gradle DSL, mark custom source sets by creating.
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets {
myMain { /* ... */ } // create or configure a source set by the name 'myMain'
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
sourceSets {
val myMain by creating { /* ... */ } // create a new source set by the name 'MyMain'
}
}
Note that a newly created source set isn’t connected to other ones. To use it in the project’s compilations, connect it
with other source sets.
Source
set
parameters
Configurations of source sets are stored inside the corresponding blocks of sourceSets. A source set has the following
parameters:
Name Description
kotlin.srcDir Location of Kotlin source files inside the source set directory.
resources.srcDir Location of resources inside the source set directory.
dependsOn Connection with another source set.
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Name Description
dependencies Dependencies of the source set.
languageSettings Language settings applied to the source set.
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets {
commonMain {
kotlin.srcDir('src')
resources.srcDir('res')
dependencies {
/* ... */
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
sourceSets {
val commonMain by getting {
kotlin.srcDir("src")
resources.srcDir("res")
dependencies {
/* ... */
}
}
}
}
Compilations
A target can have one or more compilations, for example, for production or testing. There are predefined compilations
that are added automatically upon target creation. You can additionally create custom compilations.
To refer to all or some particular compilations of a target, use the compilations object collection. From compilations,
you can refer to a compilation by its name.
Learn more about configuring compilations.
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Predefined
compilations
Predefined compilations are created automatically for each target of a project except for Android targets. Available
predefined compilations are the following:
Name Description
main Compilation for production sources.
test Compilation for tests.
Groovy
kotlin {
jvm {
compilations.main.output // get the main compilation output
compilations.test.runtimeDependencyFiles // get the test runtime classpath
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
jvm {
val main by compilations.getting {
output // get the main compilation output
}
compilations["test"].runtimeDependencyFiles // get the test runtime classpath
}
}
Custom
compilations
In addition to predefined compilations, you can create your own custom compilations. To create a custom compilation,
add a new item into the compilations collection. If using Kotlin Gradle DSL, mark custom compilations by creating.
Learn more about creating a custom compilation.
Groovy
kotlin {
jvm() {
compilations.create('integrationTest') {
defaultSourceSet {
dependencies {
/* ... */
}
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}
// Create a test task to run the tests produced by this compilation:
tasks.register('jvmIntegrationTest', Test) {
/* ... */
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
jvm() {
compilations {
val integrationTest by compilations.creating {
defaultSourceSet {
dependencies {
/* ... */
}
}
// Create a test task to run the tests produced by this compilation:
tasks.register<Test>("integrationTest") {
/* ... */
}
}
}
}
}
Compilation
parameters
A compilation has the following parameters:
Name Description
defaultSourceSet The compilation’s default source set.
kotlinSourceSets Source sets participating in the compilation.
allKotlinSourceSets Source sets participating in the compilation and their connections via dependsOn().
kotlinOptions Compiler options applied to the compilation. For the list of available options, see Compiler options.
compileKotlinTask Gradle task for compiling Kotlin sources.
compileKotlinTaskName Name of compileKotlinTask.
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Name Description
compileAllTaskName Name of the Gradle task for compiling all sources of a compilation.
output The compilation output.
compileDependencyFiles Compile-time dependency files (classpath) of the compilation.
runtimeDependencyFiles Runtime dependency files (classpath) of the compilation.
Groovy
kotlin {
jvm {
compilations.main.kotlinOptions {
// Setup the Kotlin compiler options for the 'main' compilation:
jvmTarget = "1.8"
}
compilations.main.compileKotlinTask // get the Kotlin task 'compileKotlinJvm'
compilations.main.output // get the main compilation output
compilations.test.runtimeDependencyFiles // get the test runtime classpath
}
// Configure all compilations of all targets:
targets.all {
compilations.all {
kotlinOptions {
allWarningsAsErrors = true
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
jvm {
val main by compilations.getting {
kotlinOptions {
// Setup the Kotlin compiler options for the 'main' compilation:
jvmTarget = "1.8"
}
compileKotlinTask // get the Kotlin task 'compileKotlinJvm'
output // get the main compilation output
}
compilations["test"].runtimeDependencyFiles // get the test runtime classpath
}
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// Configure all compilations of all targets:
targets.all {
compilations.all {
kotlinOptions {
allWarningsAsErrors = true
}
}
}
}
Dependencies
The dependencies block of the source set declaration contains the dependencies of this source set.
Learn more about configuring dependencies.
There are four types of dependencies:
Name Description
api Dependencies used in the API of the current module.
implementation Dependencies used in the module but not exposed outside it.
compileOnly Dependencies used only for compilation of the current module.
runtimeOnly Dependencies available at runtime but not visible during compilation of any module.
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets {
commonMain {
dependencies {
api 'com.example:foo-metadata:1.0'
}
}
jvm6Main {
dependencies {
implementation 'com.example:foo-jvm6:1.0'
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
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kotlin {
sourceSets {
val commonMain by getting {
dependencies {
api("com.example:foo-metadata:1.0")
}
}
val jvm6Main by getting {
dependencies {
implementation("com.example:foo-jvm6:1.0")
}
}
}
}
Additionally, source sets can depend on each other and form a hierarchy. In this case, the dependsOn() relation is
used.
Source set dependencies can also be declared in the top-level dependencies block of the build script. In this case,
their declarations follow the pattern <sourceSetName><DependencyKind>, for example, commonMainApi.
Groovy
dependencies {
commonMainApi 'com.example:foo-common:1.0'
jvm6MainApi 'com.example:foo-jvm6:1.0'
}
Kotlin
dependencies {
"commonMainApi"("com.example:foo-common:1.0")
"jvm6MainApi"("com.example:foo-jvm6:1.0")
}
Language
settings
The languageSettings block of a source set defines certain aspects of project analysis and build. The following
language settings are available:
Name Description
languageVersion Provides source compatibility with the specified version of Kotlin.
apiVersion Allows using declarations only from the specified version of Kotlin bundled libraries.
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Name Description
enableLanguageFeature Enables the specified language feature. The available values correspond to the language
features that are currently experimental or have been introduced as such at some point.
useExperimentalAnnotation Allows using the specified opt-in annotation.
progressiveMode Enables the progressive mode.
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets.all {
languageSettings {
languageVersion = '1.4' // possible values: '1.0', '1.1', '1.2', '1.3', '1.4'
apiVersion = '1.4' // possible values: '1.0', '1.1', '1.2', '1.3', '1.4'
enableLanguageFeature('InlineClasses') // language feature name
useExperimentalAnnotation('kotlin.ExperimentalUnsignedTypes') // annotation FQ-name
progressiveMode = true // false by default
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
sourceSets.all {
languageSettings.apply {
languageVersion = "1.4" // possible values: "1.0", "1.1", "1.2", "1.3", "1.4"
apiVersion = "1.4" // possible values: "1.0", "1.1", "1.2", "1.3", "1.4"
enableLanguageFeature("InlineClasses") // language feature name
useExperimentalAnnotation("kotlin.ExperimentalUnsignedTypes") // annotation FQ-name
progressiveMode = true // false by default
}
}
}
Migrating
multiplatform
projects
to
Kotlin
1.4.0
Kotlin 1.4.0 comes with lots of features and improvements in the tooling for multiplatform programming. Some of them
just work out of the box on existing projects, and some require additional configuration steps. This guide will help you
migrate your multiplatform projects to 1.4.0 or higher and get the benefits of all its new features.
For
multiplatform
project
authors
436
Update
Gradle
Starting with 1.4.0, Kotlin multiplatform projects require Gradle 6.0 or later. Make sure that your projects use the proper
version of Gradle and upgrade it if needed. See the Gradle documentation for non-Kotlin-specific migration
instructions.
Simplify
your
build
configuration
Gradle module metadata provides rich publishing and dependency resolution features that are used in Kotlin
Multiplatform Projects. In Gradle 6.0 and above, module metadata is used in dependency resolution and included in
publications by default. Thus, once you update to such a version, you can remove
enableFeaturePreview("GRADLE_METADATA") from the project’s settings.gradle file.
If you use libraries published with metadata, you only have to specify dependencies on them only once in the shared
source set, as opposed to specifying dependencies on different variants of the same library in the shared and platform-
specific source sets prior to 1.4.0.
Starting from 1.4.0, you also no longer need to declare a dependency on stdlib in each source set manually – it will
now be added by default. The version of the automatically added standard library will be the same as the version of the
Kotlin Gradle plugin, since they have the same versioning.
With these features, you can make your Gradle build file much more concise and easy to read:
//...
android()
ios()
js()
sourceSets {
commonMain {
dependencies {
implementation("org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-coroutines-core:$coroutinesVersion")
}
}
}
//...
Don’t use kotlinx library artifact names with suffixes -common or -native, as they are no longer supported. Instead, use
the library root artifact name, which in the example above is kotlinx-coroutines-core.
Try
the
hierarchical
project
structure
With the new hierarchical project structure support, you can share code among several targets in a multiplatform
project. You can use platform-dependent libraries, such as Foundation, UIKit, and posix in source sets shared among
several native targets. This can help you share more native code without being limited by platform-specific
dependencies.
By enabling the hierarchical structure along with its ability to use platform-dependent libraries in shared source sets,
you can eliminate the need to use certain workarounds to get IDE support for sharing source sets among several native
437
targets, for example iosArm64 and iosX64:
kotlin {
// workaround 1: select iOS target platform depending on the Xcode environment variables
val iOSTarget: (String, KotlinNativeTarget.() -> Unit) -> KotlinNativeTarget =
if (System.getenv("SDK_NAME")?.startsWith("iphoneos") == true)
::iosArm64
else
::iosX64
iOSTarget("ios")
}
# workaround 2: make symbolic links to use one source set for two targets
ln -s iosMain iosArm64Main && ln -s iosMain iosX64Main
Instead of doing this, you can create a hierarchical structure with target shortcuts available for typical multi-target
scenarios, or you can manually declare and connect the source sets. For example, you can create two iOS targets and
a shared source set with the ios() shortcut:
kotlin {
ios() // iOS device and simulator targets; iosMain and iosTest source sets
}
To enable the hierarchical project structure along with the use of platform-dependent libraries in shared source sets,
just add the following to your gradle.properties:
kotlin.mpp.enableGranularSourceSetsMetadata=true
kotlin.native.enableDependencyPropagation=false
In future versions, the hierarchical project structure will become default for Kotlin multiplatform project, so we strongly
encourage you to start using it now.
For
library
authors
Migrate
from
Gradle
Bintray
plugin
to
Maven
Publish
plugin
If you're using gradle-bintray-plugin for library publication, migrate your projects to maven-publish plugin instead. See
how we've done this for kotlinx.serialization. Learn more about publishing multiplatform libraries.
If for some reason you need to publish to Bintray and use the Gradle Bintray plugin, remember that this plugin doesn’t
support publishing Gradle module metadata. Use this workaround to fix this.
Follow
the
default
libraries’
layout
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The layout of kotlinx libraries has changed and now corresponds to the default layout, which we recommend using:
The root or umbrella library module now has a name without a suffix (for example, kotlinx-coroutines-core instead of
kotlinx-coroutines-core-native ). Publishing libraries with maven-publish Gradle plugin follows this layout by default.
Learn more about publishing multiplatform libraries.
Migrate
to
the
hierarchical
project
structure
A hierarchical project structure allows reusing code in similar targets, as well as publishing and consuming libraries
with granular APIs targeting similar platforms. We recommend that you switch to the hierarchical project structure in
your libraries when migrating to Kotlin 1.4.0 or higher:
By default, libraries published with the hierarchical project structure are compatible only with projects that have
hierarchical project structure. To enable compatibility with non-hierarchical projects, add the following to the
gradle.properties file in your library project:
kotlin.mpp.enableCompatibilityMetadataVariant=true
Libraries published without the hierarchical project structure can’t be used in a shared native source set. For
example, users with ios() shortcuts in their build.gradle.(kts) files won’t be able to use your library in their iOS-shared
code.
The compatibility between multiplatform projects and libraries is as follows:
Library with hierarchical project Project with hierarchical project Compatibility
structure structure
Yes Yes ✅
Yes No Need to enable with
enableCompatibilityMetadataVariant
No Yes Library can’t be used in a shared native source
set
No Yes ✅
In future versions, the hierarchical project structure with the usage of platform-dependent libraries in shared source
sets will be the default in multiplatform projects. So the sooner you support it, the sooner users will be able to migrate.
We’ll also be very grateful if you report any bugs you find to our issue tracker.
To enable hierarchical project structure support, add the following to your gradle.properties file:
kotlin.mpp.enableGranularSourceSetsMetadata=true
kotlin.mpp.enableCompatibilityMetadataVariant=true // to enable compatibility with projects
without hierarchical structure
439
For
build
authors
Check
task
names
The introduction of the hierarchical project structure in multiplatform projects resulted in a couple of changes to the
names of some Gradle tasks:
The metadataJar task has been renamed to allMetadataJar.
There are new compile<SourceSet>KotlinMetadata tasks for all published intermediate source sets.
These changes are relevant only for projects with the hierarchical project structure.
For
using
the
Kotlin/JS
target
Changes
related
to
npm
dependency
management
When declaring dependencies on npm packages, you are now required to explicitly specify a version or version range
based on npm’s semver syntax. Specifying multiple version ranges is also supported.
While we don’t recommend it, you can use a wildcard * in place of a version number if you do not want to specify a
version or version range explicitly.
Changes
related
to
the
Kotlin/JS
IR
compiler
Kotlin 1.4.0 introduces the Alpha IR compiler for Kotlin/JS. Learn more about the Kotlin/JS IR compiler’s backend and
how to configure it.
To choose between the different Kotlin/JS compiler options, set the key kotlin.js.compiler in your gradle.properties to
legacy, ir, or both. Alternatively, pass LEGACY, IR, or BOTH to the js function in your build.gradle(.kts).
kotlin {
js(IR) { // or: LEGACY, BOTH
// . . .
}
binaries.executable()
}
Changes in both mode
Choosing both as the compiler option (so that it will compile with both the legacy and the IR backend) means that
some Gradle tasks are renamed to explicitly mark them as only affecting the legacy compilation. compileKotlinJs is
renamed to compileKotlinJsLegacy, and compileTestKotlinJs is renamed to compileTestKotlinJsLegacy.
440
Explicitly toggling the creation of executable files
When using the IR compiler, the binaries.executable() instruction must be present in the js target configuration block of
your build.gradle(.kts). If this option is omitted, only Kotlin-internal library files are generated. These files can be used
from other projects, but not run on their own.
For backwards compatibility, when using the legacy compiler for Kotlin/JS, including or omitting binaries.executable()
will have no effect – executable files will be generated in either case. To make the legacy backend stop producing
executable files without the presence of binaries.executable() (for example, to improve build times where runnable
artifacts aren't required), set kotlin.js.generate.executable.default=false in your gradle.properties.
Changes
related
to
Dukat
The Dukat integration for Gradle has received minor naming and functionality changes with Kotlin 1.4.0.
The kotlin.js.experimental.generateKotlinExternals flag has been renamed to kotlin.js.generate.externals. It controls
the default behavior of Dukat for all specified npm dependencies.
The npm dependency function now takes a third parameter after the package name and version: generateExternals.
This allows you to individually control whether Dukat should generate declarations for a specific dependency, and it
overrides the generateKotlinExternals setting.
Learn how to manually trigger the generation of Kotlin externals.
Using
artifacts
built
with
Kotlin
1.4.x
in
a
Kotlin
1.3.x
project
The choice between the IR and LEGACY compilers was not yet available in Kotlin 1.3.xx. Because of this, you may
encounter a Gradle error Cannot choose between the following variants... if one of your dependencies (or any transitive
dependency) was built using Kotlin 1.4+ but your project uses Kotlin 1.3.xx. A workaround is provided here.
Tutorials
for
Kotlin
Multiplatform
A number of tutorials are available to help you get acquainted with Kotlin Multiplatform. These tutorials come in two
varieties:
Plain tutorials describe how to complete a specific task from start to finish, with screenshots and code samples.
Hands-on tutorials provide a self-contained project related to a specific topic.
Name Type You will learn how to
Creating your first KMM Tutorial Create a basic Kotlin Multiplatform Mobile (KMM) application using the KMM plugin for
application Android Studio.
Networking and data Hands- Create a KMM application for Android and iOS that will retrieve data over the internet from
storage on a public API, save it in a local database, and display it in a list in the application.
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Name Type You will learn how to
Creating and publishing Tutorial Create a multiplatform library that is available for JVM, JS, and Native, and that can be
a multiplatform library used from any other common code.
Building a full-stack Hands- Create a client-server application that targets Kotlin/JVM and Kotlin/JS and uses common
web application on code, serialization, and other multiplatform paradigms.
Get
started
with
Kotlin/JVM
This tutorial demonstrates how to use IntelliJ IDEA for creating a console application.
To get started, first download and install the latest version of IntelliJ IDEA.
Create
an
application
Once you've installed IntelliJ IDEA, it's time to create your first Kotlin application.
1. In IntelliJ IDEA, select File | New | Project.
2. In the panel on the left, select Kotlin.
3. Enter a project name, select Console Application as the project template, and click Next.
Create a console application
442
By default, your project will use the Gradle build system with Kotlin DSL.
4. Go through and accept the default configuration, then click Finish.
Configure a console application
Your project will open. By default, you see the file build.gradle.kts, which is the build script created by the Project
Wizard based on your configuration. It includes the kotlin("jvm") plugin and dependencies required for your console
application.
5. Open the main.kt file in src/main/kotlin.
The src directory contains Kotlin source files and resources. The main.kt file contains sample code that will print
Hello World!.
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main.kt with main fun
6. Modify the code so that it requests your name and says Hello to you specifically, and not to the whole world.
Introduce a local variable name with the keyword val. It will get its value from an input where you will enter your
name – readLine().
Use a string template by adding a dollar sign $ before this variable name directly in the text output like this –
$name.
fun main() {
println("What's your name?")
val name= readLine()
println("Hello $name!")
}
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Updated main fun
Run
the
application
Now the application is ready to run. The easiest way to do this is to click the green Run icon in the gutter and select
Run 'MainKt'.
Running a console app
You can see the result in the Run tool window.
445
Kotlin run output
Enter your name and accept the greetings from your application!
Kotlin run output
Congratulations! You have just run your first Kotlin application.
What's
next?
Once you’ve created this application, you can start to dive deeper into Kotlin syntax:
Add sample code from Kotlin examples
Install the EduTools plugin for IDEA and complete exercises from the Kotlin Koans course
Test
code
using
JUnit
in
JVM
–
tutorial
446
This tutorial will show you how to write a simple unit test and run it with the Gradle build tool.
The example in the tutorial has the kotlin.test library under the hood and runs the test using JUnit.
To get started, first download and install the latest version of IntelliJ IDEA.
Add
dependencies
1. Open a Kotlin project in IntelliJ IDEA. If you don't already have a project, create one.
Specify JUnit 5 as your test framework when creating your project.
2. Open the build.gradle(.kts) file and add the following dependency to the Gradle configuration. This dependency will
allow you to work with kotlin.test and JUnit:
Groovy
dependencies {
// Other dependencies.
testImplementation 'org.jetbrains.kotlin:kotlin-test'
}
Kotlin
dependencies {
// Other dependencies.
testImplementation(kotlin("test"))
}
3. Add the test task to the build.gradle(.kts) file:
Groovy
test {
useJUnitPlatform()
}
Kotlin
tasks.test {
useJUnitPlatform()
}
447
If you created the project using the Project Wizard, the task will be added automatically.
Add
the
code
to
test
it
1. Open the main.kt file in src/main/kotlin.
The src directory contains Kotlin source files and resources. The main.kt file contains sample code that will print
Hello, World!.
2. Create the Sample class with the sum() function that adds two integers together:
class Sample() {
fun sum(a: Int, b: Int): Int {
return a + b
}
}
Create
a
test
1. In IntelliJ IDEA, select Code | Generate | Test... for the Sample class.
Create a test
2. Specify the name of the test class. For example, SampleTest.
IntelliJ IDEA creates the SampleTest.kt file in the test directory. This directory contains Kotlin test source files and
resources.
448
You can also manually create a *.kt file for tests in src/test/kotlin.
3. Add the test code for the sum() function in SampleTest.kt:
Define the test testSum() function using the @Test annotation.
Check that the sum() function returns the expected value by using the assertEquals() function.
import kotlin.test.Test
import kotlin.test.assertEquals
internal class SampleTest {
private val testSample: Sample = Sample()
@Test
fun testSum() {
val expected = 42
assertEquals(expected, testSample.sum(40, 2))
}
}
Run
a
test
1. Run the test using the gutter icon.
Run the test
You can also run all project tests via the command-line interface using the ./gradlew check command.
2. Check the result in the Run tool window:
449
Check the test result. The test passed successfully
The test function was executed successfully.
3. Make sure that the test works correctly by changing the expected variable value to 43:
@Test
fun testSum() {
val expected = 43
assertEquals(expected, classForTesting.sum(40, 2))
}
4. Run the test again and check the result:
Check the test result. The test has been failed
The test execution failed.
450
What's
next
Once you've finished your first test, you can:
Try to write another test using other kotlin.test functions. For example, you could use the assertNotEquals() function.
Create your first application with Kotlin and Spring Boot.
Watch these video tutorials on YouTube, which demonstrate how to use Spring Boot with Kotlin and JUnit 5.
Create
a
RESTful
web
service
with
Spring
Boot
–
tutorial
This tutorial walks you through the process of creating a simple application with Spring Boot.
You will create an application with an HTTP endpoint that returns a data objects list in JSON format.
This tutorial consists of two parts:
Create a RESTful Web Service with Spring Boot
Add a database to a Spring Boot RESTful web service
To get started, first download and install the latest version of IntelliJ IDEA.
You can also watch a video of this tutorial:
Gif
Watch video online.
451
Bootstrap
the
project
Use Spring Initializr to create a new project:
You can also create a new project using IntelliJ IDEA with the Spring Boot plugin
1. Open Spring Initializr. This link opens the page with the project settings for this tutorial already filled in. This project
uses Gradle, Kotlin, Spring Web, Spring Data JDBC, and H2 Database:
Create a new project with Spring Initializr
2. Click GENERATE at the bottom of the screen. Spring Initializr will generate the project with the specified settings.
The download starts automatically.
3. Unpack the .zip file and open it in IntelliJ IDEA.
The project has the following structure:
452
The Spring Boot project structure
There are packages and classes under the main/kotlin folder that belong to the application. The entry point to the
application is the main() method of the DemoApplication.kt file.
Explore
the
project
build
file
Open the build.gradle.kts file.
This is the Gradle Kotlin build script, which contains a list of the dependencies required for the application.
The Gradle file is standard for Spring Boot, but it also contains necessary Kotlin dependencies, including the kotlin-
spring Gradle plugin.
453
Explore
the
Spring
Boot
application
Open the DemoApplication.kt file:
package demo
import org.springframework.boot.autoconfigure.SpringBootApplication
import org.springframework.boot.runApplication
@SpringBootApplication
class DemoApplication
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
runApplication<DemoApplication>(*args)
}
Note that the Kotlin application file differs from a Java application file:
While Spring Boot looks for a public static main() method, the Kotlin application uses a top-level function defined
outside DemoApplication class.
The DemoApplication class is not declared as open, since the kotlin-spring plugin does that automatically.
Create
a
data
class
and
a
controller
To create an endpoint, add a data class and a controller to your project:
1. In the DemoApplication.kt file, create a Message data class with two properties: id and text:
data class Message(val id: String?, val text: String)
2. In the same file, create a MessageResource class which will serve the requests and return a JSON document
containing a collection of Message objects:
@RestController
class MessageResource {
@GetMapping
fun index(): List<Message> = listOf(
Message("1", "Hello!"),
Message("2", "Bonjour!"),
Message("3", "Privet!"),
)
}
Full code of the DemoApplication.kt:
package demo
454
import org.springframework.boot.autoconfigure.SpringBootApplication
import org.springframework.boot.runApplication
import org.springframework.data.annotation.Id
import org.springframework.web.bind.annotation.GetMapping
import org.springframework.web.bind.annotation.RestController
@SpringBootApplication
class DemoApplication
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
runApplication<DemoApplication>(*args)
}
@RestController
class MessageResource {
@GetMapping
fun index(): List<Message> = listOf(
Message("1", "Hello!"),
Message("2", "Bonjour!"),
Message("3", "Privet!"),
)
}
data class Message(val id: String?, val text: String)
Run
the
application
The application is now ready to run:
1. Click the green Run icon in the gutter beside the main() method or use the Alt+Enter shortcut to invoke the launch
menu in IntelliJ IDEA:
455
Run the application
You can also run the ./gradlew bootRun command in the terminal.
2. Once the application starts, open the following URL: http://localhost:8080.
You will see a page with a collection of messages in JSON format:
456
Application output
Proceed
to
the
next
tutorial
In the next part of this tutorial you will add a database for storing objects, as well as two endpoints for writing and
retrieving those objects: Add a database to a Spring Boot RESTful web service .
Add
a
database
to
a
Spring
Boot
RESTful
web
service
–
tutorial
This tutorial walks you through the process of adding a database to a RESTful web service with Spring Boot and
shows you how to work with it.
On completing this tutorial you'll have an application with a database for storing objects, as well as endpoints for
writing and retrieving them.
This tutorial is a continuation of the previous tutorial – Create a RESTful web service with Spring Boot.
Complete the previous tutorial before proceeding with this one.
You can also watch a video of this tutorial (starting from 4:17):
457
Gif
Watch video online.
Add
database
support
In this section, you will create two endpoints: one for saving messages to the database, and one for retrieving them:
1. Add the @Table annotation to the Message class to declare mapping to a database table. Add the @Id annotation
before the id field. These annotations also require additional imports:
import org.springframework.data.annotation.Id
import org.springframework.data.relational.core.mapping.Table
@Table("MESSAGES")
data class Message(@Id val id: String?, val text: String)
2. Use the Spring Data Repository API to access the database:
import org.springframework.data.jdbc.repository.query.Query
import org.springframework.data.repository.CrudRepository
interface MessageRepository : CrudRepository<Message, String>{
@Query("select * from messages")
fun findMessages(): List<Message>
}
When you call the findMessages() method on an instance of MessageRepository, it will execute the corresponding
database query:
458
select * from messages
This query retrieves a list of all Message objects in the database table.
3. Create the MessageService class:
import org.springframework.stereotype.Service
@Service
class MessageService(val db: MessageRepository) {
fun findMessages(): List<Message> = db.findMessages()
fun post(message: Message){
db.save(message)
}
}
This class contains two methods:
post() for writing a new Message object to the database
findMessages() for getting all the messages from the database
4. Update the MessageResource class:
import org.springframework.web.bind.annotation.RequestBody
import org.springframework.web.bind.annotation.PostMapping
@RestController
class MessageResource(val service: MessageService) {
@GetMapping
fun index(): List<Message> = service.findMessages()
@PostMapping
fun post(@RequestBody message: Message) {
service.post(message)
}
}
Now it uses MessageService to work with the database.
Configure
the
database
Configure the database in the application:
1. Create a new folder called sql in the src/main/resources with the schema.sql file inside. It will store the database
scheme:
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Create a new folder
2. Update the src/main/resources/sql/schema.sql file with the following code:
CREATE TABLE IF NOT EXISTS messages (
id VARCHAR(60) DEFAULT RANDOM_UUID() PRIMARY KEY,
text VARCHAR NOT NULL
);
It creates the messages table with two fields: id and text. The table structure matches the structure of the Message
class.
3. Open the application.properties file located in the src/main/resources folder and add the following application
properties:
spring.datasource.driver-class-name=org.h2.Driver
spring.datasource.url=jdbc:h2:file:./data/testdb
spring.datasource.username=sa
spring.datasource.password=password
spring.datasource.schema=classpath:sql/schema.sql
spring.datasource.initialization-mode=always
These settings enable the database for the Spring Boot application. See the full list of common application
properties in the Spring documentation.
Run
the
application
You should use an HTTP client to work with previously created endpoints. In IntelliJ IDEA, you can use the embedded
HTTP client:
1. Run the application. Once the application is up and running, you can execute POST requests to store messages in
the database.
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2. Create the requests.http file and add the following HTTP requests:
### Post 'Hello!"
POST http://localhost:8080/
Content-Type: application/json
{
"text": "Hello!"
}
### Post "Bonjour!"
POST http://localhost:8080/
Content-Type: application/json
{
"text": "Bonjour!"
}
### Post "Privet!"
POST http://localhost:8080/
Content-Type: application/json
{
"text": "Privet!"
}
### Get all the messages
GET http://localhost:8080/
3. Execute all POST requests. Use the green Run icon in the gutter next to the request declaration. These requests
write the text messages to the database.
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Run HTTP POST requests
4. Execute the GET request and see the result in the Run tool window:
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Run HTTP GET request
Alternative
way
to
execute
requests
You can also use any other HTTP client or cURL command-line tool. For example, you can run the following
commands in the terminal to get the same result:
curl -X POST --location "http://localhost:8080" -H "Content-Type: application/json" -d "{
\"text\": \"Hello!\" }"
curl -X POST --location "http://localhost:8080" -H "Content-Type: application/json" -d "{
\"text\": \"Bonjour!\" }"
curl -X POST --location "http://localhost:8080" -H "Content-Type: application/json" -d "{
\"text\": \"Privet!\" }"
curl -X GET --location "http://localhost:8080"
What's
next?
If you encountered any difficulties while following this tutorial, you can download and explore the completed project.
Records
Records are classes in Java for storing immutable data. Records carry a fixed set of values – the records components.
They have a concise syntax in Java and save you from having to write boilerplate code:
// Java
public record Person (String name, int age) {}
The compiler automatically generates a final class inherited from java.lang.Record with the following members:
a private final field for each record component
a public constructor with parameters for all fields
a set of methods to implement structural equality: equals(), hashCode(), toString()
a public method for reading each record component
Records are very similar to Kotlin data classes.
Using
Java
records
from
Kotlin
code
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You can use record classes with components that are declared in Java the same way you would use classes with
properties in Kotlin. To access the record component, just use its name like you do for Kotlin properties:
val firstName = Person.name
Declare
records
in
Kotlin
Kotlin supports record declaration only for data classes, and the data class must meet the requirements.
To declare a record class in Kotlin, use the @JvmRecord annotation:
Applying @JvmRecord to an existing class is not a binary compatible change. It alters the naming convention
of the class property accessors.
@JvmRecord
data class Person(val name: String, val age: Int)
This JVM-specific annotation enables generating:
the record components corresponding to the class properties in the class file
the property accessor methods named according to the Java record naming convention
The data class provides equals(), hashCode(), and toString() method implementations.
Requirements
To declare a data class with the @JvmRecord annotation, it must meet the following requirements:
The class must be in a module that targets JVM 16 bytecode (or 15 if the -Xjvm-enable-preview compiler option is
enabled).
The class cannot explicitly inherit any other class (including Any) because all JVM records implicitly inherit
java.lang.Record. However, the class can implement interfaces.
The class cannot declare any properties with backing fields – except those initialized from the corresponding
primary constructor parameters.
The class cannot declare any mutable properties with backing fields.
The class cannot be local.
The primary constructor of the class must be as visible as the class itself.
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Enabling
JVM
records
JVM records require the 16 target version or higher of the generated JVM bytecode.
To specify it explicitly, use the jvmTarget compiler option in Gradle or Maven.
Further
discussion
See this language proposal for JVM records for further technical details and discussion.
Calling
Java
from
Kotlin
Kotlin is designed with Java interoperability in mind. Existing Java code can be called from Kotlin in a natural way, and
Kotlin code can be used from Java rather smoothly as well. In this section, we describe some details about calling Java
code from Kotlin.
Pretty much all Java code can be used without any issues:
import java.util.*
fun demo(source: List<Int>) {
val list = ArrayList<Int>()
// 'for'-loops work for Java collections:
for (item in source) {
list.add(item)
}
// Operator conventions work as well:
for (i in 0..source.size - 1) {
list[i] = source[i] // get and set are called
}
}
Getters
and
setters
Methods that follow the Java conventions for getters and setters (no-argument methods with names starting with get
and single-argument methods with names starting with set) are represented as properties in Kotlin. Boolean accessor
methods (where the name of the getter starts with is and the name of the setter starts with set) are represented as
properties which have the same name as the getter method.
import java.util.Calendar
fun calendarDemo() {
val calendar = Calendar.getInstance()
if (calendar.firstDayOfWeek == Calendar.SUNDAY) { // call getFirstDayOfWeek()
calendar.firstDayOfWeek = Calendar.MONDAY // call setFirstDayOfWeek()
}
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if (!calendar.isLenient) { // call isLenient()
calendar.isLenient = true // call setLenient()
}
}
Note that, if the Java class only has a setter, it isn't visible as a property in Kotlin because Kotlin doesn't support set-
only properties.
Methods
returning
void
If a Java method returns void, it will return Unit when called from Kotlin. If by any chance someone uses that return
value, it will be assigned at the call site by the Kotlin compiler since the value itself is known in advance (being Unit ).
Escaping
for
Java
identifiers
that
are
keywords
in
Kotlin
Some of the Kotlin keywords are valid identifiers in Java: in, object, is, and other. If a Java library uses a Kotlin keyword
for a method, you can still call the method escaping it with the backtick (`) character:
foo.`is`(bar)
Null-safety
and
platform
types
Any reference in Java may be null, which makes Kotlin's requirements of strict null-safety impractical for objects
coming from Java. Types of Java declarations are treated in Kotlin in a specific manner and called platform types. Null-
checks are relaxed for such types, so that safety guarantees for them are the same as in Java (see more below ).
Consider the following examples:
val list = ArrayList<String>() // non-null (constructor result)
list.add("Item")
val size = list.size // non-null (primitive int)
val item = list[0] // platform type inferred (ordinary Java object)
When you call methods on variables of platform types, Kotlin does not issue nullability errors at compile time, but the
call may fail at runtime, because of a null-pointer exception or an assertion that Kotlin generates to prevent nulls from
propagating:
item.substring(1) // allowed, may throw an exception if item == null
Platform types are non-denotable, meaning that you can't write them down explicitly in the language. When a platform
value is assigned to a Kotlin variable, you can rely on the type inference (the variable will have an inferred platform type
then, as item has in the example above), or you can choose the type you expect (both nullable and non-null types are
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allowed):
val nullable: String? = item // allowed, always works
val notNull: String = item // allowed, may fail at runtime
If you choose a non-null type, the compiler will emit an assertion upon assignment. This prevents Kotlin's non-null
variables from holding nulls. Assertions are also emitted when you pass platform values to Kotlin functions expecting
non-null values and in other cases. Overall, the compiler does its best to prevent nulls from propagating far through the
program although sometimes this is impossible to eliminate entirely, because of generics.
Notation
for
platform
types
As mentioned above, platform types can't be mentioned explicitly in the program, so there's no syntax for them in the
language. Nevertheless, the compiler and IDE need to display them sometimes (for example, in error messages or
parameter info), so there is a mnemonic notation for them:
T! means "T or T? ",
(Mutable)Collection<T>! means "Java collection of T may be mutable or not, may be nullable or not",
Array<(out) T>! means "Java array of T (or a subtype of T ), nullable or not"
Nullability
annotations
Java types that have nullability annotations are represented not as platform types, but as actual nullable or non-null
Kotlin types. The compiler supports several flavors of nullability annotations, including:
JetBrains (@Nullable and @NotNull from the org.jetbrains.annotations package)
JSpecify (org.jspecify.nullness)
Android (com.android.annotations and android.support.annotations)
JSR-305 (javax.annotation, more details below)
FindBugs (edu.umd.cs.findbugs.annotations)
Eclipse (org.eclipse.jdt.annotation)
Lombok (lombok.NonNull)
You can find the full list in the Kotlin compiler source code.
Annotating
type
arguments
and
type
parameters
You can annotate the type arguments and type parameters of generic types to provide nullability information for them
as well.
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All examples in the section use JetBrains nullability annotations from the org.jetbrains.annotations package.
Type arguments
Consider these annotations on a Java declaration:
@NotNull
Set<@NotNull String> toSet(@NotNull Collection<@NotNull String> elements) { ... }
They result in the following signature in Kotlin:
fun toSet(elements: (Mutable)Collection<String>) : (Mutable)Set<String> { ... }
When the @NotNull annotation is missing from a type argument, you get a platform type instead:
fun toSet(elements: (Mutable)Collection<String!>) : (Mutable)Set<String!> { ... }
Kotlin also takes into account nullability annotations on type arguments of base classes and interfaces. For example,
there are two Java classes with the signatures provided below:
public class Base<T> {}
public class Derived extends Base<@Nullable String> {}
In the Kotlin code, passing the instance of Derived where the Base<String> is assumed produces the warning.
fun takeBaseOfNotNullStrings(x: Base<String>) {}
fun main() {
takeBaseOfNotNullStrings(Derived()) // warning: nullability mismatch
}
The upper bound of Derived is set to Base<String?>, which is different from Base<String>.
Learn more about Java generics in Kotlin.
Type parameters
By default, the nullability of plain type parameters in both Kotlin and Java is undefined. In Java, you can specify it using
nullability annotations. Let's annotate the type parameter of the Base class:
public class Base<@NotNull T> {}
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When inheriting from Base, Kotlin expects a non-nullable type argument or type parameter. Thus, the following Kotlin
code produces a warning:
class Derived<K> : Base<K> {} // warning: K has undefined nullability
You can fix it by specifying the upper bound K : Any.
Kotlin also supports nullability annotations on the bounds of Java type parameters. Let's add bounds to Base:
public class BaseWithBound<T extends @NotNull Number> {}
Kotlin translates this just as follows:
class BaseWithBound<T : Number> {}
So passing nullable type as a type argument or type parameter produces a warning.
Annotating type arguments and type parameters works with the Java 8 target or higher. The feature requires that the
nullability annotations support the TYPE_USE target (org.jetbrains.annotations supports this in version 15 and above).
Pass the -Xtype-enhancement-improvements-strict-mode compiler option to report errors in Kotlin code that uses
nullability which deviates from the nullability annotations from Java.
Note: If a nullability annotation supports other targets that are applicable to a type in addition to the
TYPE_USE target, then TYPE_USE takes priority. For example, if @Nullable has both TYPE_USE and
METHOD targets, the Java method signature @Nullable String[] f() becomes fun f(): Array<String?>! in Kotlin.
JSR-305
support
The @Nonnull annotation defined in JSR-305 is supported for denoting nullability of Java types.
If the @Nonnull(when = ...) value is When.ALWAYS, the annotated type is treated as non-null; When.MAYBE and
When.NEVER denote a nullable type; and When.UNKNOWN forces the type to be platform one.
A library can be compiled against the JSR-305 annotations, but there's no need to make the annotations artifact (e.g.
jsr305.jar) a compile dependency for the library consumers. The Kotlin compiler can read the JSR-305 annotations
from a library without the annotations present on the classpath.
Custom nullability qualifiers (KEEP-79) are also supported (see below).
Type qualifier nicknames
If an annotation type is annotated with both @TypeQualifierNickname and JSR-305 @Nonnull (or its another nickname,
such as @CheckForNull ), then the annotation type is itself used for retrieving precise nullability and has the same
meaning as that nullability annotation:
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@TypeQualifierNickname
@Nonnull(when = When.ALWAYS)
@Retention(RetentionPolicy.RUNTIME)
public @interface MyNonnull {
}
@TypeQualifierNickname
@CheckForNull // a nickname to another type qualifier nickname
@Retention(RetentionPolicy.RUNTIME)
public @interface MyNullable {
}
interface A {
@MyNullable String foo(@MyNonnull String x);
// in Kotlin (strict mode): `fun foo(x: String): String?`
String bar(List<@MyNonnull String> x);
// in Kotlin (strict mode): `fun bar(x: List<String>!): String!`
}
Type qualifier defaults
@TypeQualifierDefault allows introducing annotations that, when being applied, define the default nullability within the
scope of the annotated element.
Such annotation type should itself be annotated with both @Nonnull (or its nickname) and @TypeQualifierDefault(...)
with one or more ElementType values:
ElementType.METHOD for return types of methods
ElementType.PARAMETER for value parameters
ElementType.FIELD for fields
ElementType.TYPE_USE for any type including type arguments, upper bounds of type parameters and wildcard
types
The default nullability is used when a type itself is not annotated by a nullability annotation, and the default is
determined by the innermost enclosing element annotated with a type qualifier default annotation with the ElementType
matching the type usage.
@Nonnull
@TypeQualifierDefault({ElementType.METHOD, ElementType.PARAMETER})
public @interface NonNullApi {
}
@Nonnull(when = When.MAYBE)
@TypeQualifierDefault({ElementType.METHOD, ElementType.PARAMETER, ElementType.TYPE_USE})
public @interface NullableApi {
}
@NullableApi
interface A {
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String foo(String x); // fun foo(x: String?): String?
@NotNullApi // overriding default from the interface
String bar(String x, @Nullable String y); // fun bar(x: String, y: String?): String
// The List<String> type argument is seen as nullable because of `@NullableApi`
// having the `TYPE_USE` element type:
String baz(List<String> x); // fun baz(List<String?>?): String?
// The type of `x` parameter remains platform because there's an explicit
// UNKNOWN-marked nullability annotation:
String qux(@Nonnull(when = When.UNKNOWN) String x); // fun baz(x: String!): String?
}
The types in this example only take place with the strict mode enabled; otherwise, the platform types remain.
See the @UnderMigration annotation and Compiler configuration sections.
Package-level default nullability is also supported:
// FILE: test/package-info.java
@NonNullApi // declaring all types in package 'test' as non-nullable by default
package ;
@UnderMigration annotation
The @UnderMigration annotation (provided in a separate artifact kotlin-annotations-jvm) can be used by library
maintainers to define the migration status for the nullability type qualifiers.
The status value in @UnderMigration(status = ...) specifies how the compiler treats inappropriate usages of the
annotated types in Kotlin (e.g. using a @MyNullable -annotated type value as non-null):
MigrationStatus.STRICT makes annotation work as any plain nullability annotation, i.e. report errors for the
inappropriate usages and affect the types in the annotated declarations as they are seen in Kotlin
MigrationStatus.WARN: the inappropriate usages are reported as compilation warnings instead of errors, but the
types in the annotated declarations remain platform
MigrationStatus.IGNORE makes the compiler ignore the nullability annotation completely
A library maintainer can add @UnderMigration status to both type qualifier nicknames and type qualifier defaults:
@Nonnull(when = When.ALWAYS)
@TypeQualifierDefault({ElementType.METHOD, ElementType.PARAMETER})
@UnderMigration(status = MigrationStatus.WARN)
public @interface NonNullApi {
}
// The types in the class are non-null, but only warnings are reported
// because `@NonNullApi` is annotated `@UnderMigration(status = MigrationStatus.WARN)`
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@NonNullApi
public class Test {}
The migration status of a nullability annotation is not inherited by its type qualifier nicknames but is applied
to its usages in default type qualifiers.
If a default type qualifier uses a type qualifier nickname and they are both @UnderMigration, the status from the default
type qualifier is used.
Compiler configuration
The JSR-305 checks can be configured by adding the -Xjsr305 compiler flag with the following options (and their
combination):
-Xjsr305={strict|warn|ignore} to set up the behavior for non- @UnderMigration annotations. Custom nullability
qualifiers, especially @TypeQualifierDefault, are already spread among many well-known libraries, and users may
need to migrate smoothly when updating to the Kotlin version containing JSR-305 support. Since Kotlin 1.1.60, this
flag only affects non- @UnderMigration annotations.
-Xjsr305=under-migration:{strict|warn|ignore} to override the behavior for the @UnderMigration annotations. Users
may have different view on the migration status for the libraries: they may want to have errors while the official
migration status is WARN, or vice versa, they may wish to postpone errors reporting for some until they complete
their migration.
-Xjsr305=@<fq.name>:{strict|warn|ignore} to override the behavior for a single annotation, where <fq.name> is the
fully qualified class name of the annotation. May appear several times for different annotations. This is useful for
managing the migration state for a particular library.
The strict, warn and ignore values have the same meaning as those of MigrationStatus, and only the strict mode affects
the types in the annotated declarations as they are seen in Kotlin.
Note: the built-in JSR-305 annotations @Nonnull, @Nullable and @CheckForNull are always enabled and
affect the types of the annotated declarations in Kotlin, regardless of compiler configuration with the -Xjsr305
flag.
For example, adding -Xjsr305=ignore -Xjsr305=under-migration:ignore -Xjsr305=@org.library.MyNullable:warn to the
compiler arguments makes the compiler generate warnings for inappropriate usages of types annotated by
@org.library.MyNullable and ignore all other JSR-305 annotations.
The default behavior is the same to -Xjsr305=warn. The strict value should be considered experimental (more checks
may be added to it in the future).
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Mapped
types
Kotlin treats some Java types specifically. Such types are not loaded from Java "as is", but are mapped to
corresponding Kotlin types. The mapping only matters at compile time, the runtime representation remains unchanged.
Java's primitive types are mapped to corresponding Kotlin types (keeping platform types in mind):
Java type Kotlin type
byte kotlin.Byte
short kotlin.Short
int kotlin.Int
long kotlin.Long
char kotlin.Char
float kotlin.Float
double kotlin.Double
boolean kotlin.Boolean
Some non-primitive built-in classes are also mapped:
Java type Kotlin type
java.lang.Object kotlin.Any!
java.lang.Cloneable kotlin.Cloneable!
java.lang.Comparable kotlin.Comparable!
java.lang.Enum kotlin.Enum!
java.lang.Annotation kotlin.Annotation!
java.lang.CharSequence kotlin.CharSequence!
java.lang.String kotlin.String!
java.lang.Number kotlin.Number!
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Java type Kotlin type
java.lang.Throwable kotlin.Throwable!
Java's boxed primitive types are mapped to nullable Kotlin types:
Java type Kotlin type
java.lang.Byte kotlin.Byte?
java.lang.Short kotlin.Short?
java.lang.Integer kotlin.Int?
java.lang.Long kotlin.Long?
java.lang.Character kotlin.Char?
java.lang.Float kotlin.Float?
java.lang.Double kotlin.Double?
java.lang.Boolean kotlin.Boolean?
Note that a boxed primitive type used as a type parameter is mapped to a platform type: for example,
List<java.lang.Integer> becomes a List<Int!> in Kotlin.
Collection types may be read-only or mutable in Kotlin, so Java's collections are mapped as follows (all Kotlin types in
this table reside in the package kotlin.collections ):
Java type Kotlin read-only type Kotlin mutable type Loaded platform type
Iterator<T> Iterator<T> MutableIterator<T> (Mutable)Iterator<T>!
Iterable<T> Iterable<T> MutableIterable<T> (Mutable)Iterable<T>!
Collection<T> Collection<T> MutableCollection<T> (Mutable)Collection<T>!
Set<T> Set<T> MutableSet<T> (Mutable)Set<T>!
List<T> List<T> MutableList<T> (Mutable)List<T>!
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Java type Kotlin read-only type Kotlin mutable type Loaded platform type
ListIterator<T> ListIterator<T> MutableListIterator<T> (Mutable)ListIterator<T>!
Map<K, V> Map<K, V> MutableMap<K, V> (Mutable)Map<K, V>!
Map.Entry<K, V> Map.Entry<K, V> MutableMap.MutableEntry<K,V> (Mutable)Map.(Mutable)Entry<K, V>!
Java's arrays are mapped as mentioned below:
Java type Kotlin type
int[] kotlin.IntArray!
String[] kotlin.Array<(out) String>!
The static members of these Java types are not directly accessible on the companion objects of the Kotlin
types. To call them, use the full qualified names of the Java types, e.g. java.lang.Integer.toHexString(foo).
Java
generics
in
Kotlin
Kotlin's generics are a little different from Java's (see Generics ). When importing Java types to Kotlin, the following
conversions are done:
Java's wildcards are converted into type projections:
Foo<? extends Bar> becomes Foo<out Bar!>!
Foo<? super Bar> becomes Foo<in Bar!>!
Java's raw types are converted into star projections:
List becomes List<*>! that is List<out Any?>!
Like Java's, Kotlin's generics are not retained at runtime: objects do not carry information about actual type arguments
passed to their constructors. For example, ArrayList<Integer>() is indistinguishable from ArrayList<Character>(). This
makes it impossible to perform is -checks that take generics into account. Kotlin only allows is -checks for star-
projected generic types:
if (a is List<Int>) // Error: cannot check if it is really a List of Ints
// but
if (a is List<*>) // OK: no guarantees about the contents of the list
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Java
arrays
Arrays in Kotlin are invariant, unlike Java. This means that Kotlin won't let you assign an Array<String> to an
Array<Any>, which prevents a possible runtime failure. Passing an array of a subclass as an array of superclass to a
Kotlin method is also prohibited, but for Java methods this is allowed through platform types of the form Array<(out)
String>!.
Arrays are used with primitive datatypes on the Java platform to avoid the cost of boxing/unboxing operations. As
Kotlin hides those implementation details, a workaround is required to interface with Java code. There are specialized
classes for every type of primitive array (IntArray, DoubleArray, CharArray, and so on) to handle this case. They are not
related to the Array class and are compiled down to Java's primitive arrays for maximum performance.
Suppose there is a Java method that accepts an int array of indices:
public class JavaArrayExample {
public void removeIndices(int[] indices) {
// code here...
}
}
To pass an array of primitive values, you can do the following in Kotlin:
val javaObj = JavaArrayExample()
val array = intArrayOf(0, 1, 2, 3)
javaObj.removeIndices(array) // passes int[] to method
When compiling to the JVM bytecode, the compiler optimizes access to arrays so that there's no overhead introduced:
val array = arrayOf(1, 2, 3, 4)
array[1] = array[1] * 2 // no actual calls to get() and set() generated
for (x in array) { // no iterator created
print(x)
}
Even when you navigate with an index, it does not introduce any overhead:
for (i in array.indices) { // no iterator created
array[i] += 2
}
Finally, in -checks have no overhead either:
if (i in array.indices) { // same as (i >= 0 && i < array.size)
print(array[i])
}
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Java
varargs
Java classes sometimes use a method declaration for the indices with a variable number of arguments (varargs):
public class JavaArrayExample {
public void removeIndicesVarArg(int... indices) {
// code here...
}
}
In that case you need to use the spread operator * to pass the IntArray:
val javaObj = JavaArrayExample()
val array = intArrayOf(0, 1, 2, 3)
javaObj.removeIndicesVarArg(*array)
Operators
Since Java has no way of marking methods for which it makes sense to use the operator syntax, Kotlin allows using
any Java methods with the right name and signature as operator overloads and other conventions (invoke() etc.)
Calling Java methods using the infix call syntax is not allowed.
Checked
exceptions
In Kotlin, all exceptions are unchecked, meaning that the compiler does not force you to catch any of them. So, when
you call a Java method that declares a checked exception, Kotlin does not force you to do anything:
fun render(list: List<*>, to: Appendable) {
for (item in list) {
to.append(item.toString()) // Java would require us to catch IOException here
}
}
Object
methods
When Java types are imported into Kotlin, all the references of the type java.lang.Object are turned into Any. Since Any
is not platform-specific, it only declares toString(), hashCode() and equals() as its members, so to make other members
of java.lang.Object available, Kotlin uses extension functions.
wait()/notify()
Methods wait() and notify() are not available on references of type Any. Their usage is generally discouraged in favor of
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java.util.concurrent. If you really need to call these methods, you can cast to java.lang.Object:
(foo as java.lang.Object).wait()
getClass()
To retrieve the Java class of an object, use the java extension property on a class reference:
val fooClass = foo::class.java
The code above uses a bound class reference. You can also use the javaClass extension property:
val fooClass = foo.javaClass
clone()
To override clone(), your class needs to extend kotlin.Cloneable:
class Example : Cloneable {
override fun clone(): Any { ... }
}
Don't forget about Effective Java, 3rd Edition, Item 13: Override clone judiciously.
finalize()
To override finalize(), all you need to do is simply declare it, without using the override keyword:
class C {
protected fun finalize() {
// finalization logic
}
}
According to Java's rules, finalize() must not be private.
Inheritance
from
Java
classes
At most one Java class (and as many Java interfaces as you like) can be a supertype for a class in Kotlin.
Accessing
static
members
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Static members of Java classes form "companion objects" for these classes. You can't pass such a "companion
object" around as a value but can access the members explicitly, for example:
if (Character.isLetter(a)) { ... }
To access static members of a Java type that is mapped to a Kotlin type, use the full qualified name of the Java type:
java.lang.Integer.bitCount(foo).
Java
reflection
Java reflection works on Kotlin classes and vice versa. As mentioned above, you can use instance::class.java,
ClassName::class.java or instance.javaClass to enter Java reflection through java.lang.Class. Do not use
ClassName.javaClass for this purpose because it refers to ClassName 's companion object class, which is the same as
ClassName.Companion::class.java and not ClassName::class.java.
For each primitive type, there are two different Java classes, and Kotlin provides ways to get both. For example,
Int::class.java will return the class instance representing the primitive type itself, corresponding to Integer.TYPE in
Java. To get the class of the corresponding wrapper type, use Int::class.javaObjectType, which is equivalent of Java's
Integer.class.
Other supported cases include acquiring a Java getter/setter method or a backing field for a Kotlin property, a
KProperty for a Java field, a Java method or constructor for a KFunction and vice versa.
SAM
conversions
Kotlin supports SAM conversions for both Java and Kotlin interfaces. This support for Java means that Kotlin function
literals can be automatically converted into implementations of Java interfaces with a single non-default method, as
long as the parameter types of the interface method match the parameter types of the Kotlin function.
You can use this for creating instances of SAM interfaces:
val runnable = Runnable { println("This runs in a runnable") }
...and in method calls:
val executor = ThreadPoolExecutor()
// Java signature: void execute(Runnable command)
executor.execute { println("This runs in a thread pool") }
If the Java class has multiple methods taking functional interfaces, you can choose the one you need to call by using
an adapter function that converts a lambda to a specific SAM type. Those adapter functions are also generated by the
compiler when needed:
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executor.execute(Runnable { println("This runs in a thread pool") })
SAM conversions only work for interfaces, not for abstract classes, even if those also have just a single
abstract method.
Using
JNI
with
Kotlin
To declare a function that is implemented in native (C or C++) code, you need to mark it with the external modifier:
external fun foo(x: Int): Double
The rest of the procedure works in exactly the same way as in Java.
You can also mark property getters and setters as external:
var myProperty: String
external get
external set
Behind the scenes, this will create two functions getMyProperty and setMyProperty, both marked as external.
Using
Lombok-generated
declarations
in
Kotlin
You can use Java's Lombok-generated declarations in Kotlin code. If you need to generate and use these declarations
in the same mixed Java/Kotlin module, you can learn how to do this on the Lombok compiler plugin's page. If you call
such declarations from another module, then you don't need to use this plugin to compile that module.
Calling
Kotlin
from
Java
Kotlin code can be easily called from Java. For example, instances of a Kotlin class can be seamlessly created and
operated in Java methods. However, there are certain differences between Java and Kotlin that require attention when
integrating Kotlin code into Java. On this page, we'll describe the ways to tailor the interop of your Kotlin code with its
Java clients.
Properties
A Kotlin property is compiled to the following Java elements:
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a getter method, with the name calculated by prepending the get prefix
a setter method, with the name calculated by prepending the set prefix (only for var properties)
a private field, with the same name as the property name (only for properties with backing fields)
For example, var firstName: String compiles to the following Java declarations:
private String firstName;
public String getFirstName() {
return firstName;
}
public void setFirstName(String firstName) {
this.firstName = firstName;
}
If the name of the property starts with is, a different name mapping rule is used: the name of the getter will be the same
as the property name, and the name of the setter will be obtained by replacing is with set. For example, for a property
isOpen, the getter will be called isOpen() and the setter will be called setOpen(). This rule applies for properties of any
type, not just Boolean.
Package-level
functions
All the functions and properties declared in a file app.kt inside a package org.example, including extension functions,
are compiled into static methods of a Java class named org.example.AppKt.
// app.kt
package org.example
class Util
fun getTime() { /*...*/ }
// Java
new Util();
AppKt.getTime();
To set a custom name to the generated Java class, use the @JvmName annotation:
@file:JvmName("DemoUtils")
package org.example
class Util
fun getTime() { /*...*/ }
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// Java
new Util();
DemoUtils.getTime();
Having multiple files with the same generated Java class name (the same package and the same name or the same
@JvmName annotation) is normally an error. However, the compiler can generate a single Java facade class which has
the specified name and contains all the declarations from all the files which have that name. To enable the generation
of such a facade, use the @JvmMultifileClass annotation in all such files.
// oldutils.kt
@file:JvmName("Utils")
@file:JvmMultifileClass
package org.example
fun getTime() { /*...*/ }
// newutils.kt
@file:JvmName("Utils")
@file:JvmMultifileClass
package org.example
fun getDate() { /*...*/ }
// Java
Utils.getTime();
Utils.getDate();
Instance
fields
If you need to expose a Kotlin property as a field in Java, annotate it with the @JvmField annotation. The field will have
the same visibility as the underlying property. You can annotate a property with @JvmField if it:
has a backing field
is not private
does not have open, override or const modifiers
is not a delegated property
class User(id: String) {
@JvmField val ID = id
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}
// Java
class JavaClient {
public String getID(User user) {
return user.ID;
}
}
Late-Initialized properties are also exposed as fields. The visibility of the field will be the same as the visibility of lateinit
property setter.
Static
fields
Kotlin properties declared in a named object or a companion object will have static backing fields either in that named
object or in the class containing the companion object.
Usually these fields are private but they can be exposed in one of the following ways:
@JvmField annotation
lateinit modifier
const modifier
Annotating such a property with @JvmField makes it a static field with the same visibility as the property itself.
class Key(val value: Int) {
companion object {
@JvmField
val COMPARATOR: Comparator<Key> = compareBy<Key> { it.value }
}
}
// Java
Key.COMPARATOR.compare(key1, key2);
// public static final field in Key class
A late-initialized property in an object or a companion object has a static backing field with the same visibility as the
property setter.
object Singleton {
lateinit var provider: Provider
}
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// Java
Singleton.provider = new Provider();
// public static non-final field in Singleton class
Properties declared as const (in classes as well as at the top level) are turned into static fields in Java:
// file example.kt
object Obj {
const val CONST = 1
}
class C {
companion object {
const val VERSION = 9
}
}
const val MAX = 239
In Java:
int const = Obj.CONST;
int max = ExampleKt.MAX;
int version = C.VERSION;
Static
methods
As mentioned above, Kotlin represents package-level functions as static methods. Kotlin can also generate static
methods for functions defined in named objects or companion objects if you annotate those functions as @JvmStatic.
If you use this annotation, the compiler will generate both a static method in the enclosing class of the object and an
instance method in the object itself. For example:
class C {
companion object {
@JvmStatic fun callStatic() {}
fun callNonStatic() {}
}
}
Now, callStatic() is static in Java while callNonStatic() is not:
C.callStatic(); // works fine
C.callNonStatic(); // error: not a static method
C.Companion.callStatic(); // instance method remains
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C.Companion.callNonStatic(); // the only way it works
Same for named objects:
object Obj {
@JvmStatic fun callStatic() {}
fun callNonStatic() {}
}
In Java:
Obj.callStatic(); // works fine
Obj.callNonStatic(); // error
Obj.INSTANCE.callNonStatic(); // works, a call through the singleton instance
Obj.INSTANCE.callStatic(); // works too
Starting from Kotlin 1.3, @JvmStatic applies to functions defined in companion objects of interfaces as well. Such
functions compile to static methods in interfaces. Note that static method in interfaces were introduced in Java 1.8, so
be sure to use the corresponding targets.
interface ChatBot {
companion object {
@JvmStatic fun greet(username: String) {
println("Hello, $username")
}
}
}
@JvmStatic annotation can also be applied on a property of an object or a companion object making its getter and
setter methods static members in that object or the class containing the companion object.
Default
methods
in
interfaces
Default methods are available only for targets JVM 1.8 and above.
Starting from JDK 1.8, interfaces in Java can contain default methods. To make all non-abstract members of Kotlin
interfaces default for the Java classes implementing them, compile the Kotlin code with the -Xjvm-default=all compiler
option.
Here is an example of a Kotlin interface with a default method:
// compile with -Xjvm-default=all
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interface Robot {
fun move() { println("~walking~") } // will be default in the Java interface
fun speak(): Unit
}
The default implementation is available for Java classes implementing the interface.
//Java implementation
public class C3PO implements Robot {
// move() implementation from Robot is available implicitly
@Override
public void speak() {
System.out.println("I beg your pardon, sir");
}
}
C3PO c3po = new C3PO();
c3po.move(); // default implementation from the Robot interface
c3po.speak();
Implementations of the interface can override default methods.
//Java
public class BB8 implements Robot {
//own implementation of the default method
@Override
public void move() {
System.out.println("~rolling~");
}
@Override
public void speak() {
System.out.println("Beep-beep");
}
}
Prior to Kotlin 1.4, to generate default methods, you could use the @JvmDefault annotation on these
methods. Compiling with -Xjvm-default=all in 1.4+ generally works as if you annotated all non-abstract
methods of interfaces with @JvmDefault and compiled with -Xjvm-default=enable. However, there are cases
when their behavior differs. Detailed information about the changes in default methods generation in Kotlin
1.4 is provided in this post on the Kotlin blog.
Compatibility
mode
for
default
methods
If there are clients that use your Kotlin interfaces compiled without the new -Xjvm-default=all option, then they can be
incompatible with the same code compiled with this option.
To avoid breaking the compatibility with such clients, compile your Kotlin code in the compatibility mode by specifying
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the -Xjvm-default=all-compatibility compiler option. In this case, all the code that uses the previous version will work
fine with the new one. However, the compatibility mode adds some overhead to the resulting bytecode size.
There is no need to consider compatibility for new interfaces, as no clients have used them before. You can minimize
the compatibility overhead by excluding these interfaces from the compatibility mode. To do this, annotate them with
the @JvmDefaultWithoutCompatibility annotation. Such interfaces compile the same way as with -Xjvm-default=all.
Additionally, in the all-compatibility mode you can use @JvmDefaultWithoutCompatibility to annotate all interfaces
which are not exposed in the public API and therefore aren’t used by the existing clients.
Visibility
The Kotlin visibility modifiers map to Java in the following way:
private members are compiled to private members
private top-level declarations are compiled to package-local declarations
protected remains protected (note that Java allows accessing protected members from other classes in the same
package and Kotlin doesn't, so Java classes will have broader access to the code)
internal declarations become public in Java. Members of internal classes go through name mangling, to make it
harder to accidentally use them from Java and to allow overloading for members with the same signature that don't
see each other according to Kotlin rules
public remains public
KClass
Sometimes you need to call a Kotlin method with a parameter of type KClass. There is no automatic conversion from
Class to KClass, so you have to do it manually by invoking the equivalent of the Class<T>.kotlin extension property:
kotlin.jvm.JvmClassMappingKt.getKotlinClass(MainView.class)
Handling
signature
clashes
with
@JvmName
Sometimes we have a named function in Kotlin, for which we need a different JVM name in the bytecode. The most
prominent example happens due to type erasure:
fun List<String>.filterValid(): List<String>
fun List<Int>.filterValid(): List<Int>
These two functions can not be defined side-by-side, because their JVM signatures are the same:
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filterValid(Ljava/util/List;)Ljava/util/List;. If we really want them to have the same name in Kotlin, we can annotate one (or
both) of them with @JvmName and specify a different name as an argument:
fun List<String>.filterValid(): List<String>
@JvmName("filterValidInt")
fun List<Int>.filterValid(): List<Int>
From Kotlin they will be accessible by the same name filterValid, but from Java it will be filterValid and filterValidInt.
The same trick applies when we need to have a property x alongside with a function getX():
val x: Int
@JvmName("getX_prop")
get() = 15
fun getX() = 10
To change the names of generated accessor methods for properties without explicitly implemented getters and
setters, you can use @get:JvmName and @set:JvmName:
@get:JvmName("x")
@set:JvmName("changeX")
var x: Int = 23
Overloads
generation
Normally, if you write a Kotlin function with default parameter values, it will be visible in Java only as a full signature,
with all parameters present. If you wish to expose multiple overloads to Java callers, you can use the @JvmOverloads
annotation.
The annotation also works for constructors, static methods, and so on. It can't be used on abstract methods, including
methods defined in interfaces.
class Circle @JvmOverloads constructor(centerX: Int, centerY: Int, radius: Double = 1.0) {
@JvmOverloads fun draw(label: String, lineWidth: Int = 1, color: String = "red") { /*...*/
}
}
For every parameter with a default value, this will generate one additional overload, which has this parameter and all
parameters to the right of it in the parameter list removed. In this example, the following will be generated:
// Constructors:
Circle(int centerX, int centerY, double radius)
Circle(int centerX, int centerY)
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// Methods
void draw(String label, int lineWidth, String color) { }
void draw(String label, int lineWidth) { }
void draw(String label) { }
Note that, as described in Secondary constructors, if a class has default values for all constructor parameters, a public
constructor with no arguments will be generated for it. This works even if the @JvmOverloads annotation is not
specified.
Checked
exceptions
Kotlin does not have checked exceptions. So, normally the Java signatures of Kotlin functions do not declare
exceptions thrown. Thus, if you have a function in Kotlin like this:
// example.kt
package demo
fun writeToFile() {
/*...*/
throw IOException()
}
And you want to call it from Java and catch the exception:
// Java
try {
Example.writeToFile();
} catch (IOException e) {
// error: writeToFile() does not declare IOException in the throws list
// ...
}
You get an error message from the Java compiler, because writeToFile() does not declare IOException. To work
around this problem, use the @Throws annotation in Kotlin:
@Throws(IOException::class)
fun writeToFile() {
/*...*/
throw IOException()
}
Null-safety
When calling Kotlin functions from Java, nobody prevents us from passing null as a non-null parameter. That's why
Kotlin generates runtime checks for all public functions that expect non-nulls. This way we get a NullPointerException
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in the Java code immediately.
Variant
generics
When Kotlin classes make use of declaration-site variance, there are two options of how their usages are seen from the
Java code. For example, imagine you have the following class and two functions that use it:
class Box<out T>(val value: T)
interface Base
class Derived : Base
fun boxDerived(value: Derived): Box<Derived> = Box(value)
fun unboxBase(box: Box<Base>): Base = box.value
A naive way of translating these functions into Java would be this:
Box<Derived> boxDerived(Derived value) { ... }
Base unboxBase(Box<Base> box) { ... }
The problem is that in Kotlin you can write unboxBase(boxDerived(Derived())) but in Java that would be impossible
because in Java the class Box is invariant in its parameter T, and thus Box<Derived> is not a subtype of Box<Base>.
To make this work in Java, you would have to define unboxBase as follows:
Base unboxBase(Box<? extends Base> box) { ... }
This declaration uses Java's wildcards types (? extends Base) to emulate declaration-site variance through use-site
variance, because it is all Java has.
To make Kotlin APIs work in Java, the compiler generates Box<Super> as Box<? extends Super> for covariantly
defined Box (or Foo<? super Bar> for contravariantly defined Foo) when it appears as a parameter. When it's a return
value, wildcards are not generated, because otherwise Java clients will have to deal with them (and it's against the
common Java coding style). Therefore, the functions from our example are actually translated as follows:
// return type - no wildcards
Box<Derived> boxDerived(Derived value) { ... }
// parameter - wildcards
Base unboxBase(Box<? extends Base> box) { ... }
When the argument type is final, there's usually no point in generating the wildcard, so Box<String> is always
Box<String>, no matter what position it takes.
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If you need wildcards where they are not generated by default, use the @JvmWildcard annotation:
fun boxDerived(value: Derived): Box<@JvmWildcard Derived> = Box(value)
// is translated to
// Box<? extends Derived> boxDerived(Derived value) { ... }
In the opposite case, if you don't need wildcards where they are generated, use @JvmSuppressWildcards:
fun unboxBase(box: Box<@JvmSuppressWildcards Base>): Base = box.value
// is translated to
// Base unboxBase(Box<Base> box) { ... }
@JvmSuppressWildcards can be used not only on individual type arguments, but on entire declarations,
such as functions or classes, causing all wildcards inside them to be suppressed.
Translation
of
type
Nothing
The type Nothing is special, because it has no natural counterpart in Java. Indeed, every Java reference type, including
java.lang.Void, accepts null as a value, and Nothing doesn't accept even that. So, this type cannot be accurately
represented in the Java world. This is why Kotlin generates a raw type where an argument of type Nothing is used:
fun emptyList(): List<Nothing> = listOf()
// is translated to
// List emptyList() { ... }
Mixing
Java
and
Kotlin
in
one
project
–
tutorial
Kotlin provides the first-class interoperability with Java, and modern IDEs make it even better. In this tutorial, you'll
learn how to use both Kotlin and Java sources in the same project in IntelliJ IDEA. To learn how to start a new Kotlin
project in IntelliJ IDEA, see Getting started with IntellJ IDEA.
Adding
Java
source
code
to
an
existing
Kotlin
project
Adding Java classes to a Kotlin project is pretty straightforward. All you need to do is create a new Java file (Alt +
Insert/ Cmd + N) in a directory or package inside your project.
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Add new Java class
If you already have the Java classes, you can just copy them to the project directories.
You can now consume the Java сlass from Kotlin or vice versa without any further actions.
For example, adding the following Java class:
public class Customer {
private String name;
public Customer(String s){
name = s;
}
public String getName() {
return name;
}
public void setName(String name) {
this.name = name;
}
public void placeOrder() {
System.out.println("A new order is placed by " + name);
}
}
lets you call it from Kotlin like any other type in Kotlin.
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val customer = Customer("Phase")
println(customer.name)
println(customer.placeOrder())
Adding
Kotlin
source
code
to
an
existing
Java
project
Adding a Kotlin file to an existing Java project is pretty much the same.
Add new Kotlin file class
If this is the first time you're adding a Kotlin file to this project, IntelliJ IDEA will prompt you to add the required Kotlin
runtime. For a Java project, configure the Kotlin runtime as a Kotlin Java Module.
The next step is to decide which modules to configure (if the project has more than one module) and whether you want
to add the runtime library to the project or use those provided by the current Kotlin plugin.
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Bundling Kotlin runtime
You can also open the Kotlin runtime configuration manually from Tools | Kotlin | Configure Kotlin in Project.
Converting
an
existing
Java
file
to
Kotlin
with
J2K
The Kotlin plugin also bundles a Java to Kotlin converter (J2K) that automatically converts Java files to Kotlin. To use
J2K on a file, click Convert Java File to Kotlin File in its context menu or in the Code menu of IntelliJ IDEA.
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Convert Java to Kotlin
While the converter is not fool-proof, it does a pretty decent job of converting most boilerplate code from Java to
Kotlin. Some manual tweaking however is sometimes required.
Comparison
to
Java
Some
Java
issues
addressed
in
Kotlin
Kotlin fixes a series of issues that Java suffers from:
Null references are controlled by the type system.
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No raw types
Arrays in Kotlin are invariant
Kotlin has proper function types, as opposed to Java's SAM-conversions
Use-site variance without wildcards
Kotlin does not have checked exceptions
What
Java
has
that
Kotlin
does
not
Checked exceptions
Primitive types that are not classes. The byte-code uses primitives where possible, but they are not explicitly
available.
Static members are replaced with companion objects, top-level functions, extension functions, or @JvmStatic.
Wildcard-types are replaced with declaration-site variance and type projections.
Ternary-operator a ? b : c is replaced with if expression.
What
Kotlin
has
that
Java
does
not
Lambda expressions + Inline functions = performant custom control structures
Extension functions
Null-safety
Smart casts
String templates
Properties
Primary constructors
First-class delegation
Type inference for variable and property types
Singletons
Declaration-site variance & Type projections
Range expressions
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Operator overloading
Companion objects
Data classes
Separate interfaces for read-only and mutable collections
Coroutines
What’s
next?
Learn how to perform typical tasks with strings in Java and Kotlin.
Migrating
from
Java
to
Kotlin:
Strings
This guide contains examples of how to perform typical tasks with strings in Java and Kotlin. It will help you migrate
from Java to Kotlin and write your code in the authentic Kotlin way.
Concatenate
strings
In Java, you can do this in the following way:
// Java
String name = "Joe";
System.out.println("Hello, " + name);
System.out.println("Your name is " + name.length() + " characters long");
In Kotlin, use the dollar sign ($) before the variable name to interpolate the value of this variable into your string:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
// Kotlin
val name = "Joe"
println("Hello, $name")
println("Your name is ${name.length} characters long")
//sampleEnd
}
You can interpolate the value of a complicated expression by surrounding it with curly braces, like in ${name.length}.
See string templates for more information.
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Build
a
string
In Java, you can use the StringBuilder:
// Java
StringBuilder countDown = new StringBuilder();
for (int i = 5; i > 0; i--) {
countDown.append(i);
countDown.append("\n");
}
System.out.println(countDown);
In Kotlin, use buildString() – an inline function that takes logic to construct a string as a lambda argument:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
// Kotlin
val countDown = buildString {
for (i in 5 downTo 1) {
append(i)
appendLine()
}
}
println(countDown)
//sampleEnd
}
Under the hood, the buildString uses the same StringBuilder class as in Java, and you access it via an implicit this
inside the lambda.
Learn more about lambda coding conventions.
Create
a
string
from
collection
items
In Java, you use the Stream API to filter, map, and then collect the items:
// Java
List<Integer> numbers = List.of(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6);
String oddNumbers = numbers
.stream()
.filter(it -> it % 2 != 0)
.map(it -> (-1) * it)
.map(Object::toString)
.collect(Collectors.joining(", "));
System.out.println(oddNumbers);
In Kotlin, use the joinToString() function, which Kotlin defines for every List:
fun main() {
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//sampleStart
// Kotlin
val numbers = mutableListOf(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
val oddNumbers = numbers
.filter { it % 2 != 0 }
.joinToString{ "${-it}" }
println(oddNumbers)
//sampleEnd
}
Set
default
value
if
the
string
is
blank
In Java, you can use the ternary operator:
// Java
public void defaultValueIfStringIsBlank() {
String nameValue = getName();
String name = nameValue.isBlank() ? "John Doe" : nameValue;
System.out.println(name);
}
public String getName() {
Random rand = new Random();
return rand.nextBoolean() ? "" : "David";
}
Kotlin provides the inline function ifBlank() that accepts the default value as an argument:
// Kotlin
import kotlin.random.Random
//sampleStart
fun main() {
val name = getName().ifBlank { "John Doe" }
println(name)
}
fun getName(): String =
if (Random.nextBoolean()) "" else "David"
//sampleEnd
Replace
characters
at
the
beginning
and
end
of
a
string
In Java, you can use the replaceFirst() and the replaceAll() functions. The replaceAll() function in this case accepts the
regular expression ##$, which defines a string ending with ##:
// Java
String input = "##place##holder##";
String result = input.replaceFirst("##", "").replaceAll("##$", "");
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System.out.println(result);
In Kotlin, use the removeSurrounding() function with the string delimiter ##:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
// Kotlin
val input = "##place##holder##"
val result = input.removeSurrounding("##")
println(result)
//sampleEnd
}
Replace
occurrences
In Java, you can use the Pattern and the Matcher classes, for example, to obfuscate some data:
// Java
String input = "login: Pokemon5, password: 1q2w3e4r5t";
Pattern pattern = Pattern.compile("\\w*\\d+\\w*");
Matcher matcher = pattern.matcher(input);
String replacementResult = matcher.replaceAll(it -> "xxx");
System.out.println("Initial input: '" + input + "'");
System.out.println("Anonymized input: '" + replacementResult + "'");
In Kotlin, you use the Regex class that simplifies working with regular expressions. Additionally, use raw strings to
simplify a regex pattern by reducing the count of backslashes:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
// Kotlin
val regex = Regex("""\w*\d+\w*""") // raw string
val input = "login: Pokemon5, password: 1q2w3e4r5t"
val replacementResult = regex.replace(input, replacement = "xxx")
println("Initial input: '$input'")
println("Anonymized input: '$replacementResult'")
//sampleEnd
}
Split
a
string
In Java, to split a string with the period character (. ), you need to use shielding (\\ ). This happens because the split()
function of the String class accepts a regular expression as an argument:
// Java
System.out.println(Arrays.toString("Sometimes.text.should.be.split".split("\\.")));
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In Kotlin, use the Kotlin function split(), which accepts varargs of delimiters as input parameters:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
// Kotlin
println("Sometimes.text.should.be.split".split("."))
//sampleEnd
}
If you need to split with a regular expression, use the overloaded split() version that accepts the Regex as a parameter.
Take
a
substring
In Java, you can use the substring() function, which accepts an inclusive beginning index of a character to start taking
the substring from. To take a substring after this character, you need to increment the index:
// Java
String input = "What is the answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and
Everything? 42";
String answer = input.substring(input.indexOf("?") + 1);
System.out.println(answer);
In Kotlin, you use the substringAfter() function and don’t need to calculate the index of the character you want to take a
substring after:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
// Kotlin
val input = "What is the answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the Universe, and
Everything? 42"
val answer = input.substringAfter("?")
println(answer)
//sampleEnd
}
Additionally, you can take a substring after the last occurrence of a character:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
// Kotlin
val input = "To be, or not to be, that is the question."
val question = input.substringAfterLast(",")
println(question)
//sampleEnd
}
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Use
multiline
strings
Before Java 15, there were several ways to create a multiline string. For example, using the join() function of the String
class:
// Java
String lineSeparator = System.getProperty("line.separator");
String result = String.join(lineSeparator,
"Kotlin",
"Java");
System.out.println(result);
In Java 15, text blocks appeared. There is one thing to keep in mind: if you print a multiline string and the triple-quote is
on the next line, there will be an extra empty line:
// Java
String result = """
Kotlin
Java
""".stripIndent();
System.out.println(result);
The output:
Java 15 multiline output
If you put the triple-quote on the same line as the last word, this difference in behavior disappears.
In Kotlin, you can format your line with the quotes on the new line, and there will be no extra empty line in the output.
The left-most character of any line identifies the beginning of the line.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
// Kotlin
val result = """
Kotlin
Java
""".trimIndent()
println(result)
//sampleEnd
}
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The output:
Kotlin multiline output
In Kotlin, you can also use the trimMargin() function to customize the indents:
// Kotlin
fun main() {
val result = """
# Kotlin
# Java
""".trimMargin("#")
println(result)
}
Learn more about multiline strings.
What’s
next?
Look through other Kotlin idioms.
Learn how to convert existing Java code to Kotlin with Java to Kotlin converter.
If you have a favorite idiom, contribute it by sending a pull request.
Get
started
with
Kotlin/JS
for
React
This tutorial demonstrates how to use IntelliJ IDEA for creating a frontend application with Kotlin/JS for React.
To get started, install the latest version of IntelliJ IDEA.
Create
an
application
Once you've installed IntelliJ IDEA, it's time to create your first frontend application based on Kotlin/JS with React.
1. In IntelliJ IDEA, select File | New | Project.
2. In the panel on the left, select Kotlin.
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3. Enter a project name, select React Application as the project template, and click Next.
Create a react application
By default, your project will use Gradle with Kotlin DSL as the build system.
4. Select the CSS Support and Use styled-components checkboxes and click Finish.
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Configure a frontend application
Your project opens. By default, you see the file build.gradle.kts, which is the build script created by the Project Wizard
based on your configuration. It includes the kotlin("js") plugin and dependencies required for your frontend application.
Run
the
application
Start the application by clicking Run next to the run configuration at the top of the screen.
Running a frontend app
Your default web browser opens the URL http://localhost:8080/ with your frontend application.
Web browser with JS application
Enter your name in the text box and accept the greetings from your application!
Update
the
application
Show
your
name
backwards
1. Open the file welcome.kt in src/main/kotlin.
The src directory contains Kotlin source files and resources. The file welcome.kt includes sample code that renders
the web page you've just seen.
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Source code for frontend application
2. Change the code of styledDiv to show your name backwards.
Use the standard library function reversed() to reverse your name.
Use a string template for your reversed name by adding a dollar sign $ and enclosing it in curly braces –
${state.name.reversed()}.
styledDiv {
css {
+WelcomeStyles.textContainer
}
+"Hello ${state.name}!"
+" Your name backwards is ${state.name.reversed()}!"
}
3. Save your changes to the file.
4. Go to the browser and enjoy the result.
You will see the changes only if your previous application is still running. If you've stopped your application, run it
again.
Web browser with a reversed name
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Add
an
image
1. Open the file welcome.kt in src/main/kotlin.
2. Add a div container with a child image element img after the styledInput block.
Make sure that you import the react.dom.* and styled.* packages.
div {
img(src = "https://placekitten.com/408/287") {}
}
3. Save your changes to the file.
4. Go to the browser and enjoy the result.
You will only see the changes if your previous application is still running. If you've stopped your application, run it
again.
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Web page with with an image
Add
a
button
that
changes
text
1. Open the file welcome.kt in src/main/kotlin.
2. Add a button element with an onClickFunction event handler.
Make sure that you import the package kotlinx.html.js.*.
button {
attrs.onClickFunction = {
setState(
WelcomeState(name = "Some name")
)
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}
+"Change name"
}
3. Save your changes to the file.
4. Go to the browser and enjoy the result.
You will only see the changes if your previous application is still running. If you've stopped your application, run it
again.
Web page with a button
What's
next?
Once you have created your first application, you can go to Kotlin hands-on labs and complete long-form tutorials on
Kotlin/JS. They include sample projects, which can serve as nice jumping-off points for your own projects, and contain
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useful snippets and patterns.
For Kotlin/JS, the following hands-on labs are currently available:
Building Web Applications with React and Kotlin/JS guides you through the process of building a simple web
application using the React framework, shows how a type-safe Kotlin DSL for HTML makes it easy to build reactive
DOM elements, and illustrates how to use third-party React components, and how to obtain information from APIs,
while writing the whole application logic in pure Kotlin/JS.
Building a Full Stack Web App with Kotlin Multiplatform teaches the concepts behind building an application that
targets Kotlin/JVM and Kotlin/JS by building a client-server application that makes use of shared code, serialization,
and other multiplatform paradigms. It also provides a brief introduction to working with Ktor both as a server- and
client-side framework.
Set
up
a
Kotlin/JS
project
Kotlin/JS projects use Gradle as a build system. To let developers easily manage their Kotlin/JS projects, we offer the
kotlin.js Gradle plugin that provides project configuration tools together with helper tasks for automating routines
typical for JavaScript development. For example, the plugin downloads the Yarn package manager for managing npm
dependencies in background and can build a JavaScript bundle from a Kotlin project using webpack. Dependency
management and configuration adjustments can be done to a large part directly from the Gradle build file, with the
option to override automatically generated configurations for full control.
To create a Kotlin/JS project in IntelliJ IDEA, go to File | New | Project. Then select Kotlin and choose a Kotlin/JS target
that suits you best. Don't forget to choose the language for the build script: Groovy or Kotlin.
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New project wizard
Alternatively, you can apply the org.jetbrains.kotlin.js plugin to a Gradle project manually in the Gradle build file
(build.gradle or build.gradle.kts ).
Groovy
plugins {
id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.js' version '1.5.20'
}
Kotlin
plugins {
kotlin("js") version "'1.5.20"
}
The Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin lets you manage aspects of your project in the kotlin section of the build script.
kotlin {
//...
}
Inside the kotlin section, you can manage the following aspects:
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Target execution environment: browser or Node.js
Project dependencies: Maven and npm
Run configuration
Test configuration
Bundling and CSS support for browser projects
Target directory and module name
Project's package.json file
Execution
environments
Kotlin/JS projects can target two different execution environments:
Browser for client-side scripting in browsers
Node.js for running JavaScript code outside of a browser, for example, for server-side scripting.
To define the target execution environment for a Kotlin/JS project, add the js section with browser {} or nodejs {} inside.
kotlin {
js {
browser {
}
binaries.executable()
}
}
The instruction binaries.executable() explicitly instructs the Kotlin compiler to emit executable .js files. This is the
default behavior when using the current Kotlin/JS compiler, but the instruction is explicitly required if you are working
with the Kotlin/JS IR compiler, or have set kotlin.js.generate.executable.default=false in your gradle.properties. In those
cases, omitting binaries.executable() will cause the compiler to only generate Kotlin-internal library files, which can be
used from other projects, but not run on their own. (This is typically faster than creating executable files, and can be a
possible optimization when dealing with non-leaf modules of your project.)
The Kotlin/JS plugin automatically configures its tasks for working with the selected environment. This includes
downloading and installing the required environment and dependencies for running and testing the application. This
allows developers to build, run and test simple projects without additional configuration.
Dependencies
Like any other Gradle projects, Kotlin/JS projects support traditional Gradle dependency declarations in the
dependencies section of the build script.
512
Groovy
dependencies {
implementation 'org.example.myproject:1.1.0'
}
Kotlin
dependencies {
implementation("org.example.myproject", "1.1.0")
}
The Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin also supports dependency declarations for particular source sets in the kotlin section of
the build script.
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets {
main {
dependencies {
implementation 'org.example.myproject:1.1.0'
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
sourceSets["main"].dependencies {
implementation("org.example.myproject", "1.1.0")
}
}
Please note that not all libraries available for the Kotlin programming language are available when targeting JavaScript:
Only libraries that include artifacts for Kotlin/JS can be used.
If the library you are adding has dependencies on packages from npm, Gradle will automatically resolve these transitive
dependencies as well.
Kotlin
standard
libraries
The dependency on the Kotlin/JS standard library is mandatory for all Kotlin/JS projects, and as such is implicit – no
artifacts need to be added.
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If your project contains tests written in Kotlin, you should add a dependency on the kotlin.test library:
Groovy
dependencies {
testImplementation 'org.jetbrains.kotlin:kotlin-test-js'
}
Kotlin
dependencies {
testImplementation(kotlin("test-js"))
}
npm
dependencies
In the JavaScript world, the most common way to manage dependencies is npm. It offers the biggest public repository
of JavaScript modules.
The Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin lets you declare npm dependencies in the Gradle build script, analogous to how you would
declare any other dependencies.
To declare an npm dependency, pass its name and version to the npm() function inside a dependency declaration. You
can also specify one or multiple version range based on npm's semver syntax.
Groovy
dependencies {
implementation npm('react', '> 14.0.0 <=16.9.0')
}
Kotlin
dependencies {
implementation(npm("react", "> 14.0.0 <=16.9.0"))
}
To download and install your declared dependencies during build time, the plugin manages its own installation of the
Yarn package manager.
Besides regular dependencies, there are three more types of dependencies that can be used from the Gradle DSL. To
learn more about when each type of dependency can best be used, have a look at the official documentation linked
from npm:
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devDependencies, via devNpm(...),
optionalDependencies via optionalNpm(...), and
peerDependencies via peerNpm(...).
Once an npm dependency is installed, you can use its API in your code as described in Calling JS from Kotlin.
run
task
The Kotlin/JS plugin provides a run task that lets you run pure Kotlin/JS projects without additional configuration.
For running Kotlin/JS projects in the browser, this task is an alias for the browserDevelopmentRun task (which is also
available in Kotlin multiplatform projects). It uses the webpack-dev-server to serve your JavaScript artifacts. If you want
to customize the configuration used by webpack-dev-server, for example adjust the port the server runs on, use the
webpack configuration file.
For running Kotlin/JS projects targeting Node.js, the run task is an alias for the nodeRun task (which is also available in
Kotlin multiplatform projects).
To run a project, execute the standard lifecycle run task, or the alias to which it corresponds:
./gradlew run
To automatically trigger a re-build of your application after making changes to the source files, use the Gradle
continuous build feature:
./gradlew run --continuous
or
./gradlew run -t
Once the build of your project has succeeded, the webpack-dev-server will automatically refresh the browser page.
test
task
The Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin automatically sets up a test infrastructure for projects. For browser projects, it downloads
and installs the Karma test runner with other required dependencies; for Node.js projects, the Mocha test framework is
used.
The plugin also provides useful testing features, for example:
Source maps generation
515
Test reports generation
Test run results in the console
For running browser tests, the plugin uses Headless Chrome by default. You can also choose other browser to run
tests in, by adding the corresponding entries inside the useKarma section of the build script:
kotlin {
js {
browser {
testTask {
useKarma {
useIe()
useSafari()
useFirefox()
useChrome()
useChromeCanary()
useChromeHeadless()
usePhantomJS()
useOpera()
}
}
}
binaries.executable()
// . . .
}
}
Please note that the Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin does not automatically install these browsers for you, but only uses those
that are available in its execution environment. If you are executing Kotlin/JS tests on a continuous integration server,
for example, make sure that the browsers you want to test against are installed.
If you want to skip tests, add the line enabled = false to the testTask.
kotlin {
js {
browser {
testTask {
enabled = false
}
}
binaries.executable()
// . . .
}
}
To run tests, execute the standard lifecycle check task:
./gradlew check
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Karma
configuration
The Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin automatically generates a Karma configuration file at build time which includes your
settings from the kotlin.js.browser.testTask.useKarma block in your build.gradle(.kts). You can find the file at
build/js/packages/projectName-test/karma.conf.js. To make adjustments to the configuration used by Karma, place
your additional configuration files inside a directory called karma.config.d in the root of your project. All .js configuration
files in this directory will be picked up and are automatically merged into the generated karma.conf.js at build time.
All karma configuration abilities are well described in Karma's documentation.
webpack
bundling
For browser targets, the Kotlin/JS plugin uses the widely known webpack module bundler.
webpack
version
The Kotlin/JS plugin uses webpack 5.
If you have projects created with plugin versions earlier than 1.5.0, you can temporarily switch back to webpack 4 used
in these versions by adding the following line to the project's gradle.properties:
kotlin.js.webpack.major.version=4
webpack
task
The most common webpack adjustments can be made directly via the kotlin.js.browser.webpackTask configuration
block in the Gradle build file:
outputFileName- the name of the webpacked output file. It will be generated in <projectDir>/build/distibution/ after
an execution of a webpack task. The default value is the project name.
output.libraryTarget- the module system for the webpacked output. Learn more about available module systems for
Kotlin/JS projects. The default value is umd.
webpackTask {
outputFileName = "mycustomfilename.js"
output.libraryTarget = "commonjs2"
}
You can also configure common webpack settings to use in bundling, running, and testing tasks in the
commonWebpackConfig block.
webpack
configuration
file
The Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin automatically generates a standard webpack configuration file at the build time. It is
517
located in build/js/packages/projectName/webpack.config.js.
If you want to make further adjustments to the webpack configuration, place your additional configuration files inside a
directory called webpack.config.d in the root of your project. When building your project, all .js configuration files will
automatically be merged into the build/js/packages/projectName/webpack.config.js file. To add a new webpack
loader, for example, add the following to a .js file inside the webpack.config.d:
config.module.rules.push({
test: /\.extension$/,
loader: 'loader-name'
});
All webpack configuration capabilities are well described in its documentation.
Building
executables
For building executable JavaScript artifacts through webpack, the Kotlin/JS plugin contains the
browserDevelopmentWebpack and browserProductionWebpack Gradle tasks.
browserDevelopmentWebpack creates development artifacts, which are larger in size, but take little time to create.
As such, use the browserDevelopmentWebpack tasks during active development.
browserProductionWebpack applies dead code elimination to the generated artifacts and minifies the resulting
JavaScript file, which takes more time, but generates executables that are smaller in size. As such, use the
browserProductionWebpack task when preparing your project for production use.
Execute either of these tasks to obtain the respective artifacts for development or production. The generated files will
be available in build/distributions unless specified otherwise.
./gradlew browserProductionWebpack
Note that these tasks will only be available if your target is configured to generate executable files (via
binaries.executable() ).
CSS
The Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin also provides support for webpack's CSS and style loaders. While all options can be
changed by directly modifying the webpack configuration files that are used to build your project, the most commonly
used settings are available directly from the build.gradle(.kts) file.
To turn on CSS support in your project, set the cssSupport.enabled flag in the Gradle build file in the
commonWbpackConfig block. This configuration is also enabled by default when creating a new project using the
wizard.
browser {
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commonWebpackConfig {
cssSupport.enabled = true
}
binaries.executable()
}
Alternatively, you can add CSS support independently for webpackTask, runTask, and testTask.
webpackTask {
cssSupport.enabled = true
}
runTask {
cssSupport.enabled = true
}
testTask {
useKarma {
// . . .
webpackConfig.cssSupport.enabled = true
}
}
Activating CSS support in your project helps prevent common errors that occur when trying to use style sheets from an
unconfigured project, such as Module parse failed: Unexpected character '@' (14:0).
You can use cssSupport.mode to specify how encountered CSS should be handled. The following values are available:
"inline" (default): styles are added to the global <style> tag.
"extract": styles are extracted into a separate file. They can then be included from an HTML page.
"import": styles are processed as strings. This can be useful if you need access to the CSS from your code (such as
val styles = require("main.css") ).
To use different modes for the same project, use cssSupport.rules. Here, you can specify a list of
KotlinWebpackCssRules, each of which define a mode, as well as include and exclude patterns.
Yarn
To configure additional Yarn features, place a .yarnrc file in the root of your project. At build time, it gets picked up
automatically.
For example, to use a custom registry for npm packages, add the following line to a file called .yarnrc in the project
root:
registry "http://my.registry/api/npm/"
To learn more about .yarnrc, please visit the official Yarn documentation.
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Distribution
target
directory
By default, the results of a Kotlin/JS project build reside in the /build/distribution directory within the project root.
To set another location for project distribution files, add the distribution block inside browser in the build script and
assign a value to the directory property. Once you run a project build task, Gradle will save the output bundle in this
location together with project resources.
Groovy
kotlin {
js {
browser {
distribution {
directory = file("$projectDir/output/")
}
}
binaries.executable()
// . . .
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
js {
browser {
distribution {
directory = File("$projectDir/output/")
}
}
binaries.executable()
// . . .
}
}
Module
name
To adjust the name for the JavaScript module (which is generated in build/js/packages/myModuleName ), including the
corresponding .js and .d.ts files, use the moduleName option:
js {
moduleName = "myModuleName"
}
Note that this does not affect the webpacked output in build/distributions.
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package.json
customization
The package.json file holds the metadata of a JavaScript package. Popular package registries such as npm require all
published packages to have such a file. They use it to track and manage package publications.
The Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin automatically generates package.json for Kotlin/JS projects during build time. By default,
the file contains essential data: name, version, license, and dependencies, and some other package attributes.
Aside from basic package attributes, package.json can define how a JavaScript project should behave, for example,
identifying scripts that are available to run.
You can add custom entries to the project's package.json via the Gradle DSL. To add custom fields to your
package.json, use the customField function in the compilations packageJson block:
kotlin {
js {
compilations["main"].packageJson {
customField("hello", mapOf("one" to 1, "two" to 2))
}
}
}
When you build the project, this code will add the following block to the package.json file:
"hello": { "one": 1, "two": 2 }
Learn more about writing package.json files for npm registry in the npm docs.
Troubleshooting
When building a Kotlin/JS project using Kotlin 1.3.xx, you may encounter a Gradle error if one of your dependencies (or
any transitive dependency) was built using Kotlin 1.4 or higher: Could not determine the dependencies of task
':client:jsTestPackageJson'./ Cannot choose between the following variants. This is a known problem, a workaround is
provided here.
Run
Kotlin/JS
Since Kotlin/JS projects are managed with the Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin, you can run your project using the appropriate
tasks. If you're starting with a blank project, ensure that you have some sample code to execute. Create the file
src/main/kotlin/App.kt and fill it with a small "Hello, World"-type code snippet:
fun main() {
console.log("Hello, Kotlin/JS!")
}
Depending on the target platform, some platform-specific extra setup might be required to run your code for the first
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time.
Run
the
Node.js
target
When targeting Node.js with Kotlin/JS, you can simply execute the run Gradle task. This can be done for example via
the command line, using the Gradle wrapper:
./gradlew run
If you're using IntelliJ IDEA, you can find the run action in the Gradle tool window:
Gradle Run task in IntelliJ IDEA
On first start, the kotlin.js Gradle plugin will download all required dependencies to get you up and running. After the
build is completed, the program is executed, and you can see the logging output in the terminal:
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Executing a Kotlin JS program in IntelliJ IDEA
Run
the
browser
target
When targeting the browser, your project is required to have an HTML page. This page will be served by the
development server while you are working on your application, and should embed your compiled Kotlin/JS file. Create
and fill an HTML file /src/main/resources/index.html:
<!doctype html>
<html lang="en">
<head>
<meta charset="UTF-8">
<title>Hello, Kotlin/JS!</title>
</head>
<body>
</body>
<script src="jsTutorial.js"></script>
</html>
By default, the name of your project's generated artifact (which is created through webpack) that needs to be
referenced is your project name (in this case, jsTutorial ). If you've named your project followAlong, make sure to
embed followAlong.js instead of jsTutorial.js
After making these adjustments, start the integrated development server. You can do this from the command line via
the Gradle wrapper:
./gradlew run
When working from IntelliJ IDEA, you can find the run action in the Gradle tool window.
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After the project has been built, the embedded webpack-dev-server will start running, and will open a (seemingly
empty) browser window pointing to the HTML file you specified previously. To validate that your program is running
correctly, open the developer tools of your browser (for example by right-clicking and choosing the Inspect action).
Inside the developer tools, navigate to the console, where you can see the results of the executed JavaScript code:
Console output in browser developer tools
With this setup, you can recompile your project after each code change to see your changes. Kotlin/JS also supports a
more convenient way of automatically rebuilding the application while you are developing it. To find out how to set up
this continuous mode, check out the corresponding tutorial.
Development
server
and
continuous
compilation
Instead of manually compiling and executing a Kotlin/JS project every time you want to see the changes you made, you
can use the continuous compilation mode. Instead of using the regular run command, invoke the Gradle wrapper in
continuous mode:
./gradlew run --continuous
If you are working in IntelliJ IDEA, you can pass the same flag via the run configuration. After running the Gradle run
task for the first time from the IDE, IntelliJ IDEA automatically generates a run configuration for it, which you can edit:
524
Editing run configurations in IntelliJ IDEA
Enabling continuous mode via the Run/Debug Configurations dialog is as easy as adding the --continuous flag to the
arguments for the run configuration:
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Adding the continuous flag to a run configuration in IntelliJ IDEA
When executing this run configuration, you can note that the Gradle process continues watching for changes to the
program:
526
Gradle waiting for changes
Once a change has been detected, the program will be recompiled automatically. If you still have the page open in the
browser, the development server will trigger an automatic reload of the page, and the changes will become visible. This
is thanks to the integrated webpack-dev-server that is managed by the Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin.
Debug
Kotlin/JS
in
the
browser
Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin automatically generates source maps for the project builds. These enable support for
debugging the code using browser development tools. To get started debugging your code, execute the run task in a
project using the JS Gradle plugin, or browserDevelopmentRun in a multiplatform project. Once the development
server is running, you can start a debugging session from the browser.
To begin debugging, navigate to the page and launch the developer tools of the browser (for example by right-clicking
and selecting the Inspect action). If your program is logging information to the console, navigate to the Console tab to
see this output. Depending on your browser and its developer tools, these logs will also reference the Kotlin source
files they originate from:
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Chrome DevTools console
You can click the file reference on the right to navigate directly to the corresponding statement. Alternatively, you can
manually switch to the Sources tab, and find the correct file in the file tree. Navigating to the Kotlin file actually shows
you the regular Kotlin code (as opposed to minified JavaScript):
Debugging in Chrome DevTools
You can now start debugging the program. For example, set a breakpoint by clicking on one of the line numbers. The
developer tools even support setting breakpoints within a statement. As with regular JavaScript code, any set
breakpoints will persist across page reloads. This also makes it possible to debug Kotlin's main method which is
executed when the script is loaded for the first time.
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Run
tests
in
Kotlin/JS
The Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin lets you run tests through a variety of test runners that can be specified via the Gradle
configuration. In order to make test annotations and functionality available for the JavaScript target, add the correct
platform artifact for kotlin.test in build.gradle.kts:
dependencies {
// ...
testImplementation(kotlin("test-js"))
}
You can tune how tests are executed in Kotlin/JS by adjusting the settings available in the testTask block in the Gradle
build script. For example, using the Karma test runner together with a headless instance of Chrome and an instance of
Firefox looks like this:
target {
browser {
testTask {
useKarma {
useChromeHeadless()
useFirefox()
}
}
}
}
For a detailed description of the available functionality, check out the Kotlin/JS reference on configuring the test task.
Please note that by default, no browsers are bundled with the plugin. This means that you'll have to ensure they're
available on the target system.
To check that tests are executed properly, add a file src/test/kotlin/AppTest.kt and fill it with this content:
import kotlin.test.Test
import kotlin.test.assertEquals
class AppTest {
@Test
fun thingsShouldWork() {
assertEquals(listOf(1,2,3).reversed(), listOf(3,2,1))
}
@Test
fun thingsShouldBreak() {
assertEquals(listOf(1,2,3).reversed(), listOf(1,2,3))
}
}
To run the tests in the browser, execute the browserTest task via IntelliJ IDEA, or use the gutter icons to execute all or
individual tests:
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Gradle browserTest task
Alternatively, if you want to run the tests via the command line, use the Gradle wrapper:
./gradlew browserTest
After running the tests from IntelliJ IDEA, the Run tool window will show the test results. You can click failed tests to
see their stack trace, and navigate to the corresponding test implementation via a double-click.
Test results in IntelliJ IDEA
After each test run, regardless of how you executed the test, you can find a properly formatted test report from Gradle
in build/reports/tests/browserTest/index.html. Open this file in a browser to see another overview of the test results:
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Gradle test summary
If you are using the set of example tests shown in the snippet above, one test passes, and one test breaks, which gives
the resulting total of 50% successful tests. To get more information about individual test cases, you can navigate via
the provided hyperlinks:
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Stacktrace of failed test in the Gradle summary
Kotlin/JS
dead
code
elimination
The Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin includes a dead code elimination (DCE) tool. Dead code elimination is often also called
tree shaking. It reduces the size or the resulting JavaScript code by removing unused properties, functions, and
classes.
Unused declarations can appear in cases like:
A function is inlined and never gets called directly (which happens always except for a few situations).
A module uses a shared library. Without DCE, parts of the library that you don't use are still included in the resulting
bundle. For example, the Kotlin standard library contains functions for manipulating lists, arrays, char sequences,
adapters for DOM, and so on. All of this functionality would require about 1.3 MB as a JavaScript file. A simple
"Hello, world" application only requires console routines, which is only few kilobytes for the entire file.
The Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin handles DCE automatically when you build a production bundle, for example by using the
browserProductionWebpack task. Development bundling tasks (like browserDevelopmentWebpack) don't include
DCE.
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Exclude
declarations
from
DCE
Sometimes you may need to keep a function or a class in the resulting JavaScript code even if you don't use it in your
module, for example, if you're going to use it in the client JavaScript code.
To keep certain declarations from elimination, add the dceTask block to your Gradle build script and list the
declarations as arguments of the keep function. An argument must be the declaration's fully qualified name with the
module name as a prefix: moduleName.dot.separated.package.name.declarationName
Unless specified otherwise, the names of functions and modules can be mangled in the generated
JavaScript code. To keep such functions from elimination, use the mangled names in the keep arguments as
they appear in the generated JavaScript code.
kotlin {
js {
browser {
dceTask {
keep("myKotlinJSModule.org.example.getName",
"myKotlinJSModule.org.example.User" )
}
binaries.executable()
}
}
}
If you want to keep a whole package or module from elimination, you can use its fully qualified name as it appears in
the generated JavaScript code.
Keeping whole packages or modules from elimination can prevent DCE from removing many unused
declarations. Because of this, it is preferable to select individual declarations which should be excluded from
DCE one by one.
Disable
DCE
To turn off DCE completely, use the devMode option in the dceTask:
kotlin {
js {
browser {
dceTask {
dceOptions.devMode = true
}
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}
binaries.executable()
}
}
Kotlin/JS
IR
compiler
The Kotlin/JS IR compiler is in Alpha. It may change incompatibly and require manual migration in the future.
We would appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
The Kotlin/JS IR compiler backend is the main focus of innovation around Kotlin/JS, and paves the way forward for the
technology.
Rather than directly generating JavaScript code from Kotlin source code, the Kotlin/JS IR compiler backend leverages
a new approach. Kotlin source code is first transformed into a Kotlin intermediate representation (IR), which is
subsequently compiled into JavaScript. For Kotlin/JS, this enables aggressive optimizations, and allows improvements
on pain points that were present in the previous compiler, such as generated code size (through dead code
elimination), and JavaScript and TypeScript ecosystem interoperability, to name some examples.
The IR compiler backend is available starting with Kotlin 1.4.0 through the Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin. To enable it in your
project, pass a compiler type to the js function in your Gradle build script:
kotlin {
js(IR) { // or: LEGACY, BOTH
// ...
}
binaries.executable() // not applicable to BOTH, see details below
}
IR uses the new IR compiler backend for Kotlin/JS.
LEGACY uses the default compiler backend.
BOTH compiles your project with the new IR compiler as well as the default compiler backend. Use this mode for
authoring libraries compatible with both backends.
The compiler type can also be set in the gradle.properties file, with the key kotlin.js.compiler=ir. This behaviour is
overwritten by any settings in the build.gradle(.kts), however.
Ignoring
compilation
errors
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Ignore compilation errors mode is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any time. Opt-in is
required (see the details below), and you should use it only for evaluation purposes. We would appreciate
your feedback on it in YouTrack.
Kotlin/JS IR compiler provides a new compilation mode unavailable in the default backend – ignoring compilation
errors. In this mode, you can try out your application even while its code contains errors. For example, when you’re
doing a complex refactoring or working on a part of the system that is completely unrelated to a compilation error in
another part.
With this new compiler mode, the compiler ignores all broken code. Thus, you can run the application and try its parts
that don't use the broken code. If you try to run the code that was broken during compilation, you'll get a runtime
exception.
Choose between two tolerance policies for ignoring compilation errors in your code:
SEMANTIC. The compiler will accept code that is syntactically correct but doesn't make sense semantically. For
example, assigning a number to a string variable (type mismatch).
SYNTAX. The compiler will accept any code, even if it contains syntax errors. Regardless of what you write, the
compiler will still try to generate a runnable executable.
As an experimental feature, ignoring compilation errors requires an opt-in. To enable this mode, add the -Xerror-
tolerance-policy={SEMANTIC|SYNTAX} compiler option:
kotlin {
js(IR) {
compilations.all {
compileKotlinTask.kotlinOptions.freeCompilerArgs += listOf("-Xerror-tolerance-
policy=SYNTAX")
}
}
}
Lazy
initialization
of
top-level
properties
Lazy initialization of top-level properties is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any time. Opt-in is
required (see the details below), and you should use it only for evaluation purposes. We would appreciate
your feedback on it in YouTrack.
For better application startup performance, the Kotlin/JS IR compiler offers an option to initialize top-level properties
lazily. This way, the application loads without initializing all the top-level properties used in its code. It initializes only the
ones needed at startup; other properties receive their values later when the code that uses them actually runs.
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As an experimental feature, lazy initialization of top-level properties requires an opt-in. To use the lazy initialization of
top-level properties, add the -Xir-property-lazy-initialization option when compiling the code with the JS IR compiler:
Groovy
tasks.withType(Kotlin2JsCompile) {
kotlinOptions {
freeCompilerArgs += "-Xir-property-lazy-initialization"
}
}
Kotlin
tasks.withType<Kotlin2JsCompile> {
kotlinOptions {
freeCompilerArgs += "-Xir-property-lazy-initialization"
}
}
Preview:
generation
of
TypeScript
declaration
files
(d.ts)
The generation of TypeScript declaration files (d.ts) is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any
time. Opt-in is required (see the details below), and you should use it only for evaluation purposes. We would
appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
The Kotlin/JS IR compiler is capable of generating TypeScript definitions from your Kotlin code. These definitions can
be used by JavaScript tools and IDEs when working on hybrid apps to provide autocompletion, support static
analyzers, and make it easier to include Kotlin code in JavaScript and TypeScript projects.
Top-level declarations marked with @JsExport in a project that produces executable files (binaries.executable()) will get
a .d.ts file generated, which contains the TypeScript definitions for the exported Kotlin declarations. These declarations
can be found in build/js/packages/<package_name>/kotlin alongside the corresponding un-webpacked JavaScript
code.
Current
limitations
of
the
IR
compiler
A major change with the new IR compiler backend is the absence of binary compatibility with the default backend. A
lack of such compatibility between the two backends for Kotlin/JS means that a library created with the new IR
compiler backend can’t be used from the default backend, and vice versa.
If you want to use the IR compiler backend for your project, you need to update all Kotlin dependencies to versions
that support this new backend. Libraries published by JetBrains for Kotlin 1.4+ targeting Kotlin/JS already contain all
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artifacts required for usage with the new IR compiler backend.
If you are a library author looking to provide compatibility with the current compiler backend as well as the new IR
compiler backend, additionally check out the section about authoring libraries for the IR compiler section.
The IR compiler backend also has some discrepancies in comparison to the default backend. When trying out the new
backend, it's good to be mindful of these possible pitfalls.
Currently, the IR backend does not generate source maps for Kotlin code. You can follow the progress on
YouTrack.
Some libraries that rely on specific characteristics of the default backend, such as kotlin-wrappers, can display
some problems. You can follow the investigation and progress on YouTrack.
The IR backend does not make Kotlin declarations available to JavaScript by default at all. To make Kotlin
declarations visible to JavaScript, they must be annotated with @JsExport.
Migrating
existing
projects
to
the
IR
compiler
Due to significant differences between the two Kotlin/JS compilers, making your Kotlin/JS code work with the IR
compiler may require some adjustments. Learn how to migrate existing Kotlin/JS projects to the IR compiler in the
Kotlin/JS IR compiler migration guide.
Authoring
libraries
for
the
IR
compiler
with
backwards
compatibility
If you're a library maintainer who is looking to provide compatibility with the default backend as well as the new IR
compiler backend, a setting for the compiler selection is available that allows you to create artifacts for both backends,
allowing you to keep compatibility for your existing users while providing support for the next generation of Kotlin
compiler. This so-called both -mode can be turned on using the kotlin.js.compiler=both setting in your
gradle.properties file, or can be set as one of the project-specific options inside your js block inside the
build.gradle(.kts) file:
kotlin {
js(BOTH) {
// ...
}
}
When in both mode, the IR compiler backend and default compiler backend are both used when building a library from
your sources (hence the name). This means that both klib files with Kotlin IR as well as jar files for the default compiler
will be generated. When published under the same Maven coordinate, Gradle will automatically choose the right
artifact depending on the use case – js for the old compiler, klib for the new one. This enables you to compile and
publish your library for projects that are using either of the two compiler backends.
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Migrating
Kotlin/JS
projects
to
the
IR
compiler
The Kotlin/JS IR compiler is in Alpha. It may change incompatibly and require manual migration in the future.
We would appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
We are replacing the current Kotlin/JS compiler with the IR-based compiler in order to unify Kotlin’s behavior on all
platforms and to make it possible to implement new JS-specific optimizations, among other reasons. You can learn
more about the internal differences between the two compilers in the blog post Migrating our Kotlin/JS app to the new
IR compiler by Sebastian Aigner.
Due to the significant differences between the compilers, switching your Kotlin/JS project from the old backend to the
new one may require adjusting your code. On this page, we've compiled a list of known migration issues along with
suggested solutions.
Note that this guide may change over time as we fix issues and find new ones. Please help us keep it complete –
report any issues you encounter when switching to the IR compiler by submitting them to our issue tracker YouTrack
or filling out this form.
Convert
JS-
and
React-related
classes
and
interfaces
to
external
interfaces
Issue: Using Kotlin interfaces and classes (including data classes) that derive from pure JS classes, such as React's
RState and RProps, can cause a ClassCastException. Such exceptions appear because the compiler attempts to work
with instances of these classes as if they were Kotlin objects, when they actually come from JS.
Solution: convert all classes and interfaces that derive from pure JS classes to external interfaces:
// Replace this
interface AppState : RState { }
interface AppProps : RProps { }
data class CustomComponentState(var name: String) : RState
// With this
external interface AppState : RState { }
external interface AppProps : RProps { }
external interface CustomComponentState : RState {
var name: String
}
In IntelliJ IDEA, you can use these structural search and replace templates to automatically mark interfaces as external:
Template for RState
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Template for RProps
Convert
properties
of
external
interfaces
to
var
Issue: properties of external interfaces in Kotlin/JS code can't be read-only (val) properties because their values can be
assigned only after the object is created with js() or jsObject() (a helper function from kotlin-wrappers ):
val myState = js("{}") as CustomComponentState
myState.name = "name"
Solution: convert all properties of external interfaces to var:
// Replace this
external interface CustomComponentState : RState {
val name: String
}
// With this
external interface CustomComponentState : RState {
var name: String
}
Make
boolean
properties
nullable
in
external
interfaces
Issue: JavaScript treats the null or undefined value of a boolean variable as false. So, boolean properties can be used
in expressions without being defined. This is okay in JavaScript, but not in Kotlin.
external interface ComponentProps: RProps {
var isInitialized: Boolean
var visible: Boolean
}
val props = js("{}") as ComponentProps
props.isInitialized = true
// visible is not initialized - OK in JS – means it's false
If you try to use such a property in a function overridden in Kotlin (for example, a React button ), you'll get a
ClassCastException:
button {
attrs {
autoFocus = props.visible // ClassCastException here
}
}
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Solution: make all Boolean properties of external interfaces nullable (Boolean? ):
// Replace this
external interface ComponentProps: RProps {
var visible: Boolean
}
// With this
external interface ComponentProps: RProps {
var visible: Boolean?
}
Convert
functions
with
receivers
in
external
interfaces
to
regular
functions
Issue: external declarations can't contain functions with receivers, such as extension functions or properties with
corresponding functional types.
Solution: convert such functions and properties to regular functions by adding the receiver object as an argument:
// Replace this
external interface ButtonProps : RProps {
var inside: StyledDOMBuilder<BUTTON>.() -> Unit
}
external interface ButtonProps : RProps {
var inside: (StyledDOMBuilder<BUTTON>) -> Unit
}
Create
plain
JS
objects
for
interoperability
Issue: properties of a Kotlin object that implements an external interface are not enumerable. This means that they are
not visible for operations that iterate over the object's properties, for example:
for (var name in obj)
console.log(obj)
JSON.stringify(obj)
Although they are still accessible by the name: obj.myProperty
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external interface AppProps { var name: String }
data class AppPropsImpl(override var name: String) : AppProps
fun main() {
val jsApp = js("{name: 'App1'}") as AppProps // plain JS object
println("Kotlin sees: ${jsApp.name}") // "App1"
println("JSON.stringify sees:" + JSON.stringify(jsApp)) // {"name":"App1"} - OK
val ktApp = AppPropsImpl("App2") // Kotlin object
println("Kotlin sees: ${ktApp.name}") // "App2"
// JSON sees only the backing field, not the property
println("JSON.stringify sees:" + JSON.stringify(ktApp)) // {"_name_3":"App2"}
}
Solution 1: create plain JavaScript objects with js() or jsObject() (a helper function from kotlin-wrappers ):
external interface AppProps { var name: String }
data class AppPropsImpl(override var name: String) : AppProps
// Replace this
val ktApp = AppPropsImpl("App1") // Kotlin object
// With this
val jsApp = js("{name: 'App1'}") as AppProps // or jsObject {}
Solution 2: create objects with kotlin.js.json():
// or with this
val jsonApp = kotlin.js.json(Pair("name", "App1")) as AppProps
Replace
toString()
calls
on
function
references
with
.name
Issue: in the IR backend, calling toString() on function references doesn't produce unique values.
Solution: use the name property instead of toString().
Browser
and
DOM
API
The Kotlin/JS standard library lets you access browser-specific functionality using the kotlinx.browser package, which
includes typical top-level objects such as document and window. The standard library provides typesafe wrappers for
the functionality exposed by these objects wherever possible. As a fallback, the dynamic type is used to provide
interaction with functions that do not map well into the Kotlin type system.
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Interaction
with
the
DOM
For interaction with the Document Object Model (DOM), you can use the variable document. For example, you can set
the background color of our website through this object:
document.bgColor = "FFAA12"
The document object also provides you a way to retrieve a specific element by ID, name, class name, tag name and so
on. All returned elements are of type Element?. To access their properties, you need to cast them to their appropriate
type. For example, assume that you have an HTML page with an email <input> field:
<body>
<input type="text" name="email" id="email"/>
<script type="text/javascript" src="tutorial.js"></script>
</body>
Note that your script is included at the bottom of the body tag. This ensures that the DOM is fully available before the
script is loaded.
With this setup, you can access elements of the DOM. To access the properties of the input field, invoke
getElementById and cast it to HTMLInputElement. You can then safely access its properties, such as value:
val email = document.getElementById("email") as HTMLInputElement
email.value = "hadi@jetbrains.com"
Much like you reference this input element, you can access other elements on the page, casting them to the
appropriate types.
To see how to create and structure elements in the DOM in a concise way, check out the Typesafe HTML DSL.
Use
JavaScript
code
from
Kotlin
Kotlin was first designed for easy interoperation with the Java platform: it sees Java classes as Kotlin classes, and
Java sees Kotlin classes as Java classes.
However, JavaScript is a dynamically typed language, which means it does not check types at compile time. You can
freely talk to JavaScript from Kotlin via dynamic types. If you want to use the full power of the Kotlin type system, you
can create external declarations for JavaScript libraries which will be understood by the Kotlin compiler and the
surrounding tooling.
An experimental tool to automatically create Kotlin external declarations for npm dependencies which provide type
definitions (TypeScript / d.ts) called Dukat is also available.
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Inline
JavaScript
You can inline some JavaScript code into your Kotlin code using the js() function. For example:
fun jsTypeOf(o: Any): String {
return js("typeof o")
}
Because the parameter of js is parsed at compile time and translated to JavaScript code "as-is", it is required to be a
string constant. So, the following code is incorrect:
fun jsTypeOf(o: Any): String {
return js(getTypeof() + " o") // error reported here
}
fun getTypeof() = "typeof"
Note that invoking js() returns a result of type dynamic, which provides no type safety at the compile time.
external
modifier
To tell Kotlin that a certain declaration is written in pure JavaScript, you should mark it with the external modifier. When
the compiler sees such a declaration, it assumes that the implementation for the corresponding class, function or
property is provided externally (by the developer or via an npm dependency ), and therefore does not try to generate
any JavaScript code from the declaration. This is also why external declarations can't have a body. For example:
external fun alert(message: Any?): Unit
external class Node {
val firstChild: Node
fun append(child: Node): Node
fun removeChild(child: Node): Node
// etc
}
external val window: Window
Note that the external modifier is inherited by nested declarations. This is why in the example Node class, there is no
external modifier before member functions and properties.
The external modifier is only allowed on package-level declarations. You can't declare an external member of a non-
external class.
Declare
(static)
members
of
a
class
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In JavaScript you can define members either on a prototype or a class itself:
function MyClass() { ... }
MyClass.sharedMember = function() { /* implementation */ };
MyClass.prototype.ownMember = function() { /* implementation */ };
There is no such syntax in Kotlin. However, in Kotlin we have companion objects. Kotlin treats companion objects of
external classes in a special way: instead of expecting an object, it assumes members of companion objects to be
members of the class itself. MyClass from the example above can be described as follows:
external class MyClass {
companion object {
fun sharedMember()
}
fun ownMember()
}
Declare
optional
parameters
If you are writing an external declaration for a JavaScript function which has an optional parameter, use
definedExternally. This delegates the generation of the default values to the JavaScript function itself:
external fun myFunWithOptionalArgs(
x: Int,
y: String = definedExternally,
z: String = definedExternally
)
With this external declaration, you can call myFunWithOptionalArgs with one required argument and two optional
arguments, where the default values are calculated by the JavaScript implementation of myFunWithOptionalArgs.
Extend
JavaScript
classes
You can easily extend JavaScript classes as if they were Kotlin classes. Just define an external open class and extend
it by a non- external class. For example:
open external class Foo {
open fun run()
fun stop()
}
class Bar: Foo() {
override fun run() {
window.alert("Running!")
}
fun restart() {
window.alert("Restarting")
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}
}
There are some limitations:
When a function of an external base class is overloaded by signature, you can't override it in a derived class.
You can't override a function with default arguments.
Non-external classes can't be extended by external classes.
external
interfaces
JavaScript does not have the concept of interfaces. When a function expects its parameter to support two methods
foo and bar, you would just pass in an object that actually has these methods.
You can use interfaces to express this concept in statically typed Kotlin:
external interface HasFooAndBar {
fun foo()
fun bar()
}
external fun myFunction(p: HasFooAndBar)
A typical use case for external interfaces is to describe settings objects. For example:
external interface JQueryAjaxSettings {
var async: Boolean
var cache: Boolean
var complete: (JQueryXHR, String) -> Unit
// etc
}
fun JQueryAjaxSettings(): JQueryAjaxSettings = js("{}")
external class JQuery {
companion object {
fun get(settings: JQueryAjaxSettings): JQueryXHR
}
}
fun sendQuery() {
JQuery.get(JQueryAjaxSettings().apply {
complete = { (xhr, data) ->
window.alert("Request complete")
}
})
}
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External interfaces have some restrictions:
They can't be used on the right-hand side of is checks.
They can't be passed as reified type arguments.
They can't be used in class literal expressions (such as I::class ).
as casts to external interfaces always succeed. Casting to external interfaces produces the "Unchecked cast to
external interface" compile time warning. The warning can be suppressed with the
@Suppress("UNCHECKED_CAST_TO_EXTERNAL_INTERFACE") annotation.
IntelliJ IDEA can also automatically generate the @Suppress annotation. Open the intentions menu via the light bulb
icon or Alt-Enter, and click the small arrow next to the "Unchecked cast to external interface" inspection. Here, you
can select the suppression scope, and your IDE will add the annotation to your file accordingly.
Casts
In addition to the "unsafe" cast operator as, which throws a ClassCastException in case a cast is not possible,
Kotlin/JS also provides unsafeCast<T>(). When using unsafeCast, no type checking is done at all during runtime. For
example, consider the following two methods:
fun usingUnsafeCast(s: Any) = s.unsafeCast<String>()
fun usingAsOperator(s: Any) = s as String
They will be compiled accordingly:
function usingUnsafeCast(s) {
return s;
}
function usingAsOperator(s) {
var tmp$;
return typeof (tmp$ = s) === 'string' ? tmp$ : throwCCE();
}
Dynamic
type
The dynamic type is not supported in code targeting the JVM.
Being a statically typed language, Kotlin still has to interoperate with untyped or loosely typed environments, such as
the JavaScript ecosystem. To facilitate these use cases, the dynamic type is available in the language:
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val dyn: dynamic = ...
The dynamic type basically turns off Kotlin's type checker:
A value of the dynamic type can be assigned to any variable or passed anywhere as a parameter.
Any value can be assigned to a variable of the dynamic type or passed to a function that takes dynamic as a
parameter.
null -checks are disabled for the dynamic type values.
The most peculiar feature of dynamic is that we are allowed to call any property or function with any parameters on a
dynamic variable:
dyn.whatever(1, "foo", dyn) // 'whatever' is not defined anywhere
dyn.whatever(*arrayOf(1, 2, 3))
On the JavaScript platform this code will be compiled "as is": dyn.whatever(1) in Kotlin becomes dyn.whatever(1) in the
generated JavaScript code.
When calling functions written in Kotlin on values of dynamic type, keep in mind the name mangling performed by the
Kotlin to JavaScript compiler. You may need to use the @JsName annotation to assign well-defined names to the
functions that you need to call.
A dynamic call always returns dynamic as a result, so you can chain such calls freely:
dyn.foo().bar.baz()
When you pass a lambda to a dynamic call, all of its parameters by default have the type dynamic:
dyn.foo {
x -> x.bar() // x is dynamic
}
Expressions using values of dynamic type are translated to JavaScript "as is", and do not use the Kotlin operator
conventions. The following operators are supported:
binary: +, -, *, /, %, >, < >=, <=, ==, !=, ===, !==, &&, ||
unary
prefix: -, +, !
prefix and postfix: ++, --
assignments: +=, -=, *=, /=, %=
indexed access:
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read: d[a], more than one argument is an error
write: d[a1] = a2, more than one argument in [] is an error
in, !in and .. operations with values of type dynamic are forbidden.
For a more technical description, see the spec document.
Use
dependencies
from
npm
In Kotlin/JS projects, all dependencies can be managed through the Gradle plugin. This includes Kotlin/Multiplatform
libraries such as kotlinx.coroutines, kotlinx.serialization, or ktor-client.
For depending on JavaScript packages from npm, the Gradle DSL exposes an npm function that lets you specify
packages you want to import from npm. Let's consider the import of an NPM package called is-sorted.
The corresponding part in the Gradle build file looks as follows:
dependencies {
// ...
implementation(npm("is-sorted", "1.0.5"))
}
Because JavaScript modules are usually dynamically typed and Kotlin is a statically typed language, you need to
provide a kind of adapter. In Kotlin, such adapters are called external declarations. For the is-sorted package which
offers only one function, this declaration is small to write. Inside the source folder, create a new file called is-sorted.kt,
and fill it with these contents:
@JsModule("is-sorted")
@JsNonModule
external fun <T> sorted(a: Array<T>): Boolean
Please note that if you're using CommonJS as a target, the @JsModule and @JsNonModule annotations need to be
adjusted accordingly.
This JavaScript function can now be used just like a regular Kotlin function. Because we provided type information in
the header file (as opposed to simply defining parameter and return type to be dynamic ), proper compiler support and
type-checking is also available.
console.log("Hello, Kotlin/JS!")
console.log(sorted(arrayOf(1,2,3)))
console.log(sorted(arrayOf(3,1,2)))
Running these three lines either in the browser or Node.js, the output shows that the call to sorted was properly
mapped to the function exported by the is-sorted package:
Hello, Kotlin/JS!
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true
false
Because the JavaScript ecosystem has multiple ways of exposing functions in a package (for example through named
or default exports), other npm packages might need a slightly altered structure for their external declarations.
To learn more about how to write declarations, please refer to Calling JavaScript from Kotlin.
Use
Kotlin
code
from
JavaScript
Depending on the selected JavaScript Module system, the Kotlin/JS compiler generates different output. But in
general, the Kotlin compiler generates normal JavaScript classes, functions and properties, which you can freely use
from JavaScript code. There are some subtle things you should remember, though.
Isolating
declarations
in
a
separate
JavaScript
object
in
plain
mode
If you have explicitly set your module kind to be plain, Kotlin creates an object that contains all Kotlin declarations from
the current module. This is done to prevent spoiling the global object. This means that for a module myModule, all
declarations are available to JavaScript via the myModule object. For example:
fun foo() = "Hello"
Can be called from JavaScript like this:
alert(myModule.foo());
This is not applicable when you compile your Kotlin module to JavaScript modules like UMD (which is the default
setting for both browser and nodejs targets), CommonJS or AMD. In this case, your declarations will be exposed in the
format specified by your chosen JavaScript module system. When using UMD or CommonJS, for example, your call
site could look like this:
alert(require('myModule').foo());
Check the article on JavaScript Modules for more information on the topic of JavaScript module systems.
Package
structure
Kotlin exposes its package structure to JavaScript, so unless you define your declarations in the root package, you
have to use fully qualified names in JavaScript. For example:
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package my.qualified.packagename
fun foo() = "Hello"
When using UMD or CommonJS, for example, your callsite could look like this:
alert(require('myModule').my.qualified.packagename.foo())
Or, in the case of using plain as a module system setting:
alert(myModule.my.qualified.packagename.foo());
@JsName
annotation
In some cases (for example, to support overloads), the Kotlin compiler mangles the names of generated functions and
attributes in JavaScript code. To control the generated names, you can use the @JsName annotation:
// Module 'kjs'
class Person(val name: String) {
fun hello() {
println("Hello $name!")
}
@JsName("helloWithGreeting")
fun hello(greeting: String) {
println("$greeting $name!")
}
}
Now you can use this class from JavaScript in the following way:
// If necessary, import 'kjs' according to chosen module system
var person = new kjs.Person("Dmitry"); // refers to module 'kjs'
person.hello(); // prints "Hello Dmitry!"
person.helloWithGreeting("Servus"); // prints "Servus Dmitry!"
If we didn't specify the @JsName annotation, the name of the corresponding function would contain a suffix calculated
from the function signature, for example hello_61zpoe$.
Note that there are some cases in which the Kotlin compiler does not apply mangling:
external declarations are not mangled.
Any overridden functions in non- external classes inheriting from external classes are not mangled.
The parameter of @JsName is required to be a constant string literal which is a valid identifier. The compiler will report
an error on any attempt to pass non-identifier string to @JsName. The following example produces a compile-time
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error:
@JsName("new C()") // error here
external fun newC()
@JsExport
annotation
The @JsExport annotation is currently marked as experimental. Its design may change in future versions.
By applying the @JsExport annotation to a top-level declaration (like a class or function), you make the Kotlin
declaration available from JavaScript. The annotation exports all nested declarations with the name given in Kotlin. It
can also be applied on file-level using @file:JsExport.
To resolve ambiguities in exports (like overloads for functions with the same name), you can use the @JsExport
annotation together with @JsName to specify the names for the generated and exported functions.
The @JsExport annotation is available in the current default compiler backend and the new IR compiler backend. If you
are targeting the IR compiler backend, you must use the @JsExport annotation to make your functions visible from
Kotlin in the first place.
For multiplatform projects, @JsExport is available in common code as well. It only has an effect when compiling for the
JavaScript target, and allows you to also export Kotlin declarations that are not platform specific.
Kotlin
types
in
JavaScript
Kotlin numeric types, except for kotlin.Long are mapped to JavaScript Number.
kotlin.Char is mapped to JavaScript Number representing character code.
Kotlin can't distinguish between numeric types at run time (except for kotlin.Long ), so the following code works:
fun f() {
val x: Int = 23
val y: Any = x
println(y as Float)
}
Kotlin preserves overflow semantics for kotlin.Int, kotlin.Byte, kotlin.Short, kotlin.Char and kotlin.Long.
kotlin.Long is not mapped to any JavaScript object, as there is no 64-bit integer number type in JavaScript. It is
emulated by a Kotlin class.
kotlin.String is mapped to JavaScript String.
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kotlin.Any is mapped to JavaScript Object (new Object(), {}, and so on).
kotlin.Array is mapped to JavaScript Array.
Kotlin collections (List, Set, Map, and so on) are not mapped to any specific JavaScript type.
kotlin.Throwable is mapped to JavaScript Error.
Kotlin preserves lazy object initialization in JavaScript.
Kotlin does not implement lazy initialization of top-level properties in JavaScript.
Primitive
arrays
Primitive array translation utilizes JavaScript TypedArray:
kotlin.ByteArray, -.ShortArray, -.IntArray, -.FloatArray, and -.DoubleArray are mapped to JavaScript Int8Array,
Int16Array, Int32Array, Float32Array, and Float64Array correspondingly.
kotlin.BooleanArray is mapped to JavaScript Int8Array with a property $type$ == "BooleanArray"
kotlin.CharArray is mapped to JavaScript UInt16Array with a property $type$ == "CharArray"
kotlin.LongArray is mapped to JavaScript Array of kotlin.Long with a property $type$ == "LongArray".
JavaScript
modules
You can compile your Kotlin projects to JavaScript modules for various popular module systems. We currently support
the following configurations for JavaScript modules:
Unified Module Definitions (UMD), which is compatible with both AMD and CommonJS. UMD modules are also able
to be executed without being imported or when no module system is present. This is the default option for the
browser and nodejs targets.
Asynchronous Module Definitions (AMD), which is in particular used by the RequireJS library.
CommonJS, widely used by Node.js/npm (require function and module.exports object)
Plain. Don't compile for any module system. You can access a module by its name in the global scope.
Browser
targets
If you're targeting the browser and want to use a different module system than UMD, you can specify the desired
module type in the webpackTask configuration block. For example, to switch to CommonJS, use:
kotlin {
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js {
browser {
webpackTask {
output.libraryTarget = "commonjs2"
}
}
binaries.executable()
}
}
Webpack provides two different "flavors" of CommonJS, commonjs and commonjs2, which affect the way your
declarations are made available. While in most cases, you probably want commonjs2, which adds the module.exports
syntax to the generated library, you can also opt for the "pure" commonjs option, which implements the CommonJS
specification exactly. To learn more about the difference between commonjs and commonjs2, check here.
JavaScript
libraries
and
Node.js
files
If you are creating a library that will be consumed from JavaScript or a Node.js file, and want to use a different module
system, the instructions are slightly different.
Choose
the
target
module
system
To select module kind, set the moduleKind compiler option in the Gradle build script.
Groovy
compileKotlinJs.kotlinOptions.moduleKind = "commonjs"
Kotlin
tasks.named<KotlinJsCompile>("compileKotlinJs").configure {
kotlinOptions.moduleKind = "commonjs"
}
Available values are: umd (default), commonjs, amd, plain.
This is different from adjusting webpackTask.output.libraryTarget. The library target changes the output
generated by webpack (after your code has already been compiled). kotlinOptions.moduleKind changes the
output generated by the Kotlin compiler.
In the Kotlin Gradle DSL, there is also a shortcut for setting the CommonJS module kind:
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kotlin {
js {
useCommonJs()
// . . .
}
}
@JsModule
annotation
To tell Kotlin that an external class, package, function or property is a JavaScript module, you can use @JsModule
annotation. Consider you have the following CommonJS module called "hello":
module.exports.sayHello = function(name) { alert("Hello, " + name); }
You should declare it like this in Kotlin:
@JsModule("hello")
external fun sayHello(name: String)
Apply
@JsModule
to
packages
Some JavaScript libraries export packages (namespaces) instead of functions and classes. In terms of JavaScript, it's
an object that has members that are classes, functions and properties. Importing these packages as Kotlin objects
often looks unnatural. The compiler can map imported JavaScript packages to Kotlin packages, using the following
notation:
@file:JsModule("extModule")
package ext.jspackage.name
external fun foo()
external class C
where the corresponding JavaScript module is declared like this:
module.exports = {
foo: { /* some code here */ },
C: { /* some code here */ }
}
Files marked with @file:JsModule annotation can't declare non-external members. The example below produces a
compile-time error:
@file:JsModule("extModule")
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package ext.jspackage.name
external fun foo()
fun bar() = "!" + foo() + "!" // error here
Import
deeper
package
hierarchies
In the previous example the JavaScript module exports a single package. However, some JavaScript libraries export
multiple packages from within a module. This case is also supported by Kotlin, though you have to declare a new .kt
file for each package you import.
For example, let's make the example a bit more complicated:
module.exports = {
mylib: {
pkg1: {
foo: function() { /* some code here */ },
bar: function() { /* some code here */ }
},
pkg2: {
baz: function() { /* some code here */ }
}
}
}
To import this module in Kotlin, you have to write two Kotlin source files:
@file:JsModule("extModule")
@file:JsQualifier("mylib.pkg1")
package extlib.pkg1
external fun foo()
external fun bar()
and
@file:JsModule("extModule")
@file:JsQualifier("mylib.pkg2")
package extlib.pkg2
external fun baz()
@JsNonModule
annotation
When a declaration is marked as @JsModule, you can't use it from Kotlin code when you don't compile it to a
JavaScript module. Usually, developers distribute their libraries both as JavaScript modules and downloadable .js files
that you can copy to your project's static resources and include via a <script> tag. To tell Kotlin that it's okay to use a
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@JsModule declaration from a non-module environment, add the @JsNonModule annotation. For example, consider
the following JavaScript code:
function topLevelSayHello(name) { alert("Hello, " + name); }
if (module && module.exports) {
module.exports = topLevelSayHello;
}
You could describe it from Kotlin as follows:
@JsModule("hello")
@JsNonModule
@JsName("topLevelSayHello")
external fun sayHello(name: String)
Module
system
used
by
the
Kotlin
Standard
Library
Kotlin is distributed with the Kotlin/JS standard library as a single file, which is itself compiled as an UMD module, so
you can use it with any module system described above. While for most use cases of Kotlin/JS, it is recommended to
use a Gradle dependency on kotlin-stdlib-js, it is also available on NPM as the kotlin package.
Kotlin/JS
reflection
Kotlin/JS provides a limited support for the Kotlin reflection API. The only supported parts of the API are:
class references (::class ).
KType and typeof() function.
Class
references
The ::class syntax returns a reference to the class of an instance, or the class corresponding to the given type. In
Kotlin/JS, the value of a ::class expression is a stripped-down KClass implementation that supports only:
simpleName and isInstance() members.
cast() and safeCast() extension functions.
In addition to that, you can use KClass.js to access the JsClass instance corresponding to the class. The JsClass
instance itself is a reference to the constructor function. This can be used to interoperate with JS functions that expect
a reference to a constructor.
KType
and
typeOf()
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The typeOf() function is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any time. Opt-in is required (see
details below). Use it only for evaluation purposes. We appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
The typeof() function constructs an instance of KType for a given type. To use typeOf() in your code, opt in to the
experimental API of the standard library, for example, add @OptIn(ExperimentalStdlibApi::class) to your code.
The KType API is fully supported in Kotlin/JS except for Java-specific parts.
Example
Here is an example of the reflection usage in Kotlin/JS.
open class Shape
class Rectangle : Shape()
@OptIn(ExperimentalStdlibApi::class) // typeOf() is experimental and requires an opt-in
inline fun <reified T> accessReifiedTypeArg() =
println(typeOf<T>().toString())
fun main() {
val s = Shape()
val r = Rectangle()
println(r::class.simpleName) // Prints "Rectangle"
println(Shape::class.simpleName) // Prints "Shape"
println(Shape::class.js.name) // Prints "Shape"
println(Shape::class.isInstance(r)) // Prints "true"
println(Rectangle::class.isInstance(s)) // Prints "false"
val rShape = Shape::class.cast(r) // Casts a Rectangle "r" to Shape
accessReifiedTypeArg<Rectangle>() // Accesses the type via typeOf(). Prints "Rectangle"
}
Typesafe
HTML
DSL
The kotlinx.html library provides the ability to generate DOM elements using statically typed HTML builders (and
besides JavaScript, it is even available on the JVM target!) To use the library, include the corresponding repository and
dependency to our build.gradle.kts file:
repositories {
// ...
jcenter()
}
dependencies {
implementation(kotlin("stdlib-js"))
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implementation("org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-html-js:0.7.1")
// ...
}
Once the dependency is included, you can access the different interfaces provided to generate the DOM. To render a
headline, some text, and a link, the following snippet would be sufficient, for example:
import kotlinx.browser.*
import kotlinx.html.*
import kotlinx.html.dom.*
fun main() {
document.body!!.append.div {
h1 {
+"Welcome to Kotlin/JS!"
}
p {
+"Fancy joining this year's "
a("https://kotlinconf.com/") {
+"KotlinConf"
}
+"?"
}
}
}
When running this example in the browser, the DOM will be assembled in a straightforward way. This is easily
confirmed by checking the Elements of the website using the developer tools of our browser:
Rendering a website from kotlinx.html
To learn more about the kotlinx.html library, check out the GitHub Wiki, where you can find more information about how
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to create elements without adding them to the DOM, binding to events like onClick, and examples on how to apply
CSS classes to your HTML elements, to name just a few.
Generation
of
external
declarations
with
Dukat
Dukat is still experimental. If you encounter any problems, please report them in Dukat's issue tracker.
Dukat is a tool currently in development which allows the automatic conversion of TypeScript declaration files (.d.ts)
into Kotlin external declarations. This aims to makes it more comfortable to use libraries from the JavaScript ecosystem
in a type-safe manner in Kotlin, reducing the need for manually writing external declarations and wrappers for JS
libraries.
The Kotlin/JS Gradle plugin provides an integration with Dukat. When enabled, type-safe Kotlin external declarations
are automatically generated for npm dependencies that provide TypeScript definitions. You have two different ways of
selecting if and when Dukat should generate declarations: at build time, and manually via a Gradle task.
Generate
external
declarations
at
build
time
The npm dependency function takes a third parameter after the package name and version: generateExternals. This
allows you to control whether Dukat should generate declarations for a specific dependency:
Groovy
dependencies {
implementation(npm('decamelize', '4.0.0', true))
}
Kotlin
dependencies {
implementation(npm("decamelize", "4.0.0", generateExternals = true))
}
If the repository of the dependency you wish to use does not provide TypeScript definitions, you can also use types
provided via the DefinitelyTyped repository. In this case, make sure you add npm dependencies for both your-package
and @types/your-package (with generateExternals = true ).
You can use the flag kotlin.js.generate.externals in your gradle.properties file to set the generator's behavior for all npm
dependencies simultaneously. As usual, individual explicit settings take precedence over this general flag.
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Manually
generate
external
declarations
via
Gradle
task
If you want to have full control over the declarations generated by Dukat, want to apply manual adjustments, or if
you're running into trouble with the auto-generated externals, you can also trigger the creation of the declarations for all
your npm dependencies manually via the Gradle task generateExternals (jsGenerateExternals with the multiplatform
plugin). This will generate declarations in a directory titled externals in your project root. Here, you can review the
generated code and copy any parts you would like to use to your source directories.
It is recommended to only provide external declarations manually in your source folder or enabling the generation of
external declarations at build time for any single dependency. Doing both can result in resolution issues.
Hands-on
labs
for
Kotlin/JS
Hands-on labs are long-form tutorials that help you get to know a technology by guiding you through a self-contained
project related to a specific topic.
They include sample projects, which can serve as jumping-off points for your own projects, and contain useful snippets
and patterns.
For Kotlin/JS, the following hands-on labs are currently available:
Building Web Applications with React and Kotlin/JS guides you through the process of building a simple web
application using the React framework, shows how a typesafe Kotlin DSL for HTML makes it convenient to build
reactive DOM elements, and illustrates how to use third-party React components, and how to obtain information
from APIs, while writing the whole application logic in pure Kotlin/JS.
Building a Full Stack Web App with Kotlin Multiplatform teaches the concepts behind building an application that
targets Kotlin/JVM and Kotlin/JS by building a client-server application that makes use of common code,
serialization, and other multiplatform paradigms. It also provides a brief introduction into working with Ktor both as
a server- and client-side framework.
We are continuously working on expanding the set of hands-on labs to make it as easy as possible for you to learn
more about Kotlin/JS and adjacent technologies.
Get
started
with
Kotlin/Native
in
IntelliJ
IDEA
This tutorial demonstrates how to use IntelliJ IDEA for creating a Kotlin/Native application.
To get started, install the latest version of IntelliJ IDEA. The tutorial is applicable to both IntelliJ IDEA Community
Edition and the Ultimate Edition.
Create
a
new
Kotlin/Native
project
in
IntelliJ
IDEA
1. In IntelliJ IDEA, select File | New | Project.
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2. In the panel on the left, select Kotlin.
3. Enter a project name, select Native Application as the project template, and click Next.
Create a native application
By default, your project will use Gradle with Kotlin DSL as the build system.
Kotlin/Native doesn't support Maven and IntelliJ IDEA native builder.
4. Accept the default configuration on the next screen and click Finish.
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Configure a native application
Your project will open. By default, the wizard creates the necessary main.kt file with code that prints "Hello,
Kotlin/Native!" to the standard output.
The build.gradle.kts file contains the project settings. Read more about these settings in the Kotlin Multiplatform Gradle
DSL reference.
Run
the
application
Start the application by clicking Run next to the run configuration at the top of the screen.
Run the application
IntelliJ IDEA opens the Run tab and shows the output:
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Application output
Update
the
application
Count
the
letters
in
your
name
1. Open the file main.kt in src/<your_app_name>Main/kotlin.
The src directory contains the Kotlin source files and resources. The file main.kt includes sample code that prints
"Hello, Kotlin/Native!" using the println() function.
2. Add code to read the input. Use the readLine() function to read the input value and assign it to the name variable.
fun main() {
// Read the input value.
println("Hello, enter your name:")
val name = readLine()
}
3. Eliminate the whitespaces and count the letters:
Check that the provided name is not null with the safe call operator ?..
Use the replace() function to remove the empty spaces in the name.
Use the scope function let to run the function within the object context.
Use a string template to insert your name length into the string by adding a dollar sign $ and enclosing it in curly
braces – ${it.length}. it is the default name of a lambda parameter.
fun main() {
// Read the input value.
println("Hello, enter your name:")
val name = readLine()
// Count the letters in the name.
name?.replace(" ", "")?.let {
println("Your name contains ${it.length} letters")
}
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}
4. Report a null value using the error() function after the Elvis operator ?:.
fun main() {
// Read the input value.
println("Hello, enter your name:")
val name = readLine()
// Count the letters in the name.
name?.replace(" ", "")?.let {
println("Your name contains ${it.length} letters")
} ?: error("Error while reading input from the terminal: the value can't be null.")
}
5. Save the changes and run the application.
IntelliJ IDEA opens the Run tab and shows the output.
6. Enter your name and enjoy the result:
Application output
Count
the
unique
letters
in
your
name
1. Open the file main.kt in src/<your_app_name>Main/kotlin.
2. Declare the new extension function countDistinctCharacters() for String:
Convert the name to lowercase using the lowercase() function.
Convert the input string to a list of characters using the toList() function.
Select only the distinct characters in your name using the distinct() function.
Count the distinct characters using the count() function.
fun String.countDistinctCharacters() = lowercase().toList().distinct().count()
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3. Use the countDistinctCharacters() function to count the unique letters in your name.
fun String.countDistinctCharacters() = lowercase().toList().distinct().count()
fun main() {
// Read the input value.
println("Hello, enter your name:")
val name = readLine()
// Count the letters in the name.
name?.replace(" ", "")?.let {
println("Your name contains ${it.length} letters")
// Print the number of unique letters.
println("Your name contains ${it.countDistinctCharacters()} unique letters")
} ?: error("Error while reading input from the terminal: the value can't be null.")
}
4. Save the changes and run the application.
IntelliJ IDEA opens the Run tab and shows the output.
5. Enter your name and enjoy the result:
Application output
What's
next?
Once you have created your first application, you can go to Kotlin hands-on labs and complete long-form tutorials on
Kotlin/Native.
For Kotlin/Native, the following hands-on labs are currently available:
Learn about the concurrency model in Kotlin/Native shows you how to build a command-line application and work
with states in a multi-threaded environment.
Creating an HTTP Client in Kotlin/Native explains how to create a native HTTP client and interoperate with C
libraries.
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Get
started
with
Kotlin/Native
using
Gradle
Gradle is a build system that is very commonly used in the Java, Android, and other ecosystems. It is the default
choice for Kotlin/Native and Multiplatform when it comes to build systems.
While most IDE's including IntelliJ IDEA can generate the corresponding Gradle file, we're going to take a look at how
to create this manually, to have a better understanding of how things work under the covers. If you'd like to use the
IDE, check out Using IntelliJ IDEA.
Gradle supports two languages for build scripts:
Groovy scripts in build.gradle files
Kotlin scripts in build.gradle.kts files
The Groovy language is the first supported scripting language for Gradle, it leverages the power of dynamic typing and
runtime features of the language. It is also possible to use Kotlin in Gradle scripts. Being a statically-typed language, it
plays better with IDEs when it comes to compilation and error detection.
Either can be used and samples will show the syntax for both languages.
Create
project
files
First, create a project directory. Inside it, create build.gradle or build.gradle.kts Gradle build file with the following
contents:
Groovy
plugins {
id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.multiplatform' version '1.5.20'
}
repositories {
mavenCentral()
}
kotlin {
macosX64('native') { // on macOS
// linuxX64('native') // on Linux
// mingwX64('native') // on Windows
binaries {
executable()
}
}
}
wrapper {
gradleVersion = '6.7.1'
distributionType = 'BIN'
}
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Kotlin
plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform") version "1.5.20"
}
repositories {
mavenCentral()
}
kotlin {
macosX64("native") { // on macOS
// linuxX64("native") // on Linux
// mingwX64("native") // on Windows
binaries {
executable()
}
}
}
tasks.withType<Wrapper> {
gradleVersion = "6.7.1"
distributionType = Wrapper.DistributionType.BIN
}
The prepared project sources can be directly downloaded from Github:
for macOS: Groovy, Kotlin
for Linux: Groovy, Kotlin
for Windows: Groovy, Kotlin
Next, create an empty settings.gradle or settings.gradle.kts file in the project folder.
Depending on the target platform, different functions, such as macosX64, mingwX64, linuxX64, iosX64, are used for
creating the Kotlin target. The function name is the platform for which you are compiling your code. These functions
optionally take the target name as a parameter, which is "native" in our case. The specified target name is used to
generate the source paths and task names in the project.
By convention, all sources are located in the src/<target name>[Main|Test]/kotlin folders, where main is for the source
code and test is for tests. <target name> corresponds to the target platform (in this case native ), as specified in the
build file.
Create a folder src/nativeMain/kotlin and inside it place the file hello.kt with the following contents:
fun main() {
println("Hello Kotlin/Native!")
}
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Build
the
project
From the root project folder, execute the build by running
gradle nativeBinaries
This should create a folder build/bin/native with two subfolders debugExecutable and releaseExecutable with the
corresponding binary. By default, the binary's name is the same as the project folder.
Open
the
project
in
an
IDE
Any IDE that supports Gradle should allow for opening the project in the IDE. In the case of IntelliJ IDEA, just open the
project folder, and it will automatically detect it as Kotlin/Native project.
What's
next?
Learn how to write Gradle build scripts for real-life Kotlin/Native projects.
Get
started
with
Kotlin/Native
using
the
command-line
compiler
Obtain
the
compiler
The Kotlin/Native compiler is available for macOS, Linux, and Windows. It is available as a command line tool and
ships as part of the standard Kotlin distribution and can be downloaded from GitHub Releases. It supports different
targets including iOS (arm32, arm64, simulator x86_64), Windows (mingw32 and x86_64), Linux (x86_64, arm64, MIPS),
macOS (x86_64), Raspberry PI, SMT32, WASM. See the full list of targets here. While cross-platform compilation is
possible, which means using one platform to compile for a different one, in this Kotlin case we'll be targeting the same
platform we're compiling on.
While the output of the compiler does not have any dependencies or virtual machine requirements, the compiler itself
requires Java 1.8 or higher runtime.
Write
"Hello
Kotlin/Native"
program
The application will print "Hello Kotlin/Native" on the standard output. In a working directory of choice, create a file
named hello.kt and enter the following contents:
fun main() {
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println("Hello Kotlin/Native!")
}
Compile
the
code
from
the
console
To compile the application use the downloaded compiler to execute the following command:
kotlinc-native hello.kt -o hello
The value of -o option specifies the name of the output file, so this call should generate a hello.kexe (Linux and macOS)
or hello.exe (Windows) binary file. For the full list of available compiler options, see the compiler options reference.
While compilation from the console seems to be easy and clear, it does not scale well for larger projects with hundreds
of files and libraries. For real-world projects, it is recommended to use a build system and IDE.
Concurrency
in
Kotlin/Native
Kotlin/Native runtime doesn't encourage a classical thread-oriented concurrency model with mutually exclusive code
blocks and conditional variables, as this model is known to be error-prone and unreliable. Instead, we suggest a
collection of alternative approaches, allowing you to use hardware concurrency and implement blocking IO. Those
approaches are as follows, and they will be elaborated on in further sections:
Workers with message passing
Object subgraph ownership transfer
Object subgraph freezing
Object subgraph detachment
Raw shared memory using C globals
Atomic primitives and references
Coroutines for blocking operations (not covered in this document)
Workers
Instead of threads Kotlin/Native runtime offers the concept of workers: concurrently executed control flow streams with
an associated request queue. Workers are very similar to the actors in the Actor Model. A worker can exchange Kotlin
objects with another worker, so that at any moment each mutable object is owned by a single worker, but ownership
can be transferred. See section Object transfer and freezing.
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Once a worker is started with the Worker.start function call, it can be addressed with its own unique integer worker id.
Other workers, or non-worker concurrency primitives, such as OS threads, can send a message to the worker with the
execute call.
val future = execute(TransferMode.SAFE, { SomeDataForWorker() }) {
// data returned by the second function argument comes to the
// worker routine as 'input' parameter.
input ->
// Here we create an instance to be returned when someone consumes result future.
WorkerResult(input.stringParam + " result")
}
future.consume {
// Here we see result returned from routine above. Note that future object or
// id could be transferred to another worker, so we don't have to consume future
// in same execution context it was obtained.
result -> println("result is $result")
}
The call to execute uses a function passed as its second parameter to produce an object subgraph (i.e. set of mutually
referring objects) which is then passed as a whole to that worker, it is then no longer available to the thread that
initiated the request. This property is checked if the first parameter is TransferMode.SAFE by graph traversal and is just
assumed to be true, if it is TransferMode.UNSAFE. The last parameter to execute is a special Kotlin lambda, which is
not allowed to capture any state, and is actually invoked in the target worker's context. Once processed, the result is
transferred to whatever consumes it in the future, and it is attached to the object graph of that worker/thread.
If an object is transferred in UNSAFE mode and is still accessible from multiple concurrent executors, program will
likely crash unexpectedly, so consider that last resort in optimizing, not a general purpose mechanism.
For a more complete example please refer to the workers example in the Kotlin/Native repository.
Object
transfer
and
freezing
An important invariant that Kotlin/Native runtime maintains is that the object is either owned by a single thread/worker,
or it is immutable (shared XOR mutable ). This ensures that the same data has a single mutator, and so there is no
need for locking to exist. To achieve such an invariant, we use the concept of not externally referred object subgraphs.
This is a subgraph which has no external references from outside of the subgraph, which could be checked
algorithmically with O(N) complexity (in ARC systems), where N is the number of elements in such a subgraph. Such
subgraphs are usually produced as a result of a lambda expression, for example some builder, and may not contain
objects, referred to externally.
Freezing is a runtime operation making a given object subgraph immutable, by modifying the object header so that
future mutation attempts throw an InvalidMutabilityException. It is deep, so if an object has a pointer to other objects -
transitive closure of such objects will be frozen. Freezing is a one way transformation, frozen objects cannot be
unfrozen. Frozen objects have a nice property that due to their immutability, they can be freely shared between multiple
workers/threads without breaking the "mutable XOR shared" invariant.
If an object is frozen it can be checked with an extension property isFrozen, and if it is, object sharing is allowed.
Currently, Kotlin/Native runtime only freezes the enum objects after creation, although additional autofreezing of certain
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provably immutable objects could be implemented in the future.
Object
subgraph
detachment
An object subgraph without external references can be disconnected using DetachedObjectGraph<T> to a
COpaquePointer value, which could be stored in void* data, so the disconnected object subgraphs can be stored in a
C data structure, and later attached back with DetachedObjectGraph<T>.attach() in an arbitrary thread or a worker.
Combining it with raw memory sharing it allows side channel object transfer between concurrent threads, if the worker
mechanisms are insufficient for a particular task. Note, that object detachment may require explicit leaving function
holding object references and then performing cyclic garbage collection. For example, code like:
val graph = DetachedObjectGraph {
val map = mutableMapOf<String, String>()
for (entry in map.entries) {
// ...
}
map
}
will not work as expected and will throw runtime exception, as there are uncollected cycles in the detached graph,
while:
val graph = DetachedObjectGraph {
{
val map = mutableMapOf<String, String>()
for (entry in map.entries) {
// ...
}
map
}().also {
kotlin.native.internal.GC.collect()
}
}
will work properly, as holding references will be released, and then cyclic garbage affecting reference counter is
collected.
Raw
shared
memory
Considering the strong ties between Kotlin/Native and C via interoperability, in conjunction with the other mechanisms
mentioned above it is possible to build popular data structures, like concurrent hashmap or shared cache with
Kotlin/Native. It is possible to rely upon shared C data, and store in it references to detached object subgraphs.
Consider the following .def file:
package = global
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---
typedef struct {
int version;
void* kotlinObject;
} SharedData;
SharedData sharedData;
After running the cinterop tool it can share Kotlin data in a versionized global structure, and interact with it from Kotlin
transparently via autogenerated Kotlin like this:
class SharedData(rawPtr: NativePtr) : CStructVar(rawPtr) {
var version: Int
var kotlinObject: COpaquePointer?
}
So in combination with the top-level variable declared above, it can allow looking at the same memory from different
threads and building traditional concurrent structures with platform-specific synchronization primitives.
Global
variables
and
singletons
Frequently, global variables are a source of unintended concurrency issues, so Kotlin/Native implements the following
mechanisms to prevent the unintended sharing of state via global objects:
global variables, unless specially marked, can be only accessed from the main thread (that is, the thread
Kotlin/Native runtime was first initialized), if other thread access such a global, IncorrectDereferenceException is
thrown
for global variables marked with the @kotlin.native.ThreadLocal annotation each threads keeps thread-local copy,
so changes are not visible between threads
for global variables marked with the @kotlin.native.SharedImmutable annotation value is shared, but frozen before
publishing, so each threads sees the same value
singleton objects unless marked with @kotlin.native.ThreadLocal are frozen and shared, lazy values allowed, unless
cyclic frozen structures were attempted to be created
enums are always frozen
Combined, these mechanisms allow natural race-free programming with code reuse across platforms in MPP projects.
Atomic
primitives
and
references
Kotlin/Native standard library provides primitives for safe working with concurrently mutable data, namely AtomicInt,
AtomicLong, AtomicNativePtr, AtomicReference and FreezableAtomicReference in the package
kotlin.native.concurrent. Atomic primitives allows concurrency-safe update operations, such as increment, decrement
and compare-and-swap, along with value setters and getters. Atomic primitives are considered always frozen by the
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runtime, and while their fields can be updated with the regular field.value += 1, it is not concurrency safe. Value must
be be changed using dedicated operations, so it is possible to perform concurrent-safe global counters and similar
data structures.
Some algorithms require shared mutable references across the multiple workers, for example global mutable
configuration could be implemented as an immutable instance of properties list atomically replaced with the new
version on configuration update as the whole in a single transaction. This way no inconsistent configuration could be
seen, and at the same time configuration could be updated as needed. To achieve such functionality Kotlin/Native
runtime provides two related classes: kotlin.native.concurrent.AtomicReference and
kotlin.native.concurrent.FreezableAtomicReference. Atomic reference holds reference to a frozen or immutable object,
and its value could be updated by set or compare-and-swap operation. Thus, dedicated set of objects could be used
to create mutable shared object graphs (of immutable objects). Cycles in the shared memory could be created using
atomic references. Kotlin/Native runtime doesn't support garbage collecting cyclic data when reference cycle goes
through AtomicReference or frozen FreezableAtomicReference. So to avoid memory leaks atomic references that are
potentially parts of shared cyclic data should be zeroed out once no longer needed.
If atomic reference value is attempted to be set to non-frozen value runtime exception is thrown.
Freezable atomic reference is similar to the regular atomic reference, but until frozen behaves like regular box for a
reference. After freezing it behaves like an atomic reference, and can only hold a reference to a frozen object.
Immutability
in
Kotlin/Native
Kotlin/Native implements strict mutability checks, ensuring the important invariant that the object is either immutable or
accessible from the single thread at that moment in time (mutable XOR global ).
Immutability is a runtime property in Kotlin/Native, and can be applied to an arbitrary object subgraph using the
kotlin.native.concurrent.freeze function. It makes all the objects reachable from the given one immutable, such a
transition is a one-way operation (i.e., objects cannot be unfrozen later). Some naturally immutable objects such as
kotlin.String, kotlin.Int, and other primitive types, along with AtomicInt and AtomicReference are frozen by default. If a
mutating operation is applied to a frozen object, an InvalidMutabilityException is thrown.
To achieve mutable XOR global invariant, all globally visible state (currently, object singletons and enums) are
automatically frozen. If object freezing is not desired, a kotlin.native.ThreadLocal annotation can be used, which will
make the object state thread local, and so, mutable (but the changed state is not visible to other threads).
Top level/global variables of non-primitive types are by default accessible in the main thread (i.e., the thread which
initialized Kotlin/Native runtime first) only. Access from another thread will lead to an IncorrectDereferenceException
being thrown. To make such variables accessible in other threads, you can use either the @ThreadLocal annotation,
and mark the value thread local or @SharedImmutable, which will make the value frozen and accessible from other
threads.
Class AtomicReference can be used to publish the changed frozen state to other threads, and so build patterns like
shared caches.
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Kotlin/Native
libraries
Kotlin
compiler
specifics
To produce a library with the Kotlin/Native compiler use the -produce library or -p library flag. For example:
$ kotlinc-native foo.kt -p library -o bar
This command will produce a bar.klib with the compiled contents of foo.kt.
To link to a library use the -library <name> or -l <name> flag. For example:
$ kotlinc-native qux.kt -l bar
This command will produce a program.kexe out of qux.kt and bar.klib
cinterop
tool
specifics
The cinterop tool produces .klib wrappers for native libraries as its main output. For example, using the simple
libgit2.def native library definition file provided in your Kotlin/Native distribution
$ cinterop -def samples/gitchurn/src/nativeInterop/cinterop/libgit2.def -compiler-option -
I/usr/local/include -o libgit2
we will obtain libgit2.klib.
See more details in C Interop
klib
utility
The klib library management utility allows you to inspect and install the libraries.
The following commands are available:
content – list library contents:
$ klib contents <name>
info – inspect the bookkeeping details of the library
$ klib info <name>
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install – install the library to the default location use
$ klib install <name>
remove – remove the library from the default repository use
$ klib remove <name>
All of the above commands accept an additional -repository <directory> argument for specifying a repository different
to the default one.
$ klib <command> <name> -repository <directory>
Several
examples
First let's create a library. Place the tiny library source code into kotlinizer.kt:
package kotlinizer
val String.kotlinized
get() = "Kotlin $this"
$ kotlinc-native kotlinizer.kt -p library -o kotlinizer
The library has been created in the current directory:
$ ls kotlinizer.klib
kotlinizer.klib
Now let's check out the contents of the library:
$ klib contents kotlinizer
You can install kotlinizer to the default repository:
$ klib install kotlinizer
Remove any traces of it from the current directory:
$ rm kotlinizer.klib
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Create a very short program and place it into a use.kt:
import kotlinizer.*
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
println("Hello, ${"world".kotlinized}!")
}
Now compile the program linking with the library you have just created:
$ kotlinc-native use.kt -l kotlinizer -o kohello
And run the program:
$ ./kohello.kexe
Hello, Kotlin world!
Have fun!
Advanced
topics
Library
search
sequence
When given a -library foo flag, the compiler searches the foo library in the following order:
Current compilation directory or an absolute path.
All repositories specified with -repo flag.
Libraries installed in the default repository (For now the default is ~/.konan, however it could be changed by setting
KONAN_DATA_DIR environment variable).
Libraries installed in $installation/klib directory.
Library
format
Kotlin/Native libraries are zip files containing a predefined directory structure, with the following layout:
foo.klib when unpacked as foo/ gives us:
- foo/
- $component_name/
- ir/
- Serialized Kotlin IR.
- targets/
- $platform/
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- kotlin/
- Kotlin compiled to LLVM bitcode.
- native/
- Bitcode files of additional native objects.
- $another_platform/
- There can be several platform specific kotlin and native pairs.
- linkdata/
- A set of ProtoBuf files with serialized linkage metadata.
- resources/
- General resources such as images. (Not used yet).
- manifest - A file in the java property format describing the library.
An example layout can be found in klib/stdlib directory of your installation.
Platform
libraries
To provide access to user's native operating system services, Kotlin/Native distribution includes a set of prebuilt
libraries specific to each target. We call them Platform Libraries.
POSIX
bindings
For all Unix- or Windows-based targets (including Android and iOS targets) we provide the posix platform lib. It
contains bindings to platform's implementation of the POSIX standard.
To use the library, just import it:
import platform.posix.*
The only target for which it is not available is WebAssembly.
Note that the content of platform.posix is NOT identical on different platforms, in the same way as different POSIX
implementations are a little different.
Popular
native
libraries
There are many more platform libraries available for host and cross-compilation targets. Kotlin/Native distribution
provides access to OpenGL, zlib and other popular native libraries on applicable platforms.
On Apple platforms, objc library is provided for interoperability with Objective-C.
Inspect the contents of dist/klib/platform/$target of the distribution for the details.
Availability
by
default
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The packages from platform libraries are available by default. No special link flags need to be specified to use them.
Kotlin/Native compiler automatically detects which of the platform libraries have been accessed and automatically links
the needed libraries.
On the other hand, the platform libs in the distribution are merely just wrappers and bindings to the native libraries.
That means the native libraries themselves (.so, .a, .dylib, .dll etc) should be installed on the machine.
Examples
The Kotlin/Native repository provides a wide spectrum of examples demonstrating the use of platform libraries. See
samples for details.
Kotlin/Native
as
a
dynamic
library
–
tutorial
Learn how you can use the Kotlin/Native code from existing native applications or libraries. For this, you need to
compile the Kotlin code into a dynamic library, .so, .dylib, and .dll.
Kotlin/Native also has tight integration with Apple technologies. The Kotlin/Native as an Apple Framework tutorial
explains how to compile Kotlin code into a framework for Swift and Objective-C.
In this tutorial, you will:
Compile a Kotlin code to a dynamic library
Examine generated C headers
Use the Kotlin dynamic library from C
Compile and run the example on Linux and Mac and Windows
Create
a
Kotlin
library
Kotlin/Native compiler can produce a dynamic library out of the Kotlin code. A dynamic library often comes with a
header file, a .h file, which you will use to call the compiled code from C.
The best way to understand these techniques is to try them out. First, create a first tiny Kotlin library and use it from a
C program.
Start by creating a library file in Kotlin and save it as hello.kt:
package example
object Object {
val field = "A"
}
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class Clazz {
fun memberFunction(p: Int): ULong = 42UL
}
fun forIntegers(b: Byte, s: Short, i: UInt, l: Long) { }
fun forFloats(f: Float, d: Double) { }
fun strings(str: String) : String? {
return "That is '$str' from C"
}
val globalString = "A global String"
While it is possible to use the command line, either directly or by combining it with a script file (such as .sh or .bat file),
this approach doesn't scale well for big projects that have hundreds of files and libraries. It is then better to use the
Kotlin/Native compiler with a build system, as it helps to download and cache the Kotlin/Native compiler binaries and
libraries with transitive dependencies and run the compiler and tests. Kotlin/Native can use the Gradle build system
through the kotlin-multiplatform plugin.
We covered the basics of setting up an IDE compatible project with Gradle in the A Basic Kotlin/Native Application
tutorial. Please check it out if you are looking for detailed first steps and instructions on how to start a new
Kotlin/Native project and open it in IntelliJ IDEA. In this tutorial, we'll look at the advanced C interop related usages of
Kotlin/Native and multiplatform builds with Gradle.
First, create a project folder. All the paths in this tutorial will be relative to this folder. Sometimes the missing directories
will have to be created before any new files can be added.
Use the following build.gradle(.kts) Gradle build file:
Groovy
plugins {
id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.multiplatform' version '1.5.20'
}
repositories {
mavenCentral()
}
kotlin {
linuxX64("native") { // on Linux
// macosX64("native") { // on macOS
// mingwX64("native") { //on Windows
binaries {
sharedLib {
baseName = "native" // on Linux and macOS
// baseName = "libnative" //on Windows
}
}
}
}
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wrapper {
gradleVersion = "6.7.1"
distributionType = "ALL"
}
Kotlin
plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform") version "1.5.20"
}
repositories {
mavenCentral()
}
kotlin {
linuxX64("native") { // on Linux
// macosX64("native") { // on macOS
// mingwX64("native") { // on Windows
binaries {
sharedLib {
baseName = "native" // on Linux and macOS
// baseName = "libnative" // on Windows
}
}
}
}
tasks.wrapper {
gradleVersion = "6.7.1"
distributionType = Wrapper.DistributionType.ALL
}
The prepared project sources can be directly downloaded from Github:
for macOS: Groovy, Kotlin
for Linux: Groovy, Kotlin
for Windows: Groovy, Kotlin
Move the sources file into the src/nativeMain/kotlin folder under the project. This is the default path, for where sources
are located, when the kotlin-multiplatform plugin is used. Use the following block to instruct and configure the project
to generate a dynamic or shared library:
binaries {
sharedLib {
baseName = "native" // on Linux and macOS
// baseName = "libnative" // on Windows
}
}
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The libnative is used as the library name, the generated header file name prefix. It is also prefixes all declarations in the
header file.
Now you can open the project in IntelliJ IDEA and to see how to fix the example project. While doing this, we'll examine
how C functions are mapped into Kotlin/Native declarations.
Run the linkNative Gradle task to build the library in the IDE or by calling the following console command:
./gradlew linkNative
The build generates the following files under the build/bin/native/debugShared folder, depending on the host OS:
macOS: libnative_api.h and libnative.dylib
Linux: libnative_api.h and libnative.so
Windows: libnative_api.h, libnative_symbols.def and libnative.dll
The same rules are used by the Kotlin/Native compiler to generate the .h file for all platforms.
Let's check out the C API of our Kotlin library.`
Generated
headers
file
In the libnative_api.h, you'll find the following code. Let's discuss the code in parts to make it easier to understand.
The way Kotlin/Native exports symbols is subject to change without notice.
The very first part contains the standard C/C++ header and footer:
#ifndef KONAN_DEMO_H
#define KONAN_DEMO_H
#ifdef __cplusplus
extern "C" {
#endif
/// THE REST OF THE GENERATED CODE GOES HERE
#ifdef __cplusplus
} /* extern "C" */
#endif
#endif /* KONAN_DEMO_H */
After the rituals in the libnative_api.h, there is a block with the common type definitions:
#ifdef __cplusplus
typedef bool libnative_KBoolean;
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#else
typedef _Bool libnative_KBoolean;
#endif
typedef unsigned short libnative_KChar;
typedef signed char libnative_KByte;
typedef short libnative_KShort;
typedef int libnative_KInt;
typedef long long libnative_KLong;
typedef unsigned char libnative_KUByte;
typedef unsigned short libnative_KUShort;
typedef unsigned int libnative_KUInt;
typedef unsigned long long libnative_KULong;
typedef float libnative_KFloat;
typedef double libnative_KDouble;
typedef void* libnative_KNativePtr;
Kotlin uses the libnative_ prefix for all declarations in the created libnative_api.h file. Let's present the mapping of the
types in a more readable way:
Kotlin Define C Type
libnative_KBoolean bool or _Bool
libnative_KChar unsigned short
libnative_KByte signed char
libnative_KShort short
libnative_KInt int
libnative_KLong long long
libnative_KUByte unsigned char
libnative_KUShort unsigned short
libnative_KUInt unsigned int
libnative_KULong unsigned long long
libnative_KFloat float
libnative_KDouble double
libnative_KNativePtr void*
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The definitions part shows how Kotlin primitive types map into C primitive types. The reverse mapping is described in
the Mapping primitive data types from C tutorial.
The next part of the libnative_api.h file contains definitions of the types that are used in the library:
struct libnative_KType;
typedef struct libnative_KType libnative_KType;
typedef struct {
libnative_KNativePtr pinned;
} libnative_kref_example_Object;
typedef struct {
libnative_KNativePtr pinned;
} libnative_kref_example_Clazz;
The typedef struct { .. } TYPE_NAME syntax is used in C language to declare a structure. This thread on Stackoverflow
provides more explanations of that pattern.
As you can see from these definitions, the Kotlin object Object is mapped into libnative_kref_example_Object, and
Clazz is mapped into libnative_kref_example_Clazz. Both structs contain nothing but the pinned field with a pointer, the
field type libnative_KNativePtr is defined as void* above.
There is no namespaces support in C, so the Kotlin/Native compiler generates long names to avoid any possible
clashes with other symbols in the existing native project.
A significant part of the definitions goes in the libnative_api.h file. It includes the definition of our Kotlin/Native library
world:
typedef struct {
/* Service functions. */
void (*DisposeStablePointer)(libnative_KNativePtr ptr);
void (*DisposeString)(const char* string);
libnative_KBoolean (*IsInstance)(libnative_KNativePtr ref, const libnative_KType* type);
/* User functions. */
struct {
struct {
struct {
void (*forIntegers)(libnative_KByte b, libnative_KShort s, libnative_KUInt i,
libnative_KLong l);
void (*forFloats)(libnative_KFloat f, libnative_KDouble d);
const char* (*strings)(const char* str);
const char* (*get_globalString)();
struct {
libnative_KType* (*_type)(void);
libnative_kref_example_Object (*_instance)();
const char* (*get_field)(libnative_kref_example_Object thiz);
} Object;
struct {
libnative_KType* (*_type)(void);
libnative_kref_example_Clazz (*Clazz)();
libnative_KULong (*memberFunction)(libnative_kref_example_Clazz thiz, libnative_KInt
p);
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} Clazz;
} example;
} root;
} kotlin;
} libnative_ExportedSymbols;
The code uses anonymous structure declarations. The code struct { .. } foo declares a field in the outer struct of that
anonymous structure type, the type with no name.
C does not support objects either. People use function pointers to mimic object semantics. A function pointer is
declared as follows RETURN_TYPE (* FIELD_NAME)(PARAMETERS). It is tricky to read, but we should be able to see
function pointer fields in the structures above.
Runtime
functions
The code reads as follows. You have the libnative_ExportedSymbols structure, which defines all the functions that
Kotlin/Native and our library provides us. It uses nested anonymous structures heavily to mimic packages. The
libnative_ prefix comes from the library name.
The libnative_ExportedSymbols structure contains several helper functions:
void (*DisposeStablePointer)(libnative_KNativePtr ptr);
void (*DisposeString)(const char* string);
libnative_KBoolean (*IsInstance)(libnative_KNativePtr ref, const libnative_KType* type);
These functions deal with Kotlin/Native objects. Call the DisposeStablePointer to release a Kotlin object and
DisposeString to release a Kotlin String, which has the char* type in C. It is possible to use the IsInstance function to
check if a Kotlin type or a libnative_KNativePtr is an instance of another type. The actual set of operations generated
depends on the actual usages.
Kotlin/Native has garbage collection, but it does not help us deal with Kotlin objects from the C language. Kotlin/Native
has interop with Objective-C and Swift and integrates with their reference counters. The Objective-C Interop
documentation article contains more details on it. Also, there is the tutorial Kotlin/Native as an Apple Framework.
Your
library
functions
Let's take a look at the kotlin.root.example field, it mimics the package structure of our Kotlin code with a kotlin.root.
prefix.
There is a kotlin.root.example.Clazz field that represents the Clazz from Kotlin. The Clazz#memberFunction is
accessible with the memberFunction field. The only difference is that the memberFunction accepts a this reference as
the first parameter. The C language does not support objects, and this is the reason to pass a this pointer explicitly.
There is a constructor in the Clazz field (aka kotlin.root.example.Clazz.Clazz ), which is the constructor function to
create an instance of the Clazz.
Kotlin object Object is accessible as kotlin.root.example.Object. There is the _instance function to get the only instance
of the object.
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Properties are translated into functions. The get_ and set_ prefix is used to name the getter and the setter functions
respectively. For example, the read-only property globalString from Kotlin is turned into a get_globalString function in
C.
Global functions forInts, forFloats, or strings are turned into the functions pointers in the kotlin.root.example
anonymous struct.
Entry
point
You can see how the API is created. To start with, you need to initialize the libnative_ExportedSymbols structure. Let's
take a look at the latest part of the libnative_api.h for this:
extern libnative_ExportedSymbols* libnative_symbols(void);
The function libnative_symbols allows you to open the way from the native code to the Kotlin/Native library. This is the
entry point you'll use. The library name is used as a prefix for the function name.
Kotlin/Native object references do not support multi-threaded access. Hosting the returned
libnative_ExportedSymbols* pointer per thread might be necessary.
Use
generated
headers
from
C
The usage from C is straightforward and uncomplicated. Create a main.c file with the following code:
#include "libnative_api.h"
#include "stdio.h"
int main(int argc, char** argv) {
//obtain reference for calling Kotlin/Native functions
libnative_ExportedSymbols* lib = libnative_symbols();
lib->kotlin.root.example.forIntegers(1, 2, 3, 4);
lib->kotlin.root.example.forFloats(1.0f, 2.0);
//use C and Kotlin/Native strings
const char* str = "Hello from Native!";
const char* response = lib->kotlin.root.example.strings(str);
printf("in: %s\nout:%s\n", str, response);
lib->DisposeString(response);
//create Kotlin object instance
libnative_kref_example_Clazz newInstance = lib->kotlin.root.example.Clazz.Clazz();
long x = lib->kotlin.root.example.Clazz.memberFunction(newInstance, 42);
lib->DisposeStablePointer(newInstance.pinned);
printf("DemoClazz returned %ld\n", x);
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return 0;
}
Compile
and
run
the
example
on
Linux
and
macOS
On macOS 10.13 with Xcode, compile the C code and link it with the dynamic library with the following command:
clang main.c libnative.dylib
On Linux call a similar command:
gcc main.c libnative.so
The compiler generates an executable called a.out. Run it to see in action the Kotlin code being executed from C
library. On Linux, you'll need to include . into the LD_LIBRARY_PATH to let the application know to load the libnative.so
library from the current folder.
Compile
and
run
the
example
on
Windows
To start with, you'll need a Microsoft Visual C++ compiler installed that supports a x64_64 target. The easiest way to
do this is to have a version of Microsoft Visual Studio installed on a Windows machine.
In this example, you'll be using the x64 Native Tools Command Prompt <VERSION> console. You'll see the shortcut to
open the console in the start menu. It comes with a Microsoft Visual Studio package.
On Windows, Dynamic libraries are included either via a generated static library wrapper or with manual code, which
deals with the LoadLibrary or similar Win32API functions. Follow the first option and generate the static wrapper library
for the libnative.dll as described below.
Call lib.exe from the toolchain to generate the static library wrapper libnative.lib that automates the DLL usage from the
code:
lib /def:libnative_symbols.def /out:libnative.lib
Now you are ready to compile our main.c into an executable. Include the generated libnative.lib into the build
command and start:
cl.exe main.c libnative.lib
The command produces the main.exe file, which you can run.
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Next
steps
Dynamic libraries are the main way to use Kotlin code from existing programs. You can use them to share your code
with many platforms or languages, including JVM, Python, iOS, Android, and others.
Kotlin/Native also has tight integration with Objective-C and Swift. It is covered in the Kotlin/Native as an Apple
Framework tutorial.
Interoperability
with
C
Kotlin/Native follows the general tradition of Kotlin to provide excellent existing platform software interoperability. In the
case of a native platform, the most important interoperability target is a C library. So Kotlin/Native comes with a
cinterop tool, which can be used to quickly generate everything needed to interact with an external library.
The following workflow is expected when interacting with the native library:
1. Create a .def file describing what to include into bindings.
2. Use the cinterop tool to produce Kotlin bindings.
3. Run the Kotlin/Native compiler on an application to produce the final executable.
The interoperability tool analyses C headers and produces a "natural" mapping of the types, functions, and constants
into the Kotlin world. The generated stubs can be imported into an IDE for the purpose of code completion and
navigation.
Interoperability with Swift/Objective-C is provided too and covered in Objective-C interop.
Platform
libraries
Note that in many cases there's no need to use custom interoperability library creation mechanisms described below,
as for APIs available on the platform standardized bindings called platform libraries could be used. For example, POSIX
on Linux/macOS platforms, Win32 on Windows platform, or Apple frameworks on macOS/iOS are available this way.
Simple
example
Install libgit2 and prepare stubs for the git library:
cd samples/gitchurn
../../dist/bin/cinterop -def src/nativeInterop/cinterop/libgit2.def \
-compiler-option -I/usr/local/include -o libgit2
Compile the client:
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../../dist/bin/kotlinc src/gitChurnMain/kotlin \
-library libgit2 -o GitChurn
Run the client:
./GitChurn.kexe ../..
Create
bindings
for
a
new
library
To create bindings for a new library, start from creating a .def file. Structurally it's a simple property file, which looks
like this:
headers = png.h
headerFilter = png.h
package = png
Then run the cinterop tool with something like this (note that for host libraries that are not included in the sysroot
search paths, headers may be needed):
cinterop -def png.def -compiler-option -I/usr/local/include -o png
This command will produce a png.klib compiled library and png-build/kotlin directory containing Kotlin source code for
the library.
If the behavior for a certain platform needs to be modified, you can use a format like compilerOpts.osx or
compilerOpts.linux to provide platform-specific values to the options.
Note that the generated bindings are generally platform-specific, so if you are developing for multiple targets, the
bindings need to be regenerated.
After the generation of bindings, they can be used by the IDE as a proxy view of the native library.
For a typical Unix library with a config script, the compilerOpts will likely contain the output of a config script with the --
cflags flag (maybe without exact paths).
The output of a config script with --libs will be passed as a -linkedArgs kotlinc flag value (quoted) when compiling.
Select
library
headers
When library headers are imported to a C program with the #include directive, all of the headers included by these
headers are also included in the program. So all header dependencies are included in generated stubs as well.
This behavior is correct but it can be very inconvenient for some libraries. So it is possible to specify in the .def file
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which of the included headers are to be imported. The separate declarations from other headers can also be imported
in case of direct dependencies.
Filter headers by globs
It is possible to filter headers by globs. The headerFilter property value from the .def file is treated as a space-
separated list of globs. If the included header matches any of the globs, then the declarations from this header are
included into the bindings.
The globs are applied to the header paths relative to the appropriate include path elements, e.g. time.h or curl/curl.h.
So if the library is usually included with #include <SomeLibrary/Header.h>, then it would probably be correct to filter
headers with
headerFilter = SomeLibrary/**
If a headerFilter is not specified, then all headers are included.
Filter headers by module maps
Some libraries have proper module.modulemap or module.map files in their headers. For example, macOS and iOS
system libraries and frameworks do. The module map file describes the correspondence between header files and
modules. When the module maps are available, the headers from the modules that are not included directly can be
filtered out using the experimental excludeDependentModules option of the .def file:
headers = OpenGL/gl.h OpenGL/glu.h GLUT/glut.h
compilerOpts = -framework OpenGL -framework GLUT
excludeDependentModules = true
When both excludeDependentModules and headerFilter are used, they are applied as an intersection.
C
compiler
and
linker
options
Options passed to the C compiler (used to analyze headers, such as preprocessor definitions) and the linker (used to
link final executables) can be passed in the definition file as compilerOpts and linkerOpts respectively. For example:
compilerOpts = -DFOO=bar
linkerOpts = -lpng
Target-specific options only applicable to the certain target can be specified as well:
compilerOpts = -DBAR=bar
compilerOpts.linux_x64 = -DFOO=foo1
compilerOpts.mac_x64 = -DFOO=foo2
With such a configuration, C headers will be analyzed with -DBAR=bar -DFOO=foo1 on Linux and with -DBAR=bar -
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DFOO=foo2 on macOS . Note that any definition file option can have both common and the platform-specific part.
Add
custom
declarations
Sometimes it is required to add custom C declarations to the library before generating bindings (e.g., for macros ).
Instead of creating an additional header file with these declarations, you can include them directly to the end of the .def
file, after a separating line, containing only the separator sequence ---:
headers = errno.h
---
static inline int getErrno() {
return errno;
}
Note that this part of the .def file is treated as part of the header file, so functions with the body should be declared as
static. The declarations are parsed after including the files from the headers list.
Include
a
static
library
in
your
klib
Sometimes it is more convenient to ship a static library with your product, rather than assume it is available within the
user's environment. To include a static library into .klib use staticLibrary and libraryPaths clauses. For example:
headers = foo.h
staticLibraries = libfoo.a
libraryPaths = /opt/local/lib /usr/local/opt/curl/lib
When given the above snippet the cinterop tool will search libfoo.a in /opt/local/lib and /usr/local/opt/curl/lib, and if it is
found include the library binary into klib.
When using such klib in your program, the library is linked automatically.
Bindings
Basic
interop
types
All the supported C types have corresponding representations in Kotlin:
Signed, unsigned integral, and floating point types are mapped to their Kotlin counterpart with the same width.
Pointers and arrays are mapped to CPointer<T>?.
Enums can be mapped to either Kotlin enum or integral values, depending on heuristics and the definition file hints.
Structs and unions are mapped to types having fields available via the dot notation, i.e. someStructInstance.field1.
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typedef are represented as typealias.
Also, any C type has the Kotlin type representing the lvalue of this type, i.e., the value located in memory rather than a
simple immutable self-contained value. Think C++ references, as a similar concept. For structs (and typedef s to
structs) this representation is the main one and has the same name as the struct itself, for Kotlin enums it is named
${type}Var, for CPointer<T> it is CPointerVar<T>, and for most other types it is ${type}Var.
For types that have both representations, the one with a "lvalue" has a mutable .value property for accessing the value.
Pointer types
The type argument T of CPointer<T> must be one of the "lvalue" types described above, e.g., the C type struct S* is
mapped to CPointer<S>, int8_t* is mapped to CPointer<int_8tVar>, and char** is mapped to
CPointer<CPointerVar<ByteVar>>.
C null pointer is represented as Kotlin's null, and the pointer type CPointer<T> is not nullable, but the CPointer<T>? is.
The values of this type support all the Kotlin operations related to handling null, e.g. ?:, ?., !! etc.:
val path = getenv("PATH")?.toKString() ?: ""
Since the arrays are also mapped to CPointer<T>, it supports the [] operator for accessing values by index:
fun shift(ptr: CPointer<BytePtr>, length: Int) {
for (index in 0 .. length - 2) {
ptr[index] = ptr[index + 1]
}
}
The .pointed property for CPointer<T> returns the lvalue of type T, pointed by this pointer. The reverse operation is .ptr:
it takes the lvalue and returns the pointer to it.
void* is mapped to COpaquePointer – the special pointer type which is the supertype for any other pointer type. So if
the C function takes void*, then the Kotlin binding accepts any CPointer.
Casting a pointer (including COpaquePointer) can be done with .reinterpret<T>, e.g.:
val intPtr = bytePtr.reinterpret<IntVar>()
or
val intPtr: CPointer<IntVar> = bytePtr.reinterpret()
As is with C, these reinterpret casts are unsafe and can potentially lead to subtle memory problems in the application.
Also there are unsafe casts between CPointer<T>? and Long available, provided by the .toLong() and .toCPointer<T>()
extension methods:
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val longValue = ptr.toLong()
val originalPtr = longValue.toCPointer<T>()
Note that if the type of the result is known from the context, the type argument can be omitted as usual due to the type
inference.
Memory
allocation
The native memory can be allocated using the NativePlacement interface, e.g.
val byteVar = placement.alloc<ByteVar>()
or
val bytePtr = placement.allocArray<ByteVar>(5)
The most "natural" placement is in the object nativeHeap. It corresponds to allocating native memory with malloc and
provides an additional .free() operation to free allocated memory:
val buffer = nativeHeap.allocArray<ByteVar>(size)
<use buffer>
nativeHeap.free(buffer)
However, the lifetime of allocated memory is often bound to the lexical scope. It is possible to define such scope with
memScoped { ... }. Inside the braces, the temporary placement is available as an implicit receiver, so it is possible to
allocate native memory with alloc and allocArray, and the allocated memory will be automatically freed after leaving the
scope.
For example, the C function returning values through pointer parameters can be used like
val fileSize = memScoped {
val statBuf = alloc<stat>()
val error = stat("/", statBuf.ptr)
statBuf.st_size
}
Pass
pointers
to
bindings
Although C pointers are mapped to the CPointer<T> type, the C function pointer-typed parameters are mapped to
CValuesRef<T>. When passing CPointer<T> as the value of such a parameter, it is passed to the C function as is.
However, the sequence of values can be passed instead of a pointer. In this case the sequence is passed "by value",
i.e., the C function receives the pointer to the temporary copy of that sequence, which is valid only until the function
returns.
The CValuesRef<T> representation of pointer parameters is designed to support C array literals without explicit native
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memory allocation. To construct the immutable self-contained sequence of C values, the following methods are
provided:
${type}Array.toCValues(), where type is the Kotlin primitive type
Array<CPointer<T>?>.toCValues(), List<CPointer<T>?>.toCValues()
cValuesOf(vararg elements: ${type}), where type is a primitive or pointer
For example:
C:
void foo(int* elements, int count);
...
int elements[] = {1, 2, 3};
foo(elements, 3);
Kotlin:
foo(cValuesOf(1, 2, 3), 3)
Strings
Unlike other pointers, the parameters of type const char* are represented as a Kotlin String. So it is possible to pass
any Kotlin string to a binding expecting a C string.
There are also some tools available to convert between Kotlin and C strings manually:
fun CPointer<ByteVar>.toKString(): String
val String.cstr: CValuesRef<ByteVar>.
To get the pointer, .cstr should be allocated in native memory, e.g.
val cString = kotlinString.cstr.getPointer(nativeHeap)
In all cases, the C string is supposed to be encoded as UTF-8.
To skip automatic conversion and ensure raw pointers are used in the bindings, a noStringConversion statement in the
.def file could be used, i.e.
noStringConversion = LoadCursorA LoadCursorW
This way any value of type CPointer<ByteVar> can be passed as an argument of const char* type. If a Kotlin string
should be passed, code like this could be used:
memScoped {
LoadCursorA(null, "cursor.bmp".cstr.ptr) // for ASCII version
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LoadCursorW(null, "cursor.bmp".wcstr.ptr) // for Unicode version
}
Scope-local
pointers
It is possible to create a scope-stable pointer of C representation of CValues<T> instance using the CValues<T>.ptr
extension property, available under memScoped { ... }. It allows using the APIs which require C pointers with a lifetime
bound to a certain MemScope. For example:
memScoped {
items = arrayOfNulls<CPointer<ITEM>?>(6)
arrayOf("one", "two").forEachIndexed { index, value -> items[index] = value.cstr.ptr }
menu = new_menu("Menu".cstr.ptr, items.toCValues().ptr)
...
}
In this example, all values passed to the C API new_menu() have a lifetime of the innermost memScope it belongs to.
Once the control flow leaves the memScoped scope the C pointers become invalid.
Pass
and
receive
structs
by
value
When a C function takes or returns a struct / union T by value, the corresponding argument type or return type is
represented as CValue<T>.
CValue<T> is an opaque type, so the structure fields cannot be accessed with the appropriate Kotlin properties. It
should be possible, if an API uses structures as handles, but if field access is required, there are the following
conversion methods available:
fun T.readValue(): CValue<T>. Converts (the lvalue) T to a CValue<T>. So to construct the CValue<T>, T can be
allocated, filled, and then converted to CValue<T>.
CValue<T>.useContents(block: T.() -> R): R. Temporarily places the CValue<T> to memory, and then runs the
passed lambda with this placed value T as receiver. So to read a single field, the following code can be used:
val fieldValue = structValue.useContents { field }
Callbacks
To convert a Kotlin function to a pointer to a C function, staticCFunction(::kotlinFunction) can be used. It is also able to
provide the lambda instead of a function reference. The function or lambda must not capture any values.
If the callback doesn't run in the main thread, it is mandatory to init the Kotlin/Native runtime by calling
kotlin.native.initRuntimeIfNeeded().
Pass user data to callbacks
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Often C APIs allow passing some user data to callbacks. Such data is usually provided by the user when configuring
the callback. It is passed to some C function (or written to the struct) as e.g. void*. However, references to Kotlin
objects can't be directly passed to C. So they require wrapping before configuring the callback and then unwrapping in
the callback itself, to safely swim from Kotlin to Kotlin through the C world. Such wrapping is possible with StableRef
class.
To wrap the reference:
val stableRef = StableRef.create(kotlinReference)
val voidPtr = stableRef.asCPointer()
where the voidPtr is a COpaquePointer and can be passed to the C function.
To unwrap the reference:
val stableRef = voidPtr.asStableRef<KotlinClass>()
val kotlinReference = stableRef.get()
where kotlinReference is the original wrapped reference.
The created StableRef should eventually be manually disposed using the .dispose() method to prevent memory leaks:
stableRef.dispose()
After that it becomes invalid, so voidPtr can't be unwrapped anymore.
See the samples/libcurl for more details.
Macros
Every C macro that expands to a constant is represented as a Kotlin property. Other macros are not supported.
However, they can be exposed manually by wrapping them with supported declarations. E.g. function-like macro FOO
can be exposed as function foo by adding the custom declaration to the library:
headers = library/base.h
---
static inline int foo(int arg) {
return FOO(arg);
}
Definition
file
hints
The .def file supports several options for adjusting the generated bindings.
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excludedFunctions property value specifies a space-separated list of the names of functions that should be
ignored. This may be required because a function declared in the C header is not generally guaranteed to be really
callable, and it is often hard or impossible to figure this out automatically. This option can also be used to
workaround a bug in the interop itself.
strictEnums and nonStrictEnums properties values are space-separated lists of the enums that should be generated
as a Kotlin enum or as integral values correspondingly. If the enum is not included into any of these lists, then it is
generated according to the heuristics.
noStringConversion property value is space-separated lists of the functions whose const char* parameters shall not
be autoconverted as Kotlin string
Portability
Sometimes the C libraries have function parameters or struct fields of a platform-dependent type, e.g. long or size_t.
Kotlin itself doesn't provide neither implicit integer casts nor C-style integer casts (e.g. (size_t) intValue ), so to make
writing portable code in such cases easier, the convert method is provided:
fun ${type1}.convert<${type2}>(): ${type2}
where each of type1 and type2 must be an integral type, either signed or unsigned.
.convert<${type}> has the same semantics as one of the .toByte, .toShort, .toInt, .toLong, .toUByte, .toUShort, .toUInt
or .toULong methods, depending on type.
The example of using convert:
fun zeroMemory(buffer: COpaquePointer, size: Int) {
memset(buffer, 0, size.convert<size_t>())
}
Also, the type parameter can be inferred automatically and so may be omitted in some cases.
Object
pinning
Kotlin objects could be pinned, i.e. their position in memory is guaranteed to be stable until unpinned, and pointers to
such objects inner data could be passed to the C functions. For example
fun readData(fd: Int): String {
val buffer = ByteArray(1024)
buffer.usePinned { pinned ->
while (true) {
val length = recv(fd, pinned.addressOf(0), buffer.size.convert(), 0).toInt()
if (length <= 0) {
break
}
// Now `buffer` has raw data obtained from the `recv()` call.
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}
}
}
Here we use service function usePinned, which pins an object, executes block and unpins it on normal and exception
paths.
Mapping
primitive
data
types
from
C
–
tutorial
In this tutorial, you will learn what C data types are visible in Kotlin/Native and vice versa. You will:
See what Data types are in C language.
Create a tiny C Library that uses those types in exports.
Inspect generated Kotlin APIs from a C library.
Find how Primitive types in Kotlin are mapped to C.
Types
in
C
language
What types are there in the C language? Let's take the C data types article from Wikipedia as a basis. There are
following types in the C programming language:
basic types char, int, float, double with modifiers signed, unsigned, short, long
structures, unions, arrays
pointers
function pointers
There are also more specific types:
boolean type (from C99)
size_t and ptrdiff_t (also ssize_t)
fixed width integer types, such as int32_t or uint64_t (from C99)
There are also the following type qualifiers in the C language: const, volatile, restruct, atomic.
The best way to see what C data types are visible in Kotlin is to try it.
Example
C
library
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Create a lib.h file to see how C functions are mapped into Kotlin:
#ifndef LIB2_H_INCLUDED
#define LIB2_H_INCLUDED
void ints(char c, short d, int e, long f);
void uints(unsigned char c, unsigned short d, unsigned int e, unsigned long f);
void doubles(float a, double b);
#endif
The file is missing the extern "C" block, which is not needed for this example, but may be necessary if you use C++
and overloaded functions. The C++ compatibility thread on Stackoverflow contains more details on this.
For every set of .h files, you will be using the cinterop tool from Kotlin/Native to generate a Kotlin/Native library, or .klib.
The generated library will bridge calls from Kotlin/Native to C. It includes respective Kotlin declarations for the
definitions form the .h files. It is only necessary to have a .h file to run the cinterop tool. And you do not need to create
a lib.c file, unless you want to compile and run the example. More details on this are covered in the C interop page. It is
enough for the tutorial to create the lib.def file with the following content:
headers = lib.h
You may include all declarations directly into the .def file after a --- separator. It can be helpful to include macros or
other C defines into the code generated by the cinterop tool. Method bodies are compiled and fully included into the
binary too. Use that feature to have a runnable example without a need for a C compiler. To implement that, you need
to add implementations to the C functions from the lib.h file, and place these functions into a .def file. You will have the
following interop.def result:
---
void ints(char c, short d, int e, long f) { }
void uints(unsigned char c, unsigned short d, unsigned int e, unsigned long f) { }
void doubles(float a, double b) { }
The interop.def file is enough to compile and run the application or open it in an IDE. Now it is time to create project
files, open the project in IntelliJ IDEA and run it.
Inspect
generated
Kotlin
APIs
for
a
C
library
While it is possible to use the command line, either directly or by combining it with a script file (such as .sh or .bat file),
this approach doesn't scale well for big projects that have hundreds of files and libraries. It is then better to use the
Kotlin/Native compiler with a build system, as it helps to download and cache the Kotlin/Native compiler binaries and
libraries with transitive dependencies and run the compiler and tests. Kotlin/Native can use the Gradle build system
through the kotlin-multiplatform plugin.
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We covered the basics of setting up an IDE compatible project with Gradle in the A Basic Kotlin/Native Application
tutorial. Please check it out if you are looking for detailed first steps and instructions on how to start a new
Kotlin/Native project and open it in IntelliJ IDEA. In this tutorial, we'll look at the advanced C interop related usages of
Kotlin/Native and multiplatform builds with Gradle.
First, create a project folder. All the paths in this tutorial will be relative to this folder. Sometimes the missing directories
will have to be created before any new files can be added.
Use the following build.gradle(.kts) Gradle build file:
Groovy
plugins {
id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.multiplatform' version '1.5.20'
}
repositories {
mavenCentral()
}
kotlin {
linuxX64('native') { // on Linux
// macosX64('native') { // on macOS
// mingwX64('native') { //on Windows
compilations.main.cinterops {
interop
}
binaries {
executable()
}
}
}
wrapper {
gradleVersion = '6.7.1'
distributionType = 'BIN'
}
Kotlin
plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform") version "1.5.20"
}
repositories {
mavenCentral()
}
kotlin {
linuxX64("native") { // on Linux
// macosX64("native") { // on macOS
// mingwX64("native") { // on Windows
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val main by compilations.getting
val interop by main.cinterops.creating
binaries {
executable()
}
}
}
tasks.wrapper {
gradleVersion = "6.7.1"
distributionType = Wrapper.DistributionType.BIN
}
The prepared project sources can be directly downloaded from Github:
for macOS: Groovy, Kotlin
for Linux: Groovy, Kotlin
for Windows: Groovy, Kotlin
The project file configures the C interop as an additional step of the build. Let's move the interop.def file to the
src/nativeInterop/cinterop directory. Gradle recommends using conventions instead of configurations, for example, the
source files are expected to be in the src/nativeMain/kotlin folder. By default, all the symbols from C are imported to
the interop package, you may want to import the whole package in our .kt files. Check out the kotlin-multiplatform
plugin documentation to learn about all the different ways you could configure it.
Create a src/nativeMain/kotlin/hello.kt stub file with the following content to see how C primitive type declarations are
visible from Kotlin:
import interop.*
fun main() {
println("Hello Kotlin/Native!")
ints(/* fix me*/)
uints(/* fix me*/)
doubles(/* fix me*/)
}
Now you are ready to open the project in IntelliJ IDEA and to see how to fix the example project. While doing that, see
how C primitive types are mapped into Kotlin/Native.
Primitive
types
in
kotlin
With the help of IntelliJ IDEA's Go to | Declaration or compiler errors, you see the following generated API for the C
functions:
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fun ints(c: Byte, d: Short, e: Int, f: Long)
fun uints(c: UByte, d: UShort, e: UInt, f: ULong)
fun doubles(a: Float, b: Double)
C types are mapped in the way we would expect, note that char type is mapped to kotlin.Byte as it is usually an 8-bit
signed value.
C Kotlin
char kotlin.Byte
unsigned char kotlin.UByte
short kotlin.Short
unsigned short kotlin.UShort
int kotlin.Int
unsigned int kotlin.UInt
long long kotlin.Long
unsigned long long kotlin.ULong
float kotlin.Float
double kotlin.Double
Fix
the
code
You've seen all definitions and it is the time to fix the code. Run the runDebugExecutableNative Gradle task in IDE or
use the following command to run the code:
./gradlew runDebugExecutableNative
The final code in the hello.kt file may look like that:
import interop.*
fun main() {
println("Hello Kotlin/Native!")
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ints(1, 2, 3, 4)
uints(5, 6, 7, 8)
doubles(9.0f, 10.0)
}
Next
steps
Continue to explore more complicated C language types and their representation in Kotlin/Native in the next tutorials:
Mapping struct and union types from C
Mapping function pointers from C
Mapping strings from C
The C interop documentation covers more advanced scenarios of the interop.
Mapping
struct
and
union
types
from
C
–
tutorial
This is the second post in the series. The very first tutorial of the series is Mapping primitive data types from C. There
are also the Mapping function pointers from C and Mapping Strings from C tutorials.
In the tutorial, you will learn:
How struct and union types are mapped
How to use struct and union type from Kotlin
Mapping
struct
and
union
C
types
The best way to understand the mapping between Kotlin and C is to try a tiny example. We will declare a struct and a
union in the C language, to see how they are mapped into Kotlin.
Kotlin/Native comes with the cinterop tool, the tool generates bindings between the C language and Kotlin. It uses a
.def file to specify a C library to import. More details are discussed in the Interop with C Libraries tutorial.
In the previous tutorial, you've created a lib.h file. This time, include those declarations directly into the interop.def file,
after the --- separator line:
---
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typedef struct {
int a;
double b;
} MyStruct;
void struct_by_value(MyStruct s) {}
void struct_by_pointer(MyStruct* s) {}
typedef union {
int a;
MyStruct b;
float c;
} MyUnion;
void union_by_value(MyUnion u) {}
void union_by_pointer(MyUnion* u) {}
The interop.def file is enough to compile and run the application or open it in an IDE. Now it is time to create project
files, open the project in IntelliJ IDEA and run it.
Inspect
Generated
Kotlin
APIs
for
a
C
library
While it is possible to use the command line, either directly or by combining it with a script file (such as .sh or .bat file),
this approach doesn't scale well for big projects that have hundreds of files and libraries. It is then better to use the
Kotlin/Native compiler with a build system, as it helps to download and cache the Kotlin/Native compiler binaries and
libraries with transitive dependencies and run the compiler and tests. Kotlin/Native can use the Gradle build system
through the kotlin-multiplatform plugin.
We covered the basics of setting up an IDE compatible project with Gradle in the A Basic Kotlin/Native Application
tutorial. Please check it out if you are looking for detailed first steps and instructions on how to start a new
Kotlin/Native project and open it in IntelliJ IDEA. In this tutorial, we'll look at the advanced C interop related usages of
Kotlin/Native and multiplatform builds with Gradle.
First, create a project folder. All the paths in this tutorial will be relative to this folder. Sometimes the missing directories
will have to be created before any new files can be added.
Use the following build.gradle(.kts) Gradle build file:
Groovy
plugins {
id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.multiplatform' version '1.5.20'
}
repositories {
mavenCentral()
}
kotlin {
603
linuxX64('native') { // on Linux
// macosX64('native') { // on macOS
// mingwX64('native') { //on Windows
compilations.main.cinterops {
interop
}
binaries {
executable()
}
}
}
wrapper {
gradleVersion = '6.7.1'
distributionType = 'BIN'
}
Kotlin
plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform") version "1.5.20"
}
repositories {
mavenCentral()
}
kotlin {
linuxX64("native") { // on Linux
// macosX64("native") { // on macOS
// mingwX64("native") { // on Windows
val main by compilations.getting
val interop by main.cinterops.creating
binaries {
executable()
}
}
}
tasks.wrapper {
gradleVersion = "6.7.1"
distributionType = Wrapper.DistributionType.BIN
}
The prepared project sources can be directly downloaded from GitHub:
for macOS: Groovy, Kotlin
for Linux: Groovy, Kotlin
for Windows: Groovy, Kotlin
The project file configures the C interop as an additional step of the build. Let's move the interop.def file to the
604
src/nativeInterop/cinterop directory. Gradle recommends using conventions instead of configurations, for example, the
source files are expected to be in the src/nativeMain/kotlin folder. By default, all the symbols from C are imported to
the interop package, you may want to import the whole package in our .kt files. Check out the kotlin-multiplatform
plugin documentation to learn about all the different ways you could configure it.
Create a src/nativeMain/kotlin/hello.kt stub file with the following content to see how C declarations are visible from
Kotlin:
import interop.*
fun main() {
println("Hello Kotlin/Native!")
struct_by_value(/* fix me*/)
struct_by_pointer(/* fix me*/)
union_by_value(/* fix me*/)
union_by_pointer(/* fix me*/)
}
Now you are ready to open the project in IntelliJ IDEA and to see how to fix the example project. While doing that, see
how C primitive types are mapped into Kotlin/Native.
Primitive
types
in
Kotlin
With the help of IntelliJ IDEA's Go to | Declaration or compiler errors, you see the following generated API for the C
functions, struct, and union:
fun struct_by_value(s: CValue<MyStruct>)
fun struct_by_pointer(s: CValuesRef<MyStruct>?)
fun union_by_value(u: CValue<MyUnion>)
fun union_by_pointer(u: CValuesRef<MyUnion>?)
class MyStruct constructor(rawPtr: NativePtr /* = NativePtr */) : CStructVar {
var a: Int
var b: Double
companion object : CStructVar.Type
}
class MyUnion constructor(rawPtr: NativePtr /* = NativePtr */) : CStructVar {
var a: Int
val b: MyStruct
var c: Float
companion object : CStructVar.Type
}
You see that cinterop generated wrapper types for our struct and union types. For MyStruct and MyUnion type
declarations in C, there are the Kotlin classes MyStruct and MyUnion generated respectively. The wrappers inherit from
the CStructVar base class and declare all fields as Kotlin properties. It uses CValue<T> to represent a by-value
structure parameter and CValuesRef<T>? to represent passing a pointer to a structure or a union.
605
Technically, there is no difference between struct and union types on the Kotlin side. Note that a, b, and c properties of
MyUnion class in Kotlin use the same memory location to read/write their value just like union does in C language.
More details and advanced use-cases are presented in the
C Interop documentation
Use
struct
and
union
types
from
Kotlin
It is easy to use the generated wrapper classes for C struct and union types from Kotlin. Thanks to the generated
properties, it feels natural to use them in Kotlin code. The only question, so far, is how to create a new instance on
those classes. As you see from the declarations of MyStruct and MyUnion, their constructors require a NativePtr. Of
course, you are not willing to deal with pointers manually. Instead, you can use Kotlin API to have those objects
instantiated for us.
Let's take a look at the generated functions that take our MyStruct and MyUnion as parameters. You see that by-value
parameters are represented as kotlinx.cinterop.CValue<T>. And for typed pointer parameters you see
kotlinx.cinterop.CValuesRef<T>. Kotlin provides us with an API to deal with both types easily, let's try it and see.
Create
a
CValue
CValue<T> type is used to pass by-value parameters to a C function call. Use cValue function to create CValue<T>
object instance. The function requires a lambda function with a receiver to initialize the underlying C type in-place. The
function is declared as follows:
fun <reified T : CStructVar> cValue(initialize: T.() -> Unit): CValue<T>
Now it is time to see how to use cValue and pass by-value parameters:
fun callValue() {
val cStruct = cValue<MyStruct> {
a = 42
b = 3.14
}
struct_by_value(cStruct)
val cUnion = cValue<MyUnion> {
b.a = 5
b.b = 2.7182
}
union_by_value(cUnion)
}
Create
struct
and
union
as
CValuesRef
CValuesRef<T> type is used in Kotlin to pass a typed pointer parameter of a C function. First, you need an instance of
606
MyStruct and MyUnion classes. Create them directly in the native memory. Use the
fun <reified T : kotlinx.cinterop.CVariable> alloc(): T
extension function on kotlinx.cinterop.NativePlacement type for this.
NativePlacement represents native memory with functions similar to malloc and free. There are several
implementations of NativePlacement. The global one is called with kotlinx.cinterop.nativeHeap and don't forget to call
the nativeHeap.free(..) function to free the memory after use.
Another option is to use the
fun <R> memScoped(block: kotlinx.cinterop.MemScope.() -> R): R
function. It creates a short-lived memory allocation scope, and all allocations will be cleaned up automatically at the
end of the block.
Your code to call functions with pointers will look like this:
fun callRef() {
memScoped {
val cStruct = alloc<MyStruct>()
cStruct.a = 42
cStruct.b = 3.14
struct_by_pointer(cStruct.ptr)
val cUnion = alloc<MyUnion>()
cUnion.b.a = 5
cUnion.b.b = 2.7182
union_by_pointer(cUnion.ptr)
}
}
Note that this code uses the extension property ptr which comes from a memScoped lambda receiver type, to turn
MyStruct and MyUnion instances into native pointers.
The MyStruct and MyUnion classes have the pointer to the native memory underneath. The memory will be released
when a memScoped function ends, which is equal to the end of its block. Make sure that a pointer is not used outside
of the memScoped call. You may use Arena() or nativeHeap for pointers that should be available longer, or are cached
inside a C library.
Conversion
between
CValue
and
CValuesRef
Of course, there are use cases when you need to pass a struct as a value to one call, and then, to pass the same struct
as a reference to another call. This is possible in Kotlin/Native too. A NativePlacement will be needed here.
607
Let's see now CValue<T> is turned to a pointer first:
fun callMix_ref() {
val cStruct = cValue<MyStruct> {
a = 42
b = 3.14
}
memScoped {
struct_by_pointer(cStruct.ptr)
}
}
This code uses the extension property ptr which comes from memScoped lambda receiver type to turn MyStruct and
MyUnion instances into native pointers. Those pointers are only valid inside the memScoped block.
For the opposite conversion, to turn a pointer into a by-value variable, we call the readValue() extension function:
fun callMix_value() {
memScoped {
val cStruct = alloc<MyStruct>()
cStruct.a = 42
cStruct.b = 3.14
struct_by_value(cStruct.readValue())
}
}
Run
the
code
Now when you have learned how to use C declarations in your code, you are ready to try it out on a real example. Let's
fix the code and see how it runs by calling the runDebugExecutableNative Gradle task in the IDE or by using the
following console command:
./gradlew runDebugExecutableNative
The final code in the hello.kt file may look like this:
import interop.*
import kotlinx.cinterop.alloc
import kotlinx.cinterop.cValue
import kotlinx.cinterop.memScoped
import kotlinx.cinterop.ptr
import kotlinx.cinterop.readValue
fun main() {
println("Hello Kotlin/Native!")
val cUnion = cValue<MyUnion> {
608
b.a = 5
b.b = 2.7182
}
memScoped {
union_by_value(cUnion)
union_by_pointer(cUnion.ptr)
}
memScoped {
val cStruct = alloc<MyStruct> {
a = 42
b = 3.14
}
struct_by_value(cStruct.readValue())
struct_by_pointer(cStruct.ptr)
}
}
Next
steps
Continue exploring the C language types and their representation in Kotlin/Native in the related tutorials:
Mapping primitive data types from C
Mapping function pointers from C
Mapping strings from C
The C Interop documentation covers more advanced scenarios of the interop.
Mapping
function
pointers
from
C
–
tutorial
This is the third post in the series. The very first tutorial is Mapping primitive data types from C. There are also Mapping
struct and union types from C and Mapping strings from C tutorials.
In this tutorial We will learn how to:
Pass Kotlin function as C function pointer
Use C function pointer from Kotlin
Mapping
function
pointer
types
from
C
The best way to understand the mapping between Kotlin and C is to try a tiny example. Declare a function that accepts
a function pointer as a parameter and another function that returns a function pointer.
609
Kotlin/Native comes with the cinterop tool; the tool generates bindings between the C language and Kotlin. It uses a
.def file to specify a C library to import. More details on this are in Interop with C Libraries.
The quickest way to try out C API mapping is to have all C declarations in the interop.def file, without creating any .h of
.c files at all. Then place the C declarations in a .def file after the special --- separator line:
---
int myFun(int i) {
return i+1;
}
typedef int (*MyFun)(int);
void accept_fun(MyFun f) {
f(42);
}
MyFun supply_fun() {
return myFun;
}
The interop.def file is enough to compile and run the application or open it in an IDE. Now it is time to create project
files, open the project in IntelliJ IDEA and run it.
Inspect
generated
Kotlin
APIs
for
a
C
library
While it is possible to use the command line, either directly or by combining it with a script file (such as .sh or .bat file),
this approach doesn't scale well for big projects that have hundreds of files and libraries. It is then better to use the
Kotlin/Native compiler with a build system, as it helps to download and cache the Kotlin/Native compiler binaries and
libraries with transitive dependencies and run the compiler and tests. Kotlin/Native can use the Gradle build system
through the kotlin-multiplatform plugin.
We covered the basics of setting up an IDE compatible project with Gradle in the A Basic Kotlin/Native Application
tutorial. Please check it out if you are looking for detailed first steps and instructions on how to start a new
Kotlin/Native project and open it in IntelliJ IDEA. In this tutorial, we'll look at the advanced C interop related usages of
Kotlin/Native and multiplatform builds with Gradle.
First, create a project folder. All the paths in this tutorial will be relative to this folder. Sometimes the missing directories
will have to be created before any new files can be added.
Use the following build.gradle(.kts) Gradle build file:
Groovy
plugins {
610
id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.multiplatform' version '1.5.20'
}
repositories {
mavenCentral()
}
kotlin {
linuxX64('native') { // on Linux
// macosX64('native') { // on macOS
// mingwX64('native') { //on Windows
compilations.main.cinterops {
interop
}
binaries {
executable()
}
}
}
wrapper {
gradleVersion = '6.7.1'
distributionType = 'BIN'
}
Kotlin
plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform") version "1.5.20"
}
repositories {
mavenCentral()
}
kotlin {
linuxX64("native") { // on Linux
// macosX64("native") { // on macOS
// mingwX64("native") { // on Windows
val main by compilations.getting
val interop by main.cinterops.creating
binaries {
executable()
}
}
}
tasks.wrapper {
gradleVersion = "6.7.1"
distributionType = Wrapper.DistributionType.BIN
}
The prepared project sources can be directly downloaded from Github:
611
for macOS: Groovy, Kotlin
for Linux: Groovy, Kotlin
for Windows: Groovy, Kotlin
The project file configures the C interop as an additional step of the build. Let's move the interop.def file to the
src/nativeInterop/cinterop directory. Gradle recommends using conventions instead of configurations, for example, the
source files are expected to be in the src/nativeMain/kotlin folder. By default, all the symbols from C are imported to
the interop package, you may want to import the whole package in our .kt files. Check out the kotlin-multiplatform
plugin documentation to learn about all the different ways you could configure it.
Let's create a src/nativeMain/kotlin/hello.kt stub file with the following content to see how C primitive type declarations
are visible from Kotlin:
import interop.*
fun main() {
println("Hello Kotlin/Native!")
accept_fun(https://kotlinlang.org/*fix me */)
val useMe = supply_fun()
}
Now you are ready to open the project in IntelliJ IDEA and to see how to fix the example project. While doing that, see
how C functions are mapped into Kotlin/Native declarations.
C
function
pointers
in
Kotlin
With the help of IntelliJ IDEA's Go to | Declaration or compiler errors, see the following declarations for the C functions:
fun accept_fun(f: MyFun? /* = CPointer<CFunction<(Int) -> Int>>? */)
fun supply_fun(): MyFun? /* = CPointer<CFunction<(Int) -> Int>>? */
fun myFun(i: kotlin.Int): kotlin.Int
typealias MyFun = kotlinx.cinterop.CPointer<kotlinx.cinterop.CFunction<(kotlin.Int) ->
kotlin.Int>>
typealias MyFunVar = kotlinx.cinterop.CPointerVarOf<lib.MyFun>
You see that the function's typedef from C has been turned into Kotlin typealias. It uses CPointer<..> type to represent
the pointer parameters, and CFunction<(Int)->Int> to represent the function signature. There is an invoke operator
extension function available for all CPointer<CFunction<..> types, so that it is possible to call it as you would call any
other function in Kotlin.
612
Pass
Kotlin
function
as
C
function
pointer
It is the time to try using C functions from the Kotlin program. Call the accept_fun function and pass the C function
pointer to a Kotlin lambda:
fun myFun() {
accept_fun(staticCFunction<Int, Int> { it + 1 })
}
This call uses the staticCFunction{..} helper function from Kotlin/Native to wrap a Kotlin lambda function into a C
function pointer. It only allows having unbound and non-capturing lambda functions. For example, it is not able to use
a local variable from the function. You may only use globally visible declarations. Throwing exceptions from a
staticCFunction{..} will end up in non-deterministic side-effects. It is vital to make sure that you code is not throwing
any sudden exceptions from it.
Use
the
C
function
pointer
from
Kotlin
The next step is to call a C function pointer from a C pointer that you have from the supply_fun() call:
fun myFun2() {
val functionFromC = supply_fun() ?: error("No function is returned")
functionFromC(42)
}
Kotlin turns the function pointer return type into a nullable CPointer<CFunction<..> object. There is the need to
explicitly check for null first. The elvis operator for that in the code above. The cinterop tool helps us to turn a C
function pointer into an easy to call object in Kotlin. This is what we did on the last line.
Fix
the
code
You've seen all definitions and it is time to fix and run the code. Run the runDebugExecutableNative Gradle task in the
IDE or use the following command to run the code:
./gradlew runDebugExecutableNative
The code in the hello.kt file may look like this:
import interop.*
import kotlinx.cinterop.*
fun main() {
613
println("Hello Kotlin/Native!")
val cFunctionPointer = staticCFunction<Int, Int> { it + 1 }
accept_fun(cFunctionPointer)
val funFromC = supply_fun() ?: error("No function is returned")
funFromC(42)
}
Next
Steps
Continue exploring more C language types and their representation in Kotlin/Native in next tutorials:
Mapping primitive data types from C
Mapping struct and union types from C
Mapping strings from C
The C Interop documentation covers more advanced scenarios of the interop.
Mapping
Strings
from
C
–
tutorial
This is the last tutorial in the series. The first tutorial of the series is Mapping primitive data types from C. There are also
Mapping struct and union types from C and Mapping function pointers from C tutorials.
In this tutorial, you'll see how to deal with C strings in Kotlin/Native. You will learn how to:
Pass a Kotlin string to C
Read a C string in Kotlin
Receive C string bytes into a Kotlin string
Working
with
C
strings
There is no dedicated type in C language for strings. A developer knows from a method signature or the
documentation, whether a given char * means a C string in the context. Strings in the C language are null-terminated, a
trailing zero character \0 is added at the end of a bytes sequence to mark a string termination. Usually, UTF-8 encoded
strings are used. The UTF-8 encoding uses variable width characters, and it is backward compatible with ASCII.
Kotlin/Native uses UTF-8 character encoding by default.
The best way to understand the mapping between C and Kotlin languages is to try it out on a small example. Create a
small library headers for that. First, create a lib.h file with the following declaration of functions that deal with the C
strings:
614
#ifndef LIB2_H_INCLUDED
#define LIB2_H_INCLUDED
void pass_string(char* str);
char* return_string();
int copy_string(char* str, int size);
#endif
In the example, you see the most popular ways to pass or receive a string in the C language. Take the return of
return_string with care. In general, it is best to make sure you use the right function to dispose the returned char* with
the right free(..) function call.
Kotlin/Native comes with the cinterop tool; the tool generates bindings between the C language and Kotlin. It uses a
.def file to specify a C library to import. More details on this are in the Interop with C Libraries tutorial. The quickest way
to try out C API mapping is to have all C declarations in the interop.def file, without creating any .h of .c files at all.
Then place the C declarations in a interop.def file after the special --- separator line:
headers = lib.h
---
void pass_string(char* str) {
}
char* return_string() {
return "C stirng";
}
int copy_string(char* str, int size) {
*str++ = 'C';
*str++ = ' ';
*str++ = 'K';
*str++ = '/';
*str++ = 'N';
*str++ = 0;
return 0;
}
The interop.def file is enough to compile and run the application or open it in an IDE. Now it is time to create project
files, open the project in IntelliJ IDEA and run it.
Inspect
generated
Kotlin
APIs
for
a
C
library
While it is possible to use the command line, either directly or by combining it with a script file (such as .sh or .bat file),
this approach doesn't scale well for big projects that have hundreds of files and libraries. It is then better to use the
Kotlin/Native compiler with a build system, as it helps to download and cache the Kotlin/Native compiler binaries and
libraries with transitive dependencies and run the compiler and tests. Kotlin/Native can use the Gradle build system
through the kotlin-multiplatform plugin.
615
We covered the basics of setting up an IDE compatible project with Gradle in the A Basic Kotlin/Native Application
tutorial. Please check it out if you are looking for detailed first steps and instructions on how to start a new
Kotlin/Native project and open it in IntelliJ IDEA. In this tutorial, we'll look at the advanced C interop related usages of
Kotlin/Native and multiplatform builds with Gradle.
First, create a project folder. All the paths in this tutorial will be relative to this folder. Sometimes the missing directories
will have to be created before any new files can be added.
Use the following build.gradle(.kts) Gradle build file:
Groovy
plugins {
id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.multiplatform' version '1.5.20'
}
repositories {
mavenCentral()
}
kotlin {
linuxX64('native') { // on Linux
// macosX64('native') { // on macOS
// mingwX64('native') { //on Windows
compilations.main.cinterops {
interop
}
binaries {
executable()
}
}
}
wrapper {
gradleVersion = '6.7.1'
distributionType = 'BIN'
}
Kotlin
plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform") version "1.5.20"
}
repositories {
mavenCentral()
}
kotlin {
linuxX64("native") { // on Linux
// macosX64("native") { // on macOS
// mingwX64("native") { // on Windows
616
val main by compilations.getting
val interop by main.cinterops.creating
binaries {
executable()
}
}
}
tasks.wrapper {
gradleVersion = "6.7.1"
distributionType = Wrapper.DistributionType.BIN
}
The prepared project sources can be directly downloaded from GitHub:
for macOS: Groovy, Kotlin
for Linux: Groovy, Kotlin
for Windows: Groovy, Kotlin
The project file configures the C interop as an additional step of the build. Let's move the interop.def file to the
src/nativeInterop/cinterop directory. Gradle recommends using conventions instead of configurations, for example, the
source files are expected to be in the src/nativeMain/kotlin folder. By default, all the symbols from C are imported to
the interop package, you may want to import the whole package in our .kt files. Check out the kotlin-multiplatform
plugin documentation to learn about all the different ways you could configure it.
Let's create a src/nativeMain/kotlin/hello.kt stub file with the following content to see how C primitive type declarations
are visible from Kotlin:
import interop.*
fun main() {
println("Hello Kotlin/Native!")
pass_string(/*fix me*/)
val useMe = return_string()
val useMe2 = copy_string(/*fix me*/)
}
Now you are ready to open the project in IntelliJ IDEA and to see how to fix the example project. While doing that, see
how C primitive types are mapped into Kotlin/Native.
Primitive
types
in
Kotlin
With the help of IntelliJ IDEA's Go to | Declaration or compiler errors, you see the following generated API for the C
functions:
617
fun pass_string(str: CValuesRef<ByteVar /* = ByteVarOf<Byte> */>?)
fun return_string(): CPointer<ByteVar /* = ByteVarOf<Byte> */>?
fun copy_string(str: CValuesRef<ByteVar /* = ByteVarOf<Byte> */>?, size: Int): Int
These declarations look clear. All char * pointers are turned into str: CValuesRef<ByteVar>? for parameters and to
CPointer<ByteVar>? in return types. Kotlin turns char type into kotlin.Byte type, as it is usually an 8-bit signed value.
In the generated Kotlin declarations, you see that str is represented as CValuesRef<ByteVar/>?. The type is nullable,
and you can simply pass Kotlin null as the parameter value.
Pass
Kotlin
string
to
C
Let's try to use the API from Kotlin. Call pass_string first:
fun passStringToC() {
val str = "this is a Kotlin String"
pass_string(str.cstr)
}
Passing a Kotlin string to C is easy, thanks to the fact that there is String.cstr extension property in Kotlin for it. There
is also String.wcstr for cases when you need UTF-16 wide characters.
Read
C
Strings
in
Kotlin
This time you'll take a returned char * from the return_string function and turn it into a Kotlin string. For that, do the
following in Kotlin:
fun passStringToC() {
val stringFromC = return_string()?.toKString()
println("Returned from C: $stringFromC")
}
This code uses the toKString() extension function above. Please do not miss out the toString() function. The toKString()
has two overloaded extension functions in Kotlin:
fun CPointer<ByteVar>.toKString(): String
fun CPointer<ShortVar>.toKString(): String
The first extension takes a char * as a UTF-8 string and turns it into a String. The second function does the same but
for wide UTF-16 strings.
618
Receive
C
string
bytes
from
Kotlin
This time we will ask a C function to write us a C string to a given buffer. The function is called copy_string. It takes a
pointer to the location writing characters and the allowed buffer size. The function returns something to indicate if it has
succeeded or failed. Let's assume 0 means it succeeded, and the supplied buffer was big enough:
fun sendString() {
val buf = ByteArray(255)
buf.usePinned { pinned ->
if (copy_string(pinned.addressOf(0), buf.size - 1) != 0) {
throw Error("Failed to read string from C")
}
}
val copiedStringFromC = buf.stringFromUtf8()
println("Message from C: $copiedStringFromC")
}
First of all, you need to have a native pointer to pass to the C function. Use the usePinned extension function to
temporarily pin the native memory address of the byte array. The C function fills in the byte array with data. Use
another extension function ByteArray.stringFromUtf8() to turn the byte array into a Kotlin String, assuming UTF-8
encoding.
Fix
the
Code
You've now seen all the definitions and it is time to fix the code. Run the runDebugExecutableNative Gradle task in the
IDE or use the following command to run the code:
./gradlew runDebugExecutableNative
The code in the final hello.kt file may look like this:
import interop.*
import kotlinx.cinterop.*
fun main() {
println("Hello Kotlin/Native!")
val str = "this is a Kotlin String"
pass_string(str.cstr)
val useMe = return_string()?.toKString() ?: error("null pointer returned")
println(useMe)
val copyFromC = ByteArray(255).usePinned { pinned ->
val useMe2 = copy_string(pinned.addressOf(0), pinned.get().size - 1)
if (useMe2 != 0) throw Error("Failed to read string from C")
619
pinned.get().stringFromUtf8()
}
println(copyFromC)
}
Next
steps
Continue to explore more C language types and their representation in Kotlin/Native in our other tutorials:
Mapping primitive data types from C
Mapping struct and union types from C
Mapping function pointers from C
The C Interop documentation documentation covers more advanced scenarios of the interop.
Using
C
Interop
and
libcurl
for
an
app
–
tutorial
When writing native applications, oftentimes you need to access certain functionality that is not included in the Kotlin
standard library, such as making HTTP requests, reading and writing from disk, etc.
Kotlin/Native provides you with the ability to consume standard C libraries, opening up an entire ecosystem of
functionality that exists for pretty much anything you could need. In fact, Kotlin/Native already ships with a set of
prebuilt platform libraries which provide some additional common functionality to that of the standard library.
In this tutorial, you'll see how to use some specific libraries, such as libcurl. You'll learn to:
Create Kotlin bindings
Consume a generated Kotlin API
Link the library into the application
Generate
bindings
An ideal scenario for interop is to call C functions as if you were calling Kotlin functions, that is, following the same
signature and conventions. This is precisely what the cinterop tool provides. It takes a C library and generates the
corresponding Kotlin bindings for it, which then allows you to use the library as if it were Kotlin code.
In order to generate these bindings, you need to create a library definition .def file that contains some information
about the headers you need to generate. In this case, you'll use the famous libcurl library to make some HTTP calls, so
create a file named libcurl.def with the following contents:
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headers = curl/curl.h
headerFilter = curl/*
compilerOpts.linux = -I/usr/include -I/usr/include/x86_64-linux-gnu
linkerOpts.osx = -L/opt/local/lib -L/usr/local/opt/curl/lib -lcurl
linkerOpts.linux = -L/usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu -lcurl
A few things are going on in this file, let's go through them one by one. The first entry is headers which is the list of
header files that you want to generate Kotlin stubs for. You can add multiple files to this entry, separating each one
with a \ on a new line. For this tutorial, you'll only need curl.h. The files we are referencing need to be relative to the
folder where the definition file is, or be available on the system path (/usr/include/curl ).
The second line is the headerFilter. This is used to denote what exactly we want included. In C, when one file
references another file with the #include directive, all the headers are also included. Sometimes this may not be
needed, and you can use this parameter, using glob patterns, to fine tune things. Note, that headerFilter is an optional
argument and mostly only used when the library you're using is being installed as a system library, and you do not want
to fetch external dependencies (such as system stdint.h header) into your interop library. It may be important for both
optimizing the library size and fixing potential conflicts between the system and the Kotlin/Native provided compilation
environment.
The next lines are about providing linker and compiler options, which can vary depending on different target platforms.
In this tutorial, we are defining it for macOS (the .osx suffix) and Linux (the .linux suffix). Parameters without a suffix is
also possible (e.g. linkerOpts=) and will be applied to all platforms.
The convention that is followed is that each library gets its own definition file, usually named the same as the library.
For more information on all the options available to cinterop, see the Interop documentation
Once you have the definition file ready, create project files and open the project in an IDE.
While it is possible to use the command line, either directly or by combining it with a script file (such as .sh or .bat file),
this approach doesn't scale well for big projects that have hundreds of files and libraries. It is then better to use the
Kotlin/Native compiler with a build system, as it helps to download and cache the Kotlin/Native compiler binaries and
libraries with transitive dependencies and run the compiler and tests. Kotlin/Native can use the Gradle build system
through the kotlin-multiplatform plugin.
We covered the basics of setting up an IDE compatible project with Gradle in the A Basic Kotlin/Native Application
tutorial. Please check it out if you are looking for detailed first steps and instructions on how to start a new
Kotlin/Native project and open it in IntelliJ IDEA. In this tutorial, we'll look at the advanced C interop related usages of
Kotlin/Native and multiplatform builds with Gradle.
First, create a project folder. All the paths in this tutorial will be relative to this folder. Sometimes the missing directories
will have to be created before any new files can be added.
Use the following build.gradle(.kts) Gradle build file:
Groovy
plugins {
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id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.multiplatform' version '1.5.20'
}
repositories {
mavenCentral()
}
kotlin {
linuxX64("native") { // on Linux
// macosX64("native") { // on macOS
// mingwX64("native") { //on Windows
compilations.main.cinterops {
interop
}
binaries {
executable()
}
}
}
wrapper {
gradleVersion = "6.7.1"
distributionType = "ALL"
}
Kotlin
plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform") version "1.5.20"
}
repositories {
mavenCentral()
}
kotlin {
linuxX64("native") { // on Linux
// macosX64("native") { // on macOS
// mingwX64("native") { // on Windows
val main by compilations.getting
val interop by main.cinterops.creating
binaries {
executable()
}
}
}
tasks.wrapper {
gradleVersion = "6.7.1"
distributionType = Wrapper.DistributionType.ALL
}
The prepared project sources can be directly downloaded from Github:
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for macOS: Groovy, Kotlin
for Linux: Groovy, Kotlin
for Windows: Groovy, Kotlin
The project file configures the C interop as an additional step of the build. Let's move the interop.def file to the
src/nativeInterop/cinterop directory. Gradle recommends using conventions instead of configurations, for example, the
source files are expected to be in the src/nativeMain/kotlin folder. By default, all the symbols from C are imported to
the interop package, you may want to import the whole package in our .kt files. Check out the kotlin-multiplatform
plugin documentation to learn about all the different ways you could configure it.
curl
on
Windows
You should have the curl library binaries on Windows to make the sample work. You may build curl from sources on
Windows (you'll need Visual Studio or Windows SDK Commandline tools), for more details, see the related blog post.
Alternatively, you may also want to consider a MinGW/MSYS2 curl binary.
Consume
the
Kotlin
API
Now you have the library and Kotlin stubs and can consume them from our application. To keep things simple, in this
tutorial you're going to convert one of the simplest libcurl examples over to Kotlin.
The code in question is from the simple example (comments removed for brevity):
#include <stdio.h>
#include <curl/curl.h>
int main(void)
{
CURL *curl;
CURLcode res;
curl = curl_easy_init();
if(curl) {
curl_easy_setopt(curl, CURLOPT_URL, "https://example.com");
curl_easy_setopt(curl, CURLOPT_FOLLOWLOCATION, 1L);
res = curl_easy_perform(curl);
if(res != CURLE_OK)
fprintf(stderr, "curl_easy_perform() failed: %s\n",
curl_easy_strerror(res));
curl_easy_cleanup(curl);
}
return 0;
}
The first thing you'll need is a Kotlin file called src/nativeMain/kotlin/hello.kt with the main function defined in it and
then proceed to translate each line.
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import interop.*
import kotlinx.cinterop.*
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val curl = curl_easy_init()
if (curl != null) {
curl_easy_setopt(curl, CURLOPT_URL, "https://example.com")
curl_easy_setopt(curl, CURLOPT_FOLLOWLOCATION, 1L)
val res = curl_easy_perform(curl)
if (res != CURLE_OK) {
println("curl_easy_perform() failed ${curl_easy_strerror(res)?.toKString()}")
}
curl_easy_cleanup(curl)
}
}
As you can see, you've eliminated the explicit variable declarations in the Kotlin version, but everything else is pretty
much verbatim to the C version. All the calls you'd expect in the libcurl library are available in their Kotlin equivalent.
Note that for the purpose of this tutorial, we've done a line by line literal translation. Obviously you could write this in a
more Kotlin idiomatic way.
Compile
and
link
the
library
The next step is to compile the application. We already covered the basics of compiling a Kotlin/Native application
from the command line in the A Basic Kotlin/Native application tutorial. The only difference in this case is that the
cinterop generated part is implicitly included into the build: Call the following command:
./gradlew runDebugExecutableNative
If there are no errors during compilation, you should see the result of the execution of the program, which on execution
should output the contents of the site https://example.com
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Output
The reason you're seeing the actual output is because the call curl_easy_perform prints the result to the standard
output. You could hide this using curl_easy_setopt.
For a more complete example of using libcurl, the libcurl sample of the Kotlin/Native project shows how to abstract the
code into Kotlin classes as well as display headers. It also demonstrates how to make the steps a little easier by
combining them into a shell script or Gradle build.
Interoperability
with
Swift/Objective-C
This document covers some details of Kotlin/Native interoperability with Swift/Objective-C.
Usage
Kotlin/Native provides bidirectional interoperability with Objective-C. Objective-C frameworks and libraries can be used
in Kotlin code if properly imported to the build (system frameworks are imported by default). See compilation
configurations for more details. A Swift library can be used in Kotlin code if its API is exported to Objective-C with
@objc. Pure Swift modules are not yet supported.
Kotlin modules can be used in Swift/Objective-C code if compiled into a framework (see here for how to declare
binaries ). See calculator sample for an example.
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Mappings
The table below shows how Kotlin concepts are mapped to Swift/Objective-C and vice versa.
"->" and "<-" indicate that mapping only goes one way.
Kotlin Swift Objective-C Notes
class class @interface note
interface protocol @protocol
constructor/ create Initializer Initializer note
Property Property Property note note
Method Method Method note note
suspend -> completionHandler: note
@Throws fun throws error:(NSError**)error note
Extension Extension Category member note
companion member <- Class method or property Class method or property
null nil nil
Singleton Singleton() [Singleton singleton] note
Primitive type Primitive type / NSNumber note
Unit return type Void void
String String NSString
String NSMutableString NSMutableString note
List Array NSArray
MutableList NSMutableArray NSMutableArray
Set Set NSSet
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Kotlin Swift Objective-C Notes
MutableSet NSMutableSet NSMutableSet note
Map Dictionary NSDictionary
MutableMap NSMutableDictionary NSMutableDictionary note
Function type Function type Block pointer type note
Inline classes Unsupported Unsupported note
Name
translation
Objective-C classes are imported into Kotlin with their original names. Protocols are imported as interfaces with
Protocol name suffix, i.e. @protocol Foo -> interface FooProtocol. These classes and interfaces are placed into a
package specified in build configuration (platform.* packages for preconfigured system frameworks).
The names of Kotlin classes and interfaces are prefixed when imported to Objective-C. The prefix is derived from the
framework name.
Initializers
Swift/Objective-C initializers are imported to Kotlin as constructors and factory methods named create. The latter
happens with initializers declared in the Objective-C category or as a Swift extension, because Kotlin has no concept
of extension constructors.
Kotlin constructors are imported as initializers to Swift/Objective-C.
Setters
Writeable Objective-C properties overriding read-only properties of the superclass are represented as setFoo() method
for the property foo. Same goes for a protocol's read-only properties that are implemented as mutable.
Top-level
functions
and
properties
Top-level Kotlin functions and properties are accessible as members of special classes. Each Kotlin file is translated
into such a class. E.g.
// MyLibraryUtils.kt
package my.library
fun foo() {}
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can be called from Swift like
MyLibraryUtilsKt.foo()
Method
names
translation
Generally Swift argument labels and Objective-C selector pieces are mapped to Kotlin parameter names. Anyway
these two concepts have different semantics, so sometimes Swift/Objective-C methods can be imported with a
clashing Kotlin signature. In this case the clashing methods can be called from Kotlin using named arguments, e.g.:
[player moveTo:LEFT byMeters:17]
[player moveTo:UP byInches:42]
in Kotlin it would be:
player.moveTo(LEFT, byMeters = 17)
player.moveTo(UP, byInches = 42)
Errors
and
exceptions
Kotlin has no concept of checked exceptions, all Kotlin exceptions are unchecked. Swift has only checked errors. So if
Swift or Objective-C code calls a Kotlin method which throws an exception to be handled, then the Kotlin method
should be marked with a @Throws annotation specifying a list of "expected" exception classes.
When compiling to Objective-C/Swift framework, non- suspend functions having or inheriting @Throws annotation are
represented as NSError* -producing methods in Objective-C and as throws methods in Swift. Representations for
suspend functions always have NSError*/ Error parameter in completion handler.
When Kotlin function called from Swift/Objective-C code throws an exception which is an instance of one of the
@Throws -specified classes or their subclasses, it is propagated as NSError. Other Kotlin exceptions reaching
Swift/Objective-C are considered unhandled and cause program termination.
suspend functions without @Throws propagate only CancellationException as NSError. Non- suspend functions
without @Throws don't propagate Kotlin exceptions at all.
Note that the opposite reversed translation is not implemented yet: Swift/Objective-C error-throwing methods aren't
imported to Kotlin as exception-throwing.
Extensions
and
category
members
Members of Objective-C categories and Swift extensions are imported to Kotlin as extensions. That's why these
declarations can't be overridden in Kotlin. And the extension initializers aren't available as Kotlin constructors.
Kotlin extensions to "regular" Kotlin classes are imported to Swift and Objective-C as extensions and category
members respectively. Kotlin extensions to other types are treated as top-level declarations with an additional receiver
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parameter. These types include:
Kotlin String type
Kotlin collection types and subtypes
Kotlin interface types
Kotlin primitive types
Kotlin inline classes
Kotlin Any type
Kotlin function types and subtypes
Objective-C classes and protocols
Kotlin
singletons
Kotlin singleton (made with an object declaration, including companion object) is imported to Swift/Objective-C as a
class with a single instance. The instance is available through the factory method, i.e. as [MySingleton mySingleton] in
Objective-C and MySingleton() in Swift.
NSNumber
Kotlin primitive type boxes are mapped to special Swift/Objective-C classes. For example, kotlin.Int box is represented
as KotlinInt class instance in Swift (or ${prefix}Int instance in Objective-C, where prefix is the framework names prefix).
These classes are derived from NSNumber, so the instances are proper NSNumber s supporting all corresponding
operations.
NSNumber type is not automatically translated to Kotlin primitive types when used as a Swift/Objective-C parameter
type or return value. The reason is that NSNumber type doesn't provide enough information about a wrapped primitive
value type, i.e. NSNumber is statically not known to be a e.g. Byte, Boolean, or Double. So Kotlin primitive values
should be cast to/from NSNumber manually (see below ).
NSMutableString
NSMutableString Objective-C class is not available from Kotlin. All instances of NSMutableString are copied when
passed to Kotlin.
Collections
Kotlin collections are converted to Swift/Objective-C collections as described in the table above. Swift/Objective-C
collections are mapped to Kotlin in the same way, except for NSMutableSet and NSMutableDictionary. NSMutableSet
isn't converted to a Kotlin MutableSet. To pass an object for Kotlin MutableSet, you can create this kind of Kotlin
collection explicitly by either creating it in Kotlin with e.g. mutableSetOf(), or using the KotlinMutableSet class in Swift
(or ${prefix}MutableSet in Objective-C, where prefix is the framework names prefix). The same holds for MutableMap.
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Function
types
Kotlin function-typed objects (e.g. lambdas) are converted to Swift functions / Objective-C blocks. However there is a
difference in how types of parameters and return values are mapped when translating a function and a function type. In
the latter case primitive types are mapped to their boxed representation. Kotlin Unit return value is represented as a
corresponding Unit singleton in Swift/Objective-C. The value of this singleton can be retrieved in the same way as it is
for any other Kotlin object (see singletons in the table above). To sum the things up:
fun foo(block: (Int) -> Unit) { ... }
would be represented in Swift as
func foo(block: (KotlinInt) -> KotlinUnit)
and can be called like
foo {
bar($0 as! Int32)
return KotlinUnit()
}
Generics
Objective-C supports "lightweight generics" defined on classes, with a relatively limited feature set. Swift can import
generics defined on classes to help provide additional type information to the compiler.
Generic feature support for Objective-C and Swift differ from Kotlin, so the translation will inevitably lose some
information, but the features supported retain meaningful information.
Limitations
Objective-C generics do not support all features of either Kotlin or Swift, so there will be some information lost in the
translation.
Generics can only be defined on classes, not on interfaces (protocols in Objective-C and Swift) or functions.
Nullability
Kotlin and Swift both define nullability as part of the type specification, while Objective-C defines nullability on methods
and properties of a type. As such, the following:
class Sample<T>() {
fun myVal(): T
}
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will (logically) look like this:
class Sample<T>() {
fun myVal(): T?
}
In order to support a potentially nullable type, the Objective-C header needs to define myVal with a nullable return
value.
To mitigate this, when defining your generic classes, if the generic type should never be null, provide a non-null type
constraint:
class Sample<T : Any>() {
fun myVal(): T
}
That will force the Objective-C header to mark myVal as non-null.
Variance
Objective-C allows generics to be declared covariant or contravariant. Swift has no support for variance. Generic
classes coming from Objective-C can be force-cast as needed.
data class SomeData(val num: Int = 42) : BaseData()
class GenVarOut<out T : Any>(val arg: T)
let variOut = GenVarOut<SomeData>(arg: sd)
let variOutAny : GenVarOut<BaseData> = variOut as! GenVarOut<BaseData>
Constraints
In Kotlin you can provide upper bounds for a generic type. Objective-C also supports this, but that support is
unavailable in more complex cases, and is currently not supported in the Kotlin - Objective-C interop. The exception
here being a non-null upper bound will make Objective-C methods/properties non-null.
To disable
To have the framework header written without generics, add the flag to the compiler config:
binaries.framework {
freeCompilerArgs += "-Xno-objc-generics"
}
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Casting
between
mapped
types
When writing Kotlin code, an object may need to be converted from a Kotlin type to the equivalent Swift/Objective-C
type (or vice versa). In this case a plain old Kotlin cast can be used, e.g.
val nsArray = listOf(1, 2, 3) as NSArray
val string = nsString as String
val nsNumber = 42 as NSNumber
Subclassing
Subclassing
Kotlin
classes
and
interfaces
from
Swift/Objective-C
Kotlin classes and interfaces can be subclassed by Swift/Objective-C classes and protocols.
Subclassing
Swift/Objective-C
classes
and
protocols
from
Kotlin
Swift/Objective-C classes and protocols can be subclassed with a Kotlin final class. Non- final Kotlin classes inheriting
Swift/Objective-C types aren't supported yet, so it is not possible to declare a complex class hierarchy inheriting
Swift/Objective-C types.
Normal methods can be overridden using the override Kotlin keyword. In this case the overriding method must have
the same parameter names as the overridden one.
Sometimes it is required to override initializers, e.g. when subclassing UIViewController. Initializers imported as Kotlin
constructors can be overridden by Kotlin constructors marked with the @OverrideInit annotation:
class ViewController : UIViewController {
@OverrideInit constructor(coder: NSCoder) : super(coder)
...
}
The overriding constructor must have the same parameter names and types as the overridden one.
To override different methods with clashing Kotlin signatures, you can add a
@Suppress("CONFLICTING_OVERLOADS") annotation to the class.
By default the Kotlin/Native compiler doesn't allow calling a non-designated Objective-C initializer as a super(...)
constructor. This behaviour can be inconvenient if the designated initializers aren't marked properly in the Objective-C
library. Adding a disableDesignatedInitializerChecks = true to the .def file for this library would disable these compiler
checks.
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C
features
See Interoperability with C for an example case where the library uses some plain C features, such as unsafe pointers,
structs, and so on.
Unsupported
Some features of Kotlin programming language are not yet mapped into respective features of Objective-C or Swift.
Currently, following features are not properly exposed in generated framework headers:
inline classes (arguments are mapped as either underlying primitive type or id)
custom classes implementing standard Kotlin collection interfaces (List, Map, Set) and other special classes
Kotlin subclasses of Objective-C classes
CocoaPods
integration
Kotlin/Native provides integration with the CocoaPods dependency manager. You can add dependencies on Pod
libraries as well as use a multiplatform project with native targets as a CocoaPods dependency (Kotlin Pod).
You can manage Pod dependencies directly in IntelliJ IDEA and enjoy all the additional features such as code
highlighting and completion. You can build the whole Kotlin project with Gradle and not ever have to switch to Xcode.
Use Xcode only when you need to write Swift/Objective-C code or run your application on a simulator or device. To
work correctly with Xcode, you should update your Podfile.
Depending on your project and purposes, you can add dependencies between a Kotlin project and a Pod library as
well as a Kotlin Pod and an Xcode project.
You can also add dependencies between a Kotlin Pod and multiple Xcode projects. However, in this case
you need to add a dependency by calling pod install manually for each Xcode project. In other cases, it's
done automatically.
Install
the
CocoaPods
dependency
manager
and
plugin
1. Install the CocoaPods dependency manager.
$ sudo gem install cocoapods
2. Install the cocoapods-generate plugin.
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$ sudo gem install cocoapods-generate
3. In build.gradle.kts (or build.gradle) of your IDEA project, apply the CocoaPods plugin as well as the Kotlin
Multiplatform plugin.
plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform") version "1.5.20"
kotlin("native.cocoapods") version "1.5.20"
}
4. Configure summary, homepage, and frameworkName of the Podspec file in the cocoapods block.
version is a version of the Gradle project.
plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform") version "1.5.20"
kotlin("native.cocoapods") version "1.5.20"
}
// CocoaPods requires the podspec to have a version.
version = "1.0"
kotlin {
cocoapods {
// Configure fields required by CocoaPods.
summary = "Some description for a Kotlin/Native module"
homepage = "Link to a Kotlin/Native module homepage"
// You can change the name of the produced framework.
// By default, it is the name of the Gradle project.
frameworkName = "my_framework"
}
}
5. Re-import the project.
6. Generate the Gradle wrapper to avoid compatibility issues during an Xcode build.
When applied, the CocoaPods plugin does the following:
Adds both debug and release frameworks as output binaries for all macOS, iOS, tvOS, and watchOS targets.
Creates a podspec task which generates a Podspec file for the project.
The Podspec file includes a path to an output framework and script phases that automate building this framework
during the build process of an Xcode project.
Add
dependencies
on
Pod
libraries
To add dependencies between a Kotlin project and a Pod library, you should complete the initial configuration. This
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allows you to add dependencies on the following types of Pod libraries:
A Pod library from the CocoaPods repository
A Pod library stored locally
A Pod library from a Git repository
A Pod library from an archive
A Pod library from a custom Podspec repository
A Pod library with custom cinterop options
A static Pod library
A Kotlin project requires the pod() function call in build.gradle.kts (build.gradle) for adding a Pod dependency. Each
dependency requires its own separate function call. You can specify the parameters for the dependency in the
configuration block of the function.
When you add a new dependency and re-import the project in IntelliJ IDEA, the new dependency will be added
automatically. No additional steps are required.
To use your Kotlin project with Xcode, you should make changes in your project Podfile.
Add
a
dependency
on
a
Pod
library
from
the
CocoaPods
repository
You can add dependencies on a Pod library from the CocoaPods repository with pod() to build.gradle.kts (build.gradle)
of your project:
1. Specify the name of a Pod library in the pod() function. In the configuration block you can specify the version of the
library using the version parameter. To use the latest version of the library, you can just omit this parameter all-
together.
You can add dependencies on subspecs.
2. Specify the minimum deployment target version for the Pod library.
If you don't specify the minimum deployment target version and a dependency Pod requires a higher
deployment target, you will get an error.
kotlin {
ios()
cocoapods {
ios.deploymentTarget = "13.5"
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summary = "CocoaPods test library"
homepage = "https://github.com/JetBrains/kotlin"
pod("AFNetworking") {
version = "~> 4.0.1"
}
}
}
3. Re-import the project.
To use these dependencies from the Kotlin code, import the packages cocoapods.<library-name>.
import cocoapods.AFNetworking.*
You can find a sample project here.
Add
a
dependency
on
a
Pod
library
stored
locally
You can add a dependency on a Pod library stored locally with pod() to build.gradle.kts (build.gradle) of your project:
1. Specify the name of a Pod library in the pod() function. In the configuration block specify the path to the local Pod
library: use the path() function in the source parameter value.
You can add local dependencies on subspecs as well. The cocoapods block can include dependencies to
Pods stored locally and Pods from the CocoaPods repository at the same time.
2. Specify the minimum deployment target version for the Pod library.
If you don't specify the minimum deployment target version and a dependency Pod requires a higher
deployment target, you will get an error.
kotlin {
ios()
cocoapods {
summary = "CocoaPods test library"
homepage = "https://github.com/JetBrains/kotlin"
ios.deploymentTarget = "13.5"
pod("pod_dependency") {
version = "1.0"
source = path(project.file("../pod_dependency/pod_dependency.podspec"))
}
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pod("subspec_dependency/Core") {
version = "1.0"
source = path(project.file("../subspec_dependency/subspec_dependency.podspec"))
}
pod("AFNetworking") {
version = "~> 4.0.1"
}
}
}
You can also specify the version of the library using version parameter in the configuration block. To use
the latest version of the library, omit the parameter.
3. Re-import the project.
To use these dependencies from the Kotlin code, import the packages cocoapods.<library-name>.
import cocoapods.pod_dependency.*
import cocoapods.subspec_dependency.*
import cocoapods.AFNetworking.*
You can find a sample project here.
Add
a
dependency
on
a
Pod
library
from
the
Git
repository
You can add dependencies on a Pod library from a custom Git repository with pod() to build.gradle.kts (build.gradle) of
your project:
1. Specify the name of a Pod library in the pod() function. In the configuration block specify the path to the git
repository: use the git() function in the source parameter value.
Additionally, you can specify the following parameters in the block after git():
commit – to use a specific commit from the repository
tag – to use a specific tag from the repository
branch – to use a specific branch from the repository
The git() function prioritizes passed parameters in the following order: commit, tag, branch. If you don't specify a
parameter, the Kotlin plugin uses HEAD from the master branch.
You can combine branch, commit, and tag parameters to get the specific version of a Pod.
2. Specify the minimum deployment target version for the Pod library.
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If you don't specify the minimum deployment target version and a dependency Pod requires a higher
deployment target, you will get an error.
kotlin {
ios()
cocoapods {
summary = "CocoaPods test library"
homepage = "https://github.com/JetBrains/kotlin"
ios.deploymentTarget = "13.5"
pod("AFNetworking") {
source = git("https://github.com/AFNetworking/AFNetworking") {
tag = "4.0.0"
}
}
pod("JSONModel") {
source = git("https://github.com/jsonmodel/jsonmodel.git") {
branch = "key-mapper-class"
}
}
pod("CocoaLumberjack") {
source = git("https://github.com/CocoaLumberjack/CocoaLumberjack.git") {
commit = "3e7f595e3a459c39b917aacf9856cd2a48c4dbf3"
}
}
}
}
3. Re-import the project.
To work correctly with Xcode, you should specify the path to the Podspec in your Podfile. For example:
target 'ios-app' do
# ... other pod depedencies ...
pod 'JSONModel', :path => '../cocoapods/kotlin-with-cocoapods-sample/kotlin-
library/build/cocoapods/externalSources/git/JSONModel'
end
To use these dependencies from the Kotlin code, import the packages cocoapods.<library-name>.
import cocoapods.AFNetworking.*
import cocoapods.JSONModel.*
import cocoapods.CocoaLumberjack.*
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You can find a sample project here.
Add
a
dependency
on
a
Pod
library
from
an
archive
You can add dependencies on a Pod library from zip, tar, or jar archive with pod() to build.gradle.kts (build.gradle) of
your project:
1. Specify the name of a Pod library in the pod() function. In the configuration block specify the path to the archive: use
the url() function with an arbitrary HTTP address in the source parameter value.
Additionally, you can specify the boolean flatten parameter as a second argument for the url() function. This
parameter indicates that all the Pod files are located in the root directory of the archive.
2. Specify the minimum deployment target version for the Pod library.
If you don't specify the minimum deployment target version and a dependency Pod requires a higher
deployment target, you will get an error.
kotlin {
ios()
cocoapods {
summary = "CocoaPods test library"
homepage = "https://github.com/JetBrains/kotlin"
ios.deploymentTarget = "13.5"
pod("pod_dependency") {
source = url("https://github.com/Kotlin/kotlin-with-cocoapods-
sample/raw/cocoapods-zip/cocoapodSourcesZip.zip", flatten = true)
}
}
}
3. Re-import the project.
To work correctly with Xcode, you should specify the path to the Podspec in your Podfile. For example:
target 'ios-app' do
# ... other pod depedencies ...
pod 'podspecWithFilesExample', :path => '../cocoapods/kotlin-with-cocoapods-
sample/pod_dependency'
end
To use these dependencies from the Kotlin code, import the packages cocoapods.<library-name>.
639
import cocoapods.pod_dependency.*
You can find a sample project here.
Add
a
dependency
on
a
Pod
library
from
a
custom
Podspec
repository
You can add dependencies on a Pod library from a custom Podspec repository with pod() and specRepos to
build.gradle.kts (build.gradle) of your project:
1. Specify the HTTP address to the custom Podspec repository using the url() inside the specRepos block.
2. Specify the name of a Pod library in the pod() function.
3. Specify the minimum deployment target version for the Pod library.
If you don't specify the minimum deployment target version and a dependency Pod requires a higher
deployment target, you will get an error.
kotlin {
ios()
cocoapods {
summary = "CocoaPods test library"
homepage = "https://github.com/JetBrains/kotlin"
ios.deploymentTarget = "13.5"
specRepos {
url("https://github.com/Kotlin/kotlin-cocoapods-spec.git")
}
pod("example")
}
}
4. Re-import the project.
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To work correctly with Xcode, you should specify the location of specs at the beginning of your Podfile. For
example,
source 'https://github.com/Kotlin/kotlin-cocoapods-spec.git'`
You should also specify the path to the Podspec in your Podfile. For example:
target 'ios-app' do
# ... other pod depedencies ...
pod 'podspecWithFilesExample', :path => '../cocoapods/kotlin-with-cocoapods-
sample/pod_dependency'
end
To use these dependencies from the Kotlin code, import the packages cocoapods.<library-name>.
import cocoapods.example.*
You can find a sample project here.
Add
a
dependency
on
a
Pod
library
with
custom
cinterop
options
You can add dependencies on a Pod library with custom cinterop options with pod() to build.gradle.kts (build.gradle) of
your project:
1. Specify the name of a Pod library in the pod() function. In the configuration block specify the cinterop options:
extraOpts – to specify the list of options for a Pod library. For example, specific flags: extraOpts = listOf("-
compiler-option")
packageName – to specify the package name. If you specify this, you can import the library using the package
name: import <packageName>.
2. Specify the minimum deployment target version for the Pod library.
If you don't specify the minimum deployment target version and a dependency Pod requires a higher
deployment target, you will get an error.
kotlin {
ios()
cocoapods {
summary = "CocoaPods test library"
homepage = "https://github.com/JetBrains/kotlin"
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ios.deploymentTarget = "13.5"
useLibraries()
pod("YandexMapKit") {
packageName = "YandexMK"
}
}
}
3. Re-import the project.
To use these dependencies from the Kotlin code, import the packages cocoapods.<library-name>.
import cocoapods.YandexMapKit.*
If you use the packageName parameter, you can import the library using the package name import <packageName>:
import YandexMK.YMKPoint
import YandexMK.YMKDistance
Add
a
dependency
on
a
static
Pod
library
You can add dependencies on a static Pod library with pod() and useLibraries() to build.gradle.kts (build.gradle) of your
project:
1. Specify the name of the library using the pod() function.
2. Call the useLibraries() function – it enables a special flag for static libraries.
3. Specify the minimum deployment target version for the Pod library.
If you don't specify the minimum deployment target version and a dependency Pod requires a higher
deployment target, you will get an error.
kotlin {
ios()
cocoapods {
summary = "CocoaPods test library"
homepage = "https://github.com/JetBrains/kotlin"
ios.deploymentTarget = "13.5"
pod("YandexMapKit") {
version = "~> 3.2"
}
642
useLibraries()
}
}
4. Re-import the project.
To use these dependencies from the Kotlin code, import the packages cocoapods.<library-name>.
import cocoapods.YandexMapKit.*
Update
Podfile
for
Xcode
If you want to import your Kotlin project in an Xcode project, you’ll need to make some changes to your Podfile for it to
work correctly:
If your project has any Git, HTTP, or custom Podspec repository dependencies, you should also specify the path to
the Podspec in the Podfile.
For example, if you add a dependency on podspecWithFilesExample, declare the path to the Podspec in the
Podfile:
target 'ios-app' do
# ... other depedencies ...
pod 'podspecWithFilesExample', :path =>
'cocoapods/externalSources/url/podspecWithFilesExample'
end
The :path should contain the filepath to the Pod.
When you add a library from the custom Podspec repository, you should also specify the location of specs at the
beginning of your Podfile:
source 'https://github.com/Kotlin/kotlin-cocoapods-spec.git'
target 'kotlin-cocoapods-xcproj' do
# ... other depedencies ...
pod 'example'
end
Re-import the project after making changes in Podfile.
If you don't make these changes to the Podfile, the podInstall task will fail and the CocoaPods plugin will show an error
message in the log.
Check out the withXcproject branch of the sample project, which contains an example of Xcode integration with an
existing Xcode project named kotlin-cocoapods-xcproj.
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Use
a
Kotlin
Gradle
project
as
a
CocoaPods
dependency
You can use a Kotlin Multiplatform project with native targets as a CocoaPods dependency (Kotlin Pod). You can
include such a dependency in the Podfile of the Xcode project by its name and path to the project directory containing
the generated Podspec. This dependency will be automatically built (and rebuilt) along with this project. Such an
approach simplifies importing to Xcode by removing a need to write the corresponding Gradle tasks and Xcode build
steps manually.
You can add dependencies between:
A Kotlin Pod and an Xcode project with one target
A Kotlin Pod and an Xcode project with several targets
To correctly import the dependencies into the Kotlin/Native module, the Podfile must contain either
use_modular_headers! or use_frameworks! directive.
Add
a
dependency
between
a
Kotlin
Pod
and
Xcode
project
with
one
target
1. Create an Xcode project with a Podfile if you haven’t done so yet.
2. Add the path to your Xcode project Podfile with podfile = project.file(..) to build.gradle.kts (build.gradle) of your
Kotlin project. This step helps synchronize your Xcode project with Kotlin Pod dependencies by calling pod install
for your Podfile.
3. Specify the minimum target version for the Pod library.
If you don't specify the minimum target version and a dependency Pod requires a higher deployment
target, you will get an error.
kotlin {
ios()
cocoapods {
summary = "CocoaPods test library"
homepage = "https://github.com/JetBrains/kotlin"
ios.deploymentTarget = "13.5"
pod("AFNetworking") {
version = "~> 4.0.0"
}
podfile = project.file("../ios-app/Podfile")
}
}
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4. Add the name and path of the Kotlin Pod you want to include in the Xcode project to Podfile.
use_frameworks!
platform :ios, '13.5'
target 'ios-app' do
pod 'kotlin_library', :path => '../kotlin-library'
end
5. Re-import the project.
Add
a
dependency
between
a
Kotlin
Pod
with
an
Xcode
project
with
several
targets
1. Create an Xcode project with a Podfile if you haven’t done so yet.
2. Add the path to your Xcode project Podfile with podfile = project.file(..) to build.gradle.kts (build.gradle) of your
Kotlin project. This step helps synchronize your Xcode project with Kotlin Pod dependencies by calling pod install
for your Podfile.
3. Add dependencies to the Pod libraries that you want to use in your project with pod().
4. For each target, specify the minimum target version for the Pod library.
If you don't specify the minimum deployment target version and a dependency Pod requires a higher
deployment target, you will get an error.
kotlin {
ios()
tvos()
cocoapods {
summary = "CocoaPods test library"
homepage = "https://github.com/JetBrains/kotlin"
ios.deploymentTarget = "13.5"
tvos.deploymentTarget = "13.4"
pod("AFNetworking") {
version = "~> 4.0.0"
}
podfile = project.file("../severalTargetsXcodeProject/Podfile") // specify the path
to Podfile
}
}
5. Add the name and path of the Kotlin Pod you want to include in the Xcode project to the Podfile.
target 'iosApp' do
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use_frameworks!
platform :ios, '13.5'
# Pods for iosApp
pod 'kotlin_library', :path => '../kotlin-library'
end
target 'TVosApp' do
use_frameworks!
platform :tvos, '13.4'
# Pods for TVosApp
pod 'kotlin_library', :path => '../kotlin-library'
end
6. Re-import the project.
You can find a sample project here.
Kotlin/Native
as
an
Apple
framework
–
tutorial
Kotlin/Native provides bi-directional interoperability with Objective-C/Swift. Objective-C frameworks and libraries can
be used in Kotlin code. Kotlin modules can be used in Swift/Objective-C code too. Besides that, Kotlin/Native has C
Interop. There is also the Kotlin/Native as a Dynamic Library tutorial for more information.
In this tutorial, you will see how to use Kotlin/Native code from Objective-C and Swift applications on macOS and iOS.
In this tutorial you'll:
create a Kotlin Library and compile it to a framework
examine the generated Objective-C and Swift API code
use the framework from Objective-C and Swift
Configure Xcode to use the framework for macOS and iOS
Create
a
Kotlin
library
The Kotlin/Native compiler can produce a framework for macOS and iOS out of the Kotlin code. The created
framework contains all declarations and binaries needed to use it with Objective-C and Swift. The best way to
understand the techniques is to try it for ourselves. Let's create a tiny Kotlin library first and use it from an Objective-C
program.
Create the hello.kt file with the library contents:
package example
object Object {
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val field = "A"
}
interface Interface {
fun iMember() {}
}
class Clazz : Interface {
fun member(p: Int): ULong? = 42UL
}
fun forIntegers(b: Byte, s: UShort, i: Int, l: ULong?) { }
fun forFloats(f: Float, d: Double?) { }
fun strings(str: String?) : String {
return "That is '$str' from C"
}
fun acceptFun(f: (String) -> String?) = f("Kotlin/Native rocks!")
fun supplyFun() : (String) -> String? = { "$it is cool!" }
While it is possible to use the command line, either directly or by combining it with a script file (such as .sh or .bat file),
this approach doesn't scale well for big projects that have hundreds of files and libraries. It is therefore better to use
the Kotlin/Native compiler with a build system, as it helps to download and cache the Kotlin/Native compiler binaries
and libraries with transitive dependencies and run the compiler and tests. Kotlin/Native can use the Gradle build
system through the kotlin-multiplatform plugin.
We covered the basics of setting up an IDE compatible project with Gradle in the A Basic Kotlin/Native Application
tutorial. Please check it out if you are looking for detailed first steps and instructions on how to start a new
Kotlin/Native project and open it in IntelliJ IDEA. In this tutorial, we'll look at the advanced C interop related usages of
Kotlin/Native and multiplatform builds with Gradle.
First, create a project folder. All the paths in this tutorial will be relative to this folder. Sometimes the missing directories
will have to be created before any new files can be added.
Use the following build.gradle(.kts) Gradle build file:
Groovy
plugins {
id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.multiplatform' version '1.5.20'
}
repositories {
mavenCentral()
}
kotlin {
macosX64("native") {
binaries {
framework {
baseName = "Demo"
}
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}
}
}
wrapper {
gradleVersion = "6.7.1"
distributionType = "ALL"
}
Kotlin
plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform") version "1.5.20"
}
repositories {
mavenCentral()
}
kotlin {
macosX64("native") {
binaries {
framework {
baseName = "Demo"
}
}
}
}
tasks.wrapper {
gradleVersion = "6.7.1"
distributionType = Wrapper.DistributionType.ALL
}
The prepared project sources can be directly downloaded from GitHub:
Groovy
Kotlin
Move the sources file into the src/nativeMain/kotlin folder under the project. That is the default path, where sources are
located, when the kotlin-multiplatform plugin is used. Use the following block to configure the project to generate a
dynamic or shared library:
binaries {
framework {
baseName = "Demo"
}
}
Along with macOS X64, Kotlin/Native supports iOS arm32, arm64 and X64 targets. You may replace the macosX64
with respective functions as shown in the table:
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Target platform/device Gradle function
macOS x86_64 macosX64()
iOS ARM 32 iosArm32()
iOS ARM 64 iosArm64()
iOS Simulator (x86_64) iosX64()
Run the linkNative Gradle task to build the library in the IDE or by calling the following console command:
./gradlew linkNative
Depending on the variant, the build generates the framework into the build/bin/native/debugFramework and
build/bin/native/releaseFramework folders. Let's see what is inside.
Generated
framework
headers
Each of the created frameworks contains the header file in <Framework>/Headers/Demo.h. The headers do not
depend on the target platform (at least with Kotlin/Native v.0.9.2). It contains the definitions for our Kotlin code and a
few Kotlin-wide declarations.
The way Kotlin/Native exports symbols is subject to change without notice.
Kotlin/Native
runtime
declarations
Take a look at Kotlin runtime declarations:
NS_ASSUME_NONNULL_BEGIN
@interface KotlinBase : NSObject
- (instancetype)init __attribute__((unavailable));
+ (instancetype)new __attribute__((unavailable));
+ (void)initialize __attribute__((objc_requires_super));
@end;
@interface KotlinBase (KotlinBaseCopying) <NSCopying>
@end;
__attribute__((objc_runtime_name("KotlinMutableSet")))
__attribute__((swift_name("KotlinMutableSet")))
@interface DemoMutableSet<ObjectType> : NSMutableSet<ObjectType>
@end;
649
__attribute__((objc_runtime_name("KotlinMutableDictionary")))
__attribute__((swift_name("KotlinMutableDictionary")))
@interface DemoMutableDictionary<KeyType, ObjectType> : NSMutableDictionary<KeyType,
ObjectType>
@end;
@interface NSError (NSErrorKotlinException)
@property (readonly) id _Nullable kotlinException;
@end;
Kotlin classes have a KotlinBase base class in Objective-C, the class extends the NSObject class there. There are also
have wrappers for collections and exceptions. Most of the collection types are mapped to similar collection types from
the other side:
Kotlin Swift Objective-C
List Array NSArray
MutableList NSMutableArray NSMutableArray
Set Set NSSet
Map Dictionary NSDictionary
MutableMap NSMutableDictionary NSMutableDictionary
Kotlin
numbers
and
NSNumber
The next part of the <Framework>/Headers/Demo.h contains number type mappings between Kotlin/Native and
NSNumber. There is the base class called DemoNumber in Objective-C and KotlinNumber in Swift. It extends
NSNumber. There are also child classes per Kotlin number type:
Kotlin Swift Objective-C Simple type
- KotlinNumber <Package>Number -
Byte KotlinByte <Package>Byte char
UByte KotlinUByte <Package>UByte unsigned char
Short KotlinShort <Package>Short short
UShort KotlinUShort <Package>UShort unsigned short
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Kotlin Swift Objective-C Simple type
Int KotlinInt <Package>Int int
UInt KotlinUInt <Package>UInt unsigned int
Long KotlinLong <Package>Long long long
ULong KotlinULong <Package>ULong unsigned long long
Float KotlinFloat <Package>Float float
Double KotlinDouble <Package>Double double
Boolean KotlinBoolean <Package>Boolean BOOL/Bool
Every number type has a class method to create a new instance from the related simple type. Also, there is an instance
method to extract a simple value back. Schematically, declarations look like that:
__attribute__((objc_runtime_name("Kotlin__TYPE__")))
__attribute__((swift_name("Kotlin__TYPE__")))
@interface Demo__TYPE__ : DemoNumber
- (instancetype)initWith__TYPE__:(__CTYPE__)value;
+ (instancetype)numberWith__TYPE__:(__CTYPE__)value;
@end;
Where __TYPE__ is one of the simple type names and __CTYPE__ is the related Objective-C type, for example,
initWithChar(char).
These types are used to map boxed Kotlin number types into Objective-C and Swift. In Swift, you may simply call the
constructor to create an instance, for example, KotlinLong(value: 42).
Classes
and
objects
from
Kotlin
Let's see how class and object are mapped to Objective-C and Swift. The generated <Framework>/Headers/Demo.h
file contains the exact definitions for Class, Interface, and Object:
NS_ASSUME_NONNULL_BEGIN
__attribute__((objc_subclassing_restricted))
__attribute__((swift_name("Object")))
@interface DemoObject : KotlinBase
+ (instancetype)alloc __attribute__((unavailable));
+ (instancetype)allocWithZone:(struct _NSZone *)zone __attribute__((unavailable));
+ (instancetype)object __attribute__((swift_name("init()")));
@property (readonly) NSString *field;
@end;
651
__attribute__((swift_name("Interface")))
@protocol DemoInterface
@required
- (void)iMember __attribute__((swift_name("iMember()")));
@end;
__attribute__((objc_subclassing_restricted))
__attribute__((swift_name("Clazz")))
@interface DemoClazz : KotlinBase <DemoInterface>
- (instancetype)init __attribute__((swift_name("init()")))
__attribute__((objc_designated_initializer));
+ (instancetype)new __attribute__((availability(swift, unavailable, message="use object
initializers instead")));
- (DemoLong * _Nullable)memberP:(int32_t)p __attribute__((swift_name("member(p:)")));
@end;
The code is full of Objective-C attributes, which are intended to help the use of the framework from both Objective-C
and Swift languages. DemoClazz, DemoInterface, and DemoObject are created for Clazz, Interface, and Object
respectively. The Interface is turned into @protocol, both a class and an object are represented as @interface. The
Demo prefix comes from the -output parameter of the kotlinc-native compiler and the framework name. You can see
here that the nullable return type ULong? is turned into DemoLong* in Objective-C.
Global
declarations
from
Kotlin
All global functions from Kotlin are turned into DemoLibKt in Objective-C and into LibKt in Swift, where Demo is the
framework name and set by the -output parameter of kotlinc-native.
NS_ASSUME_NONNULL_BEGIN
__attribute__((objc_subclassing_restricted))
__attribute__((swift_name("LibKt")))
@interface DemoLibKt : KotlinBase
+ (void)forIntegersB:(int8_t)b s:(int16_t)s i:(int32_t)i l:(DemoLong * _Nullable)l
__attribute__((swift_name("forIntegers(b:s:i:l:)")));
+ (void)forFloatsF:(float)f d:(DemoDouble * _Nullable)d
__attribute__((swift_name("forFloats(f:d:)")));
+ (NSString *)stringsStr:(NSString * _Nullable)str
__attribute__((swift_name("strings(str:)")));
+ (NSString * _Nullable)acceptFunF:(NSString * _Nullable (^)(NSString *))f
__attribute__((swift_name("acceptFun(f:)")));
+ (NSString * _Nullable (^)(NSString *))supplyFun __attribute__((swift_name("supplyFun()")));
@end;
You see that Kotlin String and Objective-C NSString* are mapped transparently. Similarly, Unit type from Kotlin is
mapped to void. We see primitive types are mapped directly. Non-nullable primitive types are mapped transparently.
Nullable primitive types are mapped into Kotlin<TYPE>* types, as shown in the table above. Both higher order
functions acceptFunF and supplyFun are included, and accept Objective-C blocks.
More information about all other types mapping details can be found in the Objective-C Interop documentation article
652
Garbage
collection
and
reference
counting
Objective-C and Swift use reference counting. Kotlin/Native has its own garbage collection too. Kotlin/Native garbage
collection is integrated with Objective-C/Swift reference counting. You do not need to use anything special to control
the lifetime of Kotlin/Native instances from Swift or Objective-C.
Use
the
code
from
Objective-C
Let's call the framework from Objective-C. For that, create the main.m file with the following content:
#import <Foundation/Foundation.h>
#import <Demo/Demo.h>
int main(int argc, const char * argv[]) {
@autoreleasepool {
[[DemoObject object] field];
DemoClazz* clazz = [[ DemoClazz alloc] init];
[clazz memberP:42];
[DemoLibKt forIntegersB:1 s:1 i:3 l:[DemoULong numberWithUnsignedLongLong:4]];
[DemoLibKt forIntegersB:1 s:1 i:3 l:nil];
[DemoLibKt forFloatsF:2.71 d:[DemoDouble numberWithDouble:2.71]];
[DemoLibKt forFloatsF:2.71 d:nil];
NSString* ret = [DemoLibKt acceptFunF:^NSString * _Nullable(NSString * it) {
return [it stringByAppendingString:@" Kotlin is fun"];
}];
NSLog(@"%@", ret);
return 0;
}
}
Here you call Kotlin classes directly from Objective-C code. A Kotlin object has the class method function object,
which allows us to get the only instance of the object and to call Object methods on it. The widespread pattern is used
to create an instance of the Clazz class. You call the [[ DemoClazz alloc] init] on Objective-C. You may also use
[DemoClazz new] for constructors without parameters. Global declarations from the Kotlin sources are scoped under
the DemoLibKt class in Objective-C. All methods are turned into class methods of that class. The strings function is
turned into DemoLibKt.stringsStr function in Objective-C, you can pass NSString directly to it. The return is visible as
NSString too.
Use
the
code
from
Swift
The framework that you compiled with Kotlin/Native has helper attributes to make it easier to use with Swift. Convert
the previous Objective-C example into Swift. As a result, you'll have the following code in main.swift:
653
import Foundation
import Demo
let kotlinObject = Object()
assert(kotlinObject === Object(), "Kotlin object has only one instance")
let field = Object().field
let clazz = Clazz()
clazz.member(p: 42)
LibKt.forIntegers(b: 1, s: 2, i: 3, l: 4)
LibKt.forFloats(f: 2.71, d: nil)
let ret = LibKt.acceptFun { "\($0) Kotlin is fun" }
if (ret != nil) {
print(ret!)
}
The Kotlin code is turned into very similar looking code in Swift. There are some small differences, though. In Kotlin any
object has only one instance. Kotlin object Object now has a constructor in Swift, and we use the Object() syntax to
access the only instance of it. The instance is always the same in Swift, so that Object() === Object() is true. Methods
and property names are translated as-is. Kotlin String is turned into Swift String too. Swift hides NSNumber* boxing
from us too. We can pass a Swift closure to Kotlin and call a Kotlin lambda function from Swift too.
More documentation on the types mapping can be found in the Objective-C Interop article.
Xcode
and
framework
dependencies
You need to configure an Xcode project to use our framework. The configuration depends on the target platform.
Xcode
for
macOS
target
First, in the General tab of the target configuration, under the Linked Frameworks and Libraries section, you need to
include our framework. This will make Xcode look at our framework and resolve imports both from Objective-C and
Swift.
The second step is to configure the framework search path of the produced binary. It is also known as rpath or run-
time search path. The binary uses the path to look for the required frameworks. We do not recommend installing
additional frameworks to the OS if it is not needed. You should understand the layout of your future application, for
example, you may have the Frameworks folder under the application bundle with all the frameworks you use. The
@rpath parameter can be configured in Xcode. You need to open the project configuration and find the Runpath Search
Paths section. Here you specify the relative path to the compiled framework.
Xcode
for
iOS
targets
First, you need to include the compiled framework in the Xcode project. To do this, add the framework to the
Frameworks, Libraries, and Embedded Content section of the General tab of the target configuration page.
654
The second step is to then include the framework path into the Framework Search Paths section of the Build Settings
tab of the target configuration page. It is possible to use the $(PROJECT_DIR) macro to simplify the setup.
The iOS simulator requires a framework compiled for the ios_x64 target, the iOS_sim folder in our case.
This Stackoverflow thread contains a few more recommendations. Also, the CocoaPods package manager may be
helpful to automate the process too.
Next
steps
Kotlin/Native has bidirectional interop with Objective-C and Swift languages. Kotlin objects integrate with Objective-
C/Swift reference counting. Unused Kotlin objects are automatically removed. The Objective-C Interop article contains
more information on the interop implementation details. Of course, it is possible to import an existing framework and
use it from Kotlin. Kotlin/Native comes with a good set of pre-imported system frameworks.
Kotlin/Native supports C interop too. Check out the Kotlin/Native as a Dynamic Library tutorial for that.
Debugging
Kotlin/Native
Currently, the Kotlin/Native compiler produces debug info compatible with the DWARF 2 specification, so modern
debugger tools can perform the following operations:
breakpoints
stepping
inspection of type information
variable inspection
Supporting the DWARF 2 specification means that the debugger tool recognizes Kotlin as C89, because
before the DWARF 5 specification, there is no identifier for the Kotlin language type in specification.
Produce
binaries
with
debug
info
with
Kotlin/Native
compiler
To produce binaries with the Kotlin/Native compiler, use the -g option on the command line.
0:b-debugger-fixes:minamoto@unit-703(0)# cat - > hello.kt
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
println("Hello world")
println("I need your clothes, your boots and your motocycle")
}
0:b-debugger-fixes:minamoto@unit-703(0)# dist/bin/konanc -g hello.kt -o terminator
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KtFile: hello.kt
0:b-debugger-fixes:minamoto@unit-703(0)# lldb terminator.kexe
(lldb) target create "terminator.kexe"
Current executable set to 'terminator.kexe' (x86_64).
(lldb) b kfun:main(kotlin.Array<kotlin.String>)
Breakpoint 1: where = terminator.kexe`kfun:main(kotlin.Array<kotlin.String>) + 4 at hello.kt:2,
address = 0x00000001000012e4
(lldb) r
Process 28473 launched: '/Users/minamoto/ws/.git-trees/debugger-fixes/terminator.kexe' (x86_64)
Process 28473 stopped
* thread #1, queue = 'com.apple.main-thread', stop reason = breakpoint 1.1
frame #0: 0x00000001000012e4 terminator.kexe`kfun:main(kotlin.Array<kotlin.String>) at
hello.kt:2
1 fun main(args: Array<String>) {
-> 2 println("Hello world")
3 println("I need your clothes, your boots and your motocycle")
4 }
(lldb) n
Hello world
Process 28473 stopped
* thread #1, queue = 'com.apple.main-thread', stop reason = step over
frame #0: 0x00000001000012f0 terminator.kexe`kfun:main(kotlin.Array<kotlin.String>) at
hello.kt:3
1 fun main(args: Array<String>) {
2 println("Hello world")
-> 3 println("I need your clothes, your boots and your motocycle")
4 }
(lldb)
Breakpoints
Modern debuggers provide several ways to set a breakpoint, see below for a tool-by-tool breakdown:
lldb
by name
(lldb) b -n kfun:main(kotlin.Array<kotlin.String>)
Breakpoint 4: where = terminator.kexe`kfun:main(kotlin.Array<kotlin.String>) + 4 at
hello.kt:2, address = 0x00000001000012e4
-n is optional, this flag is applied by default
by location (filename, line number)
(lldb) b -f hello.kt -l 1
Breakpoint 1: where = terminator.kexe`kfun:main(kotlin.Array<kotlin.String>) + 4 at
hello.kt:2, address = 0x00000001000012e4
by address
656
(lldb) b -a 0x00000001000012e4
Breakpoint 2: address = 0x00000001000012e4
by regex, you might find it useful for debugging generated artifacts, like lambda etc. (where used # symbol in name).
3: regex = 'main\(', locations = 1
3.1: where = terminator.kexe`kfun:main(kotlin.Array<kotlin.String>) + 4 at hello.kt:2,
address = terminator.kexe[0x00000001000012e4], unresolved, hit count = 0
gdb
by regex
(gdb) rbreak main(
Breakpoint 1 at 0x1000109b4
struct ktype:kotlin.Unit &kfun:main(kotlin.Array<kotlin.String>);
by name unusable, because : is a separator for the breakpoint by location
(gdb) b kfun:main(kotlin.Array<kotlin.String>)
No source file named kfun.
Make breakpoint pending on future shared library load? (y or [n]) y
Breakpoint 1 (kfun:main(kotlin.Array<kotlin.String>)) pending
by location
(gdb) b hello.kt:1
Breakpoint 2 at 0x100001704: file /Users/minamoto/ws/.git-trees/hello.kt, line 1.
by address
(gdb) b *0x100001704
Note: breakpoint 2 also set at pc 0x100001704.
Breakpoint 3 at 0x100001704: file /Users/minamoto/ws/.git-trees/hello.kt, line 2.
Stepping
Stepping functions works mostly the same way as for C/C++ programs.
Variable
inspection
Variable inspections for var variables works out of the box for primitive types. For non-primitive types there are custom
657
pretty printers for lldb in konan_lldb.py:
λ cat main.kt | nl
1 fun main(args: Array<String>) {
2 var x = 1
3 var y = 2
4 var p = Point(x, y)
5 println("p = $p")
6 }
7 data class Point(val x: Int, val y: Int)
λ lldb ./program.kexe -o 'b main.kt:5' -o
(lldb) target create "./program.kexe"
Current executable set to './program.kexe' (x86_64).
(lldb) b main.kt:5
Breakpoint 1: where = program.kexe`kfun:main(kotlin.Array<kotlin.String>) + 289 at main.kt:5,
address = 0x000000000040af11
(lldb) r
Process 4985 stopped
* thread #1, name = 'program.kexe', stop reason = breakpoint 1.1
frame #0: program.kexe`kfun:main(kotlin.Array<kotlin.String>) at main.kt:5
2 var x = 1
3 var y = 2
4 var p = Point(x, y)
-> 5 println("p = $p")
6 }
7
8 data class Point(val x: Int, val y: Int)
Process 4985 launched: './program.kexe' (x86_64)
(lldb) fr var
(int) x = 1
(int) y = 2
(ObjHeader *) p = 0x00000000007643d8
(lldb) command script import dist/tools/konan_lldb.py
(lldb) fr var
(int) x = 1
(int) y = 2
(ObjHeader *) p = [x: ..., y: ...]
(lldb) p p
(ObjHeader *) $2 = [x: ..., y: ...]
(lldb) script lldb.frame.FindVariable("p").GetChildMemberWithName("x").Dereference().GetValue()
'1'
(lldb)
Getting representation of the object variable (var) could also be done using the built-in runtime function
Konan_DebugPrint (this approach also works for gdb, using a module of command syntax):
0:b-debugger-fixes:minamoto@unit-703(0)# cat ../debugger-plugin/1.kt | nl -p
1 fun foo(a:String, b:Int) = a + b
2 fun one() = 1
3 fun main(arg:Array<String>) {
4 var a_variable = foo("(a_variable) one is ", 1)
5 var b_variable = foo("(b_variable) two is ", 2)
6 var c_variable = foo("(c_variable) two is ", 3)
7 var d_variable = foo("(d_variable) two is ", 4)
658
8 println(a_variable)
9 println(b_variable)
10 println(c_variable)
11 println(d_variable)
12 }
0:b-debugger-fixes:minamoto@unit-703(0)# lldb ./program.kexe -o 'b -f 1.kt -l 9' -o r
(lldb) target create "./program.kexe"
Current executable set to './program.kexe' (x86_64).
(lldb) b -f 1.kt -l 9
Breakpoint 1: where = program.kexe`kfun:main(kotlin.Array<kotlin.String>) + 463 at 1.kt:9,
address = 0x0000000100000dbf
(lldb) r
(a_variable) one is 1
Process 80496 stopped
* thread #1, queue = 'com.apple.main-thread', stop reason = breakpoint 1.1
frame #0: 0x0000000100000dbf program.kexe`kfun:main(kotlin.Array<kotlin.String>) at 1.kt:9
6 var c_variable = foo("(c_variable) two is ", 3)
7 var d_variable = foo("(d_variable) two is ", 4)
8 println(a_variable)
-> 9 println(b_variable)
10 println(c_variable)
11 println(d_variable)
12 }
Process 80496 launched: './program.kexe' (x86_64)
(lldb) expression -- (int32_t)Konan_DebugPrint(a_variable)
(a_variable) one is 1(int32_t) $0 = 0
(lldb)
Known
issues
performance of Python bindings.
Symbolicating
iOS
crash
reports
Debugging an iOS application crash sometimes involves analyzing crash reports. More info about crash reports can be
found in the Apple documentation.
Crash reports generally require symbolication to become properly readable: symbolication turns machine code
addresses into human-readable source locations. The document below describes some specific details of
symbolicating crash reports from iOS applications using Kotlin.
Producing
.dSYM
for
release
Kotlin
binaries
To symbolicate addresses in Kotlin code (e.g. for stack trace elements corresponding to Kotlin code) .dSYM bundle for
Kotlin code is required.
659
By default, Kotlin/Native compiler produces .dSYM for release (i.e. optimized) binaries on Darwin platforms. This can
be disabled with -Xadd-light-debug=disable compiler flag. At the same time, this option is disabled by default for other
platforms. To enable it, use the -Xadd-light-debug=enable compiler option.
Groovy
kotlin {
targets.withType(org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.plugin.mpp.KotlinNativeTarget) {
binaries.all {
freeCompilerArgs += "-Xadd-light-debug={enable|disable}"
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
targets.withType<org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.plugin.mpp.KotlinNativeTarget> {
binaries.all {
freeCompilerArgs += "-Xadd-light-debug={enable|disable}"
}
}
}
In projects created from IntelliJ IDEA or AppCode templates these .dSYM bundles are then discovered by Xcode
automatically.
Make
frameworks
static
when
using
rebuild
from
bitcode
Rebuilding Kotlin-produced framework from bitcode invalidates the original .dSYM. If it is performed locally, make sure
the updated .dSYM is used when symbolicating crash reports.
If rebuilding is performed on App Store side, then .dSYM of rebuilt dynamic framework seems discarded and not
downloadable from App Store Connect. In this case, it may be required to make the framework static.
Groovy
kotlin {
targets.withType(org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.plugin.mpp.KotlinNativeTarget) {
binaries.withType(org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.plugin.mpp.Framework) {
isStatic = true
}
}
}
660
Kotlin
kotlin {
targets.withType<org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.plugin.mpp.KotlinNativeTarget> {
binaries.withType<org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.plugin.mpp.Framework> {
isStatic = true
}
}
}
Decode
inlined
stack
frames
Xcode doesn't seem to properly decode stack trace elements of inlined function calls (these aren't only Kotlin inline
functions but also functions that are inlined when optimizing machine code). So some stack trace elements may be
missing. If this is the case, consider using lldb to process crash report that is already symbolicated by Xcode, for
example:
$ lldb -b -o "script import lldb.macosx" -o "crashlog file.crash"
This command should output crash report that is additionally processed and includes inlined stack trace elements.
More details can be found in LLDB documentation.
Tips
for
improving
Kotlin/Native
compilation
times
The Kotlin/Native compiler is constantly receiving updates that improve its performance. With the latest Kotlin/Native
compiler and a properly configured build environment, you can significantly improve the compilation times of your
projects with Kotlin/Native targets.
Read on for our tips on how to speed up the Kotlin/Native compilation process.
General
recommendations
Use the most recent version of Kotlin. This way you will always have the latest performance improvements.
Avoid creating huge classes. They take a long time to compile and load during execution.
Preserve downloaded and cached components between builds. When compiling projects, Kotlin/Native downloads
the required components and caches some results of its work to the $USER_HOME/.konan directory. The compiler
uses this directory for subsequent compilations, making them take less time to complete.
661
When building in containers (such as Docker) or with continuous integration systems, the compiler may have to
create the ~/.konan directory from scratch for each build. To avoid this step, configure your environment to
preserve ~/.konan between builds. For example, redefine its location using the KONAN_DATA_DIR environment
variable.
Gradle
configuration
The first compilation with Gradle usually takes more time than subsequent ones due to the need to download the
dependencies, build caches, and perform additional steps. You should build your project at least twice to get an
accurate reading of the actual compilation times.
Here are some recommendations for configuring Gradle for better compilation performance:
Increase the Gradle heap size. Add org.gradle.jvmargs=-Xmx3g to gradle.properties. If you use parallel builds, you
might need to make the heap even larger or choose the right number of threads with org.gradle.parallel.threads.
Build only the binaries you need. Don't run Gradle tasks that build the whole project, such as build or assemble,
unless you really need to. These tasks build the same code more than once, increasing the compilation times. In
typical cases such as running tests from IntelliJ IDEA or starting the app from Xcode, the Kotlin tooling avoids
executing unnecessary tasks.
If you have a non-typical case or build configuration, you might need to choose the task yourself.
linkDebug*: To run your code during development, you usually need only one binary, so running the
corresponding linkDebug* task should be enough. Keep in mind that compiling a release binary (linkRelease*)
takes more time than compiling a debug one.
packForXcode: Since iOS simulators and devices have different processor architectures, it's a common
approach to distribute a Kotlin/Native binary as a universal (fat) framework. During local development, it will be
faster to build the .framework for only the platform you’re using.
To build a platform-specific framework, call the packForXcode task generated by the KMM project wizard.
Remember that in this case, you will need to clean the build using ./gradlew clean after switching
between the device and the simulator. See this issue for details.
Don’t disable the Gradle daemon without having a good reason to. Kotlin/Native runs from the Gradle daemon by
default. When it’s enabled, the same JVM process is used and there is no need to warm it up for each compilation.
Use the Gradle build caches:
Local build cache: Add org.gradle.caching=true to your gradle.properties or run with --build-cache on the
command line.
Remote build cache in continuous integration environments. Learn how to configure the remote build cache.
662
Use the compiler caches. Starting from 1.5.0-M1, linuxX64 and iosArm64 targets have experimental opt-in support
for compiler caches. They improve compilation times for debug builds (for linuxX64, this feature is only available on
Linux hosts). To enable the compiler caches, add kotlin.native.cacheKind.linuxX64=static or
kotlin.native.cacheKind.iosArm64=static to gradle.properties.
iosX64 and macosX64 targets already have the compiler caches enabled by default.
Enable previously disabled features of Kotlin/Native. There are properties that disable the Gradle daemon and
compiler caches – kotlin.native.disableCompilerDaemon=true and kotlin.native.cacheKind=none. If you had issues
with these features before and added these lines to your gradle.properties or Gradle arguments, remove them and
check whether the build completes successfully. It is possible that these properties were added previously to work
around issues that have already been fixed.
Kotlin/Native
FAQ
How
do
I
run
my
program?
Define a top-level function fun main(args: Array<String>) or just fun main() if you are not interested in passed
arguments, please ensure it's not in a package. Also compiler switch -entry could be used to make any function taking
Array<String> or no arguments and return Unit as an entry point.
What
is
Kotlin/Native
memory
management
model?
Kotlin/Native provides an automated memory management scheme, similar to what Java or Swift provides. The current
implementation includes an automated reference counter with a cycle collector to collect cyclical garbage.
How
do
I
create
a
shared
library?
Use the -produce dynamic compiler switch, or binaries.sharedLib() in Gradle.
kotlin {
iosArm64("mylib") {
binaries.sharedLib()
}
}
It will produce a platform-specific shared object (.so on Linux, .dylib on macOS, and .dll on Windows targets) and a C
language header, allowing the use of all public APIs available in your Kotlin/Native program from C/C++ code. See this
example of using such a shared object to provide a bridge between Python and Kotlin/Native.
663
How
do
I
create
a
static
library
or
an
object
file?
Use the -produce static compiler switch, or binaries.staticLib() in Gradle.
kotlin {
iosArm64("mylib") {
binaries.staticLib()
}
}
It will produce a platform-specific static object (.a library format) and a C language header, allowing you to use all the
public APIs available in your Kotlin/Native program from C/C++ code.
How
do
I
run
Kotlin/Native
behind
a
corporate
proxy?
As Kotlin/Native needs to download a platform specific toolchain, you need to specify -Dhttp.proxyHost=xxx -
Dhttp.proxyPort=xxx as the compiler's or gradlew arguments, or set it via the JAVA_OPTS environment variable.
How
do
I
specify
a
custom
Objective-C
prefix/name
for
my
Kotlin
framework?
Use the -module-name compiler option or matching Gradle DSL statement.
Groovy
kotlin {
iosArm64("myapp") {
binaries.framework {
freeCompilerArgs += ["-module-name", "TheName"]
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
iosArm64("myapp") {
binaries.framework {
freeCompilerArgs += listOf("-module-name", "TheName")
}
}
}
664
How
do
I
rename
the
iOS
framework?
The default name is for an iOS framework is <project name>.framework. To set a custom name, use the baseName
option. This will also set the module name.
kotlin {
iosArm64("myapp") {
binaries {
framework {
baseName = "TheName"
}
}
}
}
How
do
I
enable
bitcode
for
my
Kotlin
framework?
By default gradle plugin adds it on iOS target.
For debug build it embeds placeholder LLVM IR data as a marker.
For release build it embeds bitcode as data.
Or commandline arguments: -Xembed-bitcode (for release) and -Xembed-bitcode-marker (debug)
Setting this in a Gradle DSL:
kotlin {
iosArm64("myapp") {
binaries {
framework {
// Use "marker" to embed the bitcode marker (for debug builds).
// Use "disable" to disable embedding.
embedBitcode("bitcode") // for release binaries.
}
}
}
}
These options have nearly the same effect as clang's -fembed-bitcode/ -fembed-bitcode-marker and swiftc's -embed-
bitcode/ -embed-bitcode-marker.
Why
do
I
see
InvalidMutabilityException?
It likely happens, because you are trying to mutate a frozen object. An object can transfer to the frozen state either
explicitly, as objects reachable from objects on which the kotlin.native.concurrent.freeze is called, or implicitly (i.e.
reachable from enum or global singleton object - see the next question).
665
How
do
I
make
a
singleton
object
mutable?
Currently, singleton objects are immutable (i.e. frozen after creation), and it's generally considered good practise to
have the global state immutable. If for some reason you need a mutable state inside such an object, use the
@konan.ThreadLocal annotation on the object. Also the kotlin.native.concurrent.AtomicReference class could be used
to store different pointers to frozen objects in a frozen object and automatically update them.
How
can
I
compile
my
project
with
unreleased
versions
of
Kotlin/Native?
First, please consider trying preview versions.
In case you need an even more recent development version, you can build Kotlin/Native from source code: clone Kotlin
repository and follow these steps.
Kotlin
releases
We ship different types of releases:
Feature releases (1. x) that bring major changes in the language.
Incremental releases (1. x. y) that are shipped between feature releases and include updates in the tooling,
performance improvements, and bug fixes.
Bug fix releases (1. x. yz) that include bug fixes for incremental releases.
For example, for the feature release 1.3 we had several incremental releases including 1.3.10, 1.3.20, and 1.3.70. For
1.3.70, we had 2 bug fix releases – 1.3.71 and 1.3.72.
For each incremental and feature release, we also ship several preview ( EAP) versions for you to try new features
before they are released. See Early Access Preview for details.
Learn more about types of Kotlin releases and their compatiblity.
Update
to
a
new
release
IntelliJ IDEA and Android Studio suggest updating to a new release once it is out. When you accept the suggestion, it
automatically updates the Kotlin plugin to the new version. You can check the Kotlin version in Tools | Kotlin | Configure
Plugin Updates.
If you have projects created with earlier Kotlin versions, change the Kotlin version in your projects and update kotlinx
libraries if necessary – check the recommended versions.
If you are migrating to the new feature release, Kotlin plugin's migration tools will help you with the migration.
666
IDE
support
The IDE support for the latest version of the language is available for the following versions of IntelliJ IDEA and Android
Studio:
IntelliJ IDEA:
Latest stable (IntelliJ IDEA 2021.1 version)
Previous stable (IntelliJ IDEA 2020.3 version)
Early access versions
Android Studio:
Latest released version
Early access versions
Release
details
The following table lists details of latest Kotlin releases.
You can also use preview versions of Kotlin.
Build info Build highlights Recommended kotlinx library versions
667
Build info Build highlights Recommended kotlinx library versions
1.5.20 An incremental release with various improvements such kotlinx.serialization version: 1.2.1
Released: as:
kotlinx.coroutines version: 1.5.0
June 24,
2021 String concatenation via invokedynamic on JVM by
kotlinx.atomicfu version: 0.16.1
default
Release on
ktor version: 1.6.0
GitHub Improved support for Lombok and support for
JSpecify
kotlinx.html version: 0.7.2
Kotlin/Native: KDoc export to Objective-C headers kotlinx-nodejs version: 0.0.7
and faster Array.copyInto() inside one array
The versions of libraries from kotlin-
Gradle: caching of annotation processors' wrappers (such as kotlin-react) can be found
classloaders and support for the --parallel Gradle
in the corresponding repository.
property
Aligned behavior of stdlib functions across platforms
Learn more in:
Release blog post
What's new in Kotlin 1.5.20
1.5.10 A bug fix release for Kotlin 1.5.0. kotlinx.serialization version: 1.2.1
Released:
May 24, Learn more about Kotlin 1.5.0. kotlinx.coroutines version: 1.5.0
2021
kotlinx.atomicfu version: 0.16.1
Release on
ktor version: 1.5.4
GitHub
kotlinx.html version: 0.7.2
kotlinx-nodejs version: 0.0.7
The versions of libraries from kotlin-
wrappers (such as kotlin-react) can be found
in the corresponding repository.
668
Build info Build highlights Recommended kotlinx library versions
1.5.0 A feature release with new language features, kotlinx.serialization version: 1.2.1
Released: performance improvements, and evolutionaly changes
kotlinx.coroutines version: 1.5.0-RC
May 5, such as stabilizaing experimental APIs.
2021
kotlinx.atomicfu version: 0.16.1
Learn more in:
Release on
ktor version: 1.5.3
Release blog post
GitHub
kotlinx.html version: 0.7.2
What's new in Kotlin 1.5.0
kotlinx-nodejs version: 0.0.7
Compatibility Guide
The versions of libraries from kotlin-
wrappers (such as kotlin-react) can be found
in the corresponding repository.
1.4.32 A bug fix release for Kotlin 1.4.30. kotlinx.serialization version: 1.1.0
Released:
March 22, Learn more about Kotlin 1.4.30. kotlinx.coroutines version: 1.4.3
2021
kotlinx.atomicfu version: 0.15.2
Release on
ktor version: 1.5.2
GitHub
kotlinx.html version: 0.7.2
kotlinx-nodejs version: 0.0.7
The versions of libraries from kotlin-
wrappers (such as kotlin-react) can be found
in the corresponding repository.
669
Build info Build highlights Recommended kotlinx library versions
1.4.31 A bug fix release for Kotlin 1.4.30 kotlinx.serialization version: 1.1.0
Released:
February Learn more about Kotlin 1.4.30. kotlinx.coroutines version: 1.4.2
25, 2021
kotlinx.atomicfu version: 0.15.1
Release on
ktor version: 1.5.1
GitHub
kotlinx.html version: 0.7.2
kotlinx-nodejs version: 0.0.7
The versions of libraries from kotlin-
wrappers (such as kotlin-react) can be found
in the corresponding repository.
1.4.30 An incremental release with various improvements such kotlinx.serialization version: 1.1.0-RC
Released: as:
February 3, kotlinx.coroutines version: 1.4.2
2021 New JVM backend, now in Beta
kotlinx.atomicfu version: 0.15.1
Release on Preview of new language features
ktor version: 1.5.1
GitHub
Improved Kotlin/Native performance
kotlinx.html version: 0.7.2
Standard library API improvements
kotlinx-nodejs version: 0.0.7
Learn more in:
The versions of libraries from kotlin-
Release blog post wrappers (such as kotlin-react) can be found
in the corresponding repository.
What's new in Kotlin 1.4.30
670
Build info Build highlights Recommended kotlinx library versions
1.4.21 A bug fix release for Kotlin 1.4.20 kotlinx.serialization version: 1.0.1
Released:
December Learn more about Kotlin 1.4.20. kotlinx.coroutines version: 1.4.1
7, 2020
kotlinx.atomicfu version: 0.14.4
Release on
ktor version: 1.4.1
GitHub
kotlinx.html version: 0.7.2
kotlinx-nodejs version: 0.0.6
The versions of libraries from kotlin-
wrappers (such as kotlin-react) can be found
in the corresponding repository.
1.4.20 An incremental release with various improvements such kotlinx.serialization version: 1.0.1
Released: as:
November kotlinx.coroutines version: 1.4.1
23, 2020 Supporting new JVM features, like string
kotlinx.atomicfu version: 0.14.4
concatenation via invokedynamic
Release on
ktor version: 1.4.1
GitHub
Improved performance and exception handling for
KMM projects kotlinx.html version: 0.7.2
Extensions for JDK Path: Path(“dir”) / “file.txt”
kotlinx-nodejs version: 0.0.6
Learn more in: The versions of libraries from kotlin-
wrappers (such as kotlin-react) can be found
Release blog post
in the corresponding repository.
What's new in Kotlin 1.4.20
671
Build info Build highlights Recommended kotlinx library versions
1.4.10 A bug fix release for Kotlin 1.4.0. kotlinx.serialization version: 1.0.0-RC
Released:
September Learn more about Kotlin 1.4.0. kotlinx.coroutines version: 1.3.9
7, 2020
kotlinx.atomicfu version: 0.14.4
Release on
ktor version: 1.4.0
GitHub
kotlinx.html version: 0.7.2
kotlinx-nodejs version: 0.0.6
The versions of libraries from kotlin-
wrappers (such as kotlin-react) can be found
in the corresponding repository.
1.4.0 A feature release with many features and improvements kotlinx.serialization version: 1.0.0-RC
Released: that mostly focus on quality and performance.
August 17, kotlinx.coroutines version: 1.3.9
2020 Learn more in:
kotlinx.atomicfu version: 0.14.4
Release on Release blog post
ktor version: 1.4.0
GitHub
What's new in Kotlin 1.4.0
kotlinx.html version: 0.7.2
Compatibility Guide
kotlinx-nodejs version: 0.0.6
Migrating to Kotlin 1.4.0
The versions of libraries from kotlin-
wrappers (such as kotlin-react) can be found
in the corresponding repository.
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Build info Build highlights Recommended kotlinx library versions
1.3.72 A bug fix release for Kotlin 1.3.70. kotlinx.serialization version: 0.20.0
Released:
April 15, Learn more about Kotlin 1.3.70. kotlinx.coroutines version: 1.3.8
2020
kotlinx.atomicfu version: 0.14.2
Release on
ktor version: 1.3.2
GitHub
kotlinx.html version: 0.7.1
kotlinx-nodejs version: 0.0.3
The versions of libraries from kotlin-
wrappers (such as kotlin-react) can be found
in the corresponding repository.
On the JVM, you usually can use library versions other than the recommended ones.
Kotlin
plugin
releases
The IntelliJ Kotlin plugin and IntelliJ IDEA are on the same release cycle. To speed up the testing and delivery of new
features, the plugin and the platform have been moved to the same codebase and ship simultaneously. Kotlin releases
happen independently according to the new release cadence.
Kotlin and the Kotlin plugin have distinct sets of features:
Kotlin releases contain language, compiler, and standard library features.
Kotlin plugin releases introduce only IDE related features. For example, code formatting and debugging tools.
This also affects the versioning of the Kotlin plugin. Releases now have the same version as the simultaneous IntelliJ
IDEA release. You can learn more about new release cadence in this blog post.
Update
to
a
new
release
IntelliJ IDEA and Android Studio suggest updating to a new release once it is out. When you accept the suggestion, it
automatically updates the Kotlin plugin to the new version. You can check the Kotlin plugin version in Tools | Kotlin |
Configure Kotlin Plugin Updates.
If you are migrating to the new feature release, Kotlin plugin's migration tools will help you with the migration.
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Release
details
The following table lists the details of the latest Kotlin plugin releases:
Release info Release highlights
2021.1 Performance improvements
Released: April 7, 2021 Evaluation of custom getters during debugging
Improved Change Signature refactoring
Code completion for type arguments
UML diagrams for Kotlin classes
Learn more in:
What's new in Kotlin plugin 2021.1
What’s New in IntelliJ IDEA 2021.1
2020.3 New types of inline refactorings
Released: December 1, 2020 Structural search and replace
EditorConfig support
Project templates for Jetpack Compose for Desktop
Learn more in:
What's new in Kotlin plugin 2020.3
IntelliJ IDEA 2020.3 release blog post
Kotlin
roadmap
Last modified on May 2021
Next update November 2021
Welcome to the Kotlin roadmap! Get a sneak peek into the priorities of the Kotlin Team.
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Key
priorities
The goal of this roadmap is to give you a big picture. Here’s a list of our key priorities – the areas we are investing the
most effort into:
Fast turnaround: making the change-test-debug cycle really fast.
New compiler: a rewrite of the Kotlin compiler optimized for speed, parallelism, and unification. Later we will also
work on pluggability.
Fast and smooth IDE: improving the stability and performance of the Kotlin IDE.
Kotlin for JVM server-side development: expanding support for server-side use cases across the Kotlin ecosystem.
Kotlin Multiplatform Mobile: improving the user experience and feature set for sharing code on mobile platforms.
Kotlin
roadmap
by
subsystem
To view the biggest projects we're working on, visit the YouTrack board or the Roadmap details table.
If you have any questions or feedback about the roadmap or the items on it, feel free to post them to YouTrack tickets
or in the #kotlin-roadmap channel of Kotlin Slack (request an invite ).
YouTrack
board
Visit the roadmap board in our issue tracker YouTrack!
Roadmap board in YouTrack
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Roadmap
details
Subsystem In focus now Postponed for later
Language �� Support sealed (exhaustive) whens ⏸ Support JVM sealed classes
�� Release OptIn annotations
�� Support programmatic creation of annotation
class instances
�� Stabilize typeOf
�� Stabilize builder inference
�� Allow repeating annotations with runtime
retention when compiling under Java 8
�� Support annotations on class type parameters
�� Improve type inference in corner cases for
popular Java APIs
Prototype multiple receivers
Compiler �� Release the new compiler frontend in Alpha for ⏸ Stable Compiler Plugin API
core JVM target
⏸ Scripting improvements
�� Finalize support for jspecify
Maintain the current compiler (bug-fixing only)
Work on services for the new compiler to interact
with IDE
Kotlin/JVM �� Maintain the new JVM IR backend
�� Improve new JVM IR backend compilation
time
�� Stabilize JVM-specific experimental features
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Subsystem In focus now Postponed for later
Kotlin/JS Make the new JS IR backend Stable ⏸ ES6 support
JS IR BE: Add an ability to generate separate JS ⏸ Improve Dukat support
files for each module
Maintain the old JS backend by fixing critical bugs
Kotlin/Wasm �� Implement an experimental version of Note: Wasm support in Kotlin/Native (through LLVM)
will be deprecated and removed
Kotlin/Wasm compiler backend
Kotlin/Native �� Implement safe initialization for top-level ⏸ Support Mac Catalyst
properties
⏸ Direct interoperability with Swift
Prototype a new garbage collector
⏸ Interoperability with C++
Improve compilation time
⏸ Support Alpine Linux
Improve exporting Kotlin code to Objective-C
Provide binary compatibility between incremental
releases
Kotlin �� Support the Apple Silicon target in the Kotlin ⏸ Improve Kotlin/Native debugging experience
Multiplatform
Multiplatform tooling
⏸ Improve Gradle and Compiler error messages
Improve UX of using Native libraries in Kotlin
⏸ Sharing code between JVM and Android
Improve dependency management for iOS
IDE Prototype IDE plugin with the new compiler frontend ⏸ Advanced tooling that users have in Java
but is missing in Kotlin
Improve IDE performance
⏸ Quality of less frequently used features,
Improve debugging experience
except blocking problems
�� Improve the New Project wizard
Move the Kotlin plugin to the IntelliJ platform
development infrastructure
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Subsystem In focus now Postponed for later
Build tools Improve the performance of Gradle incremental ⏸ Improvements in Kotlin Maven support
compilation
Decrease time for opening Gradle projects
�� Improve the quality of Gradle import
�� Improve user experience with the Kotlin Gradle
plugin
Libraries �� Improve kotlinx-serialization (release v1.3.0) ⏸ Improve usability of multi-threaded coroutines
library for Kotlin/Native
�� Improve kotlinx-coroutines (release v1.6.0)
⏸ kotlinx-cli
�� Stabilize Duration API in the standard library
⏸ binary-compatibility-validator
�� Get rid of !! for readLine() in the standard library
⏸ kotlinx-io
�� Stabilize and document atomicfu
⏸ Any new multiplatform libraries
Improve kotlinx-datetime library
Support java.nio.Path extension in the standard
library
Website Make the Kotlin website mobile friendly
�� Make the UI and navigation consistent
�� Update community graphic assets to the new
Kotlin visual style
Revamp Kotlin documentation
This roadmap is not an exhaustive list of all things the team is working on, only the biggest projects.
There’s no commitment to delivering specific features or fixes in specific versions.
It lists some things that are postponed and will NOT get the team’s attention in the nearest future.
We will adjust our priorities as we go and update the roadmap approximately every six months.
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What's
changed
since
January
2021
Completed
items
We've completed the following items from the previous roadmap:
✅ Language: Support JVM records
✅ Language: Release inline classes as Stable, secure Valhalla compatibility
✅ Language: Sealed interfaces and more sealed classes freedom
✅ Compiler core: Support incremental compilation for the new compiler
✅ Kotlin/JVM: Make the new JVM IR backend Stable
✅ Kotlin/JS: JS IR BE: Prototype lazy initialization for top-level properties like in JVM
✅ Kotlin/Wasm: Prototype a compiler for Wasm GC proposal
✅ Kotlin/Native: Support Apple Silicon without Rosetta 2
✅ Multiplatform: Introduce a complex KMM application sample
✅ Multiplatform: Improve frontend and IDE import stability for Multiplatform projects
✅ IDE: Improve cross-language support in the Inline Method and Change Signature refactorings
✅ Build tools: Support the Gradle configuration cache
✅ Libraries: Make multiplatform kotlin.text API locale-agnostic by default
✅ Libraries: Implement unambiguous API for Char conversion
✅ Libraries: Implement multiplatform API for characters
✅ Libraries: Improve kotlinx-serialization (release v1.1)
✅ Libraries: Improve kotlinx-serialization (release v1.2)
✅ Libraries: Improve kotlinx-coroutines (release v1.5)
✅ Website: Design a new Kotlin visual style
✅ Website: Close try.kotlinlang.org
Postponed
items
We've decided to postpone the following items from the previous roadmap:
⏸ Support JVM sealed classes
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⏸ Improve Kotlin/Native debugging experience
Other postponed items remain in this state from earlier roadmap versions.
New
items
We've added the following items to the roadmap:
�� Language: Support sealed (exhaustive) whens
�� Language: Release OptIn annotations
�� Language: Support programmatic creation of annotation class instances
�� Language: Stabilize typeOf
�� Language: Stabilize builder inference
�� Language: Allow repeating annotations with runtime retention when compiling under Java 8
�� Language: Support annotations on class type parameters
�� Language: Improve type inference in corner cases for popular Java APIs
�� Compiler core: Release the new compiler frontend in Alpha for JVM target
�� Compiler core: Finalize support for jspecify
�� Kotlin/JVM: Maintain the new JVM IR backend
�� Kotlin/JVM: Improve new JVM IR backend compilation time
�� Kotlin/JVM: Stabilize JVM-specific experimental features
�� Kotlin/Wasm: Implement an experimental version of Kotlin/Wasm compiler backend
�� Kotlin/Native: Implement safe initialization for top-level properties
�� Multiplatform: Support the Apple Silicon target in the Kotlin Multiplatform tooling
�� IDE: Improve the New Project wizard
�� Build tools: Improve the quality of Gradle import
�� Build tools: Improve user experience with the Kotlin Gradle plugin
�� Libraries: Improve kotlinx-serialization (release v1.3.0)
�� Libraries: Improve kotlinx-coroutines (release v1.6.0)
�� Libraries: Stabilize Duration API in the standard library
�� Libraries: Get rid of !! for readLine() in the standard library
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�� Libraries: Stabilize and document atomicfu
�� Website: Make the UI and navigation consistent
�� Website: Update community graphic assets to the new Kotlin visual style
Items
in
progress
All other previously identified roadmap items are in progress. You can check their YouTrack tickets for updates.
Collections
overview
The Kotlin Standard Library provides a comprehensive set of tools for managing collections – groups of a variable
number of items (possibly zero) that share significance to the problem being solved and are operated upon commonly.
Collections are a common concept for most programming languages, so if you're familiar with, for example, Java or
Python collections, you can skip this introduction and proceed to the detailed sections.
A collection usually contains a number of objects (this number may also be zero) of the same type. Objects in a
collection are called elements or items. For example, all the students in a department form a collection that can be
used to calculate their average age.
The following collection types are relevant for Kotlin:
List is an ordered collection with access to elements by indices – integer numbers that reflect their position.
Elements can occur more than once in a list. An example of a list is a sentence: it's a group of words, their order is
important, and they can repeat.
Set is a collection of unique elements. It reflects the mathematical abstraction of set: a group of objects without
repetitions. Generally, the order of set elements has no significance. For example, an alphabet is a set of letters.
Map (or dictionary) is a set of key-value pairs. Keys are unique, and each of them maps to exactly one value. The
values can be duplicates. Maps are useful for storing logical connections between objects, for example, an
employee's ID and their position.
Kotlin lets you manipulate collections independently of the exact type of objects stored in them. In other words, you
add a String to a list of String s the same way as you would do with Int s or a user-defined class. So, the Kotlin
Standard Library offers generic interfaces, classes, and functions for creating, populating, and managing collections of
any type.
The collection interfaces and related functions are located in the kotlin.collections package. Let's get an overview of its
contents.
Collection
types
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The Kotlin Standard Library provides implementations for basic collection types: sets, lists, and maps. A pair of
interfaces represent each collection type:
A read-only interface that provides operations for accessing collection elements.
A mutable interface that extends the corresponding read-only interface with write operations: adding, removing, and
updating its elements.
Note that altering a mutable collection doesn't require it to be a var: write operations modify the same mutable
collection object, so the reference doesn't change. Although, if you try to reassign a val collection, you'll get a
compilation error.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
numbers.add("five") // this is OK
//numbers = mutableListOf("six", "seven") // compilation error
//sampleEnd
}
The read-only collection types are covariant. This means that, if a Rectangle class inherits from Shape, you can use a
List<Rectangle> anywhere the List<Shape> is required. In other words, the collection types have the same subtyping
relationship as the element types. Maps are covariant on the value type, but not on the key type.
In turn, mutable collections aren't covariant; otherwise, this would lead to runtime failures. If MutableList<Rectangle>
was a subtype of MutableList<Shape>, you could insert other Shape inheritors (for example, Circle) into it, thus
violating its Rectangle type argument.
Below is a diagram of the Kotlin collection interfaces:
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Collection interfaces hierarchy
Let's walk through the interfaces and their implementations.
Collection
Collection<T> is the root of the collection hierarchy. This interface represents the common behavior of a read-only
collection: retrieving size, checking item membership, and so on. Collection inherits from the Iterable<T> interface that
defines the operations for iterating elements. You can use Collection as a parameter of a function that applies to
different collection types. For more specific cases, use the Collection 's inheritors: List and Set.
fun printAll(strings: Collection<String>) {
for(s in strings) print("$s ")
println()
}
fun main() {
val stringList = listOf("one", "two", "one")
printAll(stringList)
val stringSet = setOf("one", "two", "three")
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printAll(stringSet)
}
MutableCollection<T> is a Collection with write operations, such as add and remove.
fun List<String>.getShortWordsTo(shortWords: MutableList<String>, maxLength: Int) {
this.filterTo(shortWords) { it.length <= maxLength }
// throwing away the articles
val articles = setOf("a", "A", "an", "An", "the", "The")
shortWords -= articles
}
fun main() {
val words = "A long time ago in a galaxy far far away".split(" ")
val shortWords = mutableListOf<String>()
words.getShortWordsTo(shortWords, 3)
println(shortWords)
}
List
List<T> stores elements in a specified order and provides indexed access to them. Indices start from zero – the index
of the first element – and go to lastIndex which is the (list.size - 1).
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
println("Number of elements: ${numbers.size}")
println("Third element: ${numbers.get(2)}")
println("Fourth element: ${numbers[3]}")
println("Index of element \"two\" ${numbers.indexOf("two")}")
//sampleEnd
}
List elements (including nulls) can duplicate: a list can contain any number of equal objects or occurrences of a single
object. Two lists are considered equal if they have the same sizes and structurally equal elements at the same
positions.
data class Person(var name: String, var age: Int)
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val bob = Person("Bob", 31)
val people = listOf(Person("Adam", 20), bob, bob)
val people2 = listOf(Person("Adam", 20), Person("Bob", 31), bob)
println(people == people2)
bob.age = 32
println(people == people2)
//sampleEnd
}
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MutableList<T> is a List with list-specific write operations, for example, to add or remove an element at a specific
position.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf(1, 2, 3, 4)
numbers.add(5)
numbers.removeAt(1)
numbers[0] = 0
numbers.shuffle()
println(numbers)
//sampleEnd
}
As you see, in some aspects lists are very similar to arrays. However, there is one important difference: an array's size
is defined upon initialization and is never changed; in turn, a list doesn't have a predefined size; a list's size can be
changed as a result of write operations: adding, updating, or removing elements.
In Kotlin, the default implementation of List is ArrayList which you can think of as a resizable array.
Set
Set<T> stores unique elements; their order is generally undefined. null elements are unique as well: a Set can contain
only one null. Two sets are equal if they have the same size, and for each element of a set there is an equal element in
the other set.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = setOf(1, 2, 3, 4)
println("Number of elements: ${numbers.size}")
if (numbers.contains(1)) println("1 is in the set")
val numbersBackwards = setOf(4, 3, 2, 1)
println("The sets are equal: ${numbers == numbersBackwards}")
//sampleEnd
}
MutableSet is a Set with write operations from MutableCollection.
The default implementation of Set – LinkedHashSet – preserves the order of elements insertion. Hence, the functions
that rely on the order, such as first() or last(), return predictable results on such sets.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = setOf(1, 2, 3, 4) // LinkedHashSet is the default implementation
val numbersBackwards = setOf(4, 3, 2, 1)
println(numbers.first() == numbersBackwards.first())
println(numbers.first() == numbersBackwards.last())
//sampleEnd
}
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An alternative implementation – HashSet – says nothing about the elements order, so calling such functions on it
returns unpredictable results. However, HashSet requires less memory to store the same number of elements.
Map
Map<K, V> is not an inheritor of the Collection interface; however, it's a Kotlin collection type as well. A Map stores
key-value pairs (or entries ); keys are unique, but different keys can be paired with equal values. The Map interface
provides specific functions, such as access to value by key, searching keys and values, and so on.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbersMap = mapOf("key1" to 1, "key2" to 2, "key3" to 3, "key4" to 1)
println("All keys: ${numbersMap.keys}")
println("All values: ${numbersMap.values}")
if ("key2" in numbersMap) println("Value by key \"key2\": ${numbersMap["key2"]}")
if (1 in numbersMap.values) println("The value 1 is in the map")
if (numbersMap.containsValue(1)) println("The value 1 is in the map") // same as previous
//sampleEnd
}
Two maps containing the equal pairs are equal regardless of the pair order.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbersMap = mapOf("key1" to 1, "key2" to 2, "key3" to 3, "key4" to 1)
val anotherMap = mapOf("key2" to 2, "key1" to 1, "key4" to 1, "key3" to 3)
println("The maps are equal: ${numbersMap == anotherMap}")
//sampleEnd
}
MutableMap is a Map with map write operations, for example, you can add a new key-value pair or update the value
associated with the given key.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbersMap = mutableMapOf("one" to 1, "two" to 2)
numbersMap.put("three", 3)
numbersMap["one"] = 11
println(numbersMap)
//sampleEnd
}
The default implementation of Map – LinkedHashMap – preserves the order of elements insertion when iterating the
map. In turn, an alternative implementation – HashMap – says nothing about the elements order.
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Constructing
collections
Construct
from
elements
The most common way to create a collection is with the standard library functions listOf<T>(), setOf<T>(),
mutableListOf<T>(), mutableSetOf<T>(). If you provide a comma-separated list of collection elements as arguments,
the compiler detects the element type automatically. When creating empty collections, specify the type explicitly.
val numbersSet = setOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
val emptySet = mutableSetOf<String>()
The same is available for maps with the functions mapOf() and mutableMapOf(). The map's keys and values are passed
as Pair objects (usually created with to infix function).
val numbersMap = mapOf("key1" to 1, "key2" to 2, "key3" to 3, "key4" to 1)
Note that the to notation creates a short-living Pair object, so it's recommended that you use it only if performance isn't
critical. To avoid excessive memory usage, use alternative ways. For example, you can create a mutable map and
populate it using the write operations. The apply() function can help to keep the initialization fluent here.
val numbersMap = mutableMapOf<String, String>().apply { this["one"] = "1"; this["two"] = "2" }
Empty
collections
There are also functions for creating collections without any elements: emptyList(), emptySet(), and emptyMap(). When
creating empty collections, you should specify the type of elements that the collection will hold.
val empty = emptyList<String>()
Initializer
functions
for
lists
For lists, there is a constructor that takes the list size and the initializer function that defines the element value based on
its index.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val doubled = List(3, { it * 2 }) // or MutableList if you want to change its content
later
println(doubled)
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//sampleEnd
}
Concrete
type
constructors
To create a concrete type collection, such as an ArrayList or LinkedList, you can use the available constructors for
these types. Similar constructors are available for implementations of Set and Map.
val linkedList = LinkedList<String>(listOf("one", "two", "three"))
val presizedSet = HashSet<Int>(32)
Copy
To create a collection with the same elements as an existing collection, you can use copying operations. Collection
copying operations from the standard library create shallow copy collections with references to the same elements.
Thus, a change made to a collection element reflects in all its copies.
Collection copying functions, such as toList(), toMutableList(), toSet() and others, create a snapshot of a collection at a
specific moment. Their result is a new collection of the same elements. If you add or remove elements from the original
collection, this won't affect the copies. Copies may be changed independently of the source as well.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val sourceList = mutableListOf(1, 2, 3)
val copyList = sourceList.toMutableList()
val readOnlyCopyList = sourceList.toList()
sourceList.add(4)
println("Copy size: ${copyList.size}")
//readOnlyCopyList.add(4) // compilation error
println("Read-only copy size: ${readOnlyCopyList.size}")
//sampleEnd
}
These functions can also be used for converting collections to other types, for example, build a set from a list or vice
versa.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val sourceList = mutableListOf(1, 2, 3)
val copySet = sourceList.toMutableSet()
copySet.add(3)
copySet.add(4)
println(copySet)
//sampleEnd
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}
Alternatively, you can create new references to the same collection instance. New references are created when you
initialize a collection variable with an existing collection. So, when the collection instance is altered through a reference,
the changes are reflected in all its references.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val sourceList = mutableListOf(1, 2, 3)
val referenceList = sourceList
referenceList.add(4)
println("Source size: ${sourceList.size}")
//sampleEnd
}
Collection initialization can be used for restricting mutability. For example, if you create a List reference to a
MutableList, the compiler will produce errors if you try to modify the collection through this reference.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val sourceList = mutableListOf(1, 2, 3)
val referenceList: List<Int> = sourceList
//referenceList.add(4) //compilation error
sourceList.add(4)
println(referenceList) // shows the current state of sourceList
//sampleEnd
}
Invoke
functions
on
other
collections
Collections can be created in result of various operations on other collections. For example, filtering a list creates a
new list of elements that match the filter:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
val longerThan3 = numbers.filter { it.length > 3 }
println(longerThan3)
//sampleEnd
}
Mapping produces a list of a transformation results:
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fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = setOf(1, 2, 3)
println(numbers.map { it * 3 })
println(numbers.mapIndexed { idx, value -> value * idx })
//sampleEnd
}
Association produces maps:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
println(numbers.associateWith { it.length })
//sampleEnd
}
For more information about operations on collections in Kotlin, see Collection operations overview.
Iterators
For traversing collection elements, the Kotlin standard library supports the commonly used mechanism of iterators –
objects that provide access to the elements sequentially without exposing the underlying structure of the collection.
Iterators are useful when you need to process all the elements of a collection one-by-one, for example, print values or
make similar updates to them.
Iterators can be obtained for inheritors of the Iterable<T> interface, including Set and List, by calling the iterator()
function.
Once you obtain an iterator, it points to the first element of a collection; calling the next() function returns this element
and moves the iterator position to the following element if it exists.
Once the iterator passes through the last element, it can no longer be used for retrieving elements; neither can it be
reset to any previous position. To iterate through the collection again, create a new iterator.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
val numbersIterator = numbers.iterator()
while (numbersIterator.hasNext()) {
println(numbersIterator.next())
}
//sampleEnd
}
Another way to go through an Iterable collection is the well-known for loop. When using for on a collection, you obtain
690
the iterator implicitly. So, the following code is equivalent to the example above:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
for (item in numbers) {
println(item)
}
//sampleEnd
}
Finally, there is a useful forEach() function that lets you automatically iterate a collection and execute the given code for
each element. So, the same example would look like this:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
numbers.forEach {
println(it)
}
//sampleEnd
}
List
iterators
For lists, there is a special iterator implementation: ListIterator. It supports iterating lists in both directions: forwards
and backwards.
Backward iteration is implemented by the functions hasPrevious() and previous(). Additionally, the ListIterator provides
information about the element indices with the functions nextIndex() and previousIndex().
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
val listIterator = numbers.listIterator()
while (listIterator.hasNext()) listIterator.next()
println("Iterating backwards:")
while (listIterator.hasPrevious()) {
print("Index: ${listIterator.previousIndex()}")
println(", value: ${listIterator.previous()}")
}
//sampleEnd
}
Having the ability to iterate in both directions, means the ListIterator can still be used after it reaches the last element.
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Mutable
iterators
For iterating mutable collections, there is MutableIterator that extends Iterator with the element removal function
remove(). So, you can remove elements from a collection while iterating it.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
val mutableIterator = numbers.iterator()
mutableIterator.next()
mutableIterator.remove()
println("After removal: $numbers")
//sampleEnd
}
In addition to removing elements, the MutableListIterator can also insert and replace elements while iterating the list.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "four", "four")
val mutableListIterator = numbers.listIterator()
mutableListIterator.next()
mutableListIterator.add("two")
mutableListIterator.next()
mutableListIterator.set("three")
println(numbers)
//sampleEnd
}
Ranges
and
progressions
Kotlin lets you easily create ranges of values using the rangeTo() function from the kotlin.ranges package and its
operator form ... Usually, rangeTo() is complemented by in or !in functions.
if (i in 1..4) { // equivalent of 1 <= i && i <= 4
print(i)
}
Integral type ranges (IntRange, LongRange, CharRange) have an extra feature: they can be iterated over. These ranges
are also progressions of the corresponding integral types.
Such ranges are generally used for iteration in for loops.
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fun main() {
//sampleStart
for (i in 1..4) print(i)
//sampleEnd
}
To iterate numbers in reverse order, use the downTo function instead of ...
fun main() {
//sampleStart
for (i in 4 downTo 1) print(i)
//sampleEnd
}
It is also possible to iterate over numbers with an arbitrary step (not necessarily 1). This is done via the step function.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
for (i in 1..8 step 2) print(i)
println()
for (i in 8 downTo 1 step 2) print(i)
//sampleEnd
}
To iterate a number range which does not include its end element, use the until function:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
for (i in 1 until 10) { // i in [1, 10), 10 is excluded
print(i)
}
//sampleEnd
}
Range
A range defines a closed interval in the mathematical sense: it is defined by its two endpoint values which are both
included in the range. Ranges are defined for comparable types: having an order, you can define whether an arbitrary
instance is in the range between two given instances.
The main operation on ranges is contains, which is usually used in the form of in and !in operators.
To create a range for your class, call the rangeTo() function on the range start value and provide the end value as an
argument. rangeTo() is often called in its operator form ...
693
class Version(val major: Int, val minor: Int): Comparable<Version> {
override fun compareTo(other: Version): Int {
if (this.major != other.major) {
return this.major - other.major
}
return this.minor - other.minor
}
}
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val versionRange = Version(1, 11)..Version(1, 30)
println(Version(0, 9) in versionRange)
println(Version(1, 20) in versionRange)
//sampleEnd
}
Progression
As shown in the examples above, the ranges of integral types, such as Int, Long, and Char, can be treated as
arithmetic progressions of them. In Kotlin, these progressions are defined by special types: IntProgression,
LongProgression, and CharProgression.
Progressions have three essential properties: the first element, the last element, and a non-zero step. The first element
is first, subsequent elements are the previous element plus a step. Iteration over a progression with a positive step is
equivalent to an indexed for loop in Java/JavaScript.
for (int i = first; i <= last; i += step) {
// ...
}
When you create a progression implicitly by iterating a range, this progression's first and last elements are the range's
endpoints, and the step is 1.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
for (i in 1..10) print(i)
//sampleEnd
}
To define a custom progression step, use the step function on a range.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
for (i in 1..8 step 2) print(i)
694
//sampleEnd
}
The last element of the progression is calculated this way:
For a positive step: the maximum value not greater than the end value such that (last - first) % step == 0.
For a negative step: the minimum value not less than the end value such that (last - first) % step == 0.
Thus, the last element is not always the same as the specified end value.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
for (i in 1..9 step 3) print(i) // the last element is 7
//sampleEnd
}
To create a progression for iterating in reverse order, use downTo instead of .. when defining the range for it.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
for (i in 4 downTo 1) print(i)
//sampleEnd
}
Progressions implement Iterable<N>, where N is Int, Long, or Char respectively, so you can use them in various
collection functions like map, filter, and other.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
println((1..10).filter { it % 2 == 0 })
//sampleEnd
}
Sequences
Along with collections, the Kotlin standard library contains another container type – sequences (Sequence<T> ).
Sequences offer the same functions as Iterable but implement another approach to multi-step collection processing.
When the processing of an Iterable includes multiple steps, they are executed eagerly: each processing step completes
and returns its result – an intermediate collection. The following step executes on this collection. In turn, multi-step
processing of sequences is executed lazily when possible: actual computing happens only when the result of the whole
processing chain is requested.
695
The order of operations execution is different as well: Sequence performs all the processing steps one-by-one for
every single element. In turn, Iterable completes each step for the whole collection and then proceeds to the next step.
So, the sequences let you avoid building results of intermediate steps, therefore improving the performance of the
whole collection processing chain. However, the lazy nature of sequences adds some overhead which may be
significant when processing smaller collections or doing simpler computations. Hence, you should consider both
Sequence and Iterable and decide which one is better for your case.
Construct
From
elements
To create a sequence, call the sequenceOf() function listing the elements as its arguments.
val numbersSequence = sequenceOf("four", "three", "two", "one")
From
an
Iterable
If you already have an Iterable object (such as a List or a Set ), you can create a sequence from it by calling
asSequence().
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
val numbersSequence = numbers.asSequence()
From
a
function
One more way to create a sequence is by building it with a function that calculates its elements. To build a sequence
based on a function, call generateSequence() with this function as an argument. Optionally, you can specify the first
element as an explicit value or a result of a function call. The sequence generation stops when the provided function
returns null. So, the sequence in the example below is infinite.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val oddNumbers = generateSequence(1) { it + 2 } // `it` is the previous element
println(oddNumbers.take(5).toList())
//println(oddNumbers.count()) // error: the sequence is infinite
//sampleEnd
}
To create a finite sequence with generateSequence(), provide a function that returns null after the last element you
need.
696
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val oddNumbersLessThan10 = generateSequence(1) { if (it < 8) it + 2 else null }
println(oddNumbersLessThan10.count())
//sampleEnd
}
From
chunks
Finally, there is a function that lets you produce sequence elements one by one or by chunks of arbitrary sizes – the
sequence() function. This function takes a lambda expression containing calls of yield() and yieldAll() functions. They
return an element to the sequence consumer and suspend the execution of sequence() until the next element is
requested by the consumer. yield() takes a single element as an argument; yieldAll() can take an Iterable object, an
Iterator, or another Sequence. A Sequence argument of yieldAll() can be infinite. However, such a call must be the last:
all subsequent calls will never be executed.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val oddNumbers = sequence {
yield(1)
yieldAll(listOf(3, 5))
yieldAll(generateSequence(7) { it + 2 })
}
println(oddNumbers.take(5).toList())
//sampleEnd
}
Sequence
operations
The sequence operations can be classified into the following groups regarding their state requirements:
Stateless operations require no state and process each element independently, for example, map() or filter().
Stateless operations can also require a small constant amount of state to process an element, for example, take() or
drop().
Stateful operations require a significant amount of state, usually proportional to the number of elements in a
sequence.
If a sequence operation returns another sequence, which is produced lazily, it's called intermediate. Otherwise, the
operation is terminal. Examples of terminal operations are toList() or sum(). Sequence elements can be retrieved only
with terminal operations.
Sequences can be iterated multiple times; however some sequence implementations might constrain themselves to be
iterated only once. That is mentioned specifically in their documentation.
697
Sequence
processing
example
Let's take a look at the difference between Iterable and Sequence with an example.
Iterable
Assume that you have a list of words. The code below filters the words longer than three characters and prints the
lengths of first four such words.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val words = "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog".split(" ")
val lengthsList = words.filter { println("filter: $it"); it.length > 3 }
.map { println("length: ${it.length}"); it.length }
.take(4)
println("Lengths of first 4 words longer than 3 chars:")
println(lengthsList)
//sampleEnd
}
When you run this code, you'll see that the filter() and map() functions are executed in the same order as they appear in
the code. First, you see filter: for all elements, then length: for the elements left after filtering, and then the output of the
two last lines.
This is how the list processing goes:
List processing
Sequence
Now let's write the same with sequences:
698
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val words = "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog".split(" ")
//convert the List to a Sequence
val wordsSequence = words.asSequence()
val lengthsSequence = wordsSequence.filter { println("filter: $it"); it.length > 3 }
.map { println("length: ${it.length}"); it.length }
.take(4)
println("Lengths of first 4 words longer than 3 chars")
// terminal operation: obtaining the result as a List
println(lengthsSequence.toList())
//sampleEnd
}
The output of this code shows that the filter() and map() functions are called only when building the result list. So, you
first see the line of text “Lengths of..” and then the sequence processing starts. Note that for elements left after
filtering, the map executes before filtering the next element. When the result size reaches 4, the processing stops
because it's the largest possible size that take(4) can return.
The sequence processing goes like this:
Sequences processing
In this example, the sequence processing takes 18 steps instead of 23 steps for doing the same with lists.
Collection
operations
overview
The Kotlin standard library offers a broad variety of functions for performing operations on collections. This includes
simple operations, such as getting or adding elements, as well as more complex ones including search, sorting,
699
filtering, transformations, and so on.
Extension
and
member
functions
Collection operations are declared in the standard library in two ways: member functions of collection interfaces and
extension functions.
Member functions define operations that are essential for a collection type. For example, Collection contains the
function isEmpty() for checking its emptiness; List contains get() for index access to elements, and so on.
When you create your own implementations of collection interfaces, you must implement their member functions. To
make the creation of new implementations easier, use the skeletal implementations of collection interfaces from the
standard library: AbstractCollection, AbstractList, AbstractSet, AbstractMap, and their mutable counterparts.
Other collection operations are declared as extension functions. These are filtering, transformation, ordering, and other
collection processing functions.
Common
operations
Common operations are available for both read-only and mutable collections. Common operations fall into these
groups:
Transformations
Filtering
plus and minus operators
Grouping
Retrieving collection parts
Retrieving single elements
Ordering
Aggregate operations
Operations described on these pages return their results without affecting the original collection. For example, a
filtering operation produces a new collection that contains all the elements matching the filtering predicate. Results of
such operations should be either stored in variables, or used in some other way, for example, passed in other
functions.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
numbers.filter { it.length > 3 } // nothing happens with `numbers`, result is lost
700
println("numbers are still $numbers")
val longerThan3 = numbers.filter { it.length > 3 } // result is stored in `longerThan3`
println("numbers longer than 3 chars are $longerThan3")
//sampleEnd
}
For certain collection operations, there is an option to specify the destination object. Destination is a mutable collection
to which the function appends its resulting items instead of returning them in a new object. For performing operations
with destinations, there are separate functions with the To postfix in their names, for example, filterTo() instead of filter()
or associateTo() instead of associate(). These functions take the destination collection as an additional parameter.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
val filterResults = mutableListOf<String>() //destination object
numbers.filterTo(filterResults) { it.length > 3 }
numbers.filterIndexedTo(filterResults) { index, _ -> index == 0 }
println(filterResults) // contains results of both operations
//sampleEnd
}
For convenience, these functions return the destination collection back, so you can create it right in the corresponding
argument of the function call:
fun main() {
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
//sampleStart
// filter numbers right into a new hash set,
// thus eliminating duplicates in the result
val result = numbers.mapTo(HashSet()) { it.length }
println("distinct item lengths are $result")
//sampleEnd
}
Functions with destination are available for filtering, association, grouping, flattening, and other operations. For the
complete list of destination operations see the Kotlin collections reference.
Write
operations
For mutable collections, there are also write operations that change the collection state. Such operations include
adding, removing, and updating elements. Write operations are listed in the Write operations and corresponding
sections of List-specific operations and Map specific operations.
For certain operations, there are pairs of functions for performing the same operation: one applies the operation in-
place and the other returns the result as a separate collection. For example, sort() sorts a mutable collection in-place,
so its state changes; sorted() creates a new collection that contains the same elements in the sorted order.
701
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
val sortedNumbers = numbers.sorted()
println(numbers == sortedNumbers) // false
numbers.sort()
println(numbers == sortedNumbers) // true
//sampleEnd
}
Collection
transformation
operations
The Kotlin standard library provides a set of extension functions for collection transformations. These functions build
new collections from existing ones based on the transformation rules provided. In this page, we'll give an overview of
the available collection transformation functions.
Map
The mapping transformation creates a collection from the results of a function on the elements of another collection.
The basic mapping function is map(). It applies the given lambda function to each subsequent element and returns the
list of the lambda results. The order of results is the same as the original order of elements. To apply a transformation
that additionally uses the element index as an argument, use mapIndexed().
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = setOf(1, 2, 3)
println(numbers.map { it * 3 })
println(numbers.mapIndexed { idx, value -> value * idx })
//sampleEnd
}
If the transformation produces null on certain elements, you can filter out the null s from the result collection by calling
the mapNotNull() function instead of map(), or mapIndexedNotNull() instead of mapIndexed().
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = setOf(1, 2, 3)
println(numbers.mapNotNull { if ( it == 2) null else it * 3 })
println(numbers.mapIndexedNotNull { idx, value -> if (idx == 0) null else value * idx })
//sampleEnd
}
When transforming maps, you have two options: transform keys leaving values unchanged and vice versa. To apply a
702
given transformation to keys, use mapKeys(); in turn, mapValues() transforms values. Both functions use the
transformations that take a map entry as an argument, so you can operate both its key and value.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbersMap = mapOf("key1" to 1, "key2" to 2, "key3" to 3, "key11" to 11)
println(numbersMap.mapKeys { it.key.uppercase() })
println(numbersMap.mapValues { it.value + it.key.length })
//sampleEnd
}
Zip
Zipping transformation is building pairs from elements with the same positions in both collections. In the Kotlin
standard library, this is done by the zip() extension function.
When called on a collection or an array with another collection (array) as an argument, zip() returns the List of Pair
objects. The elements of the receiver collection are the first elements in these pairs.
If the collections have different sizes, the result of the zip() is the smaller size; the last elements of the larger collection
are not included in the result.
zip() can also be called in the infix form a zip b.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val colors = listOf("red", "brown", "grey")
val animals = listOf("fox", "bear", "wolf")
println(colors zip animals)
val twoAnimals = listOf("fox", "bear")
println(colors.zip(twoAnimals))
//sampleEnd
}
You can also call zip() with a transformation function that takes two parameters: the receiver element and the argument
element. In this case, the result List contains the return values of the transformation function called on pairs of the
receiver and the argument elements with the same positions.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val colors = listOf("red", "brown", "grey")
val animals = listOf("fox", "bear", "wolf")
println(colors.zip(animals) { color, animal -> "The ${animal.replaceFirstChar {
it.uppercase() }} is $color"})
//sampleEnd
703
}
When you have a List of Pair s, you can do the reverse transformation – unzipping – that builds two lists from these
pairs:
The first list contains the first elements of each Pair in the original list.
The second list contains the second elements.
To unzip a list of pairs, call unzip().
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numberPairs = listOf("one" to 1, "two" to 2, "three" to 3, "four" to 4)
println(numberPairs.unzip())
//sampleEnd
}
Associate
Association transformations allow building maps from the collection elements and certain values associated with them.
In different association types, the elements can be either keys or values in the association map.
The basic association function associateWith() creates a Map in which the elements of the original collection are keys,
and values are produced from them by the given transformation function. If two elements are equal, only the last one
remains in the map.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
println(numbers.associateWith { it.length })
//sampleEnd
}
For building maps with collection elements as values, there is the function associateBy(). It takes a function that returns
a key based on an element's value. If two elements are equal, only the last one remains in the map.
associateBy() can also be called with a value transformation function.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
println(numbers.associateBy { it.first().uppercaseChar() })
println(numbers.associateBy(keySelector = { it.first().uppercaseChar() }, valueTransform =
{ it.length }))
704
//sampleEnd
}
Another way to build maps in which both keys and values are somehow produced from collection elements is the
function associate(). It takes a lambda function that returns a Pair: the key and the value of the corresponding map
entry.
Note that associate() produces short-living Pair objects which may affect the performance. Thus, associate() should be
used when the performance isn't critical or it's more preferable than other options.
An example of the latter is when a key and the corresponding value are produced from an element together.
fun main() {
data class FullName (val firstName: String, val lastName: String)
fun parseFullName(fullName: String): FullName {
val nameParts = fullName.split(" ")
if (nameParts.size == 2) {
return FullName(nameParts[0], nameParts[1])
} else throw Exception("Wrong name format")
}
//sampleStart
val names = listOf("Alice Adams", "Brian Brown", "Clara Campbell")
println(names.associate { name -> parseFullName(name).let { it.lastName to it.firstName }
})
//sampleEnd
}
Here we call a transform function on an element first, and then build a pair from the properties of that function's result.
Flatten
If you operate nested collections, you may find the standard library functions that provide flat access to nested
collection elements useful.
The first function is flatten(). You can call it on a collection of collections, for example, a List of Set s. The function
returns a single List of all the elements of the nested collections.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numberSets = listOf(setOf(1, 2, 3), setOf(4, 5, 6), setOf(1, 2))
println(numberSets.flatten())
//sampleEnd
}
Another function – flatMap() provides a flexible way to process nested collections. It takes a function that maps a
collection element to another collection. As a result, flatMap() returns a single list of its return values on all the
705
elements. So, flatMap() behaves as a subsequent call of map() (with a collection as a mapping result) and flatten().
data class StringContainer(val values: List<String>)
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val containers = listOf(
StringContainer(listOf("one", "two", "three")),
StringContainer(listOf("four", "five", "six")),
StringContainer(listOf("seven", "eight"))
)
println(containers.flatMap { it.values })
//sampleEnd
}
String
representation
If you need to retrieve the collection content in a readable format, use functions that transform the collections to
strings: joinToString() and joinTo().
joinToString() builds a single String from the collection elements based on the provided arguments. joinTo() does the
same but appends the result to the given Appendable object.
When called with the default arguments, the functions return the result similar to calling toString() on the collection: a
String of elements' string representations separated by commas with spaces.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
println(numbers)
println(numbers.joinToString())
val listString = StringBuffer("The list of numbers: ")
numbers.joinTo(listString)
println(listString)
//sampleEnd
}
To build a custom string representation, you can specify its parameters in function arguments separator, prefix, and
postfix. The resulting string will start with the prefix and end with the postfix. The separator will come after each
element except the last.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
706
println(numbers.joinToString(separator = " | ", prefix = "start: ", postfix = ": end"))
//sampleEnd
}
For bigger collections, you may want to specify the limit – a number of elements that will be included into result. If the
collection size exceeds the limit, all the other elements will be replaced with a single value of the truncated argument.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = (1..100).toList()
println(numbers.joinToString(limit = 10, truncated = "<...>"))
//sampleEnd
}
Finally, to customize the representation of elements themselves, provide the transform function.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
println(numbers.joinToString { "Element: ${it.uppercase()}"})
//sampleEnd
}
Filtering
collections
Filtering is one of the most popular tasks in collection processing. In Kotlin, filtering conditions are defined by
predicates – lambda functions that take a collection element and return a boolean value: true means that the given
element matches the predicate, false means the opposite.
The standard library contains a group of extension functions that let you filter collections in a single call. These
functions leave the original collection unchanged, so they are available for both mutable and read-only collections. To
operate the filtering result, you should assign it to a variable or chain the functions after filtering.
Filter
by
predicate
The basic filtering function is filter(). When called with a predicate, filter() returns the collection elements that match it.
For both List and Set, the resulting collection is a List, for Map it's a Map as well.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
val longerThan3 = numbers.filter { it.length > 3 }
println(longerThan3)
707
val numbersMap = mapOf("key1" to 1, "key2" to 2, "key3" to 3, "key11" to 11)
val filteredMap = numbersMap.filter { (key, value) -> key.endsWith("1") && value > 10}
println(filteredMap)
//sampleEnd
}
The predicates in filter() can only check the values of the elements. If you want to use element positions in the filter, use
filterIndexed(). It takes a predicate with two arguments: the index and the value of an element.
To filter collections by negative conditions, use filterNot(). It returns a list of elements for which the predicate yields
false.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
val filteredIdx = numbers.filterIndexed { index, s -> (index != 0) && (s.length < 5) }
val filteredNot = numbers.filterNot { it.length <= 3 }
println(filteredIdx)
println(filteredNot)
//sampleEnd
}
There are also functions that narrow the element type by filtering elements of a given type:
filterIsInstance() returns collection elements of a given type. Being called on a List<Any>, filterIsInstance<T>()
returns a List<T>, thus allowing you to call functions of the T type on its items.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf(null, 1, "two", 3.0, "four")
println("All String elements in upper case:")
numbers.filterIsInstance<String>().forEach {
println(it.uppercase())
}
//sampleEnd
}
filterNotNull() returns all non-null elements. Being called on a List<T?>, filterNotNull() returns a List<T: Any>, thus
allowing you to treat the elements as non-null objects.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf(null, "one", "two", null)
numbers.filterNotNull().forEach {
println(it.length) // length is unavailable for nullable Strings
}
//sampleEnd
}
708
Partition
Another filtering function – partition() – filters a collection by a predicate and keeps the elements that don't match it in a
separate list. So, you have a Pair of List s as a return value: the first list containing elements that match the predicate
and the second one containing everything else from the original collection.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
val (match, rest) = numbers.partition { it.length > 3 }
println(match)
println(rest)
//sampleEnd
}
Test
predicates
Finally, there are functions that simply test a predicate against collection elements:
any() returns true if at least one element matches the given predicate.
none() returns true if none of the elements match the given predicate.
all() returns true if all elements match the given predicate. Note that all() returns true when called with any valid
predicate on an empty collection. Such behavior is known in logic as vacuous truth.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
println(numbers.any { it.endsWith("e") })
println(numbers.none { it.endsWith("a") })
println(numbers.all { it.endsWith("e") })
println(emptyList<Int>().all { it > 5 }) // vacuous truth
//sampleEnd
}
any() and none() can also be used without a predicate: in this case they just check the collection emptiness. any()
returns true if there are elements and false if there aren't; none() does the opposite.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
val empty = emptyList<String>()
println(numbers.any())
println(empty.any())
709
println(numbers.none())
println(empty.none())
//sampleEnd
}
Plus
and
minus
operators
In Kotlin, plus (+) and minus (-) operators are defined for collections. They take a collection as the first operand; the
second operand can be either an element or another collection. The return value is a new read-only collection:
The result of plus contains the elements from the original collection and from the second operand.
The result of minus contains the elements of the original collection except the elements from the second operand. If
it's an element, minus removes its first occurrence; if it's a collection, all occurrences of its elements are removed.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
val plusList = numbers + "five"
val minusList = numbers - listOf("three", "four")
println(plusList)
println(minusList)
//sampleEnd
}
For the details on plus and minus operators for maps, see Map specific operations. The augmented assignment
operators plusAssign (+=) and minusAssign (-=) are also defined for collections. However, for read-only collections,
they actually use the plus or minus operators and try to assign the result to the same variable. Thus, they are available
only on var read-only collections. For mutable collections, they modify the collection if it's a val. For more details see
Collection write operations.
Grouping
The Kotlin standard library provides extension functions for grouping collection elements. The basic function groupBy()
takes a lambda function and returns a Map. In this map, each key is the lambda result and the corresponding value is
the List of elements on which this result is returned. This function can be used, for example, to group a list of String s
by their first letter.
You can also call groupBy() with a second lambda argument – a value transformation function. In the result map of
groupBy() with two lambdas, the keys produced by keySelector function are mapped to the results of the value
transformation function instead of the original elements.
fun main() {
710
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four", "five")
println(numbers.groupBy { it.first().uppercase() })
println(numbers.groupBy(keySelector = { it.first() }, valueTransform = { it.uppercase()
}))
//sampleEnd
}
If you want to group elements and then apply an operation to all groups at one time, use the function groupingBy(). It
returns an instance of the Grouping type. The Grouping instance lets you apply operations to all groups in a lazy
manner: the groups are actually built right before the operation execution.
Namely, Grouping supports the following operations:
eachCount() counts the elements in each group.
fold() and reduce() perform fold and reduce operations on each group as a separate collection and return the results.
aggregate() applies a given operation subsequently to all the elements in each group and returns the result. This is
the generic way to perform any operations on a Grouping. Use it to implement custom operations when fold or
reduce are not enough.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four", "five", "six")
println(numbers.groupingBy { it.first() }.eachCount())
//sampleEnd
}
Retrieve
collection
parts
The Kotlin standard library contains extension functions for retrieving parts of a collection. These functions provide a
variety of ways to select elements for the result collection: listing their positions explicitly, specifying the result size, and
others.
Slice
slice() returns a list of the collection elements with given indices. The indices may be passed either as a range or as a
collection of integer values.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four", "five", "six")
println(numbers.slice(1..3))
println(numbers.slice(0..4 step 2))
711
println(numbers.slice(setOf(3, 5, 0)))
//sampleEnd
}
Take
and
drop
To get the specified number of elements starting from the first, use the take() function. For getting the last elements,
use takeLast(). When called with a number larger than the collection size, both functions return the whole collection.
To take all the elements except a given number of first or last elements, call the drop() and dropLast() functions
respectively.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four", "five", "six")
println(numbers.take(3))
println(numbers.takeLast(3))
println(numbers.drop(1))
println(numbers.dropLast(5))
//sampleEnd
}
You can also use predicates to define the number of elements for taking or dropping. There are four functions similar
to the ones described above:
takeWhile() is take() with a predicate: it takes the elements up to but excluding the first one not matching the
predicate. If the first collection element doesn't match the predicate, the result is empty.
takeLastWhile() is similar to takeLast(): it takes the range of elements matching the predicate from the end of the
collection. The first element of the range is the element next to the last element not matching the predicate. If the
last collection element doesn't match the predicate, the result is empty;
dropWhile() is the opposite to takeWhile() with the same predicate: it returns the elements from the first one not
matching the predicate to the end.
dropLastWhile() is the opposite to takeLastWhile() with the same predicate: it returns the elements from the
beginning to the last one not matching the predicate.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four", "five", "six")
println(numbers.takeWhile { !it.startsWith('f') })
println(numbers.takeLastWhile { it != "three" })
println(numbers.dropWhile { it.length == 3 })
println(numbers.dropLastWhile { it.contains('i') })
//sampleEnd
}
712
Chunked
To break a collection onto parts of a given size, use the chunked() function. chunked() takes a single argument – the
size of the chunk – and returns a List of List s of the given size. The first chunk starts from the first element and
contains the size elements, the second chunk holds the next size elements, and so on. The last chunk may have a
smaller size.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = (0..13).toList()
println(numbers.chunked(3))
//sampleEnd
}
You can also apply a transformation for the returned chunks right away. To do this, provide the transformation as a
lambda function when calling chunked(). The lambda argument is a chunk of the collection. When chunked() is called
with a transformation, the chunks are short-living List s that should be consumed right in that lambda.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = (0..13).toList()
println(numbers.chunked(3) { it.sum() }) // `it` is a chunk of the original collection
//sampleEnd
}
Windowed
You can retrieve all possible ranges of the collection elements of a given size. The function for getting them is called
windowed(): it returns a list of element ranges that you would see if you were looking at the collection through a sliding
window of the given size. Unlike chunked(), windowed() returns element ranges (windows) starting from each collection
element. All the windows are returned as elements of a single List.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four", "five")
println(numbers.windowed(3))
//sampleEnd
}
windowed() provides more flexibility with optional parameters:
step defines a distance between first elements of two adjacent windows. By default the value is 1, so the result
contains windows starting from all elements. If you increase the step to 2, you will receive only windows starting
from odd elements: first, third, and so on.
713
partialWindows includes windows of smaller sizes that start from the elements at the end of the collection. For
example, if you request windows of three elements, you can't build them for the last two elements. Enabling
partialWindows in this case includes two more lists of sizes 2 and 1.
Finally, you can apply a transformation to the returned ranges right away. To do this, provide the transformation as a
lambda function when calling windowed().
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = (1..10).toList()
println(numbers.windowed(3, step = 2, partialWindows = true))
println(numbers.windowed(3) { it.sum() })
//sampleEnd
}
To build two-element windows, there is a separate function - zipWithNext(). It creates pairs of adjacent elements of the
receiver collection. Note that zipWithNext() doesn't break the collection into pairs; it creates a Pair for each element
except the last one, so its result on [1, 2, 3, 4] is [[1, 2], [2, 3], [3, 4]], not [[1, 2 ], [3, 4]]. zipWithNext() can be called with
a transformation function as well; it should take two elements of the receiver collection as arguments.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four", "five")
println(numbers.zipWithNext())
println(numbers.zipWithNext() { s1, s2 -> s1.length > s2.length})
//sampleEnd
}
Retrieve
single
elements
Kotlin collections provide a set of functions for retrieving single elements from collections. Functions described on this
page apply to both lists and sets.
As the definition of list says, a list is an ordered collection. Hence, every element of a list has its position that you can
use for referring. In addition to functions described on this page, lists offer a wider set of ways to retrieve and search
for elements by indices. For more details, see List-specific operations.
In turn, set is not an ordered collection by definition. However, the Kotlin Set stores elements in certain orders. These
can be the order of insertion (in LinkedHashSet ), natural sorting order (in SortedSet ), or another order. The order of a
set of elements can also be unknown. In such cases, the elements are still ordered somehow, so the functions that rely
on the element positions still return their results. However, such results are unpredictable to the caller unless they know
the specific implementation of Set used.
714
Retrieve
by
position
For retrieving an element at a specific position, there is the function elementAt(). Call it with the integer number as an
argument, and you'll receive the collection element at the given position. The first element has the position 0, and the
last one is (size - 1).
elementAt() is useful for collections that do not provide indexed access, or are not statically known to provide one. In
case of List, it's more idiomatic to use indexed access operator (get() or [] ).
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = linkedSetOf("one", "two", "three", "four", "five")
println(numbers.elementAt(3))
val numbersSortedSet = sortedSetOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
println(numbersSortedSet.elementAt(0)) // elements are stored in the ascending order
//sampleEnd
}
There are also useful aliases for retrieving the first and the last element of the collection: first() and last().
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four", "five")
println(numbers.first())
println(numbers.last())
//sampleEnd
}
To avoid exceptions when retrieving element with non-existing positions, use safe variations of elementAt():
elementAtOrNull() returns null when the specified position is out of the collection bounds.
elementAtOrElse() additionally takes a lambda function that maps an Int argument to an instance of the collection
element type. When called with an out-of-bounds position, the elementAtOrElse() returns the result of the lambda on
the given value.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four", "five")
println(numbers.elementAtOrNull(5))
println(numbers.elementAtOrElse(5) { index -> "The value for index $index is undefined"})
//sampleEnd
}
715
Retrieve
by
condition
Functions first() and last() also let you search a collection for elements matching a given predicate. When you call first()
with a predicate that tests a collection element, you'll receive the first element on which the predicate yields true. In
turn, last() with a predicate returns the last element matching it.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four", "five", "six")
println(numbers.first { it.length > 3 })
println(numbers.last { it.startsWith("f") })
//sampleEnd
}
If no elements match the predicate, both functions throw exceptions. To avoid them, use firstOrNull() and lastOrNull()
instead: they return null if no matching elements are found.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four", "five", "six")
println(numbers.firstOrNull { it.length > 6 })
//sampleEnd
}
Use the aliases if their names suit your situation better:
find() instead of firstOrNull()
findLast() instead of lastOrNull()
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf(1, 2, 3, 4)
println(numbers.find { it % 2 == 0 })
println(numbers.findLast { it % 2 == 0 })
//sampleEnd
}
Retrieve
with
selector
If you need to map the collection before retrieving the element, there is a function firstNotNullOf(). It combines 2
actions:
Maps the collection with the selector function
Returns the first non-null value in the result
716
firstNotNullOf() throws the NoSuchElementException if the resulting collection doesn't have a non-null element. Use the
counterpart firstNotNullOfOrNull() to return null in this case.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val list = listOf<Any>(0, "true", false)
// Converts each element to string and returns the first one that has required length
val longEnough = list.firstNotNullOf { item -> item.toString().takeIf { it.length >= 4 } }
println(longEnough)
//sampleEnd
}
Random
element
If you need to retrieve an arbitrary element of a collection, call the random() function. You can call it without arguments
or with a Random object as a source of the randomness.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf(1, 2, 3, 4)
println(numbers.random())
//sampleEnd
}
On empty collections, random() throws an exception. To receive null instead, use randomOrNull()
Check
element
existence
To check the presence of an element in a collection, use the contains() function. It returns true if there is a collection
element that equals() the function argument. You can call contains() in the operator form with the in keyword.
To check the presence of multiple instances together at once, call containsAll() with a collection of these instances as
an argument.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four", "five", "six")
println(numbers.contains("four"))
println("zero" in numbers)
println(numbers.containsAll(listOf("four", "two")))
println(numbers.containsAll(listOf("one", "zero")))
//sampleEnd
}
717
Additionally, you can check if the collection contains any elements by calling isEmpty() or isNotEmpty().
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four", "five", "six")
println(numbers.isEmpty())
println(numbers.isNotEmpty())
val empty = emptyList<String>()
println(empty.isEmpty())
println(empty.isNotEmpty())
//sampleEnd
}
Ordering
The order of elements is an important aspect of certain collection types. For example, two lists of the same elements
are not equal if their elements are ordered differently.
In Kotlin, the orders of objects can be defined in several ways.
First, there is natural order. It is defined for inheritors of the Comparable interface. Natural order is used for sorting
them when no other order is specified.
Most built-in types are comparable:
Numeric types use the traditional numerical order: 1 is greater than 0; -3.4f is greater than -5f, and so on.
Char and String use the lexicographical order: b is greater than a; world is greater than hello.
To define a natural order for a user-defined type, make the type an inheritor of Comparable. This requires
implementing the compareTo() function. compareTo() must take another object of the same type as an argument and
return an integer value showing which object is greater:
Positive values show that the receiver object is greater.
Negative values show that it's less than the argument.
Zero shows that the objects are equal.
Below is a class for ordering versions that consist of the major and the minor part.
class Version(val major: Int, val minor: Int): Comparable<Version> {
override fun compareTo(other: Version): Int {
if (this.major != other.major) {
return this.major - other.major
} else if (this.minor != other.minor) {
return this.minor - other.minor
} else return 0
718
}
}
fun main() {
println(Version(1, 2) > Version(1, 3))
println(Version(2, 0) > Version(1, 5))
}
Custom orders let you sort instances of any type in a way you like. Particularly, you can define an order for non-
comparable objects or define an order other than natural for a comparable type. To define a custom order for a type,
create a Comparator for it. Comparator contains the compare() function: it takes two instances of a class and returns
the integer result of the comparison between them. The result is interpreted in the same way as the result of a
compareTo() as is described above.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val lengthComparator = Comparator { str1: String, str2: String -> str1.length -
str2.length }
println(listOf("aaa", "bb", "c").sortedWith(lengthComparator))
//sampleEnd
}
Having the lengthComparator, you are able to arrange strings by their length instead of the default lexicographical
order.
A shorter way to define a Comparator is the compareBy() function from the standard library. compareBy() takes a
lambda function that produces a Comparable value from an instance and defines the custom order as the natural order
of the produced values.
With compareBy(), the length comparator from the example above looks like this:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
println(listOf("aaa", "bb", "c").sortedWith(compareBy { it.length }))
//sampleEnd
}
The Kotlin collections package provides functions for sorting collections in natural, custom, and even random orders.
On this page, we'll describe sorting functions that apply to read-only collections. These functions return their result as a
new collection containing the elements of the original collection in the requested order. To learn about functions for
sorting mutable collections in place, see the List-specific operations.
Natural
order
The basic functions sorted() and sortedDescending() return elements of a collection sorted into ascending and
descending sequence according to their natural order. These functions apply to collections of Comparable elements.
719
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
println("Sorted ascending: ${numbers.sorted()}")
println("Sorted descending: ${numbers.sortedDescending()}")
//sampleEnd
}
Custom
orders
For sorting in custom orders or sorting non-comparable objects, there are the functions sortedBy() and
sortedByDescending(). They take a selector function that maps collection elements to Comparable values and sort the
collection in natural order of that values.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
val sortedNumbers = numbers.sortedBy { it.length }
println("Sorted by length ascending: $sortedNumbers")
val sortedByLast = numbers.sortedByDescending { it.last() }
println("Sorted by the last letter descending: $sortedByLast")
//sampleEnd
}
To define a custom order for the collection sorting, you can provide your own Comparator. To do this, call the
sortedWith() function passing in your Comparator. With this function, sorting strings by their length looks like this:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
println("Sorted by length ascending: ${numbers.sortedWith(compareBy { it.length })}")
//sampleEnd
}
Reverse
order
You can retrieve the collection in the reversed order using the reversed() function.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
println(numbers.reversed())
//sampleEnd
}
720
reversed() returns a new collection with the copies of the elements. So, if you change the original collection later, this
won't affect the previously obtained results of reversed().
Another reversing function - asReversed()
returns a reversed view of the same collection instance, so it may be more lightweight and preferable than reversed()
if the original list is not going to change.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
val reversedNumbers = numbers.asReversed()
println(reversedNumbers)
//sampleEnd
}
If the original list is mutable, all its changes reflect in its reversed views and vice versa.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
val reversedNumbers = numbers.asReversed()
println(reversedNumbers)
numbers.add("five")
println(reversedNumbers)
//sampleEnd
}
However, if the mutability of the list is unknown or the source is not a list at all, reversed() is more preferable since its
result is a copy that won't change in the future.
Random
order
Finally, there is a function that returns a new List containing the collection elements in a random order - shuffled(). You
can call it without arguments or with a Random object.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
println(numbers.shuffled())
//sampleEnd
}
Aggregate
operations
721
Kotlin collections contain functions for commonly used aggregate operations – operations that return a single value
based on the collection content. Most of them are well known and work the same way as they do in other languages:
minOrNull() and maxOrNull() return the smallest and the largest element respectively. On empty collections, they
return null.
average() returns the average value of elements in the collection of numbers.
sum() returns the sum of elements in the collection of numbers.
count() returns the number of elements in a collection.
fun main() {
val numbers = listOf(6, 42, 10, 4)
println("Count: ${numbers.count()}")
println("Max: ${numbers.maxOrNull()}")
println("Min: ${numbers.minOrNull()}")
println("Average: ${numbers.average()}")
println("Sum: ${numbers.sum()}")
}
There are also functions for retrieving the smallest and the largest elements by certain selector function or custom
Comparator:
maxByOrNull() and minByOrNull() take a selector function and return the element for which it returns the largest or
the smallest value.
maxWithOrNull() and minWithOrNull() take a Comparator object and return the largest or smallest element according
to that Comparator.
These functions return null on empty collections. There are also alternatives for maxByOrNull() and minByOrNull():
maxOf() and minOf(), which do the same but throw a NoSuchElementException on empty collections.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf(5, 42, 10, 4)
val min3Remainder = numbers.minByOrNull { it % 3 }
println(min3Remainder)
val strings = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
val longestString = strings.maxWithOrNull(compareBy { it.length })
println(longestString)
//sampleEnd
}
Besides regular sum(), there is an advanced summation function sumOf() that takes a selector function and returns the
sum of its application to all collection elements. Selector can return different numeric types: Int, Long, Double, UInt,
and ULong (also BigInteger and BigDecimal on the JVM).
722
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf(5, 42, 10, 4)
println(numbers.sumOf { it * 2 })
println(numbers.sumOf { it.toDouble() / 2 })
//sampleEnd
}
Fold
and
reduce
For more specific cases, there are the functions reduce() and fold() that apply the provided operation to the collection
elements sequentially and return the accumulated result. The operation takes two arguments: the previously
accumulated value and the collection element.
The difference between the two functions is that fold() takes an initial value and uses it as the accumulated value on the
first step, whereas the first step of reduce() uses the first and the second elements as operation arguments on the first
step.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf(5, 2, 10, 4)
val sum = numbers.reduce { sum, element -> sum + element }
println(sum)
val sumDoubled = numbers.fold(0) { sum, element -> sum + element * 2 }
println(sumDoubled)
//val sumDoubledReduce = numbers.reduce { sum, element -> sum + element * 2 } //incorrect:
the first element isn't doubled in the result
//println(sumDoubledReduce)
//sampleEnd
}
The example above shows the difference: fold() is used for calculating the sum of doubled elements. If you pass the
same function to reduce(), it will return another result because it uses the list's first and second elements as arguments
on the first step, so the first element won't be doubled.
To apply a function to elements in the reverse order, use functions reduceRight() and foldRight(). They work in a way
similar to fold() and reduce() but start from the last element and then continue to previous. Note that when folding or
reducing right, the operation arguments change their order: first goes the element, and then the accumulated value.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf(5, 2, 10, 4)
val sumDoubledRight = numbers.foldRight(0) { element, sum -> sum + element * 2 }
println(sumDoubledRight)
723
//sampleEnd
}
You can also apply operations that take element indices as parameters. For this purpose, use functions
reduceIndexed() and foldIndexed() passing element index as the first argument of the operation.
Finally, there are functions that apply such operations to collection elements from right to left - reduceRightIndexed()
and foldRightIndexed().
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf(5, 2, 10, 4)
val sumEven = numbers.foldIndexed(0) { idx, sum, element -> if (idx % 2 == 0) sum +
element else sum }
println(sumEven)
val sumEvenRight = numbers.foldRightIndexed(0) { idx, element, sum -> if (idx % 2 == 0)
sum + element else sum }
println(sumEvenRight)
//sampleEnd
}
All reduce operations throw an exception on empty collections. To receive null instead, use their *OrNull() counterparts:
reduceOrNull()
reduceRightOrNull()
reduceIndexedOrNull()
reduceRightIndexedOrNull()
For cases where you want to save intermediate accumulator values, there are functions runningFold() (or its synonym
scan()) and runningReduce().
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf(0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5)
val runningReduceSum = numbers.runningReduce { sum, item -> sum + item }
val runningFoldSum = numbers.runningFold(10) { sum, item -> sum + item }
//sampleEnd
val transform = { index: Int, element: Int -> "N = ${index + 1}: $element" }
println(runningReduceSum.mapIndexed(transform).joinToString("\n", "Sum of first N elements
with runningReduce:\n"))
println(runningFoldSum.mapIndexed(transform).joinToString("\n", "Sum of first N elements
with runningFold:\n"))
}
If you need an index in the operation parameter, use runningFoldIndexed() or runningReduceIndexed().
724
Collection
write
operations
Mutable collections support operations for changing the collection contents, for example, adding or removing
elements. On this page, we'll describe write operations available for all implementations of MutableCollection. For more
specific operations available for List and Map, see List-specific Operations and Map Specific Operations respectively.
Adding
elements
To add a single element to a list or a set, use the add() function. The specified object is appended to the end of the
collection.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf(1, 2, 3, 4)
numbers.add(5)
println(numbers)
//sampleEnd
}
addAll() adds every element of the argument object to a list or a set. The argument can be an Iterable, a Sequence, or
an Array. The types of the receiver and the argument may be different, for example, you can add all items from a Set to
a List.
When called on lists, addAll() adds new elements in the same order as they go in the argument. You can also call
addAll() specifying an element position as the first argument. The first element of the argument collection will be
inserted at this position. Other elements of the argument collection will follow it, shifting the receiver elements to the
end.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf(1, 2, 5, 6)
numbers.addAll(arrayOf(7, 8))
println(numbers)
numbers.addAll(2, setOf(3, 4))
println(numbers)
//sampleEnd
}
You can also add elements using the in-place version of the plus operator- plusAssign (+=) When applied to a mutable
collection, += appends the second operand (an element or another collection) to the end of the collection.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "two")
725
numbers += "three"
println(numbers)
numbers += listOf("four", "five")
println(numbers)
//sampleEnd
}
Removing
elements
To remove an element from a mutable collection, use the remove() function. remove() accepts the element value and
removes one occurrence of this value.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf(1, 2, 3, 4, 3)
numbers.remove(3) // removes the first `3`
println(numbers)
numbers.remove(5) // removes nothing
println(numbers)
//sampleEnd
}
For removing multiple elements at once, there are the following functions :
removeAll() removes all elements that are present in the argument collection. Alternatively, you can call it with a
predicate as an argument; in this case the function removes all elements for which the predicate yields true.
retainAll() is the opposite of removeAll(): it removes all elements except the ones from the argument collection. When
used with a predicate, it leaves only elements that match it.
clear() removes all elements from a list and leaves it empty.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf(1, 2, 3, 4)
println(numbers)
numbers.retainAll { it >= 3 }
println(numbers)
numbers.clear()
println(numbers)
val numbersSet = mutableSetOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
numbersSet.removeAll(setOf("one", "two"))
println(numbersSet)
//sampleEnd
}
Another way to remove elements from a collection is with the minusAssign (-=) operator – the in-place version of minus.
The second argument can be a single instance of the element type or another collection. With a single element on the
726
right-hand side, -= removes the first occurrence of it. In turn, if it's a collection, all occurrences of its elements are
removed. For example, if a list contains duplicate elements, they are removed at once. The second operand can
contain elements that are not present in the collection. Such elements don't affect the operation execution.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "two", "three", "three", "four")
numbers -= "three"
println(numbers)
numbers -= listOf("four", "five")
//numbers -= listOf("four") // does the same as above
println(numbers)
//sampleEnd
}
Updating
elements
Lists and maps also provide operations for updating elements. They are described in List-specific Operations and Map
Specific Operations. For sets, updating doesn't make sense since it's actually removing an element and adding
another one.
List-specific
operations
List is the most popular type of built-in collection in Kotlin. Index access to the elements of lists provides a powerful set
of operations for lists.
Retrieve
elements
by
index
Lists support all common operations for element retrieval: elementAt(), first(), last(), and others listed in Retrieve single
elements. What is specific for lists is index access to the elements, so the simplest way to read an element is retrieving
it by index. That is done with the get() function with the index passed in the argument or the shorthand [index] syntax.
If the list size is less than the specified index, an exception is thrown. There are two other functions that help you avoid
such exceptions:
getOrElse() lets you provide the function for calculating the default value to return if the index isn't present in the
collection.
getOrNull() returns null as the default value.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
727
val numbers = listOf(1, 2, 3, 4)
println(numbers.get(0))
println(numbers[0])
//numbers.get(5) // exception!
println(numbers.getOrNull(5)) // null
println(numbers.getOrElse(5, {it})) // 5
//sampleEnd
}
Retrieve
list
parts
In addition to common operations for Retrieving Collection Parts, lists provide the subList() function that returns a view
of the specified elements range as a list. Thus, if an element of the original collection changes, it also changes in the
previously created sublists and vice versa.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = (0..13).toList()
println(numbers.subList(3, 6))
//sampleEnd
}
Find
element
positions
Linear
search
In any lists, you can find the position of an element using the functions indexOf() and lastIndexOf(). They return the first
and the last position of an element equal to the given argument in the list. If there are no such elements, both functions
return -1.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf(1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 5)
println(numbers.indexOf(2))
println(numbers.lastIndexOf(2))
//sampleEnd
}
There is also a pair of functions that take a predicate and search for elements matching it:
indexOfFirst() returns the index of the first element matching the predicate or -1 if there are no such elements.
indexOfLast() returns the index of the last element matching the predicate or -1 if there are no such elements.
728
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf(1, 2, 3, 4)
println(numbers.indexOfFirst { it > 2})
println(numbers.indexOfLast { it % 2 == 1})
//sampleEnd
}
Binary
search
in
sorted
lists
There is one more way to search elements in lists – binary search. It works significantly faster than other built-in search
functions but requires the list to be sorted in ascending order according to a certain ordering: natural or another one
provided in the function parameter. Otherwise, the result is undefined.
To search an element in a sorted list, call the binarySearch() function passing the value as an argument. If such an
element exists, the function returns its index; otherwise, it returns (-insertionPoint - 1) where insertionPoint is the index
where this element should be inserted so that the list remains sorted. If there is more than one element with the given
value, the search can return any of their indices.
You can also specify an index range to search in: in this case, the function searches only between two provided
indices.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
numbers.sort()
println(numbers)
println(numbers.binarySearch("two")) // 3
println(numbers.binarySearch("z")) // -5
println(numbers.binarySearch("two", 0, 2)) // -3
//sampleEnd
}
Comparator binary search
When list elements aren't Comparable, you should provide a Comparator to use in the binary search. The list must be
sorted in ascending order according to this Comparator. Let's have a look at an example:
data class Product(val name: String, val price: Double)
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val productList = listOf(
Product("WebStorm", 49.0),
Product("AppCode", 99.0),
Product("DotTrace", 129.0),
Product("ReSharper", 149.0))
729
println(productList.binarySearch(Product("AppCode", 99.0), compareBy<Product> { it.price
}.thenBy { it.name }))
//sampleEnd
}
Here's a list of Product instances that aren't Comparable and a Comparator that defines the order: product p1
precedes product p2 if p1 's price is less than p2 's price. So, having a list sorted ascending according to this order,
we use binarySearch() to find the index of the specified Product.
Custom comparators are also handy when a list uses an order different from natural one, for example, a case-
insensitive order for String elements.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val colors = listOf("Blue", "green", "ORANGE", "Red", "yellow")
println(colors.binarySearch("RED", String.CASE_INSENSITIVE_ORDER)) // 3
//sampleEnd
}
Comparison binary search
Binary search with comparison function lets you find elements without providing explicit search values. Instead, it takes
a comparison function mapping elements to Int values and searches for the element where the function returns zero.
The list must be sorted in the ascending order according to the provided function; in other words, the return values of
comparison must grow from one list element to the next one.
import kotlin.math.sign
//sampleStart
data class Product(val name: String, val price: Double)
fun priceComparison(product: Product, price: Double) = sign(product.price - price).toInt()
fun main() {
val productList = listOf(
Product("WebStorm", 49.0),
Product("AppCode", 99.0),
Product("DotTrace", 129.0),
Product("ReSharper", 149.0))
println(productList.binarySearch { priceComparison(it, 99.0) })
}
//sampleEnd
Both comparator and comparison binary search can be performed for list ranges as well.
List
write
operations
730
In addition to the collection modification operations described in Collection write operations, mutable lists support
specific write operations. Such operations use the index to access elements to broaden the list modification
capabilities.
Add
To add elements to a specific position in a list, use add() and addAll() providing the position for element insertion as an
additional argument. All elements that come after the position shift to the right.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "five", "six")
numbers.add(1, "two")
numbers.addAll(2, listOf("three", "four"))
println(numbers)
//sampleEnd
}
Update
Lists also offer a function to replace an element at a given position - set() and its operator form []. set() doesn't change
the indexes of other elements.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "five", "three")
numbers[1] = "two"
println(numbers)
//sampleEnd
}
fill() simply replaces all the collection elements with the specified value.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf(1, 2, 3, 4)
numbers.fill(3)
println(numbers)
//sampleEnd
}
Remove
To remove an element at a specific position from a list, use the removeAt() function providing the position as an
argument. All indices of elements that come after the element being removed will decrease by one.
731
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf(1, 2, 3, 4, 3)
numbers.removeAt(1)
println(numbers)
//sampleEnd
}
Sort
In Collection Ordering, we describe operations that retrieve collection elements in specific orders. For mutable lists, the
standard library offers similar extension functions that perform the same ordering operations in place. When you apply
such an operation to a list instance, it changes the order of elements in that exact instance.
The in-place sorting functions have similar names to the functions that apply to read-only lists, but without the ed/d
suffix:
sort* instead of sorted* in the names of all sorting functions: sort(), sortDescending(), sortBy(), and so on.
shuffle() instead of shuffled().
reverse() instead of reversed().
asReversed() called on a mutable list returns another mutable list which is a reversed view of the original list. Changes
in that view are reflected in the original list. The following example shows sorting functions for mutable lists:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
numbers.sort()
println("Sort into ascending: $numbers")
numbers.sortDescending()
println("Sort into descending: $numbers")
numbers.sortBy { it.length }
println("Sort into ascending by length: $numbers")
numbers.sortByDescending { it.last() }
println("Sort into descending by the last letter: $numbers")
numbers.sortWith(compareBy<String> { it.length }.thenBy { it })
println("Sort by Comparator: $numbers")
numbers.shuffle()
println("Shuffle: $numbers")
numbers.reverse()
println("Reverse: $numbers")
//sampleEnd
}
732
Set-specific
operations
The Kotlin collections package contains extension functions for popular operations on sets: finding intersections,
merging, or subtracting collections from each other.
To merge two collections into one, use the union() function. It can be used in the infix form a union b. Note that for
ordered collections the order of the operands is important: in the resulting collection, the elements of the first operand
go before the elements of the second.
To find an intersection between two collections (elements present in both of them), use intersect(). To find collection
elements not present in another collection, use subtract(). Both these functions can be called in the infix form as well,
for example, a intersect b.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = setOf("one", "two", "three")
println(numbers union setOf("four", "five"))
println(setOf("four", "five") union numbers)
println(numbers intersect setOf("two", "one"))
println(numbers subtract setOf("three", "four"))
println(numbers subtract setOf("four", "three")) // same output
//sampleEnd
}
Note that set operations are supported by List as well. However, the result of set operations on lists is still a Set, so all
the duplicate elements are removed.
Map-specific
operations
In maps, types of both keys and values are user-defined. Key-based access to map entries enables various map-
specific processing capabilities from getting a value by key to separate filtering of keys and values. On this page, we
provide descriptions of the map processing functions from the standard library.
Retrieve
keys
and
values
For retrieving a value from a map, you must provide its key as an argument of the get() function. The shorthand [key]
syntax is also supported. If the given key is not found, it returns null. There is also the function getValue() which has
slightly different behavior: it throws an exception if the key is not found in the map. Additionally, you have two more
options to handle the key absence:
getOrElse() works the same way as for lists: the values for non-existent keys are returned from the given lambda
function.
733
getOrDefault() returns the specified default value if the key is not found.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbersMap = mapOf("one" to 1, "two" to 2, "three" to 3)
println(numbersMap.get("one"))
println(numbersMap["one"])
println(numbersMap.getOrDefault("four", 10))
println(numbersMap["five"]) // null
//numbersMap.getValue("six") // exception!
//sampleEnd
}
To perform operations on all keys or all values of a map, you can retrieve them from the properties keys and values
accordingly. keys is a set of all map keys and values is a collection of all map values.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbersMap = mapOf("one" to 1, "two" to 2, "three" to 3)
println(numbersMap.keys)
println(numbersMap.values)
//sampleEnd
}
Filter
You can filter maps with the filter() function as well as other collections. When calling filter() on a map, pass to it a
predicate with a Pair as an argument. This enables you to use both the key and the value in the filtering predicate.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbersMap = mapOf("key1" to 1, "key2" to 2, "key3" to 3, "key11" to 11)
val filteredMap = numbersMap.filter { (key, value) -> key.endsWith("1") && value > 10}
println(filteredMap)
//sampleEnd
}
There are also two specific ways for filtering maps: by keys and by values. For each way, there is a function: filterKeys()
and filterValues(). Both return a new map of entries which match the given predicate. The predicate for filterKeys()
checks only the element keys, the one for filterValues() checks only values.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbersMap = mapOf("key1" to 1, "key2" to 2, "key3" to 3, "key11" to 11)
val filteredKeysMap = numbersMap.filterKeys { it.endsWith("1") }
734
val filteredValuesMap = numbersMap.filterValues { it < 10 }
println(filteredKeysMap)
println(filteredValuesMap)
//sampleEnd
}
Plus
and
minus
operators
Due to the key access to elements, plus (+) and minus (-) operators work for maps differently than for other collections.
plus returns a Map that contains elements of its both operands: a Map on the left and a Pair or another Map on the
right. When the right-hand side operand contains entries with keys present in the left-hand side Map, the result map
contains the entries from the right side.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbersMap = mapOf("one" to 1, "two" to 2, "three" to 3)
println(numbersMap + Pair("four", 4))
println(numbersMap + Pair("one", 10))
println(numbersMap + mapOf("five" to 5, "one" to 11))
//sampleEnd
}
minus creates a Map from entries of a Map on the left except those with keys from the right-hand side operand. So, the
right-hand side operand can be either a single key or a collection of keys: list, set, and so on.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbersMap = mapOf("one" to 1, "two" to 2, "three" to 3)
println(numbersMap - "one")
println(numbersMap - listOf("two", "four"))
//sampleEnd
}
For details on using plusAssign (+=) and minusAssign (-=) operators on mutable maps, see Map write operations
below.
Map
write
operations
Mutable maps offer map-specific write operations. These operations let you change the map content using the key-
based access to the values.
There are certain rules that define write operations on maps:
Values can be updated. In turn, keys never change: once you add an entry, its key is constant.
735
For each key, there is always a single value associated with it. You can add and remove whole entries.
Below are descriptions of the standard library functions for write operations available on mutable maps.
Add
and
update
entries
To add a new key-value pair to a mutable map, use put(). When a new entry is put into a LinkedHashMap (the default
map implementation), it is added so that it comes last when iterating the map. In sorted maps, the positions of new
elements are defined by the order of their keys.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbersMap = mutableMapOf("one" to 1, "two" to 2)
numbersMap.put("three", 3)
println(numbersMap)
//sampleEnd
}
To add multiple entries at a time, use putAll(). Its argument can be a Map or a group of Pair s: Iterable, Sequence, or
Array.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbersMap = mutableMapOf("one" to 1, "two" to 2, "three" to 3)
numbersMap.putAll(setOf("four" to 4, "five" to 5))
println(numbersMap)
//sampleEnd
}
Both put() and putAll() overwrite the values if the given keys already exist in the map. Thus, you can use them to update
values of map entries.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbersMap = mutableMapOf("one" to 1, "two" to 2)
val previousValue = numbersMap.put("one", 11)
println("value associated with 'one', before: $previousValue, after: ${numbersMap["one"]}")
println(numbersMap)
//sampleEnd
}
You can also add new entries to maps using the shorthand operator form. There are two ways:
plusAssign (+=) operator.
the [] operator alias for set().
736
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbersMap = mutableMapOf("one" to 1, "two" to 2)
numbersMap["three"] = 3 // calls numbersMap.put("three", 3)
numbersMap += mapOf("four" to 4, "five" to 5)
println(numbersMap)
//sampleEnd
}
When called with the key present in the map, operators overwrite the values of the corresponding entries.
Remove
entries
To remove an entry from a mutable map, use the remove() function. When calling remove(), you can pass either a key
or a whole key-value-pair. If you specify both the key and value, the element with this key will be removed only if its
value matches the second argument.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbersMap = mutableMapOf("one" to 1, "two" to 2, "three" to 3)
numbersMap.remove("one")
println(numbersMap)
numbersMap.remove("three", 4) //doesn't remove anything
println(numbersMap)
//sampleEnd
}
You can also remove entries from a mutable map by their keys or values. To do this, call remove() on the map's keys or
values providing the key or the value of an entry. When called on values, remove() removes only the first entry with the
given value.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbersMap = mutableMapOf("one" to 1, "two" to 2, "three" to 3, "threeAgain" to 3)
numbersMap.keys.remove("one")
println(numbersMap)
numbersMap.values.remove(3)
println(numbersMap)
//sampleEnd
}
The minusAssign (-=) operator is also available for mutable maps.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbersMap = mutableMapOf("one" to 1, "two" to 2, "three" to 3)
numbersMap -= "two"
737
println(numbersMap)
numbersMap -= "five" //doesn't remove anything
println(numbersMap)
//sampleEnd
}
Scope
functions
The Kotlin standard library contains several functions whose sole purpose is to execute a block of code within the
context of an object. When you call such a function on an object with a lambda expression provided, it forms a
temporary scope. In this scope, you can access the object without its name. Such functions are called scope functions.
There are five of them: let, run, with, apply, and also.
Basically, these functions do the same: execute a block of code on an object. What's different is how this object
becomes available inside the block and what is the result of the whole expression.
Here's a typical usage of a scope function:
data class Person(var name: String, var age: Int, var city: String) {
fun moveTo(newCity: String) { city = newCity }
fun incrementAge() { age++ }
}
fun main() {
//sampleStart
Person("Alice", 20, "Amsterdam").let {
println(it)
it.moveTo("London")
it.incrementAge()
println(it)
}
//sampleEnd
}
If you write the same without let, you'll have to introduce a new variable and repeat its name whenever you use it.
data class Person(var name: String, var age: Int, var city: String) {
fun moveTo(newCity: String) { city = newCity }
fun incrementAge() { age++ }
}
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val alice = Person("Alice", 20, "Amsterdam")
println(alice)
alice.moveTo("London")
alice.incrementAge()
println(alice)
//sampleEnd
}
738
The scope functions do not introduce any new technical capabilities, but they can make your code more concise and
readable.
Due to the similar nature of scope functions, choosing the right one for your case can be a bit tricky. The choice mainly
depends on your intent and the consistency of use in your project. Below we'll provide detailed descriptions of the
distinctions between scope functions and the conventions on their usage.
Function
selection
To help you choose the right scope function for your purpose, we provide the table of key differences between them.
Function Object reference Return value Is extension function
let it Lambda result Yes
run this Lambda result Yes
run - Lambda result No: called without the context object
with this Lambda result No: takes the context object as an argument.
apply this Context object Yes
also it Context object Yes
The detailed information about the differences is provided in the dedicated sections below.
Here is a short guide for choosing scope functions depending on the intended purpose:
Executing a lambda on non-null objects: let
Introducing an expression as a variable in local scope: let
Object configuration: apply
Object configuration and computing the result: run
Running statements where an expression is required: non-extension run
Additional effects: also
Grouping function calls on an object: with
The use cases of different functions overlap, so that you can choose the functions based on the specific conventions
used in your project or team.
Although the scope functions are a way of making the code more concise, avoid overusing them: it can decrease your
739
code readability and lead to errors. Avoid nesting scope functions and be careful when chaining them: it's easy to get
confused about the current context object and the value of this or it.
Distinctions
Because the scope functions are all quite similar in nature, it's important to understand the differences between them.
There are two main differences between each scope function:
The way to refer to the context object
The return value.
Context
object:
this
or
it
Inside the lambda of a scope function, the context object is available by a short reference instead of its actual name.
Each scope function uses one of two ways to access the context object: as a lambda receiver (this) or as a lambda
argument (it ). Both provide the same capabilities, so we'll describe the pros and cons of each for different cases and
provide recommendations on their use.
fun main() {
val str = "Hello"
// this
str.run {
println("The receiver string length: $length")
//println("The receiver string length: ${this.length}") // does the same
}
// it
str.let {
println("The receiver string's length is ${it.length}")
}
}
this
run, with, and apply refer to the context object as a lambda receiver - by keyword this. Hence, in their lambdas, the
object is available as it would be in ordinary class functions. In most cases, you can omit this when accessing the
members of the receiver object, making the code shorter. On the other hand, if this is omitted, it can be hard to
distinguish between the receiver members and external objects or functions. So, having the context object as a
receiver (this) is recommended for lambdas that mainly operate on the object members: call its functions or assign
properties.
data class Person(var name: String, var age: Int = 0, var city: String = "")
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val adam = Person("Adam").apply {
age = 20 // same as this.age = 20 or adam.age = 20
740
city = "London"
}
println(adam)
//sampleEnd
}
it
In turn, let and also have the context object as a lambda argument. If the argument name is not specified, the object is
accessed by the implicit default name it. it is shorter than this and expressions with it are usually easier for reading.
However, when calling the object functions or properties you don't have the object available implicitly like this. Hence,
having the context object as it is better when the object is mostly used as an argument in function calls. it is also better
if you use multiple variables in the code block.
import kotlin.random.Random
fun writeToLog(message: String) {
println("INFO: $message")
}
fun main() {
//sampleStart
fun getRandomInt(): Int {
return Random.nextInt(100).also {
writeToLog("getRandomInt() generated value $it")
}
}
val i = getRandomInt()
//sampleEnd
}
Additionally, when you pass the context object as an argument, you can provide a custom name for the context object
inside the scope.
import kotlin.random.Random
fun writeToLog(message: String) {
println("INFO: $message")
}
fun main() {
//sampleStart
fun getRandomInt(): Int {
return Random.nextInt(100).also { value ->
writeToLog("getRandomInt() generated value $value")
}
}
val i = getRandomInt()
//sampleEnd
}
741
Return
value
The scope functions differ by the result they return:
apply and also return the context object.
let, run, and with return the lambda result.
These two options let you choose the proper function depending on what you do next in your code.
Context object
The return value of apply and also is the context object itself. Hence, they can be included into call chains as side
steps: you can continue chaining function calls on the same object after them.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numberList = mutableListOf<Double>()
numberList.also { println("Populating the list") }
.apply {
add(2.71)
add(3.14)
add(1.0)
}
.also { println("Sorting the list") }
.sort()
//sampleEnd
println(numberList)
}
They also can be used in return statements of functions returning the context object.
import kotlin.random.Random
fun writeToLog(message: String) {
println("INFO: $message")
}
fun main() {
//sampleStart
fun getRandomInt(): Int {
return Random.nextInt(100).also {
writeToLog("getRandomInt() generated value $it")
}
}
val i = getRandomInt()
//sampleEnd
}
Lambda result
let, run, and with return the lambda result. So, you can use them when assigning the result to a variable, chaining
742
operations on the result, and so on.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "two", "three")
val countEndsWithE = numbers.run {
add("four")
add("five")
count { it.endsWith("e") }
}
println("There are $countEndsWithE elements that end with e.")
//sampleEnd
}
Additionally, you can ignore the return value and use a scope function to create a temporary scope for variables.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "two", "three")
with(numbers) {
val firstItem = first()
val lastItem = last()
println("First item: $firstItem, last item: $lastItem")
}
//sampleEnd
}
Functions
To help you choose the right scope function for your case, we'll describe them in detail and provide usage
recommendations. Technically, functions are interchangeable in many cases, so the examples show the conventions
that define the common usage style.
let
The context object is available as an argument (it ). The return value is the lambda result.
let can be used to invoke one or more functions on results of call chains. For example, the following code prints the
results of two operations on a collection:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "two", "three", "four", "five")
val resultList = numbers.map { it.length }.filter { it > 3 }
println(resultList)
//sampleEnd
}
With let, you can rewrite it:
743
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "two", "three", "four", "five")
numbers.map { it.length }.filter { it > 3 }.let {
println(it)
// and more function calls if needed
}
//sampleEnd
}
If the code block contains a single function with it as an argument, you can use the method reference (::) instead of the
lambda:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "two", "three", "four", "five")
numbers.map { it.length }.filter { it > 3 }.let(::println)
//sampleEnd
}
let is often used for executing a code block only with non-null values. To perform actions on a non-null object, use the
safe call operator ?. on it and call let with the actions in its lambda.
fun processNonNullString(str: String) {}
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val str: String? = "Hello"
//processNonNullString(str) // compilation error: str can be null
val length = str?.let {
println("let() called on $it")
processNonNullString(it) // OK: 'it' is not null inside '?.let { }'
it.length
}
//sampleEnd
}
Another case for using let is introducing local variables with a limited scope for improving code readability. To define a
new variable for the context object, provide its name as the lambda argument so that it can be used instead of the
default it.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = listOf("one", "two", "three", "four")
val modifiedFirstItem = numbers.first().let { firstItem ->
println("The first item of the list is '$firstItem'")
if (firstItem.length >= 5) firstItem else "!" + firstItem + "!"
}.uppercase()
println("First item after modifications: '$modifiedFirstItem'")
//sampleEnd
}
744
with
A non-extension function: the context object is passed as an argument, but inside the lambda, it's available as a
receiver (this ). The return value is the lambda result.
We recommend with for calling functions on the context object without providing the lambda result. In the code, with
can be read as “ with this object, do the following.”
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "two", "three")
with(numbers) {
println("'with' is called with argument $this")
println("It contains $size elements")
}
//sampleEnd
}
Another use case for with is introducing a helper object whose properties or functions will be used for calculating a
value.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "two", "three")
val firstAndLast = with(numbers) {
"The first element is ${first()}," +
" the last element is ${last()}"
}
println(firstAndLast)
//sampleEnd
}
run
The context object is available as a receiver (this ). The return value is the lambda result.
run does the same as with but invokes as let- as an extension function of the context object.
run is useful when your lambda contains both the object initialization and the computation of the return value.
class MultiportService(var url: String, var port: Int) {
fun prepareRequest(): String = "Default request"
fun query(request: String): String = "Result for query '$request'"
}
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val service = MultiportService("https://example.kotlinlang.org", 80)
val result = service.run {
port = 8080
query(prepareRequest() + " to port $port")
}
745
// the same code written with let() function:
val letResult = service.let {
it.port = 8080
it.query(it.prepareRequest() + " to port ${it.port}")
}
//sampleEnd
println(result)
println(letResult)
}
Besides calling run on a receiver object, you can use it as a non-extension function. Non-extension run lets you
execute a block of several statements where an expression is required.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val hexNumberRegex = run {
val digits = "0-9"
val hexDigits = "A-Fa-f"
val sign = "+-"
Regex("[$sign]?[$digits$hexDigits]+")
}
for (match in hexNumberRegex.findAll("+1234 -FFFF not-a-number")) {
println(match.value)
}
//sampleEnd
}
apply
The context object is available as a receiver (this ). The return value is the object itself.
Use apply for code blocks that don't return a value and mainly operate on the members of the receiver object. The
common case for apply is the object configuration. Such calls can be read as “ apply the following assignments to the
object.”
data class Person(var name: String, var age: Int = 0, var city: String = "")
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val adam = Person("Adam").apply {
age = 32
city = "London"
}
println(adam)
//sampleEnd
}
Having the receiver as the return value, you can easily include apply into call chains for more complex processing.
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also
The context object is available as an argument (it ). The return value is the object itself.
also is good for performing some actions that take the context object as an argument. Use also for actions that need a
reference rather to the object than to its properties and functions, or when you don't want to shadow this reference
from an outer scope.
When you see also in the code, you can read it as “ and also do the following with the object.”
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val numbers = mutableListOf("one", "two", "three")
numbers
.also { println("The list elements before adding new one: $it") }
.add("four")
//sampleEnd
}
takeIf
and
takeUnless
In addition to scope functions, the standard library contains the functions takeIf and takeUnless. These functions let
you embed checks of the object state in call chains.
When called on an object with a predicate provided, takeIf returns this object if it matches the predicate. Otherwise, it
returns null. So, takeIf is a filtering function for a single object. In turn, takeUnless returns the object if it doesn't match
the predicate and null if it does. The object is available as a lambda argument (it ).
import kotlin.random.*
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val number = Random.nextInt(100)
val evenOrNull = number.takeIf { it % 2 == 0 }
val oddOrNull = number.takeUnless { it % 2 == 0 }
println("even: $evenOrNull, odd: $oddOrNull")
//sampleEnd
}
When chaining other functions after takeIf and takeUnless, don't forget to perform the null check or the safe call (?.)
because their return value is nullable.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
val str = "Hello"
val caps = str.takeIf { it.isNotEmpty() }?.uppercase()
//val caps = str.takeIf { it.isNotEmpty() }.uppercase() //compilation error
println(caps)
//sampleEnd
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}
takeIf and takeUnless are especially useful together with scope functions. A good case is chaining them with let for
running a code block on objects that match the given predicate. To do this, call takeIf on the object and then call let
with a safe call (? ). For objects that don't match the predicate, takeIf returns null and let isn't invoked.
fun main() {
//sampleStart
fun displaySubstringPosition(input: String, sub: String) {
input.indexOf(sub).takeIf { it >= 0 }?.let {
println("The substring $sub is found in $input.")
println("Its start position is $it.")
}
}
displaySubstringPosition("010000011", "11")
displaySubstringPosition("010000011", "12")
//sampleEnd
}
This is how the same function looks without the standard library functions:
fun main() {
//sampleStart
fun displaySubstringPosition(input: String, sub: String) {
val index = input.indexOf(sub)
if (index >= 0) {
println("The substring $sub is found in $input.")
println("Its start position is $index.")
}
}
displaySubstringPosition("010000011", "11")
displaySubstringPosition("010000011", "12")
//sampleEnd
}
Opt-in
requirements
The opt-in requirement annotations @RequiresOptIn and @OptIn are Experimental. They may be dropped or
changed at any time. Opt-in is required (see details below). Use them only for evaluation purposes. We
appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
@RequireOptIn and @OptIn annotations were introduced in 1.3.70 to replace previously used @Experimental
and @UseExperimental; at the same time, -Xopt-in compiler option replaced -Xuse-experimental.
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The Kotlin standard library provides a mechanism for requiring and giving explicit consent for using certain elements of
APIs. This mechanism lets library developers inform users of their APIs about specific conditions that require opt-in, for
example, if an API is in the experimental state and is likely to change in the future.
To prevent potential issues, the compiler warns users of such APIs about these conditions and requires them to opt in
before using the API.
Opt
in
to
using
API
If a library author marks a declaration from a library's API as requiring opt-in, you should give an explicit consent for
using it in your code. There are several ways to opt in to such APIs, all applicable without technical limitations. You are
free to choose the way that you find best for your situation.
Propagating
opt-in
When you use an API in the code intended for third-party use (a library), you can propagate its opt-in requirement to
your API as well. To do this, annotate your declaration with the opt-in requirement annotation of the API used in its
body. This enables you to use the API elements marked with this annotation.
// library code
@RequiresOptIn(message = "This API is experimental. It may be changed in the future without
notice.")
@Retention(AnnotationRetention.BINARY)
@Target(AnnotationTarget.CLASS, AnnotationTarget.FUNCTION)
annotation class MyDateTime // Opt-in requirement annotation
@MyDateTime
class DateProvider // A class requiring opt-in
// client code
fun getYear(): Int {
val dateProvider: DateProvider // Error: DateProvider requires opt-in
// ...
}
@MyDateTime
fun getDate(): Date {
val dateProvider: DateProvider // OK: the function requires opt-in as well
// ...
}
fun displayDate() {
println(getDate()) // error: getDate() requires opt-in
}
As you can see in this example, the annotated function appears to be a part of the @MyDateTime API. So, such an opt-
in propagates the opt-in requirement to the client code; its clients will see the same warning message and be required
to consent as well. To use multiple APIs that require opt-in, mark the declaration with all their opt-in requirement
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annotations.
Non-propagating
opt-in
In modules that don't expose their own API, such as applications, you can opt in to using APIs without propagating the
opt-in requirement to your code. In this case, mark your declaration with @OptIn passing the opt-in requirement
annotation as its argument:
// library code
@RequiresOptIn(message = "This API is experimental. It may be changed in the future without
notice.")
@Retention(AnnotationRetention.BINARY)
@Target(AnnotationTarget.CLASS, AnnotationTarget.FUNCTION)
annotation class MyDateTime // Opt-in requirement annotation
@MyDateTime
class DateProvider // A class requiring opt-in
//client code
@OptIn(MyDateTime::class)
fun getDate(): Date { // Uses DateProvider; doesn't propagate the opt-in requirement
val dateProvider: DateProvider
// ...
}
fun displayDate() {
println(getDate()) // OK: opt-in is not required
}
When somebody calls the function getDate(), they won't be informed about the opt-in requirements for APIs used in its
body.
To use an API that requires opt-in in all functions and classes in a file, add the file-level annotation @file:OptIn to the
top of the file before the package specification and imports.
//client code
@file:OptIn(MyDateTime::class)
Module-wide
opt-in
If you don't want to annotate every usage of APIs that require opt-in, you can opt in to them for your whole module. To
opt in to using an API in a module, compile it with the argument -Xopt-in, specifying the fully qualified name of the opt-
in requirement annotation of the API you use: -Xopt-in=org.mylibrary.OptInAnnotation. Compiling with this argument
has the same effect as if every declaration in the module had the annotation @OptIn(OptInAnnotation::class).
If you build your module with Gradle, you can add arguments like this:
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Groovy
tasks.withType(KotlinCompile).configureEach {
kotlinOptions {
freeCompilerArgs += "-Xopt-in=org.mylibrary.OptInAnnotation"
}
}
Kotlin
tasks.withType<KotlinCompile>().configureEach {
kotlinOptions.freeCompilerArgs += "-Xopt-in=org.mylibrary.OptInAnnotation"
}
If your Gradle module is a multiplatform module, use the useExperimentalAnnotation method:
Groovy
sourceSets {
all {
languageSettings {
useExperimentalAnnotation('org.mylibrary.OptInAnnotation')
}
}
}
Kotlin
sourceSets {
all {
languageSettings.useExperimentalAnnotation("org.mylibrary.OptInAnnotation")
}
}
For Maven, it would be:
<build>
<plugins>
<plugin>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<artifactId>kotlin-maven-plugin</artifactId>
<version>${kotlin.version}</version>
<executions>...</executions>
<configuration>
<args>
<arg>-Xopt-in=org.mylibrary.OptInAnnotation</arg>
</args>
</configuration>
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</plugin>
</plugins>
</build>
To opt in to multiple APIs on the module level, add one of the described arguments for each opt-in requirement marker
used in your module.
Require
opt-in
for
API
Create
opt-in
requirement
annotations
If you want to require explicit consent to using your module's API, create an annotation class to use as an opt-in
requirement annotation. This class must be annotated with @RequiresOptIn:
@RequiresOptIn
@Retention(AnnotationRetention.BINARY)
@Target(AnnotationTarget.CLASS, AnnotationTarget.FUNCTION)
annotation class MyDateTime
Opt-in requirement annotations must meet several requirements:
BINARY retention
No EXPRESSION and FILE among targets
No parameters.
An opt-in requirement can have one of two severity levels:
RequiresOptIn.Level.ERROR. Opt-in is mandatory. Otherwise, the code that uses marked API won't compile.
Default level.
RequiresOptIn.Level.WARNING. Opt-in is not mandatory, but advisable. Without it, the compiler raises a warning.
To set the desired level, specify the level parameter of the @RequiresOptIn annotation.
Additionally, you can provide a message to inform API users about special condition of using the API. The compiler will
show it to users that use the API without opt-in.
@RequiresOptIn(level = RequiresOptIn.Level.WARNING, message = "This API is experimental. It can
be incompatibly changed in the future.")
@Retention(AnnotationRetention.BINARY)
@Target(AnnotationTarget.CLASS, AnnotationTarget.FUNCTION)
annotation class ExperimentalDateTime
If you publish multiple independent features that require opt-in, declare an annotation for each. This makes the use of
API safer for your clients: they can use only the features that they explicitly accept. This also lets you remove the opt-in
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requirements from the features independently.
Mark
API
elements
To require an opt-in to using an API element, annotate its declaration with an opt-in requirement annotation:
@MyDateTime
class DateProvider
@MyDateTime
fun getTime(): Time {}
Opt-in
requirements
for
pre-stable
APIs
If you use opt-in requirements for features that are not stable yet, carefully handle the API graduation to avoid breaking
the client code.
Once your pre-stable API graduates and is released in a stable state, remove its opt-in requirement annotations from
declarations. The clients will be able to use them without restriction. However, you should leave the annotation classes
in modules so that the existing client code remains compatible.
To let the API users update their modules accordingly (remove the annotations from their code and recompile), mark
the annotations as @Deprecated and provide the explanation in the deprecation message.
@Deprecated("This opt-in requirement is not used anymore. Remove its usages from your code.")
@RequiresOptIn
annotation class ExperimentalDateTime
Experimental
status
of
the
opt-in
requirements
The opt-in requirement mechanism is currently experimental. This means that in future releases it may be changed in
ways that make it incompatible.
To make the users of annotations @OptIn and @RequiresOptIn aware of their experimental status, the compiler raises
warnings when compiling the code with these annotations:
This class can only be used with the compiler argument '-Xopt-in=kotlin.RequiresOptIn'
To remove the warnings, add the compiler argument -Xopt-in=kotlin.RequiresOptIn.
Coroutines
guide
Kotlin, as a language, provides only minimal low-level APIs in its standard library to enable various other libraries to
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utilize coroutines. Unlike many other languages with similar capabilities, async and await are not keywords in Kotlin
and are not even part of its standard library. Moreover, Kotlin's concept of suspending function provides a safer and
less error-prone abstraction for asynchronous operations than futures and promises.
kotlinx.coroutines is a rich library for coroutines developed by JetBrains. It contains a number of high-level coroutine-
enabled primitives that this guide covers, including launch, async and others.
This is a guide on core features of kotlinx.coroutines with a series of examples, divided up into different topics.
In order to use coroutines as well as follow the examples in this guide, you need to add a dependency on the kotlinx-
coroutines-core module as explained in the project README.
Table
of
contents
Coroutines basics
Hands-on: Intro to coroutines and channels
Cancellation and timeouts
Composing suspending functions
Coroutine context and dispatchers
Asynchronous Flow
Channels
Coroutine exceptions handling
Shared mutable state and concurrency
Select expression (experimental)
Tutorial: Debug coroutines using IntelliJ IDEA
Tutorial: Debug Kotlin Flow using IntelliJ IDEA
Additional
references
Guide to UI programming with coroutines
Coroutines design document (KEEP)
Full kotlinx.coroutines API reference
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Asynchronous
programming
techniques
For decades, as developers we are confronted with a problem to solve - how to prevent our applications from
blocking. Whether we're developing desktop, mobile, or even server-side applications, we want to avoid having the
user wait or what's worse cause bottlenecks that would prevent an application from scaling.
There have been many approaches to solving this problem, including:
Threading
Callbacks
Futures, promises, and others
Reactive Extensions
Coroutines
Before explaining what coroutines are, let's briefly review some of the other solutions.
Threading
Threads are by far probably the most well-known approach to avoid applications from blocking.
fun postItem(item: Item) {
val token = preparePost()
val post = submitPost(token, item)
processPost(post)
}
fun preparePost(): Token {
// makes a request and consequently blocks the main thread
return token
}
Let's assume in the code above that preparePost is a long-running process and consequently would block the user
interface. What we can do is launch it in a separate thread. This would then allow us to avoid the UI from blocking. This
is a very common technique, but has a series of drawbacks:
Threads aren't cheap. Threads require context switches which are costly.
Threads aren't infinite. The number of threads that can be launched is limited by the underlying operating system. In
server-side applications, this could cause a major bottleneck.
Threads aren't always available. Some platforms, such as JavaScript do not even support threads.
Threads aren't easy. Debugging threads, avoiding race conditions are common problems we suffer in multi-
threaded programming.
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Callbacks
With callbacks, the idea is to pass one function as a parameter to another function, and have this one invoked once the
process has completed.
fun postItem(item: Item) {
preparePostAsync { token ->
submitPostAsync(token, item) { post ->
processPost(post)
}
}
}
fun preparePostAsync(callback: (Token) -> Unit) {
// make request and return immediately
// arrange callback to be invoked later
}
This in principle feels like a much more elegant solution, but once again has several issues:
Difficulty of nested callbacks. Usually a function that is used as a callback, often ends up needing its own callback.
This leads to a series of nested callbacks which lead to incomprehensible code. The pattern is often referred to as
the titled christmas tree (braces represent branches of the tree).
Error handling is complicated. The nesting model makes error handling and propagation of these somewhat more
complicated.
Callbacks are quite common in event-loop architectures such as JavaScript, but even there, generally people have
moved away to using other approaches such as promises or reactive extensions.
Futures,
promises,
and
others
The idea behind futures or promises (there are also other terms these can be referred to depending on
language/platform), is that when we make a call, we're promised that at some point it will return with an object called a
Promise, which can then be operated on.
fun postItem(item: Item) {
preparePostAsync()
.thenCompose { token ->
submitPostAsync(token, item)
}
.thenAccept { post ->
processPost(post)
}
}
fun preparePostAsync(): Promise<Token> {
// makes request and returns a promise that is completed later
return promise
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}
This approach requires a series of changes in how we program, in particular:
Different programming model. Similar to callbacks, the programming model moves away from a top-down
imperative approach to a compositional model with chained calls. Traditional program structures such as loops,
exception handling, etc. usually are no longer valid in this model.
Different APIs. Usually there's a need to learn a completely new API such as thenCompose or thenAccept, which
can also vary across platforms.
Specific return type. The return type moves away from the actual data that we need and instead returns a new type
Promise which has to be introspected.
Error handling can be complicated. The propagation and chaining of errors aren't always straightforward.
Reactive
extensions
Reactive Extensions (Rx) were introduced to C# by Erik Meijer. While it was definitely used on the .NET platform it really
didn't reach mainstream adoption until Netflix ported it over to Java, naming it RxJava. From then on, numerous ports
have been provided for a variety of platforms including JavaScript (RxJS).
The idea behind Rx is to move towards what's called observable streams whereby we now think of data as streams
(infinite amounts of data) and these streams can be observed. In practical terms, Rx is simply the Observer Pattern with
a series of extensions which allow us to operate on the data.
In approach it's quite similar to Futures, but one can think of a Future as returning a discrete element, whereas Rx
returns a stream. However, similar to the previous, it also introduces a complete new way of thinking about our
programming model, famously phrased as
"everything is a stream, and it's observable"
This implies a different way to approach problems and quite a significant shift from what we're using to when writing
synchronous code. One benefit as opposed to Futures is that given it's ported to so many platforms, generally we can
find a consistent API experience no matter what we use it, be it C#, Java, JavaScript, or any other language where Rx
is available.
In addition, Rx does introduce a somewhat nicer approach to error handling.
Coroutines
Kotlin's approach to working with asynchronous code is using coroutines, which is the idea of suspendable
computations, i.e. the idea that a function can suspend its execution at some point and resume later on.
One of the benefits however of coroutines is that when it comes to the developer, writing non-blocking code is
essentially the same as writing blocking code. The programming model in itself doesn't really change.
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Take for instance the following code:
fun postItem(item: Item) {
launch {
val token = preparePost()
val post = submitPost(token, item)
processPost(post)
}
}
suspend fun preparePost(): Token {
// makes a request and suspends the coroutine
return suspendCoroutine { /* ... */ }
}
This code will launch a long-running operation without blocking the main thread. The preparePost is what's called a
suspendable function, thus the keyword suspend prefixing it. What this means as stated above, is that the function will
execute, pause execution and resume at some point in time.
The function signature remains exactly the same. The only difference is suspend being added to it. The return type
however is the type we want to be returned.
The code is still written as if we were writing synchronous code, top-down, without the need of any special syntax,
beyond the use of a function called launch which essentially kicks off the coroutine (covered in other tutorials).
The programming model and APIs remain the same. We can continue to use loops, exception handling, etc. and
there's no need to learn a complete set of new APIs.
It is platform independent. Whether we're targeting JVM, JavaScript or any other platform, the code we write is the
same. Under the covers the compiler takes care of adapting it to each platform.
Coroutines are not a new concept, let alone invented by Kotlin. They've been around for decades and are popular in
some other programming languages such as Go. What is important to note though is that the way they're implemented
in Kotlin, most of the functionality is delegated to libraries. In fact, beyond the suspend keyword, no other keywords are
added to the language. This is somewhat different from languages such as C# that have async and await as part of the
syntax. With Kotlin, these are just library functions.
For more information regarding Coroutines and the different possibilities, check out the reference guide.
Coroutines
basics
This section covers basic coroutine concepts.
Your
first
coroutine
A coroutine is an instance of suspendable computation. It is conceptually similar to a thread, in the sense that it takes
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a block of code to run that works concurrently with the rest of the code. However, a coroutine is not bound to any
particular thread. It may suspend its execution in one thread and resume in another one.
Coroutines can be thought of as light-weight threads, but there is a number of important differences that make their
real-life usage very different from threads.
Run the following code to get to your first working coroutine:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
//sampleStart
fun main() = runBlocking { // this: CoroutineScope
launch { // launch a new coroutine and continue
delay(1000L) // non-blocking delay for 1 second (default time unit is ms)
println("World!") // print after delay
}
println("Hello") // main coroutine continues while a previous one is delayed
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code here.
You will see the following result:
Hello
World!
Let's dissect what this code does.
launch is a coroutine builder. It launches a new coroutine concurrently with the rest of the code, which continues to
work independently. That's why Hello has been printed first.
delay is a special suspending function. It suspends the coroutine for a specific time. Suspending a coroutine does not
block the underlying thread, but allows other coroutines to run and use the underlying thread for their code.
runBlocking is also a coroutine builder that bridges the non-coroutine world of a regular fun main() and the code with
coroutines inside of runBlocking { ... } curly braces. This is highlighted in an IDE by this: CoroutineScope hint right after
the runBlocking opening curly brace.
If you remove or forget runBlocking in this code, you'll get an error on the launch call, since launch is declared only in
the CoroutineScope:
Unresolved reference: launch
The name of runBlocking means that the thread that runs it (in this case — the main thread) gets blocked for the
duration of the call, until all the coroutines inside runBlocking { ... } complete their execution. You will often see
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runBlocking used like that at the very top-level of the application and quite rarely inside the real code, as threads are
expensive resources and blocking them is inefficient and is often not desired.
Structured
concurrency
Coroutines follow a principle of structured concurrency which means that new coroutines can be only launched in a
specific CoroutineScope which delimits the lifetime of the coroutine. The above example shows that runBlocking
establishes the corresponding scope and that is why the previous example waits until World! is printed after a second's
delay and only then exits.
In the real application, you will be launching a lot of coroutines. Structured concurrency ensures that they are not lost
and do not leak. An outer scope cannot complete until all its children coroutines complete. Structured concurrency
also ensures that any errors in the code are properly reported and are never lost.
Extract
function
refactoring
Let's extract the block of code inside launch { ... } into a separate function. When you perform "Extract function"
refactoring on this code, you get a new function with the suspend modifier. This is your first suspending function.
Suspending functions can be used inside coroutines just like regular functions, but their additional feature is that they
can, in turn, use other suspending functions (like delay in this example) to suspend execution of a coroutine.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
//sampleStart
fun main() = runBlocking { // this: CoroutineScope
launch { doWorld() }
println("Hello")
}
// this is your first suspending function
suspend fun doWorld() {
delay(1000L)
println("World!")
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code here.
Scope
builder
In addition to the coroutine scope provided by different builders, it is possible to declare your own scope using the
coroutineScope builder. It creates a coroutine scope and does not complete until all launched children complete.
runBlocking and coroutineScope builders may look similar because they both wait for their body and all its children to
complete. The main difference is that the runBlocking method blocks the current thread for waiting, while
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coroutineScope just suspends, releasing the underlying thread for other usages. Because of that difference,
runBlocking is a regular function and coroutineScope is a suspending function.
You can use coroutineScope from any suspending function. For example, you can move the concurrent printing of
Hello and World into a suspend fun doWorld() function:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
//sampleStart
fun main() = runBlocking {
doWorld()
}
suspend fun doWorld() = coroutineScope { // this: CoroutineScope
launch {
delay(1000L)
println("World!")
}
println("Hello")
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code here.
This code also prints:
Hello
World!
Scope
builder
and
concurrency
A coroutineScope builder can be used inside any suspending function to perform multiple concurrent operations. Let's
launch two concurrent coroutines inside a doWorld suspending function:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
//sampleStart
// Sequentially executes doWorld followed by "Done"
fun main() = runBlocking {
doWorld()
println("Done")
}
// Concurrently executes both sections
suspend fun doWorld() = coroutineScope { // this: CoroutineScope
launch {
delay(2000L)
println("World 2")
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}
launch {
delay(1000L)
println("World 1")
}
println("Hello")
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code here.
Both pieces of code inside launch { ... } blocks execute concurrently, with World 1 printed first, after a second from
start, and World 2 printed next, after two seconds from start. A coroutineScope in doWorld completes only after both
are complete, so doWorld returns and allows Done string to be printed only after that:
Hello
World 1
World 2
Done
An
explicit
job
A launch coroutine builder returns a Job object that is a handle to the launched coroutine and can be used to explicitly
wait for its completion. For example, you can wait for completion of the child coroutine and then print "Done" string:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking {
//sampleStart
val job = launch { // launch a new coroutine and keep a reference to its Job
delay(1000L)
println("World!")
}
println("Hello")
job.join() // wait until child coroutine completes
println("Done")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
This code produces:
Hello
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World!
Done
Coroutines
ARE
light-weight
Run the following code:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
//sampleStart
fun main() = runBlocking {
repeat(100_000) { // launch a lot of coroutines
launch {
delay(5000L)
print(".")
}
}
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code here.
It launches 100K coroutines and, after 5 seconds, each coroutine prints a dot.
Now, try that with threads (remove runBlocking, replace launch with thread, and replace delay with Thread.sleep ).
What would happen? (Most likely your code will produce some sort of out-of-memory error)
Cancellation
and
timeouts
This section covers coroutine cancellation and timeouts.
Cancelling
coroutine
execution
In a long-running application you might need fine-grained control on your background coroutines. For example, a user
might have closed the page that launched a coroutine and now its result is no longer needed and its operation can be
cancelled. The launch function returns a Job that can be used to cancel the running coroutine:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking {
//sampleStart
val job = launch {
repeat(1000) { i ->
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println("job: I'm sleeping $i ...")
delay(500L)
}
}
delay(1300L) // delay a bit
println("main: I'm tired of waiting!")
job.cancel() // cancels the job
job.join() // waits for job's completion
println("main: Now I can quit.")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
It produces the following output:
job: I'm sleeping 0 ...
job: I'm sleeping 1 ...
job: I'm sleeping 2 ...
main: I'm tired of waiting!
main: Now I can quit.
As soon as main invokes job.cancel, we don't see any output from the other coroutine because it was cancelled. There
is also a Job extension function cancelAndJoin that combines cancel and join invocations.
Cancellation
is
cooperative
Coroutine cancellation is cooperative. A coroutine code has to cooperate to be cancellable. All the suspending
functions in kotlinx.coroutines are cancellable. They check for cancellation of coroutine and throw
CancellationException when cancelled. However, if a coroutine is working in a computation and does not check for
cancellation, then it cannot be cancelled, like the following example shows:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking {
//sampleStart
val startTime = System.currentTimeMillis()
val job = launch(Dispatchers.Default) {
var nextPrintTime = startTime
var i = 0
while (i < 5) { // computation loop, just wastes CPU
// print a message twice a second
if (System.currentTimeMillis() >= nextPrintTime) {
println("job: I'm sleeping ${i++} ...")
nextPrintTime += 500L
}
}
}
delay(1300L) // delay a bit
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println("main: I'm tired of waiting!")
job.cancelAndJoin() // cancels the job and waits for its completion
println("main: Now I can quit.")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
Run it to see that it continues to print "I'm sleeping" even after cancellation until the job completes by itself after five
iterations.
Making
computation
code
cancellable
There are two approaches to making computation code cancellable. The first one is to periodically invoke a
suspending function that checks for cancellation. There is a yield function that is a good choice for that purpose. The
other one is to explicitly check the cancellation status. Let us try the latter approach.
Replace while (i < 5) in the previous example with while (isActive) and rerun it.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking {
//sampleStart
val startTime = System.currentTimeMillis()
val job = launch(Dispatchers.Default) {
var nextPrintTime = startTime
var i = 0
while (isActive) { // cancellable computation loop
// print a message twice a second
if (System.currentTimeMillis() >= nextPrintTime) {
println("job: I'm sleeping ${i++} ...")
nextPrintTime += 500L
}
}
}
delay(1300L) // delay a bit
println("main: I'm tired of waiting!")
job.cancelAndJoin() // cancels the job and waits for its completion
println("main: Now I can quit.")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
As you can see, now this loop is cancelled. isActive is an extension property available inside the coroutine via the
CoroutineScope object.
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Closing
resources
with
finally
Cancellable suspending functions throw CancellationException on cancellation which can be handled in the usual way.
For example, try {...} finally {...} expression and Kotlin use function execute their finalization actions normally when a
coroutine is cancelled:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking {
//sampleStart
val job = launch {
try {
repeat(1000) { i ->
println("job: I'm sleeping $i ...")
delay(500L)
}
} finally {
println("job: I'm running finally")
}
}
delay(1300L) // delay a bit
println("main: I'm tired of waiting!")
job.cancelAndJoin() // cancels the job and waits for its completion
println("main: Now I can quit.")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
Both join and cancelAndJoin wait for all finalization actions to complete, so the example above produces the following
output:
job: I'm sleeping 0 ...
job: I'm sleeping 1 ...
job: I'm sleeping 2 ...
main: I'm tired of waiting!
job: I'm running finally
main: Now I can quit.
Run
non-cancellable
block
Any attempt to use a suspending function in the finally block of the previous example causes CancellationException,
because the coroutine running this code is cancelled. Usually, this is not a problem, since all well-behaving closing
operations (closing a file, cancelling a job, or closing any kind of a communication channel) are usually non-blocking
and do not involve any suspending functions. However, in the rare case when you need to suspend in a cancelled
coroutine you can wrap the corresponding code in withContext(NonCancellable) {...} using withContext function and
NonCancellable context as the following example shows:
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import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking {
//sampleStart
val job = launch {
try {
repeat(1000) { i ->
println("job: I'm sleeping $i ...")
delay(500L)
}
} finally {
withContext(NonCancellable) {
println("job: I'm running finally")
delay(1000L)
println("job: And I've just delayed for 1 sec because I'm non-cancellable")
}
}
}
delay(1300L) // delay a bit
println("main: I'm tired of waiting!")
job.cancelAndJoin() // cancels the job and waits for its completion
println("main: Now I can quit.")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
Timeout
The most obvious practical reason to cancel execution of a coroutine is because its execution time has exceeded
some timeout. While you can manually track the reference to the corresponding Job and launch a separate coroutine to
cancel the tracked one after delay, there is a ready to use withTimeout function that does it. Look at the following
example:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking {
//sampleStart
withTimeout(1300L) {
repeat(1000) { i ->
println("I'm sleeping $i ...")
delay(500L)
}
}
//sampleEnd
}
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You can get the full code here.
It produces the following output:
I'm sleeping 0 ...
I'm sleeping 1 ...
I'm sleeping 2 ...
Exception in thread "main" kotlinx.coroutines.TimeoutCancellationException: Timed out waiting
for 1300 ms
The TimeoutCancellationException that is thrown by withTimeout is a subclass of CancellationException. We have not
seen its stack trace printed on the console before. That is because inside a cancelled coroutine CancellationException
is considered to be a normal reason for coroutine completion. However, in this example we have used withTimeout
right inside the main function.
Since cancellation is just an exception, all resources are closed in the usual way. You can wrap the code with timeout
in a try {...} catch (e: TimeoutCancellationException) {...} block if you need to do some additional action specifically on
any kind of timeout or use the withTimeoutOrNull function that is similar to withTimeout but returns null on timeout
instead of throwing an exception:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking {
//sampleStart
val result = withTimeoutOrNull(1300L) {
repeat(1000) { i ->
println("I'm sleeping $i ...")
delay(500L)
}
"Done" // will get cancelled before it produces this result
}
println("Result is $result")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
There is no longer an exception when running this code:
I'm sleeping 0 ...
I'm sleeping 1 ...
I'm sleeping 2 ...
Result is null
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Asynchronous
timeout
and
resources
The timeout event in withTimeout is asynchronous with respect to the code running in its block and may happen at any
time, even right before the return from inside of the timeout block. Keep this in mind if you open or acquire some
resource inside the block that needs closing or release outside of the block.
For example, here we imitate a closeable resource with the Resource class, that simply keeps track of how many times
it was created by incrementing the acquired counter and decrementing this counter from its close function. Let us run a
lot of coroutines with the small timeout try acquire this resource from inside of the withTimeout block after a bit of
delay and release it from outside.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
//sampleStart
var acquired = 0
class Resource {
init { acquired++ } // Acquire the resource
fun close() { acquired-- } // Release the resource
}
fun main() {
runBlocking {
repeat(100_000) { // Launch 100K coroutines
launch {
val resource = withTimeout(60) { // Timeout of 60 ms
delay(50) // Delay for 50 ms
Resource() // Acquire a resource and return it from withTimeout block
}
resource.close() // Release the resource
}
}
}
// Outside of runBlocking all coroutines have completed
println(acquired) // Print the number of resources still acquired
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code here.
If you run the above code you'll see that it does not always print zero, though it may depend on the timings of your
machine you may need to tweak timeouts in this example to actually see non-zero values.
Note, that incrementing and decrementing acquired counter here from 100K coroutines is completely safe,
since it always happens from the same main thread. More on that will be explained in the next chapter on
coroutine context.
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To workaround this problem you can store a reference to the resource in the variable as opposed to returning it from
the withTimeout block.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
var acquired = 0
class Resource {
init { acquired++ } // Acquire the resource
fun close() { acquired-- } // Release the resource
}
fun main() {
//sampleStart
runBlocking {
repeat(100_000) { // Launch 100K coroutines
launch {
var resource: Resource? = null // Not acquired yet
try {
withTimeout(60) { // Timeout of 60 ms
delay(50) // Delay for 50 ms
resource = Resource() // Store a resource to the variable if acquired
}
// We can do something else with the resource here
} finally {
resource?.close() // Release the resource if it was acquired
}
}
}
}
// Outside of runBlocking all coroutines have completed
println(acquired) // Print the number of resources still acquired
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
This example always prints zero. Resources do not leak.
Composing
suspending
functions
This section covers various approaches to composition of suspending functions.
Sequential
by
default
Assume that we have two suspending functions defined elsewhere that do something useful like some kind of remote
service call or computation. We just pretend they are useful, but actually each one just delays for a second for the
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purpose of this example:
suspend fun doSomethingUsefulOne(): Int {
delay(1000L) // pretend we are doing something useful here
return 13
}
suspend fun doSomethingUsefulTwo(): Int {
delay(1000L) // pretend we are doing something useful here, too
return 29
}
What do we do if we need them to be invoked sequentially — first doSomethingUsefulOne and then
doSomethingUsefulTwo, and compute the sum of their results? In practice, we do this if we use the result of the first
function to make a decision on whether we need to invoke the second one or to decide on how to invoke it.
We use a normal sequential invocation, because the code in the coroutine, just like in the regular code, is sequential by
default. The following example demonstrates it by measuring the total time it takes to execute both suspending
functions:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlin.system.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val time = measureTimeMillis {
val one = doSomethingUsefulOne()
val two = doSomethingUsefulTwo()
println("The answer is ${one + two}")
}
println("Completed in $time ms")
//sampleEnd
}
suspend fun doSomethingUsefulOne(): Int {
delay(1000L) // pretend we are doing something useful here
return 13
}
suspend fun doSomethingUsefulTwo(): Int {
delay(1000L) // pretend we are doing something useful here, too
return 29
}
You can get the full code here.
It produces something like this:
The answer is 42
Completed in 2017 ms
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Concurrent
using
async
What if there are no dependencies between invocations of doSomethingUsefulOne and doSomethingUsefulTwo and
we want to get the answer faster, by doing both concurrently? This is where async comes to help.
Conceptually, async is just like launch. It starts a separate coroutine which is a light-weight thread that works
concurrently with all the other coroutines. The difference is that launch returns a Job and does not carry any resulting
value, while async returns a Deferred — a light-weight non-blocking future that represents a promise to provide a result
later. You can use .await() on a deferred value to get its eventual result, but Deferred is also a Job, so you can cancel it
if needed.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlin.system.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val time = measureTimeMillis {
val one = async { doSomethingUsefulOne() }
val two = async { doSomethingUsefulTwo() }
println("The answer is ${one.await() + two.await()}")
}
println("Completed in $time ms")
//sampleEnd
}
suspend fun doSomethingUsefulOne(): Int {
delay(1000L) // pretend we are doing something useful here
return 13
}
suspend fun doSomethingUsefulTwo(): Int {
delay(1000L) // pretend we are doing something useful here, too
return 29
}
You can get the full code here.
It produces something like this:
The answer is 42
Completed in 1017 ms
This is twice as fast, because the two coroutines execute concurrently. Note that concurrency with coroutines is
always explicit.
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Lazily
started
async
Optionally, async can be made lazy by setting its start parameter to CoroutineStart.LAZY. In this mode it only starts the
coroutine when its result is required by await, or if its Job 's start function is invoked. Run the following example:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlin.system.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val time = measureTimeMillis {
val one = async(start = CoroutineStart.LAZY) { doSomethingUsefulOne() }
val two = async(start = CoroutineStart.LAZY) { doSomethingUsefulTwo() }
// some computation
one.start() // start the first one
two.start() // start the second one
println("The answer is ${one.await() + two.await()}")
}
println("Completed in $time ms")
//sampleEnd
}
suspend fun doSomethingUsefulOne(): Int {
delay(1000L) // pretend we are doing something useful here
return 13
}
suspend fun doSomethingUsefulTwo(): Int {
delay(1000L) // pretend we are doing something useful here, too
return 29
}
You can get the full code here.
It produces something like this:
The answer is 42
Completed in 1017 ms
So, here the two coroutines are defined but not executed as in the previous example, but the control is given to the
programmer on when exactly to start the execution by calling start. We first start one, then start two, and then await for
the individual coroutines to finish.
Note that if we just call await in println without first calling start on individual coroutines, this will lead to sequential
behavior, since await starts the coroutine execution and waits for its finish, which is not the intended use-case for
laziness. The use-case for async(start = CoroutineStart.LAZY) is a replacement for the standard lazy function in cases
when computation of the value involves suspending functions.
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Async-style
functions
We can define async-style functions that invoke doSomethingUsefulOne and doSomethingUsefulTwo asynchronously
using the async coroutine builder using a GlobalScope reference to opt-out of the structured concurrency. We name
such functions with the "...Async" suffix to highlight the fact that they only start asynchronous computation and one
needs to use the resulting deferred value to get the result.
GlobalScope is a delicate API that can backfire in non-trivial ways, one of which will be explained below, so
you must explicitly opt-in into using GlobalScope with @OptIn(DelicateCoroutinesApi::class).
// The result type of somethingUsefulOneAsync is Deferred<Int>
@OptIn(DelicateCoroutinesApi::class)
fun somethingUsefulOneAsync() = GlobalScope.async {
doSomethingUsefulOne()
}
// The result type of somethingUsefulTwoAsync is Deferred<Int>
@OptIn(DelicateCoroutinesApi::class)
fun somethingUsefulTwoAsync() = GlobalScope.async {
doSomethingUsefulTwo()
}
Note that these xxxAsync functions are not suspending functions. They can be used from anywhere. However, their
use always implies asynchronous (here meaning concurrent) execution of their action with the invoking code.
The following example shows their use outside of coroutine:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlin.system.*
//sampleStart
// note that we don't have `runBlocking` to the right of `main` in this example
fun main() {
val time = measureTimeMillis {
// we can initiate async actions outside of a coroutine
val one = somethingUsefulOneAsync()
val two = somethingUsefulTwoAsync()
// but waiting for a result must involve either suspending or blocking.
// here we use `runBlocking { ... }` to block the main thread while waiting for the
result
runBlocking {
println("The answer is ${one.await() + two.await()}")
}
}
println("Completed in $time ms")
}
//sampleEnd
@OptIn(DelicateCoroutinesApi::class)
fun somethingUsefulOneAsync() = GlobalScope.async {
doSomethingUsefulOne()
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}
@OptIn(DelicateCoroutinesApi::class)
fun somethingUsefulTwoAsync() = GlobalScope.async {
doSomethingUsefulTwo()
}
suspend fun doSomethingUsefulOne(): Int {
delay(1000L) // pretend we are doing something useful here
return 13
}
suspend fun doSomethingUsefulTwo(): Int {
delay(1000L) // pretend we are doing something useful here, too
return 29
}
You can get the full code here.
This programming style with async functions is provided here only for illustration, because it is a popular
style in other programming languages. Using this style with Kotlin coroutines is strongly discouraged for the
reasons explained below.
Consider what happens if between the val one = somethingUsefulOneAsync() line and one.await() expression there is
some logic error in the code, and the program throws an exception, and the operation that was being performed by the
program aborts. Normally, a global error-handler could catch this exception, log and report the error for developers,
but the program could otherwise continue doing other operations. However, here we have somethingUsefulOneAsync
still running in the background, even though the operation that initiated it was aborted. This problem does not happen
with structured concurrency, as shown in the section below.
Structured
concurrency
with
async
Let us take the Concurrent using async example and extract a function that concurrently performs
doSomethingUsefulOne and doSomethingUsefulTwo and returns the sum of their results. Because the async coroutine
builder is defined as an extension on CoroutineScope, we need to have it in the scope and that is what the
coroutineScope function provides:
suspend fun concurrentSum(): Int = coroutineScope {
val one = async { doSomethingUsefulOne() }
val two = async { doSomethingUsefulTwo() }
one.await() + two.await()
}
This way, if something goes wrong inside the code of the concurrentSum function, and it throws an exception, all the
coroutines that were launched in its scope will be cancelled.
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import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlin.system.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val time = measureTimeMillis {
println("The answer is ${concurrentSum()}")
}
println("Completed in $time ms")
//sampleEnd
}
suspend fun concurrentSum(): Int = coroutineScope {
val one = async { doSomethingUsefulOne() }
val two = async { doSomethingUsefulTwo() }
one.await() + two.await()
}
suspend fun doSomethingUsefulOne(): Int {
delay(1000L) // pretend we are doing something useful here
return 13
}
suspend fun doSomethingUsefulTwo(): Int {
delay(1000L) // pretend we are doing something useful here, too
return 29
}
You can get the full code here.
We still have concurrent execution of both operations, as evident from the output of the above main function:
The answer is 42
Completed in 1017 ms
Cancellation is always propagated through coroutines hierarchy:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
try {
failedConcurrentSum()
} catch(e: ArithmeticException) {
println("Computation failed with ArithmeticException")
}
}
suspend fun failedConcurrentSum(): Int = coroutineScope {
val one = async<Int> {
try {
delay(Long.MAX_VALUE) // Emulates very long computation
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42
} finally {
println("First child was cancelled")
}
}
val two = async<Int> {
println("Second child throws an exception")
throw ArithmeticException()
}
one.await() + two.await()
}
You can get the full code here.
Note how both the first async and the awaiting parent are cancelled on failure of one of the children (namely, two ):
Second child throws an exception
First child was cancelled
Computation failed with ArithmeticException
Coroutine
context
and
dispatchers
Coroutines always execute in some context represented by a value of the CoroutineContext type, defined in the Kotlin
standard library.
The coroutine context is a set of various elements. The main elements are the Job of the coroutine, which we've seen
before, and its dispatcher, which is covered in this section.
Dispatchers
and
threads
The coroutine context includes a coroutine dispatcher (see CoroutineDispatcher) that determines what thread or
threads the corresponding coroutine uses for its execution. The coroutine dispatcher can confine coroutine execution
to a specific thread, dispatch it to a thread pool, or let it run unconfined.
All coroutine builders like launch and async accept an optional CoroutineContext parameter that can be used to
explicitly specify the dispatcher for the new coroutine and other context elements.
Try the following example:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
launch { // context of the parent, main runBlocking coroutine
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println("main runBlocking : I'm working in thread
${Thread.currentThread().name}")
}
launch(Dispatchers.Unconfined) { // not confined -- will work with main thread
println("Unconfined : I'm working in thread
${Thread.currentThread().name}")
}
launch(Dispatchers.Default) { // will get dispatched to DefaultDispatcher
println("Default : I'm working in thread
${Thread.currentThread().name}")
}
launch(newSingleThreadContext("MyOwnThread")) { // will get its own new thread
println("newSingleThreadContext: I'm working in thread ${Thread.currentThread().name}")
}
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
It produces the following output (maybe in different order):
Unconfined : I'm working in thread main
Default : I'm working in thread DefaultDispatcher-worker-1
newSingleThreadContext: I'm working in thread MyOwnThread
main runBlocking : I'm working in thread main
When launch { ... } is used without parameters, it inherits the context (and thus dispatcher) from the CoroutineScope it
is being launched from. In this case, it inherits the context of the main runBlocking coroutine which runs in the main
thread.
Dispatchers.Unconfined is a special dispatcher that also appears to run in the main thread, but it is, in fact, a different
mechanism that is explained later.
The default dispatcher that is used when no other dispatcher is explicitly specified in the scope. It is represented by
Dispatchers.Default and uses a shared background pool of threads.
newSingleThreadContext creates a thread for the coroutine to run. A dedicated thread is a very expensive resource. In
a real application it must be either released, when no longer needed, using the close function, or stored in a top-level
variable and reused throughout the application.
Unconfined
vs
confined
dispatcher
The Dispatchers.Unconfined coroutine dispatcher starts a coroutine in the caller thread, but only until the first
suspension point. After suspension it resumes the coroutine in the thread that is fully determined by the suspending
function that was invoked. The unconfined dispatcher is appropriate for coroutines which neither consume CPU time
nor update any shared data (like UI) confined to a specific thread.
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On the other side, the dispatcher is inherited from the outer CoroutineScope by default. The default dispatcher for the
runBlocking coroutine, in particular, is confined to the invoker thread, so inheriting it has the effect of confining
execution to this thread with predictable FIFO scheduling.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
launch(Dispatchers.Unconfined) { // not confined -- will work with main thread
println("Unconfined : I'm working in thread ${Thread.currentThread().name}")
delay(500)
println("Unconfined : After delay in thread ${Thread.currentThread().name}")
}
launch { // context of the parent, main runBlocking coroutine
println("main runBlocking: I'm working in thread ${Thread.currentThread().name}")
delay(1000)
println("main runBlocking: After delay in thread ${Thread.currentThread().name}")
}
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
Produces the output:
Unconfined : I'm working in thread main
main runBlocking: I'm working in thread main
Unconfined : After delay in thread kotlinx.coroutines.DefaultExecutor
main runBlocking: After delay in thread main
So, the coroutine with the context inherited from runBlocking {...} continues to execute in the main thread, while the
unconfined one resumes in the default executor thread that the delay function is using.
The unconfined dispatcher is an advanced mechanism that can be helpful in certain corner cases where
dispatching of a coroutine for its execution later is not needed or produces undesirable side-effects, because
some operation in a coroutine must be performed right away. The unconfined dispatcher should not be used
in general code.
Debugging
coroutines
and
threads
Coroutines can suspend on one thread and resume on another thread. Even with a single-threaded dispatcher it might
be hard to figure out what the coroutine was doing, where, and when if you don't have special tooling.
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Debugging
with
IDEA
The Coroutine Debugger of the Kotlin plugin simplifies debugging coroutines in IntelliJ IDEA.
Debugging works for versions 1.3.8 or later of kotlinx-coroutines-core.
The Debug tool window contains the Coroutines tab. In this tab, you can find information about both currently running
and suspended coroutines. The coroutines are grouped by the dispatcher they are running on.
Debugging coroutines
With the coroutine debugger, you can:
Check the state of each coroutine.
See the values of local and captured variables for both running and suspended coroutines.
See a full coroutine creation stack, as well as a call stack inside the coroutine. The stack includes all frames with
variable values, even those that would be lost during standard debugging.
Get a full report that contains the state of each coroutine and its stack. To obtain it, right-click inside the Coroutines
tab, and then click Get Coroutines Dump.
To start coroutine debugging, you just need to set breakpoints and run the application in debug mode.
Learn more about coroutines debugging in the tutorial.
Debugging
using
logging
Another approach to debugging applications with threads without Coroutine Debugger is to print the thread name in
the log file on each log statement. This feature is universally supported by logging frameworks. When using coroutines,
the thread name alone does not give much of a context, so kotlinx.coroutines includes debugging facilities to make it
easier.
Run the following code with -Dkotlinx.coroutines.debug JVM option:
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import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun log(msg: String) = println("[${Thread.currentThread().name}] $msg")
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val a = async {
log("I'm computing a piece of the answer")
6
}
val b = async {
log("I'm computing another piece of the answer")
7
}
log("The answer is ${a.await() * b.await()}")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
There are three coroutines. The main coroutine (#1) inside runBlocking and two coroutines computing the deferred
values a (#2) and b (#3). They are all executing in the context of runBlocking and are confined to the main thread. The
output of this code is:
[main @coroutine#2] I'm computing a piece of the answer
[main @coroutine#3] I'm computing another piece of the answer
[main @coroutine#1] The answer is 42
The log function prints the name of the thread in square brackets, and you can see that it is the main thread with the
identifier of the currently executing coroutine appended to it. This identifier is consecutively assigned to all created
coroutines when the debugging mode is on.
Debugging mode is also turned on when JVM is run with -ea option. You can read more about debugging
facilities in the documentation of the DEBUG_PROPERTY_NAME property.
Jumping
between
threads
Run the following code with the -Dkotlinx.coroutines.debug JVM option (see debug ):
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun log(msg: String) = println("[${Thread.currentThread().name}] $msg")
fun main() {
//sampleStart
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newSingleThreadContext("Ctx1").use { ctx1 ->
newSingleThreadContext("Ctx2").use { ctx2 ->
runBlocking(ctx1) {
log("Started in ctx1")
withContext(ctx2) {
log("Working in ctx2")
}
log("Back to ctx1")
}
}
}
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
It demonstrates several new techniques. One is using runBlocking with an explicitly specified context, and the other
one is using the withContext function to change the context of a coroutine while still staying in the same coroutine, as
you can see in the output below:
[Ctx1 @coroutine#1] Started in ctx1
[Ctx2 @coroutine#1] Working in ctx2
[Ctx1 @coroutine#1] Back to ctx1
Note that this example also uses the use function from the Kotlin standard library to release threads created with
newSingleThreadContext when they are no longer needed.
Job
in
the
context
The coroutine's Job is part of its context, and can be retrieved from it using the coroutineContext[Job] expression:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
println("My job is ${coroutineContext[Job]}")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
In the debug mode, it outputs something like this:
My job is "coroutine#1":BlockingCoroutine{Active}@6d311334
Note that isActive in CoroutineScope is just a convenient shortcut for coroutineContext[Job]?.isActive == true.
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Children
of
a
coroutine
When a coroutine is launched in the CoroutineScope of another coroutine, it inherits its context via
CoroutineScope.coroutineContext and the Job of the new coroutine becomes a child of the parent coroutine's job.
When the parent coroutine is cancelled, all its children are recursively cancelled, too.
However, this parent-child relation can be explicitly overriden in one of two ways:
1. When a different scope is explicitly specified when launching a coroutine (for example, GlobalScope.launch ), then it
does not inherit a Job from the parent scope.
2. When a different Job object is passed as the context for the new coroutine (as show in the example below), then it
overrides the Job of the parent scope.
In both cases, the launched coroutine is not tied to the scope it was launched from and operates independently.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
// launch a coroutine to process some kind of incoming request
val request = launch {
// it spawns two other jobs
launch(Job()) {
println("job1: I run in my own Job and execute independently!")
delay(1000)
println("job1: I am not affected by cancellation of the request")
}
// and the other inherits the parent context
launch {
delay(100)
println("job2: I am a child of the request coroutine")
delay(1000)
println("job2: I will not execute this line if my parent request is cancelled")
}
}
delay(500)
request.cancel() // cancel processing of the request
delay(1000) // delay a second to see what happens
println("main: Who has survived request cancellation?")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
The output of this code is:
job1: I run in my own Job and execute independently!
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job2: I am a child of the request coroutine
job1: I am not affected by cancellation of the request
main: Who has survived request cancellation?
Parental
responsibilities
A parent coroutine always waits for completion of all its children. A parent does not have to explicitly track all the
children it launches, and it does not have to use Job.join to wait for them at the end:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
// launch a coroutine to process some kind of incoming request
val request = launch {
repeat(3) { i -> // launch a few children jobs
launch {
delay((i + 1) * 200L) // variable delay 200ms, 400ms, 600ms
println("Coroutine $i is done")
}
}
println("request: I'm done and I don't explicitly join my children that are still
active")
}
request.join() // wait for completion of the request, including all its children
println("Now processing of the request is complete")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
The result is going to be:
request: I'm done and I don't explicitly join my children that are still active
Coroutine 0 is done
Coroutine 1 is done
Coroutine 2 is done
Now processing of the request is complete
Naming
coroutines
for
debugging
Automatically assigned ids are good when coroutines log often and you just need to correlate log records coming from
the same coroutine. However, when a coroutine is tied to the processing of a specific request or doing some specific
background task, it is better to name it explicitly for debugging purposes. The CoroutineName context element serves
the same purpose as the thread name. It is included in the thread name that is executing this coroutine when the
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debugging mode is turned on.
The following example demonstrates this concept:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun log(msg: String) = println("[${Thread.currentThread().name}] $msg")
fun main() = runBlocking(CoroutineName("main")) {
//sampleStart
log("Started main coroutine")
// run two background value computations
val v1 = async(CoroutineName("v1coroutine")) {
delay(500)
log("Computing v1")
252
}
val v2 = async(CoroutineName("v2coroutine")) {
delay(1000)
log("Computing v2")
6
}
log("The answer for v1 / v2 = ${v1.await() / v2.await()}")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
The output it produces with -Dkotlinx.coroutines.debug JVM option is similar to:
[main @main#1] Started main coroutine
[main @v1coroutine#2] Computing v1
[main @v2coroutine#3] Computing v2
[main @main#1] The answer for v1 / v2 = 42
Combining
context
elements
Sometimes we need to define multiple elements for a coroutine context. We can use the + operator for that. For
example, we can launch a coroutine with an explicitly specified dispatcher and an explicitly specified name at the same
time:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
launch(Dispatchers.Default + CoroutineName("test")) {
println("I'm working in thread ${Thread.currentThread().name}")
}
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//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
The output of this code with the -Dkotlinx.coroutines.debug JVM option is:
I'm working in thread DefaultDispatcher-worker-1 @test#2
Coroutine
scope
Let us put our knowledge about contexts, children and jobs together. Assume that our application has an object with a
lifecycle, but that object is not a coroutine. For example, we are writing an Android application and launch various
coroutines in the context of an Android activity to perform asynchronous operations to fetch and update data, do
animations, etc. All of these coroutines must be cancelled when the activity is destroyed to avoid memory leaks. We,
of course, can manipulate contexts and jobs manually to tie the lifecycles of the activity and its coroutines, but
kotlinx.coroutines provides an abstraction encapsulating that: CoroutineScope. You should be already familiar with the
coroutine scope as all coroutine builders are declared as extensions on it.
We manage the lifecycles of our coroutines by creating an instance of CoroutineScope tied to the lifecycle of our
activity. A CoroutineScope instance can be created by the CoroutineScope() or MainScope() factory functions. The
former creates a general-purpose scope, while the latter creates a scope for UI applications and uses Dispatchers.Main
as the default dispatcher:
class Activity {
private val mainScope = MainScope()
fun destroy() {
mainScope.cancel()
}
// to be continued ...
Now, we can launch coroutines in the scope of this Activity using the defined scope. For the demo, we launch ten
coroutines that delay for a different time:
// class Activity continues
fun doSomething() {
// launch ten coroutines for a demo, each working for a different time
repeat(10) { i ->
mainScope.launch {
delay((i + 1) * 200L) // variable delay 200ms, 400ms, ... etc
println("Coroutine $i is done")
}
}
}
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} // class Activity ends
In our main function we create the activity, call our test doSomething function, and destroy the activity after 500ms.
This cancels all the coroutines that were launched from doSomething. We can see that because after the destruction of
the activity no more messages are printed, even if we wait a little longer.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
class Activity {
private val mainScope = CoroutineScope(Dispatchers.Default) // use Default for test
purposes
fun destroy() {
mainScope.cancel()
}
fun doSomething() {
// launch ten coroutines for a demo, each working for a different time
repeat(10) { i ->
mainScope.launch {
delay((i + 1) * 200L) // variable delay 200ms, 400ms, ... etc
println("Coroutine $i is done")
}
}
}
} // class Activity ends
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val activity = Activity()
activity.doSomething() // run test function
println("Launched coroutines")
delay(500L) // delay for half a second
println("Destroying activity!")
activity.destroy() // cancels all coroutines
delay(1000) // visually confirm that they don't work
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
The output of this example is:
Launched coroutines
Coroutine 0 is done
Coroutine 1 is done
Destroying activity!
As you can see, only the first two coroutines print a message and the others are cancelled by a single invocation of
job.cancel() in Activity.destroy().
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Note, that Android has first-party support for coroutine scope in all entities with the lifecycle. See the
corresponding documentation.
Thread-local
data
Sometimes it is convenient to have an ability to pass some thread-local data to or between coroutines. However, since
they are not bound to any particular thread, this will likely lead to boilerplate if done manually.
For ThreadLocal, the asContextElement extension function is here for the rescue. It creates an additional context
element which keeps the value of the given ThreadLocal and restores it every time the coroutine switches its context.
It is easy to demonstrate it in action:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
val threadLocal = ThreadLocal<String?>() // declare thread-local variable
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
threadLocal.set("main")
println("Pre-main, current thread: ${Thread.currentThread()}, thread local value:
'${threadLocal.get()}'")
val job = launch(Dispatchers.Default + threadLocal.asContextElement(value = "launch")) {
println("Launch start, current thread: ${Thread.currentThread()}, thread local value:
'${threadLocal.get()}'")
yield()
println("After yield, current thread: ${Thread.currentThread()}, thread local value:
'${threadLocal.get()}'")
}
job.join()
println("Post-main, current thread: ${Thread.currentThread()}, thread local value:
'${threadLocal.get()}'")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
In this example we launch a new coroutine in a background thread pool using Dispatchers.Default, so it works on a
different thread from the thread pool, but it still has the value of the thread local variable that we specified using
threadLocal.asContextElement(value = "launch"), no matter which thread the coroutine is executed on. Thus, the
output (with debug) is:
Pre-main, current thread: Thread[main @coroutine#1,5,main], thread local value: 'main'
Launch start, current thread: Thread[DefaultDispatcher-worker-1 @coroutine#2,5,main], thread
local value: 'launch'
After yield, current thread: Thread[DefaultDispatcher-worker-2 @coroutine#2,5,main], thread
local value: 'launch'
Post-main, current thread: Thread[main @coroutine#1,5,main], thread local value: 'main'
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It's easy to forget to set the corresponding context element. The thread-local variable accessed from the coroutine
may then have an unexpected value, if the thread running the coroutine is different. To avoid such situations, it is
recommended to use the ensurePresent method and fail-fast on improper usages.
ThreadLocal has first-class support and can be used with any primitive kotlinx.coroutines provides. It has one key
limitation, though: when a thread-local is mutated, a new value is not propagated to the coroutine caller (because a
context element cannot track all ThreadLocal object accesses), and the updated value is lost on the next suspension.
Use withContext to update the value of the thread-local in a coroutine, see asContextElement for more details.
Alternatively, a value can be stored in a mutable box like class Counter(var i: Int), which is, in turn, stored in a thread-
local variable. However, in this case you are fully responsible to synchronize potentially concurrent modifications to the
variable in this mutable box.
For advanced usage, for example for integration with logging MDC, transactional contexts or any other libraries which
internally use thread-locals for passing data, see the documentation of the ThreadContextElement interface that should
be implemented.
Asynchronous
Flow
A suspending function asynchronously returns a single value, but how can we return multiple asynchronously
computed values? This is where Kotlin Flows come in.
Representing
multiple
values
Multiple values can be represented in Kotlin using collections. For example, we can have a simple function that returns
a List of three numbers and then print them all using forEach:
fun simple(): List<Int> = listOf(1, 2, 3)
fun main() {
simple().forEach { value -> println(value) }
}
You can get the full code from here.
This code outputs:
1
2
3
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Sequences
If we are computing the numbers with some CPU-consuming blocking code (each computation taking 100ms), then we
can represent the numbers using a Sequence:
fun simple(): Sequence<Int> = sequence { // sequence builder
for (i in 1..3) {
Thread.sleep(100) // pretend we are computing it
yield(i) // yield next value
}
}
fun main() {
simple().forEach { value -> println(value) }
}
You can get the full code from here.
This code outputs the same numbers, but it waits 100ms before printing each one.
Suspending
functions
However, this computation blocks the main thread that is running the code. When these values are computed by
asynchronous code we can mark the simple function with a suspend modifier, so that it can perform its work without
blocking and return the result as a list:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
//sampleStart
suspend fun simple(): List<Int> {
delay(1000) // pretend we are doing something asynchronous here
return listOf(1, 2, 3)
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
simple().forEach { value -> println(value) }
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code from here.
This code prints the numbers after waiting for a second.
Flows
Using the List<Int> result type, means we can only return all the values at once. To represent the stream of values that
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are being asynchronously computed, we can use a Flow<Int> type just like we would use the Sequence<Int> type for
synchronously computed values:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
//sampleStart
fun simple(): Flow<Int> = flow { // flow builder
for (i in 1..3) {
delay(100) // pretend we are doing something useful here
emit(i) // emit next value
}
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
// Launch a concurrent coroutine to check if the main thread is blocked
launch {
for (k in 1..3) {
println("I'm not blocked $k")
delay(100)
}
}
// Collect the flow
simple().collect { value -> println(value) }
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code from here.
This code waits 100ms before printing each number without blocking the main thread. This is verified by printing "I'm
not blocked" every 100ms from a separate coroutine that is running in the main thread:
I'm not blocked 1
1
I'm not blocked 2
2
I'm not blocked 3
3
Notice the following differences in the code with the Flow from the earlier examples:
A builder function for Flow type is called flow.
Code inside the flow { ... } builder block can suspend.
The simple function is no longer marked with suspend modifier.
Values are emitted from the flow using emit function.
Values are collected from the flow using collect function.
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We can replace delay with Thread.sleep in the body of foo 's flow { ... } and see that the main thread is
blocked in this case.
Flows
are
cold
Flows are cold streams similar to sequences — the code inside a flow builder does not run until the flow is collected.
This becomes clear in the following example:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
//sampleStart
fun simple(): Flow<Int> = flow {
println("Flow started")
for (i in 1..3) {
delay(100)
emit(i)
}
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
println("Calling simple function...")
val flow = simple()
println("Calling collect...")
flow.collect { value -> println(value) }
println("Calling collect again...")
flow.collect { value -> println(value) }
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code from here.
Which prints:
Calling simple function...
Calling collect...
Flow started
1
2
3
Calling collect again...
Flow started
1
2
3
This is a key reason the simple function (which returns a flow) is not marked with suspend modifier. By itself, simple()
792
call returns quickly and does not wait for anything. The flow starts every time it is collected, that is why we see "Flow
started" when we call collect again.
Flow
cancellation
basics
Flow adheres to the general cooperative cancellation of coroutines. As usual, flow collection can be cancelled when the
flow is suspended in a cancellable suspending function (like delay ). The following example shows how the flow gets
cancelled on a timeout when running in a withTimeoutOrNull block and stops executing its code:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
//sampleStart
fun simple(): Flow<Int> = flow {
for (i in 1..3) {
delay(100)
println("Emitting $i")
emit(i)
}
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
withTimeoutOrNull(250) { // Timeout after 250ms
simple().collect { value -> println(value) }
}
println("Done")
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code from here.
Notice how only two numbers get emitted by the flow in the simple function, producing the following output:
Emitting 1
1
Emitting 2
2
Done
See Flow cancellation checks section for more details.
Flow
builders
The flow { ... } builder from the previous examples is the most basic one. There are other builders for easier declaration
of flows:
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flowOf builder that defines a flow emitting a fixed set of values.
Various collections and sequences can be converted to flows using .asFlow() extension functions.
So, the example that prints the numbers from 1 to 3 from a flow can be written as:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
// Convert an integer range to a flow
(1..3).asFlow().collect { value -> println(value) }
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code from here.
Intermediate
flow
operators
Flows can be transformed with operators, just as you would with collections and sequences. Intermediate operators
are applied to an upstream flow and return a downstream flow. These operators are cold, just like flows are. A call to
such an operator is not a suspending function itself. It works quickly, returning the definition of a new transformed flow.
The basic operators have familiar names like map and filter. The important difference to sequences is that blocks of
code inside these operators can call suspending functions.
For example, a flow of incoming requests can be mapped to the results with the map operator, even when performing
a request is a long-running operation that is implemented by a suspending function:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
//sampleStart
suspend fun performRequest(request: Int): String {
delay(1000) // imitate long-running asynchronous work
return "response $request"
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
(1..3).asFlow() // a flow of requests
.map { request -> performRequest(request) }
.collect { response -> println(response) }
}
//sampleEnd
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You can get the full code from here.
It produces the following three lines, each line appearing after each second:
response 1
response 2
response 3
Transform
operator
Among the flow transformation operators, the most general one is called transform. It can be used to imitate simple
transformations like map and filter, as well as implement more complex transformations. Using the transform operator,
we can emit arbitrary values an arbitrary number of times.
For example, using transform we can emit a string before performing a long-running asynchronous request and follow
it with a response:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
suspend fun performRequest(request: Int): String {
delay(1000) // imitate long-running asynchronous work
return "response $request"
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
(1..3).asFlow() // a flow of requests
.transform { request ->
emit("Making request $request")
emit(performRequest(request))
}
.collect { response -> println(response) }
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code from here.
The output of this code is:
Making request 1
response 1
Making request 2
response 2
Making request 3
response 3
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Size-limiting
operators
Size-limiting intermediate operators like take cancel the execution of the flow when the corresponding limit is reached.
Cancellation in coroutines is always performed by throwing an exception, so that all the resource-management
functions (like try { ... } finally { ... } blocks) operate normally in case of cancellation:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
//sampleStart
fun numbers(): Flow<Int> = flow {
try {
emit(1)
emit(2)
println("This line will not execute")
emit(3)
} finally {
println("Finally in numbers")
}
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
numbers()
.take(2) // take only the first two
.collect { value -> println(value) }
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code from here.
The output of this code clearly shows that the execution of the flow { ... } body in the numbers() function stopped after
emitting the second number:
1
2
Finally in numbers
Terminal
flow
operators
Terminal operators on flows are suspending functions that start a collection of the flow. The collect operator is the most
basic one, but there are other terminal operators, which can make it easier:
Conversion to various collections like toList and toSet.
Operators to get the first value and to ensure that a flow emits a single value.
Reducing a flow to a value with reduce and fold.
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For example:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val sum = (1..5).asFlow()
.map { it * it } // squares of numbers from 1 to 5
.reduce { a, b -> a + b } // sum them (terminal operator)
println(sum)
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code from here.
Prints a single number:
55
Flows
are
sequential
Each individual collection of a flow is performed sequentially unless special operators that operate on multiple flows are
used. The collection works directly in the coroutine that calls a terminal operator. No new coroutines are launched by
default. Each emitted value is processed by all the intermediate operators from upstream to downstream and is then
delivered to the terminal operator after.
See the following example that filters the even integers and maps them to strings:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
(1..5).asFlow()
.filter {
println("Filter $it")
it % 2 == 0
}
.map {
println("Map $it")
"string $it"
}.collect {
println("Collect $it")
}
//sampleEnd
}
797
You can get the full code from here.
Producing:
Filter 1
Filter 2
Map 2
Collect string 2
Filter 3
Filter 4
Map 4
Collect string 4
Filter 5
Flow
context
Collection of a flow always happens in the context of the calling coroutine. For example, if there is a simple flow, then
the following code runs in the context specified by the author of this code, regardless of the implementation details of
the simple flow:
withContext(context) {
simple().collect { value ->
println(value) // run in the specified context
}
}
This property of a flow is called context preservation.
So, by default, code in the flow { ... } builder runs in the context that is provided by a collector of the corresponding
flow. For example, consider the implementation of a simple function that prints the thread it is called on and emits
three numbers:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
fun log(msg: String) = println("[${Thread.currentThread().name}] $msg")
//sampleStart
fun simple(): Flow<Int> = flow {
log("Started simple flow")
for (i in 1..3) {
emit(i)
}
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
simple().collect { value -> log("Collected $value") }
}
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//sampleEnd
You can get the full code from here.
Running this code produces:
[main @coroutine#1] Started simple flow
[main @coroutine#1] Collected 1
[main @coroutine#1] Collected 2
[main @coroutine#1] Collected 3
Since simple().collect is called from the main thread, the body of simple 's flow is also called in the main thread. This is
the perfect default for fast-running or asynchronous code that does not care about the execution context and does not
block the caller.
Wrong
emission
withContext
However, the long-running CPU-consuming code might need to be executed in the context of Dispatchers.Default and
UI-updating code might need to be executed in the context of Dispatchers.Main. Usually, withContext is used to
change the context in the code using Kotlin coroutines, but code in the flow { ... } builder has to honor the context
preservation property and is not allowed to emit from a different context.
Try running the following code:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
//sampleStart
fun simple(): Flow<Int> = flow {
// The WRONG way to change context for CPU-consuming code in flow builder
kotlinx.coroutines.withContext(Dispatchers.Default) {
for (i in 1..3) {
Thread.sleep(100) // pretend we are computing it in CPU-consuming way
emit(i) // emit next value
}
}
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
simple().collect { value -> println(value) }
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code from here.
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This code produces the following exception:
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.IllegalStateException: Flow invariant is violated:
Flow was collected in [CoroutineId(1), "coroutine#1":BlockingCoroutine{Active}@5511c7f8,
BlockingEventLoop@2eac3323],
but emission happened in [CoroutineId(1), "coroutine#1":DispatchedCoroutine{Active}@2dae0000,
Dispatchers.Default].
Please refer to 'flow' documentation or use 'flowOn' instead
at ...
flowOn
operator
The exception refers to the flowOn function that shall be used to change the context of the flow emission. The correct
way to change the context of a flow is shown in the example below, which also prints the names of the corresponding
threads to show how it all works:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
fun log(msg: String) = println("[${Thread.currentThread().name}] $msg")
//sampleStart
fun simple(): Flow<Int> = flow {
for (i in 1..3) {
Thread.sleep(100) // pretend we are computing it in CPU-consuming way
log("Emitting $i")
emit(i) // emit next value
}
}.flowOn(Dispatchers.Default) // RIGHT way to change context for CPU-consuming code in flow
builder
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
simple().collect { value ->
log("Collected $value")
}
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code from here.
Notice how flow { ... } works in the background thread, while collection happens in the main thread:
Another thing to observe here is that the flowOn operator has changed the default sequential nature of the flow. Now
collection happens in one coroutine ("coroutine#1") and emission happens in another coroutine ("coroutine#2") that is
running in another thread concurrently with the collecting coroutine. The flowOn operator creates another coroutine for
an upstream flow when it has to change the CoroutineDispatcher in its context.
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Buffering
Running different parts of a flow in different coroutines can be helpful from the standpoint of the overall time it takes to
collect the flow, especially when long-running asynchronous operations are involved. For example, consider a case
when the emission by a simple flow is slow, taking 100 ms to produce an element; and collector is also slow, taking
300 ms to process an element. Let's see how long it takes to collect such a flow with three numbers:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
import kotlin.system.*
//sampleStart
fun simple(): Flow<Int> = flow {
for (i in 1..3) {
delay(100) // pretend we are asynchronously waiting 100 ms
emit(i) // emit next value
}
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
val time = measureTimeMillis {
simple().collect { value ->
delay(300) // pretend we are processing it for 300 ms
println(value)
}
}
println("Collected in $time ms")
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code from here.
It produces something like this, with the whole collection taking around 1200 ms (three numbers, 400 ms for each):
1
2
3
Collected in 1220 ms
We can use a buffer operator on a flow to run emitting code of the simple flow concurrently with collecting code, as
opposed to running them sequentially:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
import kotlin.system.*
fun simple(): Flow<Int> = flow {
for (i in 1..3) {
delay(100) // pretend we are asynchronously waiting 100 ms
801
emit(i) // emit next value
}
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val time = measureTimeMillis {
simple()
.buffer() // buffer emissions, don't wait
.collect { value ->
delay(300) // pretend we are processing it for 300 ms
println(value)
}
}
println("Collected in $time ms")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code from here.
It produces the same numbers just faster, as we have effectively created a processing pipeline, having to only wait 100
ms for the first number and then spending only 300 ms to process each number. This way it takes around 1000 ms to
run:
1
2
3
Collected in 1071 ms
Note that the flowOn operator uses the same buffering mechanism when it has to change a
CoroutineDispatcher, but here we explicitly request buffering without changing the execution context.
Conflation
When a flow represents partial results of the operation or operation status updates, it may not be necessary to process
each value, but instead, only most recent ones. In this case, the conflate operator can be used to skip intermediate
values when a collector is too slow to process them. Building on the previous example:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
import kotlin.system.*
fun simple(): Flow<Int> = flow {
for (i in 1..3) {
delay(100) // pretend we are asynchronously waiting 100 ms
emit(i) // emit next value
}
802
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val time = measureTimeMillis {
simple()
.conflate() // conflate emissions, don't process each one
.collect { value ->
delay(300) // pretend we are processing it for 300 ms
println(value)
}
}
println("Collected in $time ms")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code from here.
We see that while the first number was still being processed the second, and third were already produced, so the
second one was conflated and only the most recent (the third one) was delivered to the collector:
1
3
Collected in 758 ms
Processing
the
latest
value
Conflation is one way to speed up processing when both the emitter and collector are slow. It does it by dropping
emitted values. The other way is to cancel a slow collector and restart it every time a new value is emitted. There is a
family of xxxLatest operators that perform the same essential logic of a xxx operator, but cancel the code in their block
on a new value. Let's try changing conflate to collectLatest in the previous example:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
import kotlin.system.*
fun simple(): Flow<Int> = flow {
for (i in 1..3) {
delay(100) // pretend we are asynchronously waiting 100 ms
emit(i) // emit next value
}
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val time = measureTimeMillis {
simple()
.collectLatest { value -> // cancel & restart on the latest value
println("Collecting $value")
delay(300) // pretend we are processing it for 300 ms
803
println("Done $value")
}
}
println("Collected in $time ms")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code from here.
Since the body of collectLatest takes 300 ms, but new values are emitted every 100 ms, we see that the block is run on
every value, but completes only for the last value:
Collecting 1
Collecting 2
Collecting 3
Done 3
Collected in 741 ms
Composing
multiple
flows
There are lots of ways to compose multiple flows.
Zip
Just like the Sequence.zip extension function in the Kotlin standard library, flows have a zip operator that combines the
corresponding values of two flows:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val nums = (1..3).asFlow() // numbers 1..3
val strs = flowOf("one", "two", "three") // strings
nums.zip(strs) { a, b -> "$a -> $b" } // compose a single string
.collect { println(it) } // collect and print
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code from here.
This example prints:
804
1 -> one
2 -> two
3 -> three
Combine
When flow represents the most recent value of a variable or operation (see also the related section on conflation ), it
might be needed to perform a computation that depends on the most recent values of the corresponding flows and to
recompute it whenever any of the upstream flows emit a value. The corresponding family of operators is called
combine.
For example, if the numbers in the previous example update every 300ms, but strings update every 400 ms, then
zipping them using the zip operator will still produce the same result, albeit results that are printed every 400 ms:
We use a onEach intermediate operator in this example to delay each element and make the code that emits
sample flows more declarative and shorter.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val nums = (1..3).asFlow().onEach { delay(300) } // numbers 1..3 every 300 ms
val strs = flowOf("one", "two", "three").onEach { delay(400) } // strings every 400 ms
val startTime = System.currentTimeMillis() // remember the start time
nums.zip(strs) { a, b -> "$a -> $b" } // compose a single string with "zip"
.collect { value -> // collect and print
println("$value at ${System.currentTimeMillis() - startTime} ms from start")
}
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code from here.
However, when using a combine operator here instead of a zip:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val nums = (1..3).asFlow().onEach { delay(300) } // numbers 1..3 every 300 ms
val strs = flowOf("one", "two", "three").onEach { delay(400) } // strings every 400 ms
val startTime = System.currentTimeMillis() // remember the start time
nums.combine(strs) { a, b -> "$a -> $b" } // compose a single string with "combine"
805
.collect { value -> // collect and print
println("$value at ${System.currentTimeMillis() - startTime} ms from start")
}
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code from here.
We get quite a different output, where a line is printed at each emission from either nums or strs flows:
1 -> one at 452 ms from start
2 -> one at 651 ms from start
2 -> two at 854 ms from start
3 -> two at 952 ms from start
3 -> three at 1256 ms from start
Flattening
flows
Flows represent asynchronously received sequences of values, so it is quite easy to get in a situation where each value
triggers a request for another sequence of values. For example, we can have the following function that returns a flow
of two strings 500 ms apart:
fun requestFlow(i: Int): Flow<String> = flow {
emit("$i: First")
delay(500) // wait 500 ms
emit("$i: Second")
}
Now if we have a flow of three integers and call requestFlow for each of them like this:
(1..3).asFlow().map { requestFlow(it) }
Then we end up with a flow of flows (Flow<Flow<String>>) that needs to be flattened into a single flow for further
processing. Collections and sequences have flatten and flatMap operators for this. However, due to the asynchronous
nature of flows they call for different modes of flattening, as such, there is a family of flattening operators on flows.
flatMapConcat
Concatenating mode is implemented by flatMapConcat and flattenConcat operators. They are the most direct
analogues of the corresponding sequence operators. They wait for the inner flow to complete before starting to collect
the next one as the following example shows:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
806
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
fun requestFlow(i: Int): Flow<String> = flow {
emit("$i: First")
delay(500) // wait 500 ms
emit("$i: Second")
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val startTime = System.currentTimeMillis() // remember the start time
(1..3).asFlow().onEach { delay(100) } // a number every 100 ms
.flatMapConcat { requestFlow(it) }
.collect { value -> // collect and print
println("$value at ${System.currentTimeMillis() - startTime} ms from start")
}
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code from here.
The sequential nature of flatMapConcat is clearly seen in the output:
1: First at 121 ms from start
1: Second at 622 ms from start
2: First at 727 ms from start
2: Second at 1227 ms from start
3: First at 1328 ms from start
3: Second at 1829 ms from start
flatMapMerge
Another flattening mode is to concurrently collect all the incoming flows and merge their values into a single flow so
that values are emitted as soon as possible. It is implemented by flatMapMerge and flattenMerge operators. They both
accept an optional concurrency parameter that limits the number of concurrent flows that are collected at the same
time (it is equal to DEFAULT_CONCURRENCY by default).
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
fun requestFlow(i: Int): Flow<String> = flow {
emit("$i: First")
delay(500) // wait 500 ms
emit("$i: Second")
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val startTime = System.currentTimeMillis() // remember the start time
(1..3).asFlow().onEach { delay(100) } // a number every 100 ms
807
.flatMapMerge { requestFlow(it) }
.collect { value -> // collect and print
println("$value at ${System.currentTimeMillis() - startTime} ms from start")
}
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code from here.
The concurrent nature of flatMapMerge is obvious:
1: First at 136 ms from start
2: First at 231 ms from start
3: First at 333 ms from start
1: Second at 639 ms from start
2: Second at 732 ms from start
3: Second at 833 ms from start
Note that the flatMapMerge calls its block of code ({ requestFlow(it) } in this example) sequentially, but
collects the resulting flows concurrently, it is the equivalent of performing a sequential map { requestFlow(it) }
first and then calling flattenMerge on the result.
flatMapLatest
In a similar way to the collectLatest operator, that was shown in "Processing the latest value" section, there is the
corresponding "Latest" flattening mode where a collection of the previous flow is cancelled as soon as new flow is
emitted. It is implemented by the flatMapLatest operator.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
fun requestFlow(i: Int): Flow<String> = flow {
emit("$i: First")
delay(500) // wait 500 ms
emit("$i: Second")
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val startTime = System.currentTimeMillis() // remember the start time
(1..3).asFlow().onEach { delay(100) } // a number every 100 ms
.flatMapLatest { requestFlow(it) }
.collect { value -> // collect and print
println("$value at ${System.currentTimeMillis() - startTime} ms from start")
}
//sampleEnd
}
808
You can get the full code from here.
The output here in this example is a good demonstration of how flatMapLatest works:
1: First at 142 ms from start
2: First at 322 ms from start
3: First at 425 ms from start
3: Second at 931 ms from start
Note that flatMapLatest cancels all the code in its block ({ requestFlow(it) } in this example) on a new value. It
makes no difference in this particular example, because the call to requestFlow itself is fast, not-suspending,
and cannot be cancelled. However, it would show up if we were to use suspending functions like delay in
there.
Flow
exceptions
Flow collection can complete with an exception when an emitter or code inside the operators throw an exception.
There are several ways to handle these exceptions.
Collector
try
and
catch
A collector can use Kotlin's try/catch block to handle exceptions:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
//sampleStart
fun simple(): Flow<Int> = flow {
for (i in 1..3) {
println("Emitting $i")
emit(i) // emit next value
}
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
try {
simple().collect { value ->
println(value)
check(value <= 1) { "Collected $value" }
}
} catch (e: Throwable) {
println("Caught $e")
}
}
//sampleEnd
809
You can get the full code from here.
This code successfully catches an exception in collect terminal operator and, as we see, no more values are emitted
after that:
Emitting 1
1
Emitting 2
2
Caught java.lang.IllegalStateException: Collected 2
Everything
is
caught
The previous example actually catches any exception happening in the emitter or in any intermediate or terminal
operators. For example, let's change the code so that emitted values are mapped to strings, but the corresponding
code produces an exception:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
//sampleStart
fun simple(): Flow<String> =
flow {
for (i in 1..3) {
println("Emitting $i")
emit(i) // emit next value
}
}
.map { value ->
check(value <= 1) { "Crashed on $value" }
"string $value"
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
try {
simple().collect { value -> println(value) }
} catch (e: Throwable) {
println("Caught $e")
}
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code from here.
This exception is still caught and collection is stopped:
Emitting 1
810
string 1
Emitting 2
Caught java.lang.IllegalStateException: Crashed on 2
Exception
transparency
But how can code of the emitter encapsulate its exception handling behavior?
Flows must be transparent to exceptions and it is a violation of the exception transparency to emit values in the flow {
... } builder from inside of a try/catch block. This guarantees that a collector throwing an exception can always catch it
using try/catch as in the previous example.
The emitter can use a catch operator that preserves this exception transparency and allows encapsulation of its
exception handling. The body of the catch operator can analyze an exception and react to it in different ways
depending on which exception was caught:
Exceptions can be rethrown using throw.
Exceptions can be turned into emission of values using emit from the body of catch.
Exceptions can be ignored, logged, or processed by some other code.
For example, let us emit the text on catching an exception:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
fun simple(): Flow<String> =
flow {
for (i in 1..3) {
println("Emitting $i")
emit(i) // emit next value
}
}
.map { value ->
check(value <= 1) { "Crashed on $value" }
"string $value"
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
simple()
.catch { e -> emit("Caught $e") } // emit on exception
.collect { value -> println(value) }
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code from here.
811
The output of the example is the same, even though we do not have try/catch around the code anymore.
Transparent
catch
The catch intermediate operator, honoring exception transparency, catches only upstream exceptions (that is an
exception from all the operators above catch, but not below it). If the block in collect { ... } (placed below catch) throws
an exception then it escapes:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
//sampleStart
fun simple(): Flow<Int> = flow {
for (i in 1..3) {
println("Emitting $i")
emit(i)
}
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
simple()
.catch { e -> println("Caught $e") } // does not catch downstream exceptions
.collect { value ->
check(value <= 1) { "Collected $value" }
println(value)
}
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code from here.
A "Caught ..." message is not printed despite there being a catch operator:
Emitting 1
1
Emitting 2
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.IllegalStateException: Collected 2
at ...
Catching
declaratively
We can combine the declarative nature of the catch operator with a desire to handle all the exceptions, by moving the
body of the collect operator into onEach and putting it before the catch operator. Collection of this flow must be
triggered by a call to collect() without parameters:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
812
fun simple(): Flow<Int> = flow {
for (i in 1..3) {
println("Emitting $i")
emit(i)
}
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
simple()
.onEach { value ->
check(value <= 1) { "Collected $value" }
println(value)
}
.catch { e -> println("Caught $e") }
.collect()
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code from here.
Now we can see that a "Caught ..." message is printed and so we can catch all the exceptions without explicitly using
a try/catch block:
Emitting 1
1
Emitting 2
Caught java.lang.IllegalStateException: Collected 2
Flow
completion
When flow collection completes (normally or exceptionally) it may need to execute an action. As you may have already
noticed, it can be done in two ways: imperative or declarative.
Imperative
finally
block
In addition to try/ catch, a collector can also use a finally block to execute an action upon collect completion.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
//sampleStart
fun simple(): Flow<Int> = (1..3).asFlow()
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
try {
simple().collect { value -> println(value) }
} finally {
813
println("Done")
}
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code from here.
This code prints three numbers produced by the simple flow followed by a "Done" string:
1
2
3
Done
Declarative
handling
For the declarative approach, flow has onCompletion intermediate operator that is invoked when the flow has
completely collected.
The previous example can be rewritten using an onCompletion operator and produces the same output:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
fun simple(): Flow<Int> = (1..3).asFlow()
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
simple()
.onCompletion { println("Done") }
.collect { value -> println(value) }
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code from here.
The key advantage of onCompletion is a nullable Throwable parameter of the lambda that can be used to determine
whether the flow collection was completed normally or exceptionally. In the following example the simple flow throws
an exception after emitting the number 1:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
//sampleStart
fun simple(): Flow<Int> = flow {
814
emit(1)
throw RuntimeException()
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
simple()
.onCompletion { cause -> if (cause != null) println("Flow completed exceptionally") }
.catch { cause -> println("Caught exception") }
.collect { value -> println(value) }
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code from here.
As you may expect, it prints:
1
Flow completed exceptionally
Caught exception
The onCompletion operator, unlike catch, does not handle the exception. As we can see from the above example code,
the exception still flows downstream. It will be delivered to further onCompletion operators and can be handled with a
catch operator.
Successful
completion
Another difference with catch operator is that onCompletion sees all exceptions and receives a null exception only on
successful completion of the upstream flow (without cancellation or failure).
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
//sampleStart
fun simple(): Flow<Int> = (1..3).asFlow()
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
simple()
.onCompletion { cause -> println("Flow completed with $cause") }
.collect { value ->
check(value <= 1) { "Collected $value" }
println(value)
}
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code from here.
815
We can see the completion cause is not null, because the flow was aborted due to downstream exception:
1
Flow completed with java.lang.IllegalStateException: Collected 2
Exception in thread "main" java.lang.IllegalStateException: Collected 2
Imperative
versus
declarative
Now we know how to collect flow, and handle its completion and exceptions in both imperative and declarative ways.
The natural question here is, which approach is preferred and why? As a library, we do not advocate for any particular
approach and believe that both options are valid and should be selected according to your own preferences and code
style.
Launching
flow
It is easy to use flows to represent asynchronous events that are coming from some source. In this case, we need an
analogue of the addEventListener function that registers a piece of code with a reaction for incoming events and
continues further work. The onEach operator can serve this role. However, onEach is an intermediate operator. We also
need a terminal operator to collect the flow. Otherwise, just calling onEach has no effect.
If we use the collect terminal operator after onEach, then the code after it will wait until the flow is collected:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
//sampleStart
// Imitate a flow of events
fun events(): Flow<Int> = (1..3).asFlow().onEach { delay(100) }
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
events()
.onEach { event -> println("Event: $event") }
.collect() // <--- Collecting the flow waits
println("Done")
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code from here.
As you can see, it prints:
Event: 1
Event: 2
Event: 3
816
Done
The launchIn terminal operator comes in handy here. By replacing collect with launchIn we can launch a collection of
the flow in a separate coroutine, so that execution of further code immediately continues:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
// Imitate a flow of events
fun events(): Flow<Int> = (1..3).asFlow().onEach { delay(100) }
//sampleStart
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
events()
.onEach { event -> println("Event: $event") }
.launchIn(this) // <--- Launching the flow in a separate coroutine
println("Done")
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code from here.
It prints:
Done
Event: 1
Event: 2
Event: 3
The required parameter to launchIn must specify a CoroutineScope in which the coroutine to collect the flow is
launched. In the above example this scope comes from the runBlocking coroutine builder, so while the flow is running,
this runBlocking scope waits for completion of its child coroutine and keeps the main function from returning and
terminating this example.
In actual applications a scope will come from an entity with a limited lifetime. As soon as the lifetime of this entity is
terminated the corresponding scope is cancelled, cancelling the collection of the corresponding flow. This way the pair
of onEach { ... }.launchIn(scope) works like the addEventListener. However, there is no need for the corresponding
removeEventListener function, as cancellation and structured concurrency serve this purpose.
Note that launchIn also returns a Job, which can be used to cancel the corresponding flow collection coroutine only
without cancelling the whole scope or to join it.
Flow
cancellation
checks
For convenience, the flow builder performs additional ensureActive checks for cancellation on each emitted value. It
means that a busy loop emitting from a flow { ... } is cancellable:
817
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
//sampleStart
fun foo(): Flow<Int> = flow {
for (i in 1..5) {
println("Emitting $i")
emit(i)
}
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
foo().collect { value ->
if (value == 3) cancel()
println(value)
}
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code from here.
We get only numbers up to 3 and a CancellationException after trying to emit number 4:
Emitting 1
1
Emitting 2
2
Emitting 3
3
Emitting 4
Exception in thread "main" kotlinx.coroutines.JobCancellationException: BlockingCoroutine was
cancelled; job="coroutine#1":BlockingCoroutine{Cancelled}@6d7b4f4c
However, most other flow operators do not do additional cancellation checks on their own for performance reasons.
For example, if you use IntRange.asFlow extension to write the same busy loop and don't suspend anywhere, then
there are no checks for cancellation:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
//sampleStart
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
(1..5).asFlow().collect { value ->
if (value == 3) cancel()
println(value)
}
}
//sampleEnd
818
You can get the full code from here.
All numbers from 1 to 5 are collected and cancellation gets detected only before return from runBlocking:
1
2
3
4
5
Exception in thread "main" kotlinx.coroutines.JobCancellationException: BlockingCoroutine was
cancelled; job="coroutine#1":BlockingCoroutine{Cancelled}@3327bd23
Making busy flow cancellable
In the case where you have a busy loop with coroutines you must explicitly check for cancellation. You can add
.onEach { currentCoroutineContext().ensureActive() }, but there is a ready-to-use cancellable operator provided to do
that:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
//sampleStart
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
(1..5).asFlow().cancellable().collect { value ->
if (value == 3) cancel()
println(value)
}
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code from here.
With the cancellable operator only the numbers from 1 to 3 are collected:
1
2
3
Exception in thread "main" kotlinx.coroutines.JobCancellationException: BlockingCoroutine was
cancelled; job="coroutine#1":BlockingCoroutine{Cancelled}@5ec0a365
Flow
and
Reactive
Streams
For those who are familiar with Reactive Streams or reactive frameworks such as RxJava and project Reactor, design
of the Flow may look very familiar.
819
Indeed, its design was inspired by Reactive Streams and its various implementations. But Flow main goal is to have as
simple design as possible, be Kotlin and suspension friendly and respect structured concurrency. Achieving this goal
would be impossible without reactive pioneers and their tremendous work. You can read the complete story in Reactive
Streams and Kotlin Flows article.
While being different, conceptually, Flow is a reactive stream and it is possible to convert it to the reactive (spec and
TCK compliant) Publisher and vice versa. Such converters are provided by kotlinx.coroutines out-of-the-box and can
be found in corresponding reactive modules (kotlinx-coroutines-reactive for Reactive Streams, kotlinx-coroutines-
reactor for Project Reactor and kotlinx-coroutines-rx2/ kotlinx-coroutines-rx3 for RxJava2/RxJava3). Integration
modules include conversions from and to Flow, integration with Reactor's Context and suspension-friendly ways to
work with various reactive entities.
Channels
Deferred values provide a convenient way to transfer a single value between coroutines. Channels provide a way to
transfer a stream of values.
Channel
basics
A Channel is conceptually very similar to BlockingQueue. One key difference is that instead of a blocking put operation
it has a suspending send, and instead of a blocking take operation it has a suspending receive.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.channels.*
fun main() = runBlocking {
//sampleStart
val channel = Channel<Int>()
launch {
// this might be heavy CPU-consuming computation or async logic, we'll just send five
squares
for (x in 1..5) channel.send(x * x)
}
// here we print five received integers:
repeat(5) { println(channel.receive()) }
println("Done!")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
The output of this code is:
820
1
4
9
16
25
Done!
Closing
and
iteration
over
channels
Unlike a queue, a channel can be closed to indicate that no more elements are coming. On the receiver side it is
convenient to use a regular for loop to receive elements from the channel.
Conceptually, a close is like sending a special close token to the channel. The iteration stops as soon as this close
token is received, so there is a guarantee that all previously sent elements before the close are received:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.channels.*
fun main() = runBlocking {
//sampleStart
val channel = Channel<Int>()
launch {
for (x in 1..5) channel.send(x * x)
channel.close() // we're done sending
}
// here we print received values using `for` loop (until the channel is closed)
for (y in channel) println(y)
println("Done!")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
Building
channel
producers
The pattern where a coroutine is producing a sequence of elements is quite common. This is a part of producer-
consumer pattern that is often found in concurrent code. You could abstract such a producer into a function that takes
channel as its parameter, but this goes contrary to common sense that results must be returned from functions.
There is a convenient coroutine builder named produce that makes it easy to do it right on producer side, and an
extension function consumeEach, that replaces a for loop on the consumer side:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.channels.*
fun CoroutineScope.produceSquares(): ReceiveChannel<Int> = produce {
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for (x in 1..5) send(x * x)
}
fun main() = runBlocking {
//sampleStart
val squares = produceSquares()
squares.consumeEach { println(it) }
println("Done!")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
Pipelines
A pipeline is a pattern where one coroutine is producing, possibly infinite, stream of values:
fun CoroutineScope.produceNumbers() = produce<Int> {
var x = 1
while (true) send(x++) // infinite stream of integers starting from 1
}
And another coroutine or coroutines are consuming that stream, doing some processing, and producing some other
results. In the example below, the numbers are just squared:
fun CoroutineScope.square(numbers: ReceiveChannel<Int>): ReceiveChannel<Int> = produce {
for (x in numbers) send(x * x)
}
The main code starts and connects the whole pipeline:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.channels.*
fun main() = runBlocking {
//sampleStart
val numbers = produceNumbers() // produces integers from 1 and on
val squares = square(numbers) // squares integers
repeat(5) {
println(squares.receive()) // print first five
}
println("Done!") // we are done
coroutineContext.cancelChildren() // cancel children coroutines
//sampleEnd
}
fun CoroutineScope.produceNumbers() = produce<Int> {
var x = 1
while (true) send(x++) // infinite stream of integers starting from 1
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}
fun CoroutineScope.square(numbers: ReceiveChannel<Int>): ReceiveChannel<Int> = produce {
for (x in numbers) send(x * x)
}
You can get the full code here.
All functions that create coroutines are defined as extensions on CoroutineScope, so that we can rely on
structured concurrency to make sure that we don't have lingering global coroutines in our application.
Prime
numbers
with
pipeline
Let's take pipelines to the extreme with an example that generates prime numbers using a pipeline of coroutines. We
start with an infinite sequence of numbers.
fun CoroutineScope.numbersFrom(start: Int) = produce<Int> {
var x = start
while (true) send(x++) // infinite stream of integers from start
}
The following pipeline stage filters an incoming stream of numbers, removing all the numbers that are divisible by the
given prime number:
fun CoroutineScope.filter(numbers: ReceiveChannel<Int>, prime: Int) = produce<Int> {
for (x in numbers) if (x % prime != 0) send(x)
}
Now we build our pipeline by starting a stream of numbers from 2, taking a prime number from the current channel,
and launching new pipeline stage for each prime number found:
numbersFrom(2) -> filter(2) -> filter(3) -> filter(5) -> filter(7) ...
The following example prints the first ten prime numbers, running the whole pipeline in the context of the main thread.
Since all the coroutines are launched in the scope of the main runBlocking coroutine we don't have to keep an explicit
list of all the coroutines we have started. We use cancelChildren extension function to cancel all the children coroutines
after we have printed the first ten prime numbers.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.channels.*
fun main() = runBlocking {
//sampleStart
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var cur = numbersFrom(2)
repeat(10) {
val prime = cur.receive()
println(prime)
cur = filter(cur, prime)
}
coroutineContext.cancelChildren() // cancel all children to let main finish
//sampleEnd
}
fun CoroutineScope.numbersFrom(start: Int) = produce<Int> {
var x = start
while (true) send(x++) // infinite stream of integers from start
}
fun CoroutineScope.filter(numbers: ReceiveChannel<Int>, prime: Int) = produce<Int> {
for (x in numbers) if (x % prime != 0) send(x)
}
You can get the full code here.
The output of this code is:
2
3
5
7
11
13
17
19
23
29
Note that you can build the same pipeline using iterator coroutine builder from the standard library. Replace produce
with iterator, send with yield, receive with next, ReceiveChannel with Iterator, and get rid of the coroutine scope. You
will not need runBlocking either. However, the benefit of a pipeline that uses channels as shown above is that it can
actually use multiple CPU cores if you run it in Dispatchers.Default context.
Anyway, this is an extremely impractical way to find prime numbers. In practice, pipelines do involve some other
suspending invocations (like asynchronous calls to remote services) and these pipelines cannot be built using
sequence/ iterator, because they do not allow arbitrary suspension, unlike produce, which is fully asynchronous.
Fan-out
Multiple coroutines may receive from the same channel, distributing work between themselves. Let us start with a
producer coroutine that is periodically producing integers (ten numbers per second):
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fun CoroutineScope.produceNumbers() = produce<Int> {
var x = 1 // start from 1
while (true) {
send(x++) // produce next
delay(100) // wait 0.1s
}
}
Then we can have several processor coroutines. In this example, they just print their id and received number:
fun CoroutineScope.launchProcessor(id: Int, channel: ReceiveChannel<Int>) = launch {
for (msg in channel) {
println("Processor #$id received $msg")
}
}
Now let us launch five processors and let them work for almost a second. See what happens:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.channels.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val producer = produceNumbers()
repeat(5) { launchProcessor(it, producer) }
delay(950)
producer.cancel() // cancel producer coroutine and thus kill them all
//sampleEnd
}
fun CoroutineScope.produceNumbers() = produce<Int> {
var x = 1 // start from 1
while (true) {
send(x++) // produce next
delay(100) // wait 0.1s
}
}
fun CoroutineScope.launchProcessor(id: Int, channel: ReceiveChannel<Int>) = launch {
for (msg in channel) {
println("Processor #$id received $msg")
}
}
You can get the full code here.
The output will be similar to the the following one, albeit the processor ids that receive each specific integer may be
different:
Processor #2 received 1
825
Processor #4 received 2
Processor #0 received 3
Processor #1 received 4
Processor #3 received 5
Processor #2 received 6
Processor #4 received 7
Processor #0 received 8
Processor #1 received 9
Processor #3 received 10
Note that cancelling a producer coroutine closes its channel, thus eventually terminating iteration over the channel that
processor coroutines are doing.
Also, pay attention to how we explicitly iterate over channel with for loop to perform fan-out in launchProcessor code.
Unlike consumeEach, this for loop pattern is perfectly safe to use from multiple coroutines. If one of the processor
coroutines fails, then others would still be processing the channel, while a processor that is written via consumeEach
always consumes (cancels) the underlying channel on its normal or abnormal completion.
Fan-in
Multiple coroutines may send to the same channel. For example, let us have a channel of strings, and a suspending
function that repeatedly sends a specified string to this channel with a specified delay:
suspend fun sendString(channel: SendChannel<String>, s: String, time: Long) {
while (true) {
delay(time)
channel.send(s)
}
}
Now, let us see what happens if we launch a couple of coroutines sending strings (in this example we launch them in
the context of the main thread as main coroutine's children):
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.channels.*
fun main() = runBlocking {
//sampleStart
val channel = Channel<String>()
launch { sendString(channel, "foo", 200L) }
launch { sendString(channel, "BAR!", 500L) }
repeat(6) { // receive first six
println(channel.receive())
}
coroutineContext.cancelChildren() // cancel all children to let main finish
//sampleEnd
}
suspend fun sendString(channel: SendChannel<String>, s: String, time: Long) {
while (true) {
delay(time)
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channel.send(s)
}
}
You can get the full code here.
The output is:
foo
foo
BAR!
foo
foo
BAR!
Buffered
channels
The channels shown so far had no buffer. Unbuffered channels transfer elements when sender and receiver meet each
other (aka rendezvous). If send is invoked first, then it is suspended until receive is invoked, if receive is invoked first, it
is suspended until send is invoked.
Both Channel() factory function and produce builder take an optional capacity parameter to specify buffer size. Buffer
allows senders to send multiple elements before suspending, similar to the BlockingQueue with a specified capacity,
which blocks when buffer is full.
Take a look at the behavior of the following code:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.channels.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val channel = Channel<Int>(4) // create buffered channel
val sender = launch { // launch sender coroutine
repeat(10) {
println("Sending $it") // print before sending each element
channel.send(it) // will suspend when buffer is full
}
}
// don't receive anything... just wait....
delay(1000)
sender.cancel() // cancel sender coroutine
//sampleEnd
}
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You can get the full code here.
It prints "sending" five times using a buffered channel with capacity of four:
Sending 0
Sending 1
Sending 2
Sending 3
Sending 4
The first four elements are added to the buffer and the sender suspends when trying to send the fifth one.
Channels
are
fair
Send and receive operations to channels are fair with respect to the order of their invocation from multiple coroutines.
They are served in first-in first-out order, e.g. the first coroutine to invoke receive gets the element. In the following
example two coroutines "ping" and "pong" are receiving the "ball" object from the shared "table" channel.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.channels.*
//sampleStart
data class Ball(var hits: Int)
fun main() = runBlocking {
val table = Channel<Ball>() // a shared table
launch { player("ping", table) }
launch { player("pong", table) }
table.send(Ball(0)) // serve the ball
delay(1000) // delay 1 second
coroutineContext.cancelChildren() // game over, cancel them
}
suspend fun player(name: String, table: Channel<Ball>) {
for (ball in table) { // receive the ball in a loop
ball.hits++
println("$name $ball")
delay(300) // wait a bit
table.send(ball) // send the ball back
}
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code here.
The "ping" coroutine is started first, so it is the first one to receive the ball. Even though "ping" coroutine immediately
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starts receiving the ball again after sending it back to the table, the ball gets received by the "pong" coroutine, because
it was already waiting for it:
ping Ball(hits=1)
pong Ball(hits=2)
ping Ball(hits=3)
pong Ball(hits=4)
Note that sometimes channels may produce executions that look unfair due to the nature of the executor that is being
used. See this issue for details.
Ticker
channels
Ticker channel is a special rendezvous channel that produces Unit every time given delay passes since last
consumption from this channel. Though it may seem to be useless standalone, it is a useful building block to create
complex time-based produce pipelines and operators that do windowing and other time-dependent processing. Ticker
channel can be used in select to perform "on tick" action.
To create such channel use a factory method ticker. To indicate that no further elements are needed use
ReceiveChannel.cancel method on it.
Now let's see how it works in practice:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.channels.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
val tickerChannel = ticker(delayMillis = 100, initialDelayMillis = 0) // create ticker
channel
var nextElement = withTimeoutOrNull(1) { tickerChannel.receive() }
println("Initial element is available immediately: $nextElement") // no initial delay
nextElement = withTimeoutOrNull(50) { tickerChannel.receive() } // all subsequent elements
have 100ms delay
println("Next element is not ready in 50 ms: $nextElement")
nextElement = withTimeoutOrNull(60) { tickerChannel.receive() }
println("Next element is ready in 100 ms: $nextElement")
// Emulate large consumption delays
println("Consumer pauses for 150ms")
delay(150)
// Next element is available immediately
nextElement = withTimeoutOrNull(1) { tickerChannel.receive() }
println("Next element is available immediately after large consumer delay: $nextElement")
// Note that the pause between `receive` calls is taken into account and next element
arrives faster
nextElement = withTimeoutOrNull(60) { tickerChannel.receive() }
println("Next element is ready in 50ms after consumer pause in 150ms: $nextElement")
tickerChannel.cancel() // indicate that no more elements are needed
}
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You can get the full code here.
It prints following lines:
Initial element is available immediately: kotlin.Unit
Next element is not ready in 50 ms: null
Next element is ready in 100 ms: kotlin.Unit
Consumer pauses for 150ms
Next element is available immediately after large consumer delay: kotlin.Unit
Next element is ready in 50ms after consumer pause in 150ms: kotlin.Unit
Note that ticker is aware of possible consumer pauses and, by default, adjusts next produced element delay if a pause
occurs, trying to maintain a fixed rate of produced elements.
Optionally, a mode parameter equal to TickerMode.FIXED_DELAY can be specified to maintain a fixed delay between
elements.
Coroutine
exceptions
handling
This section covers exception handling and cancellation on exceptions. We already know that a cancelled coroutine
throws CancellationException in suspension points and that it is ignored by the coroutines' machinery. Here we look at
what happens if an exception is thrown during cancellation or multiple children of the same coroutine throw an
exception.
Exception
propagation
Coroutine builders come in two flavors: propagating exceptions automatically (launch and actor) or exposing them to
users (async and produce ). When these builders are used to create a root coroutine, that is not a child of another
coroutine, the former builders treat exceptions as uncaught exceptions, similar to Java's
Thread.uncaughtExceptionHandler, while the latter are relying on the user to consume the final exception, for example
via await or receive (produce and receive are covered later in Channels section).
It can be demonstrated by a simple example that creates root coroutines using the GlobalScope:
GlobalScope is a delicate API that can backfire in non-trivial ways. Creating a root coroutine for the whole
application is one of the rare legitimate uses for GlobalScope, so you must explicitly opt-in into using
GlobalScope with @OptIn(DelicateCoroutinesApi::class).
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import kotlinx.coroutines.*
@OptIn(DelicateCoroutinesApi::class)
fun main() = runBlocking {
val job = GlobalScope.launch { // root coroutine with launch
println("Throwing exception from launch")
throw IndexOutOfBoundsException() // Will be printed to the console by
Thread.defaultUncaughtExceptionHandler
}
job.join()
println("Joined failed job")
val deferred = GlobalScope.async { // root coroutine with async
println("Throwing exception from async")
throw ArithmeticException() // Nothing is printed, relying on user to call await
}
try {
deferred.await()
println("Unreached")
} catch (e: ArithmeticException) {
println("Caught ArithmeticException")
}
}
You can get the full code here.
The output of this code is (with debug ):
Throwing exception from launch
Exception in thread "DefaultDispatcher-worker-2 @coroutine#2"
java.lang.IndexOutOfBoundsException
Joined failed job
Throwing exception from async
Caught ArithmeticException
CoroutineExceptionHandler
It is possible to customize the default behavior of printing uncaught exceptions to the console.
CoroutineExceptionHandler context element on a root coroutine can be used as generic catch block for this root
coroutine and all its children where custom exception handling may take place. It is similar to
Thread.uncaughtExceptionHandler. You cannot recover from the exception in the CoroutineExceptionHandler. The
coroutine had already completed with the corresponding exception when the handler is called. Normally, the handler is
used to log the exception, show some kind of error message, terminate, and/or restart the application.
On JVM it is possible to redefine global exception handler for all coroutines by registering CoroutineExceptionHandler
via ServiceLoader. Global exception handler is similar to Thread.defaultUncaughtExceptionHandler which is used when
no more specific handlers are registered. On Android, uncaughtExceptionPreHandler is installed as a global coroutine
exception handler.
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CoroutineExceptionHandler is invoked only on uncaught exceptions — exceptions that were not handled in any other
way. In particular, all children coroutines (coroutines created in the context of another Job) delegate handling of their
exceptions to their parent coroutine, which also delegates to the parent, and so on until the root, so the
CoroutineExceptionHandler installed in their context is never used. In addition to that, async builder always catches all
exceptions and represents them in the resulting Deferred object, so its CoroutineExceptionHandler has no effect either.
Coroutines running in supervision scope do not propagate exceptions to their parent and are excluded from
this rule. A further Supervision section of this document gives more details.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
@OptIn(DelicateCoroutinesApi::class)
fun main() = runBlocking {
//sampleStart
val handler = CoroutineExceptionHandler { _, exception ->
println("CoroutineExceptionHandler got $exception")
}
val job = GlobalScope.launch(handler) { // root coroutine, running in GlobalScope
throw AssertionError()
}
val deferred = GlobalScope.async(handler) { // also root, but async instead of launch
throw ArithmeticException() // Nothing will be printed, relying on user to call
deferred.await()
}
joinAll(job, deferred)
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
The output of this code is:
CoroutineExceptionHandler got java.lang.AssertionError
Cancellation
and
exceptions
Cancellation is closely related to exceptions. Coroutines internally use CancellationException for cancellation, these
exceptions are ignored by all handlers, so they should be used only as the source of additional debug information,
which can be obtained by catch block. When a coroutine is cancelled using Job.cancel, it terminates, but it does not
cancel its parent.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
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fun main() = runBlocking {
//sampleStart
val job = launch {
val child = launch {
try {
delay(Long.MAX_VALUE)
} finally {
println("Child is cancelled")
}
}
yield()
println("Cancelling child")
child.cancel()
child.join()
yield()
println("Parent is not cancelled")
}
job.join()
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
The output of this code is:
Cancelling child
Child is cancelled
Parent is not cancelled
If a coroutine encounters an exception other than CancellationException, it cancels its parent with that exception. This
behaviour cannot be overridden and is used to provide stable coroutines hierarchies for structured concurrency.
CoroutineExceptionHandler implementation is not used for child coroutines.
In these examples, CoroutineExceptionHandler is always installed to a coroutine that is created in
GlobalScope. It does not make sense to install an exception handler to a coroutine that is launched in the
scope of the main runBlocking, since the main coroutine is going to be always cancelled when its child
completes with exception despite the installed handler.
The original exception is handled by the parent only when all its children terminate, which is demonstrated by the
following example.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
@OptIn(DelicateCoroutinesApi::class)
fun main() = runBlocking {
//sampleStart
val handler = CoroutineExceptionHandler { _, exception ->
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println("CoroutineExceptionHandler got $exception")
}
val job = GlobalScope.launch(handler) {
launch { // the first child
try {
delay(Long.MAX_VALUE)
} finally {
withContext(NonCancellable) {
println("Children are cancelled, but exception is not handled until all
children terminate")
delay(100)
println("The first child finished its non cancellable block")
}
}
}
launch { // the second child
delay(10)
println("Second child throws an exception")
throw ArithmeticException()
}
}
job.join()
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
The output of this code is:
Second child throws an exception
Children are cancelled, but exception is not handled until all children terminate
The first child finished its non cancellable block
CoroutineExceptionHandler got java.lang.ArithmeticException
Exceptions
aggregation
When multiple children of a coroutine fail with an exception, the general rule is "the first exception wins", so the first
exception gets handled. All additional exceptions that happen after the first one are attached to the first exception as
suppressed ones.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import java.io.*
@OptIn(DelicateCoroutinesApi::class)
fun main() = runBlocking {
val handler = CoroutineExceptionHandler { _, exception ->
println("CoroutineExceptionHandler got $exception with suppressed
${exception.suppressed.contentToString()}")
}
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val job = GlobalScope.launch(handler) {
launch {
try {
delay(Long.MAX_VALUE) // it gets cancelled when another sibling fails with
IOException
} finally {
throw ArithmeticException() // the second exception
}
}
launch {
delay(100)
throw IOException() // the first exception
}
delay(Long.MAX_VALUE)
}
job.join()
}
You can get the full code here.
Note: This above code will work properly only on JDK7+ that supports suppressed exceptions
The output of this code is:
CoroutineExceptionHandler got java.io.IOException with suppressed
[java.lang.ArithmeticException]
Note that this mechanism currently only works on Java version 1.7+. The JS and Native restrictions are
temporary and will be lifted in the future.
Cancellation exceptions are transparent and are unwrapped by default:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import java.io.*
@OptIn(DelicateCoroutinesApi::class)
fun main() = runBlocking {
//sampleStart
val handler = CoroutineExceptionHandler { _, exception ->
println("CoroutineExceptionHandler got $exception")
}
val job = GlobalScope.launch(handler) {
val inner = launch { // all this stack of coroutines will get cancelled
launch {
launch {
throw IOException() // the original exception
}
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}
}
try {
inner.join()
} catch (e: CancellationException) {
println("Rethrowing CancellationException with original cause")
throw e // cancellation exception is rethrown, yet the original IOException gets to
the handler
}
}
job.join()
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
The output of this code is:
Rethrowing CancellationException with original cause
CoroutineExceptionHandler got java.io.IOException
Supervision
As we have studied before, cancellation is a bidirectional relationship propagating through the whole hierarchy of
coroutines. Let us take a look at the case when unidirectional cancellation is required.
A good example of such a requirement is a UI component with the job defined in its scope. If any of the UI's child
tasks have failed, it is not always necessary to cancel (effectively kill) the whole UI component, but if UI component is
destroyed (and its job is cancelled), then it is necessary to fail all child jobs as their results are no longer needed.
Another example is a server process that spawns multiple child jobs and needs to supervise their execution, tracking
their failures and only restarting the failed ones.
Supervision
job
The SupervisorJob can be used for these purposes. It is similar to a regular Job with the only exception that
cancellation is propagated only downwards. This can easily be demonstrated using the following example:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking {
val supervisor = SupervisorJob()
with(CoroutineScope(coroutineContext + supervisor)) {
// launch the first child -- its exception is ignored for this example (don't do this
in practice!)
val firstChild = launch(CoroutineExceptionHandler { _, _ -> }) {
println("The first child is failing")
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throw AssertionError("The first child is cancelled")
}
// launch the second child
val secondChild = launch {
firstChild.join()
// Cancellation of the first child is not propagated to the second child
println("The first child is cancelled: ${firstChild.isCancelled}, but the second
one is still active")
try {
delay(Long.MAX_VALUE)
} finally {
// But cancellation of the supervisor is propagated
println("The second child is cancelled because the supervisor was cancelled")
}
}
// wait until the first child fails & completes
firstChild.join()
println("Cancelling the supervisor")
supervisor.cancel()
secondChild.join()
}
}
You can get the full code here.
The output of this code is:
The first child is failing
The first child is cancelled: true, but the second one is still active
Cancelling the supervisor
The second child is cancelled because the supervisor was cancelled
Supervision
scope
Instead of coroutineScope, we can use supervisorScope for scoped concurrency. It propagates the cancellation in one
direction only and cancels all its children only if it failed itself. It also waits for all children before completion just like
coroutineScope does.
import kotlin.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking {
try {
supervisorScope {
val child = launch {
try {
println("The child is sleeping")
delay(Long.MAX_VALUE)
} finally {
println("The child is cancelled")
}
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}
// Give our child a chance to execute and print using yield
yield()
println("Throwing an exception from the scope")
throw AssertionError()
}
} catch(e: AssertionError) {
println("Caught an assertion error")
}
}
You can get the full code here.
The output of this code is:
The child is sleeping
Throwing an exception from the scope
The child is cancelled
Caught an assertion error
Exceptions in supervised coroutines
Another crucial difference between regular and supervisor jobs is exception handling. Every child should handle its
exceptions by itself via the exception handling mechanism. This difference comes from the fact that child's failure does
not propagate to the parent. It means that coroutines launched directly inside the supervisorScope do use the
CoroutineExceptionHandler that is installed in their scope in the same way as root coroutines do (see the
CoroutineExceptionHandler section for details).
import kotlin.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking {
val handler = CoroutineExceptionHandler { _, exception ->
println("CoroutineExceptionHandler got $exception")
}
supervisorScope {
val child = launch(handler) {
println("The child throws an exception")
throw AssertionError()
}
println("The scope is completing")
}
println("The scope is completed")
}
You can get the full code here.
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The output of this code is:
The scope is completing
The child throws an exception
CoroutineExceptionHandler got java.lang.AssertionError
The scope is completed
Shared
mutable
state
and
concurrency
Coroutines can be executed parallelly using a multi-threaded dispatcher like the Dispatchers.Default. It presents all the
usual parallelism problems. The main problem being synchronization of access to shared mutable state. Some
solutions to this problem in the land of coroutines are similar to the solutions in the multi-threaded world, but others are
unique.
The
problem
Let us launch a hundred coroutines all doing the same action thousand times. We'll also measure their completion time
for further comparisons:
suspend fun massiveRun(action: suspend () -> Unit) {
val n = 100 // number of coroutines to launch
val k = 1000 // times an action is repeated by each coroutine
val time = measureTimeMillis {
coroutineScope { // scope for coroutines
repeat(n) {
launch {
repeat(k) { action() }
}
}
}
}
println("Completed ${n * k} actions in $time ms")
}
We start with a very simple action that increments a shared mutable variable using multi-threaded Dispatchers.Default.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlin.system.*
suspend fun massiveRun(action: suspend () -> Unit) {
val n = 100 // number of coroutines to launch
val k = 1000 // times an action is repeated by each coroutine
val time = measureTimeMillis {
coroutineScope { // scope for coroutines
repeat(n) {
launch {
repeat(k) { action() }
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}
}
}
}
println("Completed ${n * k} actions in $time ms")
}
//sampleStart
var counter = 0
fun main() = runBlocking {
withContext(Dispatchers.Default) {
massiveRun {
counter++
}
}
println("Counter = $counter")
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code here.
What does it print at the end? It is highly unlikely to ever print "Counter = 100000", because a hundred coroutines
increment the counter concurrently from multiple threads without any synchronization.
Volatiles
are
of
no
help
There is a common misconception that making a variable volatile solves concurrency problem. Let us try it:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlin.system.*
suspend fun massiveRun(action: suspend () -> Unit) {
val n = 100 // number of coroutines to launch
val k = 1000 // times an action is repeated by each coroutine
val time = measureTimeMillis {
coroutineScope { // scope for coroutines
repeat(n) {
launch {
repeat(k) { action() }
}
}
}
}
println("Completed ${n * k} actions in $time ms")
}
//sampleStart
@Volatile // in Kotlin `volatile` is an annotation
var counter = 0
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fun main() = runBlocking {
withContext(Dispatchers.Default) {
massiveRun {
counter++
}
}
println("Counter = $counter")
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code here.
This code works slower, but we still don't get "Counter = 100000" at the end, because volatile variables guarantee
linearizable (this is a technical term for "atomic") reads and writes to the corresponding variable, but do not provide
atomicity of larger actions (increment in our case).
Thread-safe
data
structures
The general solution that works both for threads and for coroutines is to use a thread-safe (aka synchronized,
linearizable, or atomic) data structure that provides all the necessary synchronization for the corresponding operations
that needs to be performed on a shared state. In the case of a simple counter we can use AtomicInteger class which
has atomic incrementAndGet operations:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import java.util.concurrent.atomic.*
import kotlin.system.*
suspend fun massiveRun(action: suspend () -> Unit) {
val n = 100 // number of coroutines to launch
val k = 1000 // times an action is repeated by each coroutine
val time = measureTimeMillis {
coroutineScope { // scope for coroutines
repeat(n) {
launch {
repeat(k) { action() }
}
}
}
}
println("Completed ${n * k} actions in $time ms")
}
//sampleStart
val counter = AtomicInteger()
fun main() = runBlocking {
withContext(Dispatchers.Default) {
massiveRun {
counter.incrementAndGet()
}
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}
println("Counter = $counter")
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code here.
This is the fastest solution for this particular problem. It works for plain counters, collections, queues and other
standard data structures and basic operations on them. However, it does not easily scale to complex state or to
complex operations that do not have ready-to-use thread-safe implementations.
Thread
confinement
fine-grained
Thread confinement is an approach to the problem of shared mutable state where all access to the particular shared
state is confined to a single thread. It is typically used in UI applications, where all UI state is confined to the single
event-dispatch/application thread. It is easy to apply with coroutines by using a
single-threaded context.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlin.system.*
suspend fun massiveRun(action: suspend () -> Unit) {
val n = 100 // number of coroutines to launch
val k = 1000 // times an action is repeated by each coroutine
val time = measureTimeMillis {
coroutineScope { // scope for coroutines
repeat(n) {
launch {
repeat(k) { action() }
}
}
}
}
println("Completed ${n * k} actions in $time ms")
}
//sampleStart
val counterContext = newSingleThreadContext("CounterContext")
var counter = 0
fun main() = runBlocking {
withContext(Dispatchers.Default) {
massiveRun {
// confine each increment to a single-threaded context
withContext(counterContext) {
counter++
}
}
}
println("Counter = $counter")
842
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code here.
This code works very slowly, because it does fine-grained thread-confinement. Each individual increment switches
from multi-threaded Dispatchers.Default context to the single-threaded context using withContext(counterContext)
block.
Thread
confinement
coarse-grained
In practice, thread confinement is performed in large chunks, e.g. big pieces of state-updating business logic are
confined to the single thread. The following example does it like that, running each coroutine in the single-threaded
context to start with.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlin.system.*
suspend fun massiveRun(action: suspend () -> Unit) {
val n = 100 // number of coroutines to launch
val k = 1000 // times an action is repeated by each coroutine
val time = measureTimeMillis {
coroutineScope { // scope for coroutines
repeat(n) {
launch {
repeat(k) { action() }
}
}
}
}
println("Completed ${n * k} actions in $time ms")
}
//sampleStart
val counterContext = newSingleThreadContext("CounterContext")
var counter = 0
fun main() = runBlocking {
// confine everything to a single-threaded context
withContext(counterContext) {
massiveRun {
counter++
}
}
println("Counter = $counter")
}
//sampleEnd
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You can get the full code here.
This now works much faster and produces correct result.
Mutual
exclusion
Mutual exclusion solution to the problem is to protect all modifications of the shared state with a critical section that is
never executed concurrently. In a blocking world you'd typically use synchronized or ReentrantLock for that.
Coroutine's alternative is called Mutex. It has lock and unlock functions to delimit a critical section. The key difference
is that Mutex.lock() is a suspending function. It does not block a thread.
There is also withLock extension function that conveniently represents mutex.lock(); try { ... } finally { mutex.unlock() }
pattern:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.sync.*
import kotlin.system.*
suspend fun massiveRun(action: suspend () -> Unit) {
val n = 100 // number of coroutines to launch
val k = 1000 // times an action is repeated by each coroutine
val time = measureTimeMillis {
coroutineScope { // scope for coroutines
repeat(n) {
launch {
repeat(k) { action() }
}
}
}
}
println("Completed ${n * k} actions in $time ms")
}
//sampleStart
val mutex = Mutex()
var counter = 0
fun main() = runBlocking {
withContext(Dispatchers.Default) {
massiveRun {
// protect each increment with lock
mutex.withLock {
counter++
}
}
}
println("Counter = $counter")
}
//sampleEnd
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You can get the full code here.
The locking in this example is fine-grained, so it pays the price. However, it is a good choice for some situations where
you absolutely must modify some shared state periodically, but there is no natural thread that this state is confined to.
Actors
An actor is an entity made up of a combination of a coroutine, the state that is confined and encapsulated into this
coroutine, and a channel to communicate with other coroutines. A simple actor can be written as a function, but an
actor with a complex state is better suited for a class.
There is an actor coroutine builder that conveniently combines actor's mailbox channel into its scope to receive
messages from and combines the send channel into the resulting job object, so that a single reference to the actor can
be carried around as its handle.
The first step of using an actor is to define a class of messages that an actor is going to process. Kotlin's sealed
classes are well suited for that purpose. We define CounterMsg sealed class with IncCounter message to increment a
counter and GetCounter message to get its value. The later needs to send a response. A CompletableDeferred
communication primitive, that represents a single value that will be known (communicated) in the future, is used here
for that purpose.
// Message types for counterActor
sealed class CounterMsg
object IncCounter : CounterMsg() // one-way message to increment counter
class GetCounter(val response: CompletableDeferred<Int>) : CounterMsg() // a request with reply
Then we define a function that launches an actor using an actor coroutine builder:
// This function launches a new counter actor
fun CoroutineScope.counterActor() = actor<CounterMsg> {
var counter = 0 // actor state
for (msg in channel) { // iterate over incoming messages
when (msg) {
is IncCounter -> counter++
is GetCounter -> msg.response.complete(counter)
}
}
}
The main code is straightforward:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.channels.*
import kotlin.system.*
suspend fun massiveRun(action: suspend () -> Unit) {
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val n = 100 // number of coroutines to launch
val k = 1000 // times an action is repeated by each coroutine
val time = measureTimeMillis {
coroutineScope { // scope for coroutines
repeat(n) {
launch {
repeat(k) { action() }
}
}
}
}
println("Completed ${n * k} actions in $time ms")
}
// Message types for counterActor
sealed class CounterMsg
object IncCounter : CounterMsg() // one-way message to increment counter
class GetCounter(val response: CompletableDeferred<Int>) : CounterMsg() // a request with reply
// This function launches a new counter actor
fun CoroutineScope.counterActor() = actor<CounterMsg> {
var counter = 0 // actor state
for (msg in channel) { // iterate over incoming messages
when (msg) {
is IncCounter -> counter++
is GetCounter -> msg.response.complete(counter)
}
}
}
//sampleStart
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
val counter = counterActor() // create the actor
withContext(Dispatchers.Default) {
massiveRun {
counter.send(IncCounter)
}
}
// send a message to get a counter value from an actor
val response = CompletableDeferred<Int>()
counter.send(GetCounter(response))
println("Counter = ${response.await()}")
counter.close() // shutdown the actor
}
//sampleEnd
You can get the full code here.
It does not matter (for correctness) what context the actor itself is executed in. An actor is a coroutine and a coroutine
is executed sequentially, so confinement of the state to the specific coroutine works as a solution to the problem of
shared mutable state. Indeed, actors may modify their own private state, but can only affect each other through
messages (avoiding the need for any locks).
Actor is more efficient than locking under load, because in this case it always has work to do and it does not have to
846
switch to a different context at all.
Note that an actor coroutine builder is a dual of produce coroutine builder. An actor is associated with the
channel that it receives messages from, while a producer is associated with the channel that it sends
elements to.
Select
expression
(experimental)
Select expression makes it possible to await multiple suspending functions simultaneously and select the first one that
becomes available.
Select expressions are an experimental feature of kotlinx.coroutines. Their API is expected to evolve in the
upcoming updates of the kotlinx.coroutines library with potentially breaking changes.
Selecting
from
channels
Let us have two producers of strings: fizz and buzz. The fizz produces "Fizz" string every 300 ms:
fun CoroutineScope.fizz() = produce<String> {
while (true) { // sends "Fizz" every 300 ms
delay(300)
send("Fizz")
}
}
And the buzz produces "Buzz!" string every 500 ms:
fun CoroutineScope.buzz() = produce<String> {
while (true) { // sends "Buzz!" every 500 ms
delay(500)
send("Buzz!")
}
}
Using receive suspending function we can receive either from one channel or the other. But select expression allows
us to receive from both simultaneously using its onReceive clauses:
suspend fun selectFizzBuzz(fizz: ReceiveChannel<String>, buzz: ReceiveChannel<String>) {
select<Unit> { // <Unit> means that this select expression does not produce any result
fizz.onReceive { value -> // this is the first select clause
println("fizz -> '$value'")
}
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buzz.onReceive { value -> // this is the second select clause
println("buzz -> '$value'")
}
}
}
Let us run it all seven times:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.channels.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.selects.*
fun CoroutineScope.fizz() = produce<String> {
while (true) { // sends "Fizz" every 300 ms
delay(300)
send("Fizz")
}
}
fun CoroutineScope.buzz() = produce<String> {
while (true) { // sends "Buzz!" every 500 ms
delay(500)
send("Buzz!")
}
}
suspend fun selectFizzBuzz(fizz: ReceiveChannel<String>, buzz: ReceiveChannel<String>) {
select<Unit> { // <Unit> means that this select expression does not produce any result
fizz.onReceive { value -> // this is the first select clause
println("fizz -> '$value'")
}
buzz.onReceive { value -> // this is the second select clause
println("buzz -> '$value'")
}
}
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val fizz = fizz()
val buzz = buzz()
repeat(7) {
selectFizzBuzz(fizz, buzz)
}
coroutineContext.cancelChildren() // cancel fizz & buzz coroutines
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
The result of this code is:
fizz -> 'Fizz'
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buzz -> 'Buzz!'
fizz -> 'Fizz'
fizz -> 'Fizz'
buzz -> 'Buzz!'
fizz -> 'Fizz'
buzz -> 'Buzz!'
Selecting
on
close
The onReceive clause in select fails when the channel is closed causing the corresponding select to throw an
exception. We can use onReceiveCatching clause to perform a specific action when the channel is closed. The
following example also shows that select is an expression that returns the result of its selected clause:
suspend fun selectAorB(a: ReceiveChannel<String>, b: ReceiveChannel<String>): String =
select<String> {
a.onReceiveCatching { it ->
val value = it.getOrNull()
if (value != null) {
"a -> '$value'"
} else {
"Channel 'a' is closed"
}
}
b.onReceiveCatching { it ->
val value = it.getOrNull()
if (value != null) {
"b -> '$value'"
} else {
"Channel 'b' is closed"
}
}
}
Let's use it with channel a that produces "Hello" string four times and channel b that produces "World" four times:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.channels.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.selects.*
suspend fun selectAorB(a: ReceiveChannel<String>, b: ReceiveChannel<String>): String =
select<String> {
a.onReceiveCatching { it ->
val value = it.getOrNull()
if (value != null) {
"a -> '$value'"
} else {
"Channel 'a' is closed"
}
}
b.onReceiveCatching { it ->
val value = it.getOrNull()
if (value != null) {
"b -> '$value'"
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} else {
"Channel 'b' is closed"
}
}
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val a = produce<String> {
repeat(4) { send("Hello $it") }
}
val b = produce<String> {
repeat(4) { send("World $it") }
}
repeat(8) { // print first eight results
println(selectAorB(a, b))
}
coroutineContext.cancelChildren()
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
The result of this code is quite interesting, so we'll analyze it in more detail:
a -> 'Hello 0'
a -> 'Hello 1'
b -> 'World 0'
a -> 'Hello 2'
a -> 'Hello 3'
b -> 'World 1'
Channel 'a' is closed
Channel 'a' is closed
There are couple of observations to make out of it.
First of all, select is biased to the first clause. When several clauses are selectable at the same time, the first one
among them gets selected. Here, both channels are constantly producing strings, so a channel, being the first clause
in select, wins. However, because we are using unbuffered channel, the a gets suspended from time to time on its
send invocation and gives a chance for b to send, too.
The second observation, is that onReceiveCatching gets immediately selected when the channel is already closed.
Selecting
to
send
Select expression has onSend clause that can be used for a great good in combination with a biased nature of
selection.
Let us write an example of producer of integers that sends its values to a side channel when the consumers on its
850
primary channel cannot keep up with it:
fun CoroutineScope.produceNumbers(side: SendChannel<Int>) = produce<Int> {
for (num in 1..10) { // produce 10 numbers from 1 to 10
delay(100) // every 100 ms
select<Unit> {
onSend(num) {} // Send to the primary channel
side.onSend(num) {} // or to the side channel
}
}
}
Consumer is going to be quite slow, taking 250 ms to process each number:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.channels.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.selects.*
fun CoroutineScope.produceNumbers(side: SendChannel<Int>) = produce<Int> {
for (num in 1..10) { // produce 10 numbers from 1 to 10
delay(100) // every 100 ms
select<Unit> {
onSend(num) {} // Send to the primary channel
side.onSend(num) {} // or to the side channel
}
}
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val side = Channel<Int>() // allocate side channel
launch { // this is a very fast consumer for the side channel
side.consumeEach { println("Side channel has $it") }
}
produceNumbers(side).consumeEach {
println("Consuming $it")
delay(250) // let us digest the consumed number properly, do not hurry
}
println("Done consuming")
coroutineContext.cancelChildren()
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
So let us see what happens:
Consuming 1
Side channel has 2
Side channel has 3
Consuming 4
Side channel has 5
851
Side channel has 6
Consuming 7
Side channel has 8
Side channel has 9
Consuming 10
Done consuming
Selecting
deferred
values
Deferred values can be selected using onAwait clause. Let us start with an async function that returns a deferred string
value after a random delay:
fun CoroutineScope.asyncString(time: Int) = async {
delay(time.toLong())
"Waited for $time ms"
}
Let us start a dozen of them with a random delay.
fun CoroutineScope.asyncStringsList(): List<Deferred<String>> {
val random = Random(3)
return List(12) { asyncString(random.nextInt(1000)) }
}
Now the main function awaits for the first of them to complete and counts the number of deferred values that are still
active. Note that we've used here the fact that select expression is a Kotlin DSL, so we can provide clauses for it using
an arbitrary code. In this case we iterate over a list of deferred values to provide onAwait clause for each deferred
value.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.selects.*
import java.util.*
fun CoroutineScope.asyncString(time: Int) = async {
delay(time.toLong())
"Waited for $time ms"
}
fun CoroutineScope.asyncStringsList(): List<Deferred<String>> {
val random = Random(3)
return List(12) { asyncString(random.nextInt(1000)) }
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val list = asyncStringsList()
val result = select<String> {
list.withIndex().forEach { (index, deferred) ->
deferred.onAwait { answer ->
"Deferred $index produced answer '$answer'"
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}
}
}
println(result)
val countActive = list.count { it.isActive }
println("$countActive coroutines are still active")
//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
The output is:
Deferred 4 produced answer 'Waited for 128 ms'
11 coroutines are still active
Switch
over
a
channel
of
deferred
values
Let us write a channel producer function that consumes a channel of deferred string values, waits for each received
deferred value, but only until the next deferred value comes over or the channel is closed. This example puts together
onReceiveCatching and onAwait clauses in the same select:
fun CoroutineScope.switchMapDeferreds(input: ReceiveChannel<Deferred<String>>) =
produce<String> {
var current = input.receive() // start with first received deferred value
while (isActive) { // loop while not cancelled/closed
val next = select<Deferred<String>?> { // return next deferred value from this select
or null
input.onReceiveCatching { update ->
update.getOrNull()
}
current.onAwait { value ->
send(value) // send value that current deferred has produced
input.receiveCatching().getOrNull() // and use the next deferred from the
input channel
}
}
if (next == null) {
println("Channel was closed")
break // out of loop
} else {
current = next
}
}
}
To test it, we'll use a simple async function that resolves to a specified string after a specified time:
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fun CoroutineScope.asyncString(str: String, time: Long) = async {
delay(time)
str
}
The main function just launches a coroutine to print results of switchMapDeferreds and sends some test data to it:
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.channels.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.selects.*
fun CoroutineScope.switchMapDeferreds(input: ReceiveChannel<Deferred<String>>) =
produce<String> {
var current = input.receive() // start with first received deferred value
while (isActive) { // loop while not cancelled/closed
val next = select<Deferred<String>?> { // return next deferred value from this select
or null
input.onReceiveCatching { update ->
update.getOrNull()
}
current.onAwait { value ->
send(value) // send value that current deferred has produced
input.receiveCatching().getOrNull() // and use the next deferred from the
input channel
}
}
if (next == null) {
println("Channel was closed")
break // out of loop
} else {
current = next
}
}
}
fun CoroutineScope.asyncString(str: String, time: Long) = async {
delay(time)
str
}
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
//sampleStart
val chan = Channel<Deferred<String>>() // the channel for test
launch { // launch printing coroutine
for (s in switchMapDeferreds(chan))
println(s) // print each received string
}
chan.send(asyncString("BEGIN", 100))
delay(200) // enough time for "BEGIN" to be produced
chan.send(asyncString("Slow", 500))
delay(100) // not enough time to produce slow
chan.send(asyncString("Replace", 100))
delay(500) // give it time before the last one
chan.send(asyncString("END", 500))
delay(1000) // give it time to process
chan.close() // close the channel ...
delay(500) // and wait some time to let it finish
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//sampleEnd
}
You can get the full code here.
The result of this code:
BEGIN
Replace
END
Channel was closed
Debug
coroutines
using
IntelliJ
IDEA
–
tutorial
This tutorial demonstrates how to create Kotlin coroutines and debug them using IntelliJ IDEA.
The tutorial assumes you have prior knowledge of the coroutines concept.
Debugging works for kotlinx-coroutines-core version 1.3.8 or later.
Create
coroutines
1. Open a Kotlin project in IntelliJ IDEA. If you don't have a project, create one.
2. Open the main.kt file in src/main/kotlin.
The src directory contains Kotlin source files and resources. The main.kt file contains sample code that will print
Hello World!.
3. Change code in the main() function:
Use the runBlocking() block to wrap a coroutine.
Use the async() function to create coroutines that compute deferred values a and b.
Use the await() function to await the computation result.
Use the println() function to print computing status and the result of multiplication to the output.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
855
val a = async {
println("I'm computing part of the answer")
6
}
val b = async {
println("I'm computing another part of the answer")
7
}
println("The answer is ${a.await() * b.await()}")
}
4. Build the code by clicking Build Project.
Build an application
Debug
coroutines
1. Set breakpoints at the lines with the println() function call:
Build a console application
856
2. Run the code in debug mode by clicking Debug next to the run configuration at the top of the screen.
Build a console application
The Debug tool window appears:
The Frames tab contains the call stack.
The Variables tab contains variables in the current context.
The Coroutines tab contains information on running or suspended coroutines. It shows that there are three
coroutines. The first one has the RUNNING status, and the other two have the CREATED status.
Debug the coroutine
3. Resume the debugger session by clicking Resume program in the Debug tool window:
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Debug the coroutine
Now the Coroutines tab shows the following:
The first coroutine has the SUSPENDED status – it is waiting for the values so it can multiply them.
The second coroutine is calculating the a value – it has the RUNNING status.
The third coroutine has the CREATED status and isn’t calculating the value of b.
4. Resume the debugger session by clicking Resume program in the Debug tool window:
Build a console application
Now the Coroutines tab shows the following:
The first coroutine has the SUSPENDED status – it is waiting for the values so it can multiply them.
The second coroutine has computed its value and disappeared.
The third coroutine is calculating the value of b – it has the RUNNING status.
Using IntelliJ IDEA debugger, you can dig deeper into each coroutine to debug your code.
Debug
Kotlin
Flow
using
IntelliJ
IDEA
–
tutorial
This tutorial demonstrates how to create Kotlin Flow and debug it using IntelliJ IDEA.
The tutorial assumes you have prior knowledge of the coroutines and Kotlin Flow concepts.
Debugging works for kotlinx-coroutines-core version 1.3.8 or later.
Create
a
Kotlin
flow
858
Create a Kotlin flow with a slow emitter and a slow collector:
1. Open a Kotlin project in IntelliJ IDEA. If you don't have a project, create one.
2. Open the main.kt file in src/main/kotlin.
The src directory contains Kotlin source files and resources. The main.kt file contains sample code that will print
Hello World!.
3. Create the simple() function that returns a flow of three numbers:
Use the delay() function to imitate CPU-consuming blocking code. It suspends the coroutine for 100 ms without
blocking the thread.
Produce the values in the for loop using the emit() function.
import kotlinx.coroutines.*
import kotlinx.coroutines.flow.*
import kotlin.system.*
fun simple(): Flow<Int> = flow {
for (i in 1..3) {
delay(100)
emit(i)
}
}
4. Change the code in the main() function:
Use the runBlocking() block to wrap a coroutine.
Collect the emitted values using the collect() function.
Use the delay() function to imitate CPU-consuming code. It suspends the coroutine for 300 ms without blocking
the thread.
Print the collected value from the flow using the println() function.
fun main() = runBlocking {
simple()
.collect { value ->
delay(300)
println(value)
}
}
5. Build the code by clicking Build Project.
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Build an application
Debug
the
coroutine
1. Set a breakpoint at the at the line where the emit() function is called:
Build a console application
2. Run the code in debug mode by clicking Debug next to the run configuration at the top of the screen.
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Build a console application
The Debug tool window appears:
The Frames tab contains the call stack.
The Variables tab contains variables in the current context. It tells us that the flow is emitting the first value.
The Coroutines tab contains information on running or suspended coroutines.
Debug the coroutine
3. Resume the debugger session by clicking Resume program in the Debug tool window. The program stops at the
same breakpoint.
Debug the coroutine
Now the flow emits the second value.
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Debug the coroutine
Add
a
concurrently
running
coroutine
1. Open the main.kt file in src/main/kotlin.
2. Enhance the code to run the emitter and collector concurrently:
Add a call to the buffer() function to run the emitter and collector concurrently. buffer() stores emitted values and
runs the flow collector in a separate coroutine.
fun main() = runBlocking<Unit> {
simple()
.buffer()
.collect { value ->
delay(300)
println(value)
}
}
3. Build the code by clicking Build Project.
Debug
a
Kotlin
flow
with
two
coroutines
1. Set a new breakpoint at println(value).
2. Run the code in debug mode by clicking Debug next to the run configuration at the top of the screen.
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Build a console application
The Debug tool window appears.
In the Coroutines tab, you can see that there are two coroutines running concurrently. The flow collector and emitter
run in separate coroutines because of the buffer() function. The buffer() function buffers emitted values from the
flow. The emitter coroutine has the RUNNING status, and the collector coroutine has the SUSPENDED status.
3. Resume the debugger session by clicking Resume program in the Debug tool window.
Debugging coroutines
Now the collector coroutine has the RUNNING status, while the emitter coroutine has the SUSPENDED status.
You can dig deeper into each coroutine to debug your code.
Serialization
Serialization is the process of converting data used by an application to a format that can be transferred over a
network or stored in a database or a file. In turn, deserialization is the opposite process of reading data from an
external source and converting it into a runtime object. Together they are an essential part of most applications that
exchange data with third parties.
Some data serialization formats, such as JSON and protocol buffers are particularly common. Being language-neutral
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and platform-neutral, they enable data exchange between systems written in any modern language.
In Kotlin, data serialization tools are available in a separate component, kotlinx.serialization. It consists of two main
parts: the Gradle plugin – org.jetbrains.kotlin.plugin.serialization and the runtime libraries.
Libraries
kotlinx.serialization provides sets of libraries for all supported platforms – JVM, JavaScript, Native – and for various
serialization formats – JSON, CBOR, protocol buffers, and others. You can find the complete list of supported
serialization formats below.
All Kotlin serialization libraries belong to the org.jetbrains.kotlinx: group. Their names start with kotlinx-serialization-
and have suffixes that reflect the serialization format. Examples:
org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-serialization-json provides JSON serialization for Kotlin projects.
org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-serialization-cbor provides CBOR serialization.
Platform-specific artifacts are handled automatically; you don't need to add them manually. Use the same
dependencies in JVM, JS, Native, and multiplatform projects.
Note that the kotlinx.serialization libraries use their own versioning structure, which doesn't match Kotlin's versioning.
Check out the releases on GitHub to find the latest versions.
Formats
kotlinx.serialization includes libraries for various serialization formats:
JSON: kotlinx-serialization-json
Protocol buffers: kotlinx-serialization-protobuf
CBOR: kotlinx-serialization-cbor
Properties: kotlinx-serialization-properties
HOCON: kotlinx-serialization-hocon (only on JVM)
Note that all libraries except JSON serialization ( kotlinx-serialization-core) are Experimental, which means their API can
be changed without notice.
There are also community-maintained libraries that support more serialization formats, such as YAML or Apache Avro.
For detailed information about available serialization formats, see the kotlinx.serialization documentation.
Example:
JSON
serialization
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Let’s take a look at how to serialize Kotlin objects into JSON.
Before starting, you’ll need to configure your build script so that you can use Kotlin serialization tools in your project:
1. Apply the Kotlin serialization Gradle plugin org.jetbrains.kotlin.plugin.serialization (or kotlin(“plugin.serialization”) in
the Kotlin Gradle DSL).
Groovy
plugins {
id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.jvm' version '1.5.20'
id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.plugin.serialization' version '1.5.20'
}
Kotlin
plugins {
kotlin("jvm") version "1.5.20"
kotlin("plugin.serialization") version "1.5.20"
}
2. Add the JSON serialization library dependency: org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-serialization-json:1.2.1
Groovy
dependencies {
implementation 'org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-serialization-json:1.2.1'
}
Kotlin
dependencies {
implementation("org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-serialization-json:1.2.1")
}
Now you're ready to use the serialization API in your code. The API is located in the the kotlinx.serialization package
and its format-specific subpackages such as kotlinx.serialization.json.
First, make a class serializable by annotating it with @Serializable.
@Serializable
data class Data(val a: Int, val b: String)
You can now serialize an instance of this class by calling Json.encodeToString().
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Json.encodeToString(Data(42, "str"))
As a result, you get a string containing the state of this object in the JSON format: {"a": 42, "b": "str"}
You can also serialize object collections, such as lists, in a single call.
val dataList = listOf(Data(42, "str"), Data(12, "test"))
val jsonList = Json.encodeToString(dataList)
To deserialize an object from JSON, use the decodeFromString() function:
val obj = Json.decodeFromString<Data>("""{"a":42, "b": "str"}""")
For more information about serialization in Kotlin, see the Kotlin Serialization Guide.
Keywords
and
operators
Hard
keywords
The following tokens are always interpreted as keywords and cannot be used as identifiers:
as
is used for type casts
specifies an alias for an import
as? is used for safe type casts
break terminates the execution of a loop
class declares a class
continue proceeds to the next step of the nearest enclosing loop
do begins a do/while loop (loop with postcondition)
else defines the branch of an if expression which is executed when the condition is false
false specifies the 'false' value of the Boolean type
for begins a for loop
fun declares a function
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if begins an if expression
in
specifies the object being iterated in a for loop
is used as an infix operator to check that a value belongs to a range, a collection or another entity that defines
the 'contains' method
is used in when expressions for the same purpose
marks a type parameter as contravariant
!in
is used as an operator to check that a value does NOT belong to a range, a collection or another entity that
defines the 'contains' method
is used in when expressions for the same purpose
interface declares an interface
is
checks that a value has a certain type
is used in when expressions for the same purpose
!is
checks that a value does NOT have a certain type
is used in when expressions for the same purpose
null is a constant representing an object reference that doesn't point to any object
object declares a class and its instance at the same time
package specifies the package for the current file
return returns from the nearest enclosing function or anonymous function
super
refers to the superclass implementation of a method or property
calls the superclass constructor from a secondary constructor
this
refers to the current receiver
calls another constructor of the same class from a secondary constructor
throw throws an exception
true specifies the 'true' value of the Boolean type
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try begins an exception handling block
typealias declares a type alias
typeof reserved for future use
val declares a read-only property or local variable
var declares a mutable property or local variable
when begins a when expression (executes one of the given branches)
while begins a while loop (loop with precondition)
Soft
keywords
The following tokens act as keywords in the context when they are applicable and can be used as identifiers in other
contexts:
by
delegates the implementation of an interface to another object
delegates the implementation of accessors for a property to another object
catch begins a block that handles a specific exception type
constructor declares a primary or secondary constructor
delegate is used as an annotation use-site target
dynamic references a dynamic type in Kotlin/JS code
field is used as an annotation use-site target
file is used as an annotation use-site target
finally begins a block that is always executed when a try block exits
get
declares the getter of a property
is used as an annotation use-site target
import imports a declaration from another package into the current file
init begins an initializer block
param is used as an annotation use-site target
property is used as an annotation use-site target
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receiver is used as an annotation use-site target
set
declares the setter of a property
is used as an annotation use-site target
setparam is used as an annotation use-site target
value with the class keyword declares an inline class
where specifies constraints for a generic type parameter
Modifier
keywords
The following tokens act as keywords in modifier lists of declarations and can be used as identifiers in other contexts:
actual denotes a platform-specific implementation in multiplatform projects
abstract marks a class or member as abstract
annotation declares an annotation class
companion declares a companion object
const marks a property as a compile-time constant
crossinline forbids non-local returns in a lambda passed to an inline function
data instructs the compiler to generate canonical members for a class
enum declares an enumeration
expect marks a declaration as platform-specific, expecting an implementation in platform modules.
external marks a declaration as implemented not in Kotlin (accessible through JNI or in JavaScript)
final forbids overriding a member
infix allows calling a function in infix notation
inline tells the compiler to inline the function and the lambdas passed to it at the call site
inner allows referring to the outer class instance from a nested class
internal marks a declaration as visible in the current module
lateinit allows initializing a non-null property outside of a constructor
noinline turns off inlining of a lambda passed to an inline function
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open allows subclassing a class or overriding a member
operator marks a function as overloading an operator or implementing a convention
out marks a type parameter as covariant
override marks a member as an override of a superclass member
private marks a declaration as visible in the current class or file
protected marks a declaration as visible in the current class and its subclasses
public marks a declaration as visible anywhere
reified marks a type parameter of an inline function as accessible at runtime
sealed declares a sealed class (a class with restricted subclassing)
suspend marks a function or lambda as suspending (usable as a coroutine)
tailrec marks a function as tail-recursive (allowing the compiler to replace recursion with iteration)
vararg allows passing a variable number of arguments for a parameter
Special
identifiers
The following identifiers are defined by the compiler in specific contexts and can be used as regular identifiers in other
contexts:
field is used inside a property accessor to refer to the backing field of the property
it is used inside a lambda to refer to its parameter implicitly
Operators
and
special
symbols
Kotlin supports the following operators and special symbols:
+, -, *, /, %- mathematical operators
* is also used to pass an array to a vararg parameter
=
assignment operator
is used to specify default values for parameters
+=, -=, *=, /=, %=- augmented assignment operators
++, --- increment and decrement operators
870
&&, ||, !- logical 'and', 'or', 'not' operators (for bitwise operations, use corresponding infix functions)
==, !=- equality operators (translated to calls of equals() for non-primitive types)
===, !==- referential equality operators
<, >, <=, >=- comparison operators (translated to calls of compareTo() for non-primitive types)
[, ]- indexed access operator (translated to calls of get and set)
!! asserts that an expression is non-null
?. performs a safe call (calls a method or accesses a property if the receiver is non-null)
?: takes the right-hand value if the left-hand value is null (the elvis operator)
:: creates a member reference or a class reference
.. creates a range
: separates a name from a type in declarations
? marks a type as nullable
->
separates the parameters and body of a lambda expression
separates the parameters and return type declaration in a function type
separates the condition and body of a when expression branch
@
introduces an annotation
introduces or references a loop label
introduces or references a lambda label
references a 'this' expression from an outer scope
references an outer superclass
; separates multiple statements on the same line
$ references a variable or expression in a string template
_
substitutes an unused parameter in a lambda expression
substitutes an unused parameter in a destructuring declaration
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Gradle
In order to build a Kotlin project with Gradle, you should apply the Kotlin Gradle plugin to your project and configure
dependencies.
Plugin
and
versions
Apply the Kotlin Gradle plugin by using the Gradle plugins DSL.
The Kotlin Gradle plugin and kotlin-multiplatform plugin 1.5.20 require Gradle 6.1 or later.
Groovy
plugins {
id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.<...>' version '1.5.20'
}
Kotlin
plugins {
kotlin("<...>") version "1.5.20"
}
The placeholder <...> should be replaced with one of the plugin names that can be found in further sections.
Targeting
multiple
platforms
Projects targeting multiple platforms, called multiplatform projects, require the kotlin-multiplatform plugin. Learn more
about the plugin.
The kotlin-multiplatform plugin works with Gradle 6.1 or later.
Groovy
plugins {
id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.multiplatform' version '1.5.20'
}
Kotlin
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plugins {
kotlin("multiplatform") version "1.5.20"
}
Targeting
the
JVM
To target the JVM, apply the Kotlin JVM plugin.
Groovy
plugins {
id "org.jetbrains.kotlin.jvm" version "1.5.20"
}
Kotlin
plugins {
kotlin("jvm") version "1.5.20"
}
The version should be literal in this block, and it cannot be applied from another build script.
Alternatively, you can use the older apply plugin approach:
apply plugin: 'kotlin'
It's not recommended that you apply Kotlin plugins with apply in Gradle Kotlin DSL – see why.
Kotlin
and
Java
sources
Kotlin sources can be stored with Java sources in the same folder, or placed to different folders. The default
convention is using different folders:
project
- src
- main (root)
- kotlin
- java
The corresponding sourceSets property should be updated if not using the default convention:
Groovy
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sourceSets {
main.kotlin.srcDirs += 'src/main/myKotlin'
main.java.srcDirs += 'src/main/myJava'
}
Kotlin
sourceSets.main {
java.srcDirs("src/main/myJava", "src/main/myKotlin")
}
Targeting
JavaScript
When targeting only JavaScript, use the kotlin-js plugin. Learn more
Groovy
plugins {
id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.js' version '1.5.20'
}
Kotlin
plugins {
kotlin("js") version "1.5.20"
}
Kotlin
and
Java
sources
for
JavaScript
This plugin only works for Kotlin files so it is recommended that you keep Kotlin and Java files separately (in case the
project contains Java files). If you don't store them separately , specify the source folder in the sourceSets block:
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets {
main.kotlin.srcDirs += 'src/main/myKotlin'
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
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sourceSets["main"].apply {
kotlin.srcDir("src/main/myKotlin")
}
}
Targeting
Android
It's recommended that you use Android Studio for creating Android applications. Learn how to use Android Gradle
plugin.
Configuring
dependencies
To add a dependency on a library, set the dependency of the required type (for example, implementation) in the
dependencies block of the source sets DSL.
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets {
commonMain {
dependencies {
implementation 'com.example:my-library:1.0'
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
sourceSets {
val commonMain by getting {
dependencies {
implementation("com.example:my-library:1.0")
}
}
}
}
Alternatively, you can set dependencies at the top level.
Dependency
types
Choose the dependency type based on your requirements.
875
Type Description When to use
api Used both during compilation and at runtime and is If any type from a dependency is used in the
exported to library consumers. public API of the current module, use an api
dependency.
implementation Used during compilation and at runtime for the current Use for dependencies needed for the
module, but is not exposed for compilation of other modules
internal logic of a module.
depending on the one with the `implementation`
dependency.
If a module is an endpoint application
which is not published, use
implementation dependencies instead of
api dependencies.
compileOnly Used for compilation of the current module and is not Use for APIs which have a third-party
available at runtime nor during compilation of other implementation available at runtime.
modules.
runtimeOnly Available at runtime but is not visible during compilation of
any module.
Dependency
on
the
standard
library
A dependency on a standard library (stdlib) in each source set is added automatically. The version of the standard
library is the same as the version of the Kotlin Gradle plugin.
For platform-specific source sets, the corresponding platform-specific variant of the library is used, while a common
standard library is added to the rest. The Kotlin Gradle plugin will select the appropriate JVM standard library
depending on the kotlinOptions.jvmTarget compiler option of your Gradle build script.
If you declare a standard library dependency explicitly (for example, if you need a different version), the Kotlin Gradle
plugin won’t override it or add a second standard library.
If you do not need a standard library at all, you can add the opt-out flag to the gradle.properties:
kotlin.stdlib.default.dependency=false
Set
dependencies
on
test
libraries
The kotlin.test API is available to test Kotlin projects on all supported platforms. Add the dependency kotlin-test to the
commonTest source set, and the Gradle plugin will infer the corresponding test dependencies for each test source set:
kotlin-test-common and kotlin-test-annotations-common for common source sets
kotlin-test-junit for JVM source sets
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kotlin-test-js for Kotlin/JS source sets
Kotlin/Native targets do not require additional test dependencies, and the kotlin.test API implementations are built-in.
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets {
commonTest {
dependencies {
implementation kotlin("test") // This brings all the platform dependencies
automatically
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
sourceSets {
val commonTest by getting {
dependencies {
implementation(kotlin("test")) // This brings all the platform dependencies
automatically
}
}
}
}
You can use shorthand for a dependency on a Kotlin module, for example, kotlin("test") for
"org.jetbrains.kotlin:kotlin-test".
You can use the kotlin-test dependency in any shared or platform-specific source set as well.
For Kotlin/JVM, Gradle uses JUnit 4 by default. Therefore, the kotlin("test") dependency resolves to the variant for
JUnit 4, namely kotlin-test-junit.
You can choose JUnit 5 or TestNG by calling useJUnitPlatform() or useTestNG() in the test task of your build script. The
following example is for an MPP project:
Groovy
kotlin {
jvm {
testRuns["test"].executionTask.configure {
useJUnitPlatform()
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}
}
sourceSets {
commonTest {
dependencies {
implementation kotlin("test")
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
jvm {
testRuns["test"].executionTask.configure {
useJUnitPlatform()
}
}
sourceSets {
val commonTest by getting {
dependencies {
implementation(kotlin("test"))
}
}
}
}
The following example is for a JVM project:
Groovy
dependencies {
testImplementation 'org.jetbrains.kotlin:kotlin-test'
}
test {
useTestNG()
}
Kotlin
dependencies {
testImplementation(kotlin("test"))
}
tasks {
test {
useTestNG()
}
}
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Learn how to test code using JUnit on the JVM.
If you need to use a different JVM test framework, disable automatic testing framework selection by adding the line
kotlin.test.infer.jvm.variant=false to the project’s gradle.properties. Once you do this, add the framework as a Gradle
dependency.
If you had used a variant of kotlin("test") in your build script explicitly and project build stopped working with a conflict
on capability, see this issue in the Compatibility Guide.
Set
a
dependency
on
a
kotlinx
library
If you use a kotlinx library and need a platform-specific dependency, you can use platform-specific variants of libraries
with suffixes such as -jvm or -js, for example, kotlinx-coroutines-core-jvm. You can also use the library base artifact
name instead – kotlinx-coroutines-core.
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets {
jvmMain {
dependencies {
implementation 'org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-coroutines-core-jvm:1.5.0'
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
sourceSets {
val jvmMain by getting {
dependencies {
implementation("org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-coroutines-core-jvm:1.5.0")
}
}
}
}
If you use a multiplatform library and need to depend on the shared code, set the dependency only once in the shared
source set. Use the library base artifact name, such as kotlinx-coroutines-core or ktor-client-core.
Groovy
kotlin {
sourceSets {
commonMain {
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dependencies {
implementation 'org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-coroutines-core:1.5.0'
}
}
}
}
Kotlin
kotlin {
sourceSets {
val commonMain by getting {
dependencies {
implementation("org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-coroutines-core:1.5.0")
}
}
}
}
Set
dependencies
at
the
top
level
Alternatively, you can specify the dependencies at the top level with the configuration names following the pattern
<sourceSetName><DependencyType>. This is helpful for some Gradle built-in dependencies, like gradleApi(),
localGroovy(), or gradleTestKit(), which are not available in the source sets dependency DSL.
Groovy
dependencies {
commonMainImplementation 'com.example:my-library:1.0'
}
Kotlin
dependencies {
"commonMainImplementation"("com.example:my-library:1.0")
}
Annotation
processing
Kotlin supports annotation processing via the Kotlin annotation processing tool kapt.
Incremental
compilation
The Kotlin Gradle plugin supports incremental compilation. Incremental compilation tracks changes of source files
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between builds so only files affected by these changes would be compiled.
Incremental compilation is supported for Kotlin/JVM and Kotlin/JS projects and is enabled by default.
There are several ways to switch off incremental compilation:
* `kotlin.incremental=false` for Kotlin/JVM * `kotlin.incremental.js=false` for Kotlin/JS projects
As the command line parameter, use -Pkotlin.incremental=false or -Pkotlin.incremental.js=false.
Note that in this case the parameter should be added to each subsequent build, and any build with disabled
incremental compilation invalidates incremental caches.
Note that the first build isn't incremental in any case.
Gradle
build
cache
support
The Kotlin plugin supports Gradle build cache that stores the build outputs for reuse in future builds.
To disable the caching for all Kotlin tasks, set the system property flag kotlin.caching.enabled to false (run the build
with the argument -Dkotlin.caching.enabled=false ).
If you use kapt, note that the kapt annotation processing tasks are not cached by default. However, you can enable
caching for them manually.
Gradle
configuration
cache
support
The configuration cache is available in Gradle 6.5 and later as an experimental feature. You can check the
Gradle releases page to see whether it has been promoted to stable.
The Kotlin plugin supports Gradle configuration cache, which speeds up the build process by reusing the results of the
configuration phase.
See the Gradle documentation to learn how to enable the configuration cache. Once you enable the configuration
cache feature, the Kotlin Gradle plugin will start using it.
Compiler
options
To specify additional compilation options, use the kotlinOptions property of a Kotlin compilation task.
When targeting the JVM, the tasks are called compileKotlin for production code and compileTestKotlin for test code.
The tasks for custom source sets are called accordingly to the compile<Name>Kotlin pattern.
The names of the tasks in Android Projects contain the build variant names and follow the pattern
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compile<BuildVariant>Kotlin, for example, compileDebugKotlin, compileReleaseUnitTestKotlin.
When targeting JavaScript, the tasks are called compileKotlinJs and compileTestKotlinJs respectively, and
compile<Name>KotlinJs for custom source sets.
To configure a single task, use its name. Examples:
Groovy
compileKotlin {
kotlinOptions.suppressWarnings = true
}
//or
compileKotlin {
kotlinOptions {
suppressWarnings = true
}
}
Kotlin
import org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.tasks.KotlinCompile
// ...
val compileKotlin: KotlinCompile by tasks
compileKotlin.kotlinOptions.suppressWarnings = true
Note that with Gradle Kotlin DSL, you should get the task from the project's tasks first.
Use the types Kotlin2JsCompile and KotlinCompileCommon for the JS and Common targets, accordingly.
It is also possible to configure all Kotlin compilation tasks in the project:
Groovy
tasks.withType(org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.tasks.KotlinCompile).configureEach {
kotlinOptions { /*...*/ }
}
Kotlin
tasks.withType<org.jetbrains.kotlin.gradle.tasks.KotlinCompile>().configureEach {
kotlinOptions { /*...*/ }
}
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The complete list of options for the Gradle tasks is the following:
Attributes
common
for
JVM,
JS,
and
JS
DCE
Name Description Possible values Default value
allWarningsAsErrors Report an error if there are any warnings false
suppressWarnings Generate no warnings false
verbose Enable verbose logging output false
freeCompilerArgs A list of additional compiler arguments []
Attributes
common
for
JVM
and
JS
Name Description Possible values Default
value
apiVersion Allow using declarations only from the specified "1.3" (DEPRECATED), "1.4", "1.5", "1.6"
version of bundled libraries (EXPERIMENTAL)
languageVersion Provide source compatibility with the specified "1.3" (DEPRECATED), "1.4", "1.5", "1.6"
version of Kotlin (EXPERIMENTAL)
Attributes
specific
for
JVM
Name Description Possible values Default
value
javaParameters Generate metadata for Java 1.8 reflection on method false
parameters
jdkHome Include a custom JDK from the specified location into the
classpath instead of the default JAVA_HOME
jvmTarget Target version of the generated JVM bytecode "1.6" (DEPRECATED), "1.8", "9", "10", "1.8"
"11", "12", "13", "14", "15", "16"
noJdk Don't automatically include the Java runtime into the false
classpath
useOldBackend Use the old JVM backend false
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Attributes
specific
for
JS
Name Description Possible Default value
values
friendModulesDisabled Disable false
internal
declaration
export
main Define "call", "call"
whether the "noCall"
main function
should be
called upon
execution
metaInfo Generate true
.meta.js and
.kjsm files
with
metadata.
Use to create
a library
moduleKind The kind of "umd", "umd"
JS module "commonjs",
generated by "amd",
the compiler "plain"
noStdlib Don't true
automatically
include the
default
Kotlin/JS
stdlib into
compilation
dependencies
outputFile Destination "
*.js file for the <buildDir>/js/packages/<project.name>/kotlin/<project.name>.js"
compilation
result
sourceMap Generate true
source map
sourceMapEmbedSources Embed "never",
source files "always",
into source "inlining"
map
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Name Description Possible Default value
values
sourceMapPrefix Add the
specified
prefix to
paths in the
source map
target Generate JS "v5" "v5"
files for
specific
ECMA version
typedArrays Translate true
primitive
arrays to JS
typed arrays
Generating
documentation
To generate documentation for Kotlin projects, use Dokka; please refer to the Dokka README for configuration
instructions. Dokka supports mixed-language projects and can generate output in multiple formats, including standard
JavaDoc.
OSGi
For OSGi support see the Kotlin OSGi page.
Using
Gradle
Kotlin
DSL
When using Gradle Kotlin DSL, apply the Kotlin plugins using the plugins { ... } block. If you apply them with apply {
plugin(...) } instead, you may encounter unresolved references to the extensions generated by Gradle Kotlin DSL. To
resolve that, you can comment out the erroneous usages, run the Gradle task kotlinDslAccessorsSnapshot, then
uncomment the usages back and rerun the build or reimport the project into the IDE.
Maven
Plugin
and
versions
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The kotlin-maven-plugin compiles Kotlin sources and modules. Currently, only Maven v3 is supported.
Define the version of Kotlin you want to use via a kotlin.version property:
<properties>
<kotlin.version>1.5.20</kotlin.version>
</properties>
Dependencies
Kotlin has an extensive standard library that can be used in your applications. To use the standard library in your
project, add the following dependency in the pom file:
<dependencies>
<dependency>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<artifactId>kotlin-stdlib</artifactId>
<version>${kotlin.version}</version>
</dependency>
</dependencies>
If you're targeting JDK 7 or JDK 8, you can use extended versions of the Kotlin standard library. They contain additional
extension functions for APIs added in new JDK versions. Instead of kotlin-stdlib, use kotlin-stdlib-jdk7 or kotlin-stdlib-
jdk8, depending on your JDK version.
For Kotlin versions older that 1.2, use kotlin-stdlib-jre7 and kotlin-stdlib-jre8.
If your project uses Kotlin reflection or testing facilities, you need to add the corresponding dependencies as well. The
artifact IDs are kotlin-reflect for the reflection library, and kotlin-test and kotlin-test-junit for the testing libraries.
Compile
Kotlin-only
source
code
To compile source code, specify the source directories in the <build> tag:
<build>
<sourceDirectory>${project.basedir}/src/main/kotlin</sourceDirectory>
<testSourceDirectory>${project.basedir}/src/test/kotlin</testSourceDirectory>
</build>
The Kotlin Maven Plugin needs to be referenced to compile the sources:
<build>
<plugins>
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<plugin>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<artifactId>kotlin-maven-plugin</artifactId>
<version>${kotlin.version}</version>
<executions>
<execution>
<id>compile</id>
<goals>
<goal>compile</goal>
</goals>
</execution>
<execution>
<id>test-compile</id>
<goals>
<goal>test-compile</goal>
</goals>
</execution>
</executions>
</plugin>
</plugins>
</build>
Compile
Kotlin
and
Java
sources
To compile projects that include Kotlin and Java source code, invoke the Kotlin compiler before the Java compiler. In
maven terms that means that kotlin-maven-plugin should be run before maven-compiler-plugin using the following
method, making sure that the kotlin plugin comes before the maven-compiler-plugin in your pom.xml file:
<build>
<plugins>
<plugin>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<artifactId>kotlin-maven-plugin</artifactId>
<version>${kotlin.version}</version>
<executions>
<execution>
<id>compile</id>
<goals>
<goal>compile</goal>
</goals>
<configuration>
<sourceDirs>
<sourceDir>${project.basedir}/src/main/kotlin</sourceDir>
<sourceDir>${project.basedir}/src/main/java</sourceDir>
</sourceDirs>
</configuration>
</execution>
<execution>
<id>test-compile</id>
<goals> <goal>test-compile</goal> </goals>
<configuration>
<sourceDirs>
<sourceDir>${project.basedir}/src/test/kotlin</sourceDir>
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<sourceDir>${project.basedir}/src/test/java</sourceDir>
</sourceDirs>
</configuration>
</execution>
</executions>
</plugin>
<plugin>
<groupId>org.apache.maven.plugins</groupId>
<artifactId>maven-compiler-plugin</artifactId>
<version>3.5.1</version>
<executions>
<!-- Replacing default-compile as it is treated specially by maven -->
<execution>
<id>default-compile</id>
<phase>none</phase>
</execution>
<!-- Replacing default-testCompile as it is treated specially by maven -->
<execution>
<id>default-testCompile</id>
<phase>none</phase>
</execution>
<execution>
<id>java-compile</id>
<phase>compile</phase>
<goals>
<goal>compile</goal>
</goals>
</execution>
<execution>
<id>java-test-compile</id>
<phase>test-compile</phase>
<goals>
<goal>testCompile</goal>
</goals>
</execution>
</executions>
</plugin>
</plugins>
</build>
Incremental
compilation
To make your builds faster, you can enable incremental compilation for Maven by defining the
kotlin.compiler.incremental property:
<properties>
<kotlin.compiler.incremental>true</kotlin.compiler.incremental>
</properties>
Alternatively, run your build with the -Dkotlin.compiler.incremental=true option.
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Annotation
processing
See the description of Kotlin annotation processing tool (kapt ).
Jar
file
To create a small Jar file containing just the code from your module, include the following under build->plugins in your
Maven pom.xml file, where main.class is defined as a property and points to the main Kotlin or Java class:
<plugin>
<groupId>org.apache.maven.plugins</groupId>
<artifactId>maven-jar-plugin</artifactId>
<version>2.6</version>
<configuration>
<archive>
<manifest>
<addClasspath>true</addClasspath>
<mainClass>${main.class}</mainClass>
</manifest>
</archive>
</configuration>
</plugin>
Self-contained
Jar
file
To create a self-contained Jar file containing the code from your module along with dependencies, include the
following under build->plugins in your Maven pom.xml file, where main.class is defined as a property and points to the
main Kotlin or Java class:
<plugin>
<groupId>org.apache.maven.plugins</groupId>
<artifactId>maven-assembly-plugin</artifactId>
<version>2.6</version>
<executions>
<execution>
<id>make-assembly</id>
<phase>package</phase>
<goals> <goal>single</goal> </goals>
<configuration>
<archive>
<manifest>
<mainClass>${main.class}</mainClass>
</manifest>
</archive>
<descriptorRefs>
<descriptorRef>jar-with-dependencies</descriptorRef>
</descriptorRefs>
</configuration>
</execution>
</executions>
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</plugin>
This self-contained jar file can be passed directly to a JRE to run your application:
java -jar target/mymodule-0.0.1-SNAPSHOT-jar-with-dependencies.jar
Specifying
compiler
options
Additional options and arguments for the compiler can be specified as tags under the <configuration> element of the
Maven plugin node:
<plugin>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<artifactId>kotlin-maven-plugin</artifactId>
<version>${kotlin.version}</version>
<executions>...</executions>
<configuration>
<nowarn>true</nowarn> <!-- Disable warnings -->
<args>
<arg>-Xjsr305=strict</arg> <!-- Enable strict mode for JSR-305 annotations -->
...
</args>
</configuration>
</plugin>
Many of the options can also be configured through properties:
<project ...>
<properties>
<kotlin.compiler.languageVersion>1.0</kotlin.compiler.languageVersion>
</properties>
</project>
The following attributes are supported:
Attributes
common
for
JVM
and
JS
Name Property name Description Possible values Default
value
nowarn Generate no warnings true, false false
languageVersion kotlin.compiler.languageVersion Provide source compatibility with "1.2" (DEPRECATED),
the specified version of Kotlin "1.3", "1.4", "1.5"
(EXPERIMENTAL)
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Name Property name Description Possible values Default
value
apiVersion kotlin.compiler.apiVersion Allow using declarations only "1.2" (DEPRECATED),
from the specified version of "1.3", "1.4", "1.5"
bundled libraries (EXPERIMENTAL)
sourceDirs The directories containing the The
source files to compile project
source
roots
compilerPlugins Enabled compiler plugins []
pluginOptions Options for compiler plugins []
args Additional compiler arguments []
Attributes
specific
for
JVM
Name Property name Description Possible values Default
value
jvmTarget kotlin.compiler.jvmTarget Target version of the generated JVM "1.6" (DEPRECATED), "1.8", "1.8"
bytecode "9", "10", "11", "12", "13",
"14", "15", "16"
jdkHome kotlin.compiler.jdkHome Include a custom JDK from the specified
location into the classpath instead of the
default JAVA_HOME
Attributes
specific
for
JS
Name Property Description Possible values Default
name value
outputFile Destination *.js file for the compilation result
metaInfo Generate .meta.js and .kjsm files with metadata. true, false true
Use to create a library
sourceMap Generate source map true, false false
sourceMapEmbedSources Embed source files into source map "never", "always", "inlining"
"inlining"
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Name Property Description Possible values Default
name value
sourceMapPrefix Add the specified prefix to paths in the source
map
moduleKind The kind of JS module generated by the "umd", "commonjs", "umd"
compiler "amd", "plain"
Generating
documentation
The standard JavaDoc generation plugin (maven-javadoc-plugin) does not support Kotlin code. To generate
documentation for Kotlin projects, use Dokka; please refer to the Dokka README for configuration instructions. Dokka
supports mixed-language projects and can generate output in multiple formats, including standard JavaDoc.
OSGi
For OSGi support see the Kotlin OSGi page.
Examples
An example Maven project can be downloaded from the GitHub repository
Ant
Getting
the
Ant
tasks
Kotlin provides three tasks for Ant:
kotlinc: Kotlin compiler targeting the JVM
kotlin2js: Kotlin compiler targeting JavaScript
withKotlin: Task to compile Kotlin files when using the standard javac Ant task
These tasks are defined in the kotlin-ant.jar library which is located in the lib folder in the Kotlin Compiler archive. Ant
version 1.8.2+ is required.
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Targeting
JVM
with
Kotlin-only
source
When the project consists of exclusively Kotlin source code, the easiest way to compile the project is to use the kotlinc
task:
<project name="Ant Task Test" default="build">
<typedef resource="org/jetbrains/kotlin/ant/antlib.xml" classpath="${kotlin.lib}/kotlin-
ant.jar"/>
<target name="build">
<kotlinc src="hello.kt" output="hello.jar"/>
</target>
</project>
where ${kotlin.lib} points to the folder where the Kotlin standalone compiler was unzipped.
Targeting
JVM
with
Kotlin-only
source
and
multiple
roots
If a project consists of multiple source roots, use src as elements to define paths:
<project name="Ant Task Test" default="build">
<typedef resource="org/jetbrains/kotlin/ant/antlib.xml" classpath="${kotlin.lib}/kotlin-
ant.jar"/>
<target name="build">
<kotlinc output="hello.jar">
<src path="root1"/>
<src path="root2"/>
</kotlinc>
</target>
</project>
Targeting
JVM
with
Kotlin
and
Java
source
If a project consists of both Kotlin and Java source code, while it is possible to use kotlinc, to avoid repetition of task
parameters, it is recommended to use withKotlin task:
<project name="Ant Task Test" default="build">
<typedef resource="org/jetbrains/kotlin/ant/antlib.xml" classpath="${kotlin.lib}/kotlin-
ant.jar"/>
<target name="build">
<delete dir="classes" failonerror="false"/>
<mkdir dir="classes"/>
<javac destdir="classes" includeAntRuntime="false" srcdir="src">
<withKotlin/>
</javac>
<jar destfile="hello.jar">
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<fileset dir="classes"/>
</jar>
</target>
</project>
You can also specify the name of the module being compiled as the moduleName attribute:
<withKotlin moduleName="myModule"/>
Targeting
JavaScript
with
single
source
folder
<project name="Ant Task Test" default="build">
<typedef resource="org/jetbrains/kotlin/ant/antlib.xml" classpath="${kotlin.lib}/kotlin-
ant.jar"/>
<target name="build">
<kotlin2js src="root1" output="out.js"/>
</target>
</project>
Targeting
JavaScript
with
Prefix,
PostFix
and
sourcemap
options
<project name="Ant Task Test" default="build">
<taskdef resource="org/jetbrains/kotlin/ant/antlib.xml" classpath="${kotlin.lib}/kotlin-
ant.jar"/>
<target name="build">
<kotlin2js src="root1" output="out.js" outputPrefix="prefix" outputPostfix="postfix"
sourcemap="true"/>
</target>
</project>
Targeting
JavaScript
with
single
source
folder
and
metaInfo
option
The metaInfo option is useful, if you want to distribute the result of translation as a Kotlin/JavaScript library. If metaInfo
was set to true, then during compilation additional JS file with binary metadata will be created. This file should be
distributed together with the result of translation:
<project name="Ant Task Test" default="build">
<typedef resource="org/jetbrains/kotlin/ant/antlib.xml" classpath="${kotlin.lib}/kotlin-
ant.jar"/>
<target name="build">
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<!-- out.meta.js will be created, which contains binary metadata -->
<kotlin2js src="root1" output="out.js" metaInfo="true"/>
</target>
</project>
References
Complete list of elements and attributes are listed below:
Attributes
common
for
kotlinc
and
kotlin2js
Name Description Required Default Value
src Kotlin source file or directory to compile Yes
nowarn Suppresses all compilation warnings No false
noStdlib Does not include the Kotlin standard library into the classpath No false
failOnError Fails the build if errors are detected during the compilation No true
kotlinc
attributes
Name Description Required Default Value
output Destination directory or .jar file name Yes
classpath Compilation class path No
classpathref Compilation class path reference No
includeRuntime If output is a .jar file, whether Kotlin runtime library is No true
included in the jar
moduleName Name of the module being compiled No The name of the target (if specified)
or the project
kotlin2js
attributes
Name Description Required
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Name Description Required
output Destination file Yes
libraries Paths to Kotlin libraries No
outputPrefix Prefix to use for generated JavaScript files No
outputSuffix Suffix to use for generated JavaScript files No
sourcemap Whether sourcemap file should be generated No
metaInfo Whether metadata file with binary descriptors should be generated No
main Should compiler generated code call the main function No
Passing
raw
compiler
arguments
To pass custom raw compiler arguments, you can use <compilerarg> elements with either value or line attributes. This
can be done within the <kotlinc>, <kotlin2js>, and <withKotlin> task elements, as follows:
<kotlinc src="${test.data}/hello.kt" output="${temp}/hello.jar">
<compilerarg value="-Xno-inline"/>
<compilerarg line="-Xno-call-assertions -Xno-param-assertions"/>
<compilerarg value="-Xno-optimize"/>
</kotlinc>
The full list of arguments that can be used is shown when you run kotlinc -help.
Run
code
snippets
–
tutorial
There may be times when you need to quickly write and execute code outside of a project or application. This may be
useful, for example, when learning Kotlin or evaluating expressions. Let's have a look at three handy ways we can use
to run Kotlin code quickly:
Scratches let us write and run code in a temporary file outside of our project in the IDE.
Worksheets are like scratches, but they reside within projects.
REPL (Read-Eval-Print-Loop) runs code in an interactive console.
Scratches
and
worksheets
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The Kotlin plugin for IntelliJ IDEA supports scratches and worksheets.
Scratches let you create code drafts in the same IDE window with your project and run them on the fly. Scratches are
not tied to projects; you can access and run all your scratches from any IntelliJ IDEA window on your OS.
To create a Kotlin scratch, click File | New | Scratch file and select the Kotlin type.
In turn, worksheets are project files: they are stored in project directories and tied to the project modules. Worksheets
are useful for writing code parts that don't actually make a software unit but should still be stored together in a project.
For example, you can use worksheets for education or demo materials.
To create a Kotlin worksheet in a project directory, right-click the directory in the project tree and select New | Kotlin
Worksheet.
In scratches and worksheets, you can write any valid Kotlin code. Syntax highlighting, auto-completion, and the other
IntelliJ IDEA code editing features are all supported too. Note that there's no need for declaring the main function: all
the code you write is executed as if it would be in the body of main.
Once you have finished writing your code in a scratch or a worksheet, click Run. The execution results will appear in
the lines opposite your code.
Run scratch
Interactive
mode
IntelliJ IDEA can run the code from scratches and worksheets automatically. To get the execution results when you
stop typing, switch on the Interactive mode.
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Scratch interactive mode
Using
modules
We can use classes or functions from a Kotlin project, in our scratches and worksheets.
Worksheets automatically get access to classes and functions from the module where they reside.
To use classes or functions from a project in a scratch, import them into the scratch file as usual with the import
statement. Then write your code and run it with the appropriate module selected in Use classpath of module list.
Both scratches and worksheets use the compiled versions of connected modules. So, if you modify a module's source
files, the changes will propagate to scratches and worksheets when you rebuild the module. To rebuild the module
automatically before each run of a scratch or a worksheet, select Make before Run.
Scratch select module
Running
as
REPL
To evaluate each particular expression in a scratch or a worksheet, run it with Use REPL selected. The code will be
executed the same way as in REPL: the code lines will run sequentially, providing results of each call. You can later
refer to the results by the names res* shown in the corresponding lines.
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Scratch REPL
REPL
REPL (Read-Eval-Print-Loop) is a tool for running Kotlin code interactively. REPL lets you evaluate expressions and
code chunks without creating projects or even functions if you don't need them.
To run REPL in IntelliJ IDEA, open Tools | Kotlin | Kotlin REPL.
To run REPL in the OS command line, open /bin/kotlinc-jvm from the directory of standalone Kotlin compiler.
The REPL command line interface will open. You can enter any valid Kotlin code and see the result. The results are
printed as variables with auto-generated names like res*. You can later use such variables in the code you run in REPL.
Run REPL
REPL supports multiline input as well. The result of the multiline input is the value of its last expression.
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REPL multi-line run
Migrate
to
Kotlin
code
style
Kotlin
coding
conventions
and
IntelliJ
IDEA
formatter
Kotlin coding conventions affect several aspects of writing idiomatic Kotlin, and a set of formatting recommendations
aimed at improving Kotlin code readability is among them.
Unfortunately, the code formatter built into IntelliJ IDEA had to work long before this document was released and now
has a default setup that produces different formatting from what is now recommended.
It may seem a logical next step to remove this obscurity by switching the defaults in IntelliJ IDEA and make formatting
consistent with the Kotlin coding conventions. But this would mean that all the existing Kotlin projects will have a new
code style enabled the moment the Kotlin plugin is installed. Not really the expected result for plugin update, right?
That's why we have the following migration plan instead:
Enable the official code style formatting by default starting from Kotlin 1.3 and only for new projects (old formatting
can be enabled manually)
Authors of existing projects may choose to migrate to the Kotlin coding conventions
Authors of existing projects may choose to explicitly declare using the old code style in a project (this way the
project won't be affected by switching to the defaults in the future)
Switch to the default formatting and make it consistent with Kotlin coding conventions in Kotlin 1.4
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Differences
between
"Kotlin
coding
conventions"
and
"IntelliJ
IDEA
default
code
style"
The most notable change is in the continuation indentation policy. There's a nice idea to use the double indent for
showing that a multi-line expression hasn't ended on the previous line. This is a very simple and general rule, but
several Kotlin constructions look a bit awkward when they are formatted this way. In Kotlin coding conventions, it's
recommended to use a single indent in cases where the long continuation indent has been forced before.
Code formatting
In practice, quite a bit of code is affected, so this can be considered a major code style update.
Migration
to
a
new
code
style
discussion
A new code style adoption might be a very natural process if it starts with a new project, when there's no code
formatted in the old way. That is why starting from version 1.3, the Kotlin IntelliJ Plugin creates new projects with
formatting from the Coding conventions document which is enabled by default.
Changing formatting in an existing project is a far more demanding task, and should probably be started with
discussing all the caveats with the team.
The main disadvantage of changing the code style in an existing project is that the blame/annotate VCS feature will
point to irrelevant commits more often. While each VCS has some kind of way to deal with this problem ("Annotate
Previous Revision" can be used in IntelliJ IDEA), it's important to decide if a new style is worth all the effort. The
practice of separating reformatting commits from meaningful changes can help a lot with later investigations.
Also migrating can be harder for larger teams because committing a lot of files in several subsystems may produce
merging conflicts in personal branches. And while each conflict resolution is usually trivial, it's still wise to know if there
are large feature branches currently in work.
In general, for small projects, we recommend converting all the files at once.
For medium and large projects the decision may be tough. If you are not ready to update many files right away you may
decide to migrate module by module, or continue with gradual migration for modified files only.
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Migration
to
a
new
code
style
Switching to the Kotlin Coding Conventions code style can be done in Settings | Editor | Code Style | Kotlin dialog.
Switch scheme to Project and activate Set from... | Predefined Style | Kotlin Style Guide.
In order to share those changes for all project developers .idea/codeStyle folder have to be committed to VCS.
If an external build system is used for configuring the project, and it's been decided not to share .idea/codeStyle folder,
Kotlin coding conventions can be forced with an additional property:
In
Gradle
Add kotlin.code.style=official property to the gradle.properties file at the project root and commit the file to VCS.
In
Maven
Add kotlin.code.style official property to root pom.xml project file.
<properties> <kotlin.code.style>official</kotlin.code.style> </properties>
Having the kotlin.code.style option set may modify the code style scheme during a project import and may
change the code style settings.
After updating your code style settings, activate Reformat Code in the project view on the desired scope.
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Reformat code
For a gradual migration, it's possible to enable the File is not formatted according to project settings inspection. It will
highlight the places that should be reformatted. After enabling the Apply only to modified files option, inspection will
show formatting problems only in modified files. Such files are probably going to be committed soon anyway.
Store
old
code
style
in
project
It's always possible to explicitly set the IntelliJ IDEA code style as the correct code style for the project. To do so,
switch to the Project scheme in Settings | Editor | Code Style | Kotlin and select Kotlin obsolete IntelliJ IDEA codestyle
in the Use defaults from: on the Load tab.
In order to share the changes across the project developers .idea/codeStyle folder, it has to be committed to VCS.
Alternatively, kotlin.code.style = obsolete can be used for projects configured with Gradle or Maven.
Eclipse
IDE
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Eclipse IDE is a widely known IDE that offers various packages for development in different languages and for different
platforms. You can use is for writing Kotlin code. On this page, you will learn how to get started with Kotlin in Eclipse
IDE.
Set
up
the
environment
First of all, you need the Eclipse IDE installed on your system. You can download its latest version from download
page. The Eclipse IDE for Java Developers bundle is recommended.
To add the Kotlin support to your Eclipse IDE, install the Kotlin Plugin for Eclipse. We recommend installing the Kotlin
plugin from Eclipse Marketplace. Open the Help | Eclipse Marketplace... menu and search for Kotlin Plugin for Eclipse:
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Eclipse Marketplace
Once the plugin is installed and Eclipse is restarted, make sure the plugin is installed correctly: open the Kotlin
perspective in the menu Window | Open Perspective | Other...
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Kotlin Perspective
Create
a
new
project
Now you are ready to create a new Kotlin project.
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First, select File | New | Kotlin Project.
New Kotlin project
An empty Kotlin/JVM project will be created.
For Eclipse IDE, the project is also a Java project but configured with Kotlin nature, meaning it has the Kotlin Builder
and reference to the Kotlin Runtime Library. Great thing about this solution is that you can add both Kotlin and Java
code to the same project.
The project structure looks like this:
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Empty Kotlin project
Now, create a new Kotlin file in the the source directory.
New file from context menu
You can enter the name without the .kt extension. Eclipse will add it automatically.
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New Kotlin file wizard
Once you have a source file, add the main function - the entry point to a Kotlin application. You can simply type main
and invoke code completion by hitting Ctrl + Space.
main() template
909
Finally, add a simple line of Kotlin code to print a message:
Hello World example
Run
the
application
To run the application, right-click somewhere in the main file and select Run As | Kotlin Application.
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Run Kotlin application
If everything went well, you'll see the result in the Console window.
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Program output view
Congratulations! You now have your Kotlin application running in Eclipse IDE.
Kotlin
command-line
compiler
Every release ships with a standalone version of the compiler. You can download the latest version ( kotlin-compiler-
1.5.20.zip) from GitHub Releases.
Install
the
compiler
Manual
install
Unzip the standalone compiler into a directory and optionally add the bin directory to the system path. The bin
directory contains the scripts needed to compile and run Kotlin on Windows, OS X and Linux.
SDKMAN!
An easier way to install Kotlin on UNIX-based systems such as OS X, Linux, Cygwin, FreeBSD, and Solaris is
SDKMAN!. It also works in Bash and ZSH shells. Learn how to install SDKMAN!.
912
To install the Kotlin compiler via SDKMAN!, run the following command in a terminal:
$ sdk install kotlin
Homebrew
Alternatively, on OS X you can install the compiler via Homebrew.
$ brew update
$ brew install kotlin
Snap
package
If you use Snap on Ubuntu 16.04 or later, you can install the compiler from the command line:
$ sudo snap install --classic kotlin
Create
and
run
an
application
1. Create a simple application in Kotlin that displays "Hello, World!". In your favorite editor, create a new file called
hello.kt with the following lines:
fun main() {
println("Hello, World!")
}
2. Compile the application using the Kotlin compiler:
$ kotlinc hello.kt -include-runtime -d hello.jar
The -d option indicates the output path for generated class files, which may be either a directory or a .jar file. The -
include-runtime option makes the resulting .jar file self-contained and runnable by including the Kotlin runtime
library in it.
To see all available options, run
$ kotlinc -help
3. Run the application.
$ java -jar hello.jar
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Compile
a
library
If you're developing a library to be used by other Kotlin applications, you can build the .jar file without including the
Kotlin runtime into it.
$ kotlinc hello.kt -d hello.jar
Since binaries compiled this way depend on the Kotlin runtime you should make sure the latter is present in the
classpath whenever your compiled library is used.
You can also use the kotlin script to run binaries produced by the Kotlin compiler:
$ kotlin -classpath hello.jar HelloKt
HelloKt is the main class name that the Kotlin compiler generates for the file named hello.kt.
Run
the
REPL
You can run the compiler without parameters to have an interactive shell. In this shell, you can type any valid Kotlin
code and see the results.
Shell
Run
scripts
Kotlin can also be used as a scripting language. A script is a Kotlin source file (.kts) with top-level executable code.
import java.io.File
// Get the passed in path, i.e. "-d some/path" or use the current path.
val path = if (args.contains("-d")) args[1 + args.indexOf("-d")]
else "."
val folders = File(path).listFiles { file -> file.isDirectory() }
folders?.forEach { folder -> println(folder) }
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To run a script, we just pass the -script option to the compiler with the corresponding script file.
$ kotlinc -script list_folders.kts -- -d <path_to_folder_to_inspect>
Since 1.3.0, Kotlin has an experimental support for scripts customization, such as adding external properties, providing
static or dynamic dependencies, and so on. Customizations are defined by so-called Script definitions- annotated
kotlin classes with appropriate support code. The script filename extension is used to select appropriate definition.
Properly prepared script definitions are detected and applied automatically when the appropriate jars are included in
the compilation classpath. Alternatively, you can specify definitions manually using -script-templates option to the
compiler:
$ kotlinc -script-templates org.example.CustomScriptDefinition -script custom.script1.kts
For additional details, please consult the KEEP-75.
Kotlin
compiler
options
Each release of Kotlin includes compilers for the supported targets: JVM, JavaScript, and native binaries for supported
platforms.
These compilers are used by the IDE when you click the Compile or Run button for your Kotlin project.
You can also run Kotlin compilers manually from the command line as described in the Working with command-line
compiler tutorial.
Compiler
options
Kotlin compilers have a number of options for tailoring the compiling process. Compiler options for different targets are
listed on this page together with a description of each one.
There are several ways to set the compiler options and their values (compiler arguments ):
In IntelliJ IDEA, write in the compiler arguments in the Additional command-line parameters text box in Settings |
Build, Execution, Deployment | Compilers | Kotlin Compiler
If you're using Gradle, specify the compiler arguments in the kotlinOptions property of the Kotlin compilation task.
For details, see Gradle.
If you're using Maven, specify the compiler arguments in the <configuration> element of the Maven plugin node. For
details, see Maven.
If you run a command-line compiler, add the compiler arguments directly to the utility call or write them into an
argfile.
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For example:
$ kotlinc hello.kt -include-runtime -d hello.jar
On Windows, when you pass compiler arguments that contain delimiter characters (whitespace, =, ;, , ),
surround these arguments with double quotes (" ).
$ kotlinc.bat hello.kt -include-runtime -d "My Folder\hello.jar"
Common
options
The following options are common for all Kotlin compilers.
-version
Display the compiler version.
-nowarn
Suppress the compiler from displaying warnings during compilation.
-Werror
Turn any warnings into a compilation error.
-verbose
Enable verbose logging output which includes details of the compilation process.
-script
Evaluate a Kotlin script file. When called with this option, the compiler executes the first Kotlin script (*.kts) file among
the given arguments.
-help
(-h)
Display usage information and exit. Only standard options are shown. To show advanced options, use -X.
-X
Display information about the advanced options and exit. These options are currently unstable: their names and
behavior may be changed without notice.
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-kotlin-home
path
Specify a custom path to the Kotlin compiler used for the discovery of runtime libraries.
-P
plugin:pluginId:optionName=value
Pass an option to a Kotlin compiler plugin. Available plugins and their options are listed in the Tools > Compiler plugins
section of the documentation.
-language-version
version
Provide source compatibility with the specified version of Kotlin.
-api-version
version
Allow using declarations only from the specified version of Kotlin bundled libraries.
-progressive
Enable the progressive mode for the compiler.
In the progressive mode, deprecations and bug fixes for unstable code take effect immediately, instead of going
through a graceful migration cycle. Code written in the progressive mode is backwards compatible; however, code
written in a non-progressive mode may cause compilation errors in the progressive mode.
@argfile
Read the compiler options from the given file. Such a file can contain compiler options with values and paths to the
source files. Options and paths should be separated by whitespaces. For example:
-include-runtime -d hello.jar hello.kt
To pass values that contain whitespaces, surround them with single (') or double (") quotes. If a value contains
quotation marks in it, escape them with a backslash (\ ).
-include-runtime -d 'My folder'
You can also pass multiple argument files, for example, to separate compiler options from source files.
$ kotlinc @compiler.options @classes
If the files reside in locations different from the current directory, use relative paths.
$ kotlinc @options/compiler.options hello.kt
Kotlin/JVM
compiler
options
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The Kotlin compiler for JVM compiles Kotlin source files into Java class files. The command-line tools for Kotlin to JVM
compilation are kotlinc and kotlinc-jvm. You can also use them for executing Kotlin script files.
In addition to the common options, Kotlin/JVM compiler has the options listed below.
-classpath
path
(-cp
path)
Search for class files in the specified paths. Separate elements of the classpath with system path separators (; on
Windows, : on macOS/Linux). The classpath can contain file and directory paths, ZIP, or JAR files.
-d
path
Place the generated class files into the specified location. The location can be a directory, a ZIP, or a JAR file.
-include-runtime
Include the Kotlin runtime into the resulting JAR file. Makes the resulting archive runnable on any Java-enabled
environment.
-jdk-home
path
Use a custom JDK home directory to include into the classpath if it differs from the default JAVA_HOME.
-jvm-target
version
Specify the target version of the generated JVM bytecode. Possible values are 1.6 (DEPRECATED), 1.8, 9, 10, 11, 12,
13, 14, 15 and 16. The default value is 1.8.
-java-parameters
Generate metadata for Java 1.8 reflection on method parameters.
-module-name
name
(JVM)
Set a custom name for the generated .kotlin_module file.
-no-jdk
Don't automatically include the Java runtime into the classpath.
-no-reflect
Don't automatically include the Kotlin reflection (kotlin-reflect.jar) into the classpath.
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-no-stdlib
(JVM)
Don't automatically include the Kotlin/JVM stdlib (kotlin-stdlib.jar) and Kotlin reflection (kotlin-reflect.jar) into the
classpath.
-script-templates
classnames[,]
Script definition template classes. Use fully qualified class names and separate them with commas (, ).
Kotlin/JS
compiler
options
The Kotlin compiler for JS compiles Kotlin source files into JavaScript code. The command-line tool for Kotlin to JS
compilation is kotlinc-js.
In addition to the common options, Kotlin/JS compiler has the options listed below.
-libraries
path
Paths to Kotlin libraries with .meta.js and .kjsm files, separated by the system path separator.
-main
{call|noCall}
Define whether the main function should be called upon execution.
-meta-info
Generate .meta.js and .kjsm files with metadata. Use this option when creating a JS library.
-module-kind
{umd|commonjs|amd|plain}
The kind of JS module generated by the compiler:
umd- a Universal Module Definition module
commonjs- a CommonJS module
amd- an Asynchronous Module Definition module
plain- a plain JS module
To learn more about the different kinds of JS module and the distinctions between them, see this article.
-no-stdlib
(JS)
Don't automatically include the default Kotlin/JS stdlib into the compilation dependencies.
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-output
filepath
Set the destination file for the compilation result. The value must be a path to a .js file including its name.
-output-postfix
filepath
Add the content of the specified file to the end of the output file.
-output-prefix
filepath
Add the content of the specified file to the beginning of the output file.
-source-map
Generate the source map.
-source-map-base-dirs
path
Use the specified paths as base directories. Base directories are used for calculating relative paths in the source map.
-source-map-embed-sources
{always|never|inlining}
Embed source files into the source map.
-source-map-prefix
Add the specified prefix to paths in the source map.
Kotlin/Native
compiler
options
Kotlin/Native compiler compiles Kotlin source files into native binaries for the supported platforms. The command-line
tool for Kotlin/Native compilation is kotlinc-native.
In addition to the common options, Kotlin/Native compiler has the options listed below.
-enable-assertions
(-ea)
Enable runtime assertions in the generated code.
-g
Enable emitting debug information.
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-generate-test-runner
(-tr)
Produce an application for running unit tests from the project.
-generate-worker-test-runner
(-trw)
Produce an application for running unit tests in a worker thread.
-generate-no-exit-test-runner
(-trn)
Produce an application for running unit tests without an explicit process exit.
-include-binary
path
(-ib
path)
Pack external binary within the generated klib file.
-library
path
(-l
path)
Link with the library. To learn about using libraries in Kotlin/native projects, see Kotlin/Native libraries.
-library-version
version
(-lv
version)
Set the library version.
-list-targets
List the available hardware targets.
-manifest
path
Provide a manifest addend file.
-module-name
name
(Native)
Specify a name for the compilation module. This option can also be used to specify a name prefix for the declarations
exported to Objective-C: How do I specify a custom Objective-C prefix/name for my Kotlin framework?
-native-library
path
(-nl
path)
Include the native bitcode library.
-no-default-libs
Disable linking user code with the default platform libraries distributed with the compiler.
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-nomain
Assume the main entry point to be provided by external libraries.
-nopack
Don't pack the library into a klib file.
-linker-option
Pass an argument to the linker during binary building. This can be used for linking against some native library.
-linker-options
args
Pass multiple arguments to the linker during binary building. Separate arguments with whitespaces.
-nostdlib
Don't link with stdlib.
-opt
Enable compilation optimizations.
-output
name
(-o
name)
Set the name for the output file.
-entry
name
(-e
name)
Specify the qualified entry point name.
-produce
output
(-p
output)
Specify output file kind:
program
static
dynamic
framework
library
bitcode
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-repo
path
(-r
path)
Library search path. For more information, see Library search sequence.
-target
target
Set hardware target. To see the list of available targets, use the -list-targets option.
All-open
compiler
plugin
Kotlin has classes and their members final by default, which makes it inconvenient to use frameworks and libraries
such as Spring AOP that require classes to be open. The all-open compiler plugin adapts Kotlin to the requirements of
those frameworks and makes classes annotated with a specific annotation and their members open without the explicit
open keyword.
For instance, when you use Spring, you don't need all the classes to be open, but only classes annotated with specific
annotations like @Configuration or @Service. All-open allows to specify such annotations.
We provide all-open plugin support both for Gradle and Maven with the complete IDE integration.
For Spring, you can use the kotlin-spring compiler plugin (see below ).
Gradle
Add the plugin artifact to the build script dependencies and apply the plugin:
buildscript {
dependencies {
classpath "org.jetbrains.kotlin:kotlin-allopen:$kotlin_version"
}
}
apply plugin: "kotlin-allopen"
As an alternative, you can enable it using the plugins block:
plugins {
id "org.jetbrains.kotlin.plugin.allopen" version "1.5.20"
}
Then specify the list of annotations that will make classes open:
allOpen {
annotation("com.my.Annotation")
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// annotations("com.another.Annotation", "com.third.Annotation")
}
If the class (or any of its superclasses) is annotated with com.my.Annotation, the class itself and all its members will
become open.
It also works with meta-annotations:
@com.my.Annotation
annotation class MyFrameworkAnnotation
@MyFrameworkAnnotation
class MyClass // will be all-open
MyFrameworkAnnotation is annotated with the all-open meta-annotation com.my.Annotation, so it becomes an all-
open annotation as well.
Maven
Here's how to use all-open with Maven:
<plugin>
<artifactId>kotlin-maven-plugin</artifactId>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<version>${kotlin.version}</version>
<configuration>
<compilerPlugins>
<!-- Or "spring" for the Spring support -->
<plugin>all-open</plugin>
</compilerPlugins>
<pluginOptions>
<!-- Each annotation is placed on its own line -->
<option>all-open:annotation=com.my.Annotation</option>
<option>all-open:annotation=com.their.AnotherAnnotation</option>
</pluginOptions>
</configuration>
<dependencies>
<dependency>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<artifactId>kotlin-maven-allopen</artifactId>
<version>${kotlin.version}</version>
</dependency>
</dependencies>
</plugin>
Please refer to the Gradle section for the detailed information about how all-open annotations work.
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Spring
support
If you use Spring, you can enable the kotlin-spring compiler plugin instead of specifying Spring annotations manually.
The kotlin-spring is a wrapper on top of all-open, and it behaves exactly the same way.
As with all-open, add the plugin to the build script dependencies:
buildscript {
dependencies {
classpath "org.jetbrains.kotlin:kotlin-allopen:$kotlin_version"
}
}
apply plugin: "kotlin-spring" // instead of "kotlin-allopen"
Or using the Gradle plugins DSL:
plugins {
id "org.jetbrains.kotlin.plugin.spring" version "1.5.20"
}
In Maven, the spring plugin is provided by the kotlin-maven-allopen plugin dependency, so to enable it:
<compilerPlugins>
<plugin>spring</plugin>
</compilerPlugins>
<dependencies>
<dependency>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<artifactId>kotlin-maven-allopen</artifactId>
<version>${kotlin.version}</version>
</dependency>
</dependencies>
The plugin specifies the following annotations:
@Component
@Async
@Transactional
@Cacheable
@SpringBootTest
Thanks to meta-annotations support, classes annotated with @Configuration, @Controller, @RestController, @Service
or @Repository are automatically opened since these annotations are meta-annotated with @Component.
Of course, you can use both kotlin-allopen and kotlin-spring in the same project.
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Note that if you use the project template generated by the start.spring.io service, the kotlin-spring plugin will be
enabled by default.
Command-line
compiler
All-open compiler plugin JAR is available in the binary distribution of the Kotlin compiler. You can attach the plugin by
providing the path to its JAR file using the Xplugin kotlinc option:
-Xplugin=$KOTLIN_HOME/lib/allopen-compiler-plugin.jar
You can specify all-open annotations directly, using the annotation plugin option, or enable the "preset". The only
preset available now for all-open is spring.
# The plugin option format is: "-P plugin:<plugin id>:<key>=<value>".
# Options can be repeated.
-P plugin:org.jetbrains.kotlin.allopen:annotation=com.my.Annotation
-P plugin:org.jetbrains.kotlin.allopen:preset=spring
No-arg
compiler
plugin
The no-arg compiler plugin generates an additional zero-argument constructor for classes with a specific annotation.
The generated constructor is synthetic so it can’t be directly called from Java or Kotlin, but it can be called using
reflection.
This allows the Java Persistence API (JPA) to instantiate a class although it doesn't have the zero-parameter
constructor from Kotlin or Java point of view (see the description of kotlin-jpa plugin below.
Gradle
Add the plugin and specify the list of annotations that must lead to generating a no-arg constructor for the annotated
classes.
buildscript {
dependencies {
classpath "org.jetbrains.kotlin:kotlin-noarg:$kotlin_version"
}
}
apply plugin: "kotlin-noarg"
Or using the Gradle plugins DSL:
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plugins {
id "org.jetbrains.kotlin.plugin.noarg" version "1.5.20"
}
Then specify the list of no-arg annotations:
noArg {
annotation("com.my.Annotation")
}
Enable invokeInitializers option if you want the plugin to run the initialization logic from the synthetic constructor. By
default, it is disabled.
noArg {
invokeInitializers = true
}
Maven
<plugin>
<artifactId>kotlin-maven-plugin</artifactId>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<version>${kotlin.version}</version>
<configuration>
<compilerPlugins>
<!-- Or "jpa" for JPA support -->
<plugin>no-arg</plugin>
</compilerPlugins>
<pluginOptions>
<option>no-arg:annotation=com.my.Annotation</option>
<!-- Call instance initializers in the synthetic constructor -->
<!-- <option>no-arg:invokeInitializers=true</option> -->
</pluginOptions>
</configuration>
<dependencies>
<dependency>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<artifactId>kotlin-maven-noarg</artifactId>
<version>${kotlin.version}</version>
</dependency>
</dependencies>
</plugin>
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JPA
support
As with the kotlin-spring plugin wrapped on top of all-open, kotlin-jpa is wrapped on top of no-arg. The plugin specifies
@Entity, @Embeddable, and @MappedSuperclass no-arg annotations automatically.
That's how you add the plugin in Gradle:
buildscript {
dependencies {
classpath "org.jetbrains.kotlin:kotlin-noarg:$kotlin_version"
}
}
apply plugin: "kotlin-jpa"
Or using the Gradle plugins DSL:
plugins {
id "org.jetbrains.kotlin.plugin.jpa" version "1.5.20"
}
In Maven, enable the jpa plugin:
<compilerPlugins>
<plugin>jpa</plugin>
</compilerPlugins>
Command-line
compiler
Add the plugin JAR file to the compiler plugin classpath and specify annotations or presets:
-Xplugin=$KOTLIN_HOME/lib/noarg-compiler-plugin.jar
-P plugin:org.jetbrains.kotlin.noarg:annotation=com.my.Annotation
-P plugin:org.jetbrains.kotlin.noarg:preset=jpa
SAM-with-receiver
compiler
plugin
The sam-with-receiver compiler plugin makes the first parameter of the annotated Java "single abstract method" (SAM)
interface method a receiver in Kotlin. This conversion only works when the SAM interface is passed as a Kotlin lambda,
both for SAM adapters and SAM constructors (see the SAM conversions documentation for more details).
Here is an example:
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public @interface SamWithReceiver {}
@SamWithReceiver
public interface TaskRunner {
void run(Task task);
}
fun test(context: TaskContext) {
val runner = TaskRunner {
// Here 'this' is an instance of 'Task'
println("$name is started")
context.executeTask(this)
println("$name is finished")
}
}
Gradle
The usage is the same to all-open and no-arg, except the fact that sam-with-receiver does not have any built-in
presets, and you need to specify your own list of special-treated annotations.
buildscript {
dependencies {
classpath "org.jetbrains.kotlin:kotlin-sam-with-receiver:$kotlin_version"
}
}
apply plugin: "kotlin-sam-with-receiver"
Then specify the list of SAM-with-receiver annotations:
samWithReceiver {
annotation("com.my.SamWithReceiver")
}
Maven
<plugin>
<artifactId>kotlin-maven-plugin</artifactId>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<version>${kotlin.version}</version>
<configuration>
<compilerPlugins>
<plugin>sam-with-receiver</plugin>
</compilerPlugins>
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<pluginOptions>
<option>
sam-with-receiver:annotation=com.my.SamWithReceiver
</option>
</pluginOptions>
</configuration>
<dependencies>
<dependency>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<artifactId>kotlin-maven-sam-with-receiver</artifactId>
<version>${kotlin.version}</version>
</dependency>
</dependencies>
</plugin>
Command-line
compiler
Add the plugin JAR file to the compiler plugin classpath and specify the list of sam-with-receiver annotations:
-Xplugin=$KOTLIN_HOME/lib/sam-with-receiver-compiler-plugin.jar
-P plugin:org.jetbrains.kotlin.samWithReceiver:annotation=com.my.SamWithReceiver
Using
kapt
Annotation processors (see JSR 269) are supported in Kotlin with the kapt compiler plugin.
In a nutshell, you can use libraries such as Dagger or Data Binding in your Kotlin projects.
Please read below about how to apply the kapt plugin to your Gradle/Maven build.
Using
in
Gradle
Apply the kotlin-kapt Gradle plugin:
Groovy
plugins {
id "org.jetbrains.kotlin.kapt" version "1.5.20"
}
Kotlin
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plugins {
kotlin("kapt") version "1.5.20"
}
Alternatively, you can use the apply plugin syntax:
apply plugin: 'kotlin-kapt'
Then add the respective dependencies using the kapt configuration in your dependencies block:
Groovy
dependencies {
kapt 'groupId:artifactId:version'
}
Kotlin
dependencies {
kapt("groupId:artifactId:version")
}
If you previously used the Android support for annotation processors, replace usages of the annotationProcessor
configuration with kapt. If your project contains Java classes, kapt will also take care of them.
If you use annotation processors for your androidTest or test sources, the respective kapt configurations are named
kaptAndroidTest and kaptTest. Note that kaptAndroidTest and kaptTest extends kapt, so you can just provide the kapt
dependency and it will be available both for production sources and tests.
Annotation
processor
arguments
Use arguments {} block to pass arguments to annotation processors:
kapt {
arguments {
arg("key", "value")
}
}
Gradle
build
cache
support
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The kapt annotation processing tasks are cached in Gradle by default. However, annotation processors run arbitrary
code that may not necessarily transform the task inputs into the outputs, might access and modify the files that are not
tracked by Gradle etc. If the annotation processors used in the build cannot be properly cached, it is possible to
disable caching for kapt entirely by adding the following lines to the build script, in order to avoid false-positive cache
hits for the kapt tasks:
kapt {
useBuildCache = false
}
Improving
the
speed
of
builds
that
use
kapt
Running
kapt
tasks
in
parallel
To improve the speed of builds that use kapt, you can enable the Gradle worker API for kapt tasks. Using the worker
API lets Gradle run independent annotation processing tasks from a single project in parallel, which in some cases
significantly decreases the execution time. However, running kapt with Gradle worker API enabled can result in
increased memory consumption due to parallel execution.
To use the Gradle worker API for parallel execution of kapt tasks, add this line to your gradle.properties file:
kapt.use.worker.api=true
Caching
for
annotation
processors'
classloaders
Caching for annotation processors' classloaders in kapt is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at
any time. Use it only for evaluation purposes. We would appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
Caching for annotation processors' classloaders helps kapt perform faster if you run many Gradle tasks consecutively.
To enable this feature, use the following properties in your gradle.properties file:
# positive value will enable caching
# use the same value as the number of modules that use kapt
kapt.classloaders.cache.size=5
# disable for caching to work
kapt.include.compile.classpath=false
If you run into any problems with caching for annotation processors, disable caching for them:
# specify annotation processors' full names to disable caching for them
kapt.classloaders.cache.disableForProcessors=[annotation processors full names]
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Compile
avoidance
for
kapt
To improve the times of incremental builds with kapt, it can use the Gradle compile avoidance. With compile avoidance
enabled, Gradle can skip annotation processing when rebuilding a project. Particularly, annotation processing is
skipped when:
The project's source files are unchanged.
The changes in dependencies are ABI compatible. For example, the only changes are in method bodies.
However, compile avoidance can't be used for annotation processors discovered in the compile classpath since any
changes in them require running the annotation processing tasks.
To run kapt with compile avoidance:
Add the annotation processor dependencies to the kapt* configurations manually as described above.
Turn off the discovery of annotation processors in the compile classpath by adding this line to your
gradle.properties file:
kapt.include.compile.classpath=false
Incremental
annotation
processing
kapt supports incremental annotation processing that is enabled by default. Currently, annotation processing can be
incremental only if all annotation processors being used are incremental.
To disable incremental annotation processing, add this line to your gradle.properties file:
kapt.incremental.apt=false
Note that incremental annotation processing requires incremental compilation to be enabled as well.
Java
compiler
options
kapt uses Java compiler to run annotation processors.
Here is how you can pass arbitrary options to javac:
kapt {
javacOptions {
// Increase the max count of errors from annotation processors.
// Default is 100.
option("-Xmaxerrs", 500)
}
}
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Non-existent
type
correction
Some annotation processors (such as AutoFactory) rely on precise types in declaration signatures. By default, kapt
replaces every unknown type (including types for the generated classes) to NonExistentClass, but you can change this
behavior. Add the option to the build.gradle file to enable error type inferring in stubs:
kapt {
correctErrorTypes = true
}
Using
in
Maven
Add an execution of the kapt goal from kotlin-maven-plugin before compile:
<execution>
<id>kapt</id>
<goals>
<goal>kapt</goal>
</goals>
<configuration>
<sourceDirs>
<sourceDir>src/main/kotlin</sourceDir>
<sourceDir>src/main/java</sourceDir>
</sourceDirs>
<annotationProcessorPaths>
<!-- Specify your annotation processors here. -->
<annotationProcessorPath>
<groupId>com.google.dagger</groupId>
<artifactId>dagger-compiler</artifactId>
<version>2.9</version>
</annotationProcessorPath>
</annotationProcessorPaths>
</configuration>
</execution>
You can find a complete sample project showing the use of Kotlin, Maven and Dagger in the Kotlin examples
repository.
Please note that kapt is still not supported for IntelliJ IDEA’s own build system. Launch the build from the “Maven
Projects” toolbar whenever you want to re-run the annotation processing.
Using
in
CLI
kapt compiler plugin is available in the binary distribution of the Kotlin compiler.
You can attach the plugin by providing the path to its JAR file using the Xplugin kotlinc option:
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-Xplugin=$KOTLIN_HOME/lib/kotlin-annotation-processing.jar
Here is a list of the available options:
sources (required ): An output path for the generated files.
classes (required ): An output path for the generated class files and resources.
stubs (required ): An output path for the stub files. In other words, some temporary directory.
incrementalData: An output path for the binary stubs.
apclasspath (repeatable ): A path to the annotation processor JAR. Pass as many apclasspath options as many
JARs you have.
apoptions: A base64-encoded list of the annotation processor options. See AP/javac options encoding for more
information.
javacArguments: A base64-encoded list of the options passed to javac. See AP/javac options encoding for more
information.
processors: A comma-specified list of annotation processor qualified class names. If specified, kapt does not try to
find annotation processors in apclasspath.
verbose: Enable verbose output.
aptMode (required)
stubs – only generate stubs needed for annotation processing;
apt – only run annotation processing;
stubsAndApt – generate stubs and run annotation processing.
correctErrorTypes: See below. Disabled by default.
The plugin option format is: -P plugin:<plugin id>:<key>=<value>. Options can be repeated.
An example:
-P plugin:org.jetbrains.kotlin.kapt3:sources=build/kapt/sources
-P plugin:org.jetbrains.kotlin.kapt3:classes=build/kapt/classes
-P plugin:org.jetbrains.kotlin.kapt3:stubs=build/kapt/stubs
-P plugin:org.jetbrains.kotlin.kapt3:apclasspath=lib/ap.jar
-P plugin:org.jetbrains.kotlin.kapt3:apclasspath=lib/anotherAp.jar
-P plugin:org.jetbrains.kotlin.kapt3:correctErrorTypes=true
Generating
Kotlin
sources
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kapt can generate Kotlin sources. Just write the generated Kotlin source files to the directory specified by
processingEnv.options["kapt.kotlin.generated"], and these files will be compiled together with the main sources.
You can find the complete sample in the kotlin-examples GitHub repository.
Note that kapt does not support multiple rounds for the generated Kotlin files.
AP/Javac
options
encoding
apoptions and javacArguments CLI options accept an encoded map of options.
Here is how you can encode options by yourself:
fun encodeList(options: Map<String, String>): String {
val os = ByteArrayOutputStream()
val oos = ObjectOutputStream(os)
oos.writeInt(options.size)
for ((key, value) in options.entries) {
oos.writeUTF(key)
oos.writeUTF(value)
}
oos.flush()
return Base64.getEncoder().encodeToString(os.toByteArray())
}
Keeping
Java
compiler's
annotation
processors
By default, kapt runs all annotation processors and disables annotation processing by javac. However, you may need
some of javac's annotation processors working (for example, Lombok ).
In the Gradle build file, use the option keepJavacAnnotationProcessors:
kapt {
keepJavacAnnotationProcessors = true
}
If you use Maven, you need to specify concrete plugin settings. See this example of settings for the Lombok compiler
plugin.
Lombok
compiler
plugin
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The Lombok compiler plugin is Experimental. It may be dropped or changed at any time. Use it only for
evaluation purposes. We would appreciate your feedback on it in YouTrack.
The Kotlin Lombok compiler plugin allows the generation and use of Java's Lombok declarations by Kotlin code in the
same mixed Java/Kotlin module. If you call such declarations from another module, then you don't need to use this
plugin for the compilation of that module.
The Lombok compiler plugin cannot replace Lombok, but it helps Lombok work in mixed Java/Kotlin modules. Thus,
you still need to configure Lombok as usual when using this plugin. Learn more about how to make the plugin seeing
Lombok's config.
Supported
annotations
The plugin supports the following annotations:
@Getter, @Setter
@NoArgsConstructor, @RequiredArgsConstructor, and @AllArgsConstructor
@Data
@With
@Value
We're continuing to work on this plugin. To find out the detailed current state, visit the Lombok compiler plugin's
README.
Currently, we don't have plans to support the @Builder annotation. However, we can consider this if you vote for
@Builder in YouTrack.
Kotlin compiler ignores Lombok annotations if you use them in Kotlin code.
Gradle
Apply the kotlin-plugin-lombok Gradle plugin in the build.gradle(.kts) file:
Groovy
plugins {
id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.plugin.lombok' version '1.5.20'
id 'io.freefair.lombok' version '5.3.0'
}
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Kotlin
plugins {
id ("org.jetbrains.kotlin.plugin.lombok") version "1.5.20"
id ("io.freefair.lombok") version "5.3.0"
}
See this test project with examples of the Lombok compiler plugin in use.
Using
the
Lombok
configuration
file
If you use a Lombok configuration file lombok.config, provide a path to it to the plugin. The path should be relative to
the module's directory. Add the following code to your build.gradle(.kts) file:
Groovy
kotlinLombok {
lombokConfigurationFile file("lombok.config")
}
Kotlin
kotlinLombok {
lombokConfigurationFile(file("lombok.config"))
}
See this test project with examples of the Lombok compiler plugin and lombok.config in use.
Maven
To use the Lombok compiler plugin, add the plugin lombok to the compilerPlugins section and the dependency kotlin-
maven-lombok to the dependencies section. If you use a Lombok configuration file lombok.config, provide a path to it
to the plugin in the pluginOptions. Add the following lines to the pom.xml file:
<plugin>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<artifactId>kotlin-maven-plugin</artifactId>
<version>${kotlin.version}</version>
<configuration>
<compilerPlugins>
<plugin>lombok</plugin>
</compilerPlugins>
<pluginOptions>
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<option>lombok:config=${project.basedir}/lombok.config</option>
</pluginOptions>
</configuration>
<dependencies>
<dependency>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<artifactId>kotlin-maven-lombok</artifactId>
<version>${kotlin.version}</version>
</dependency>
<dependency>
<groupId>org.projectlombok</groupId>
<artifactId>lombok</artifactId>
<version>1.18.20</version>
<scope>provided</scope>
</dependency>
</dependencies>
</plugin>
See this test project example of the Lombok compiler plugin and lombok.config in use.
Using
with
kapt
By default, the kapt compiler plugin runs all annotation processors and disables annotation processing by javac. To run
Lombok along with kapt, set up kapt to keep javac's annotation processors working.
If you use Gradle, add the option to the build.gradle(.kts) file:
kapt {
keepJavacAnnotationProcessors = true
}
In Maven, use the following settings to launch Lombok with Java's compiler:
<plugin>
<groupId>org.apache.maven.plugins</groupId>
<artifactId>maven-compiler-plugin</artifactId>
<version>3.5.1</version>
<configuration>
<source>1.8</source>
<target>1.8</target>
<annotationProcessorPaths>
<annotationProcessorPath>
<groupId>org.projectlombok</groupId>
<artifactId>lombok</artifactId>
<version>${lombok.version}</version>
</annotationProcessorPath>
</annotationProcessorPaths>
</configuration>
</plugin>
The Lombok compiler plugin works correctly with kapt if annotation processors don't depend on the code generated
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by Lombok.
Look through the test project examples of kapt and the Lombok compiler plugin in use:
Using Gradle.
Using Maven
Kotlin
and
continuous
integration
with
TeamCity
On this page, you'll learn how to set up TeamCity to build your Kotlin project. For more information and basics of
TeamCity please check the Documentation page which contains information about installation, basic configuration, etc.
Kotlin works with different build tools, so if you're using a standard tool such as Ant, Maven or Gradle, the process for
setting up a Kotlin project is no different to any other language or library that integrates with these tools. Where there
are some minor requirements and differences is when using the internal build system of IntelliJ IDEA, which is also
supported on TeamCity.
Gradle,
Maven,
and
Ant
If using Ant, Maven or Gradle, the setup process is straightforward. All that is needed is to define the Build Step. For
example, if using Gradle, simply define the required parameters such as the Step Name and Gradle tasks that need
executing for the Runner Type.
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Gradle Build Step
Since all the dependencies required for Kotlin are defined in the Gradle file, nothing else needs to be configured
specifically for Kotlin to run correctly.
If using Ant or Maven, the same configuration applies. The only difference being that the Runner Type would be Ant or
Maven respectively.
IntelliJ
IDEA
Build
System
If using IntelliJ IDEA build system with TeamCity, make sure that the version of Kotlin being used by IntelliJ IDEA is the
same as the one that TeamCity runs. You may need to download the specific version of the Kotlin plugin and install it
on TeamCity.
Fortunately, there is a meta-runner already available that takes care of most of the manual work. If not familiar with the
concept of TeamCity meta-runners, check the documentation. They are very easy and powerful way to introduce
custom Runners without the need to write plugins.
Download
and
install
the
meta-runner
The meta-runner for Kotlin is available on GitHub. Download that meta-runner and import it from the TeamCity user
interface
Meta-runner
Setup
Kotlin
compiler
fetching
step
Basically this step is limited to defining the Step Name and the version of Kotlin you need. Tags can be used.
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Setup Kotlin Compiler
The runner will set the value for the property system.path.macro.KOTLIN.BUNDLED to the correct one based on the
path settings from the IntelliJ IDEA project. However, this value needs to be defined in TeamCity (and can be set to any
value). Therefore, you need to define it as a system variable.
Setup
Kotlin
compilation
step
The final step is to define the actual compilation of the project, which uses the standard IntelliJ IDEA Runner Type.
IntelliJ IDEA Runner
With that, our project should now build and produce the corresponding artifacts.
Other
CI
servers
If using a continuous integration tool different to TeamCity, as long as it supports any of the build tools, or calling
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command line tools, compiling Kotlin and automating things as part of a CI process should be possible.
Document
Kotlin
code:
KDoc
and
Dokka
The language used to document Kotlin code (the equivalent of Java's JavaDoc) is called KDoc. In its essence, KDoc
combines JavaDoc's syntax for block tags (extended to support Kotlin's specific constructs) and Markdown for inline
markup.
Generate
the
documentation
Kotlin's documentation generation tool is called Dokka. See the Dokka README for usage instructions.
Dokka has plugins for Gradle, Maven, and Ant, so you can integrate documentation generation into your build process.
KDoc
syntax
Just like with JavaDoc, KDoc comments start with /** and end with */. Every line of the comment may begin with an
asterisk, which is not considered part of the contents of the comment.
By convention, the first paragraph of the documentation text (the block of text until the first blank line) is the summary
description of the element, and the following text is the detailed description.
Every block tag begins on a new line and starts with the @ character.
Here's an example of a class documented using KDoc:
/**
* A group of *members*.
*
* This class has no useful logic; it's just a documentation example.
*
* @param T the type of a member in this group.
* @property name the name of this group.
* @constructor Creates an empty group.
*/
class Group<T>(val name: String) {
/**
* Adds a [member] to this group.
* @return the new size of the group.
*/
fun add(member: T): Int { ... }
}
Block
tags
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KDoc currently supports the following block tags:
@param
name
Documents a value parameter of a function or a type parameter of a class, property or function. To better separate the
parameter name from the description, if you prefer, you can enclose the name of the parameter in brackets. The
following two syntaxes are therefore equivalent:
@param name description. @param[name] description.
@return
Documents the return value of a function.
@constructor
Documents the primary constructor of a class.
@receiver
Documents the receiver of an extension function.
@property
name
Documents the property of a class which has the specified name. This tag can be used for documenting properties
declared in the primary constructor, where putting a doc comment directly before the property definition would be
awkward.
@throws
class,
@exception
class
Documents an exception which can be thrown by a method. Since Kotlin does not have checked exceptions, there is
also no expectation that all possible exceptions are documented, but you can still use this tag when it provides useful
information for users of the class.
@sample
identifier
Embeds the body of the function with the specified qualified name into the documentation for the current element, in
order to show an example of how the element could be used.
@see
identifier
Adds a link to the specified class or method to the See also block of the documentation.
@author
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Specifies the author of the element being documented.
@since
Specifies the version of the software in which the element being documented was introduced.
@suppress
Excludes the element from the generated documentation. Can be used for elements which are not part of the official
API of a module but still have to be visible externally.
KDoc does not support the @deprecated tag. Instead, please use the @Deprecated annotation.
Inline
markup
For inline markup, KDoc uses the regular Markdown syntax, extended to support a shorthand syntax for linking to
other elements in the code.
Links
to
elements
To link to another element (class, method, property, or parameter), simply put its name in square brackets:
Use the method [foo] for this purpose.
If you want to specify a custom label for the link, use the Markdown reference-style syntax:
Use [this method][foo] for this purpose.
You can also use qualified names in the links. Note that, unlike JavaDoc, qualified names always use the dot character
to separate the components, even before a method name:
Use [kotlin.reflect.KClass.properties] to enumerate the properties of the class.
Names in links are resolved using the same rules as if the name was used inside the element being documented. In
particular, this means that if you have imported a name into the current file, you don't need to fully qualify it when you
use it in a KDoc comment.
Note that KDoc does not have any syntax for resolving overloaded members in links. Since the Kotlin documentation
generation tool puts the documentation for all overloads of a function on the same page, identifying a specific
overloaded function is not required for the link to work.
Module
and
package
documentation
Documentation for a module as a whole, as well as packages in that module, is provided as a separate Markdown file,
and the paths to that file is passed to Dokka using the -include command line parameter or the corresponding
parameters in Ant, Maven and Gradle plugins.
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Inside the file, the documentation for the module as a whole and for individual packages is introduced by the
corresponding first-level headings. The text of the heading must be Module <module name> for the module, and
Package <package qualified name> for a package.
Here's an example content of the file:
# Module kotlin-demo
The module shows the Dokka syntax usage.
# Package org.jetbrains.kotlin.demo
Contains assorted useful stuff.
## Level 2 heading
Text after this heading is also part of documentation for `org.jetbrains.kotlin.demo`
# Package org.jetbrains.kotlin.demo2
Useful stuff in another package.
Kotlin
and
OSGi
To enable Kotlin OSGi support in your Kotlin project, include kotlin-osgi-bundle instead of the regular Kotlin libraries. It
is recommended to remove kotlin-runtime, kotlin-stdlib and kotlin-reflect dependencies as kotlin-osgi-bundle already
contains all of them. You also should pay attention in case when external Kotlin libraries are included. Most regular
Kotlin dependencies are not OSGi-ready, so you shouldn't use them and should remove them from your project.
Maven
To include the Kotlin OSGi bundle to a Maven project:
<dependencies>
<dependency>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<artifactId>kotlin-osgi-bundle</artifactId>
<version>${kotlin.version}</version>
</dependency>
</dependencies>
To exclude the standard library from external libraries (notice that "star exclusion" works in Maven 3 only):
<dependency>
<groupId>some.group.id</groupId>
<artifactId>some.library</artifactId>
<version>some.library.version</version>
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<exclusions>
<exclusion>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<artifactId>*</artifactId>
</exclusion>
</exclusions>
</dependency>
Gradle
To include kotlin-osgi-bundle to a Gradle project:
compile "org.jetbrains.kotlin:kotlin-osgi-bundle:$kotlinVersion"
To exclude default Kotlin libraries that comes as transitive dependencies you can use the following approach:
dependencies {
compile (
[group: 'some.group.id', name: 'some.library', version: 'someversion'],
.....) {
exclude group: 'org.jetbrains.kotlin'
}
FAQ
Why
not
just
add
required
manifest
options
to
all
Kotlin
libraries
Even though it is the most preferred way to provide OSGi support, unfortunately it couldn't be done for now due to so
called "package split" issue that couldn't be easily eliminated and such a big change is not planned for now. There is
Require-Bundle feature but it is not the best option too and not recommended to use. So it was decided to make a
separate artifact for OSGi.
Learning
materials
overview
You can use the following materials and resources for learning Kotlin:
Basic syntax – get a quick overview of the Kotlin syntax.
Idioms – learn how to write idiomatic Kotlin code for popular cases.
Java to Kotlin migration guide: Strings – learn how to perform typical tasks with strings in Java and Kotlin.
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Kotlin Koans – complete exercises to learn the Kotlin syntax. Each exercise is created as a failing unit test and your
job is to make it pass.
Kotlin by example – review a set of small and simple annotated examples for the Kotlin syntax.
Kotlin books – find books we’ve reviewed and recommend for learning Kotlin.
Kotlin hands-on tutorials – complete long-form tutorials to fully grasp a technology. These tutorials guide you
through a self-contained project related to a specific topic.
Kotlin for Java Developers- сourse for developers with experience in Java. It shows the similarities between the two
languages and focuses on what’s going to be different.
Kotlin
Koans
Kotlin Koans are a series of exercises to get you familiar with the Kotlin Syntax. Each exercise is created as a failing
unit test and your job is to make it pass. You can work with Kotlin Koans in one of following two ways:
1. You can play with Koans online.
2. You can perform the tasks right inside IntelliJ IDEA or Android Studio by installing the EduTools plugin and choosing
Kotlin Koans course.
Whatever way you choose to solve koans, you can see the solution for each task: in the online version click on "Show
answer", inside EduTools plugin choose "Peek solution". We recommend checking the solution after you implement
the task to compare your solution with the proposed one. Make sure you don't cheat!
Kotlin
books
More and more authors write books for learning Kotlin in different languages. We are very thankful to all of them and
appreciate all their efforts in helping us increase a number of professional Kotlin developers.
Here are just a few books we've reviewed and recommend you for learning Kotlin. You can find more books on our
community website.
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Atomic Kotlin is for both beginning and experienced programmers!
Atomic Kotlin
From Bruce Eckel, author of the multi-award-winning Thinking in C++ and Thinking in
Java, and Svetlana Isakova, Kotlin Developer Advocate at JetBrains, comes a book that
breaks the language concepts into small, easy-to-digest “atoms”, along with a free course
consisting of exercises supported by hints and solutions directly inside IntelliJ IDEA!
Head First Kotlin is a complete introduction to coding in Kotlin. This hands-on book helps
Head First Kotlin you learn the Kotlin language with a unique method that goes beyond syntax and how-to
manuals and teaches you how to think like a great Kotlin developer.
You’ll learn everything from language fundamentals to collections, generics, lambdas, and
higher-order functions. Along the way, you’ll get to play with both object-oriented and
functional programming.
If you want to really understand Kotlin, this is the book for you.
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Kotlin in Action teaches you to use the Kotlin language for production-quality applications.
Kotlin in Action
Written for experienced Java developers, this example-rich book goes further than most
language books, covering interesting topics like building DSLs with natural language
syntax.
The book is written by Dmitry Jemerov and Svetlana Isakova, developers on the Kotlin
team.
Chapter 6, covering the Kotlin type system, and chapter 11, covering DSLs, are available
as a free preview on the publisher web site.
Kotlin Programming: The Big Nerd Ranch Guide
Kotlin Programming: The
Big Nerd Ranch Guide In this book you will learn to work effectively with the Kotlin language through carefully
considered examples designed to teach you Kotlin’s elegant style and features.
Starting from first principles, you will work your way to advanced usage of Kotlin,
empowering you to create programs that are more reliable with less code.
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Programming Kotlin is written by Venkat Subramaniam.
Programming Kotlin
Programmers don’t just use Kotlin, they love it. Even Google has adopted it as a first-
class language for Android development.
With Kotlin, you can intermix imperative, functional, and object-oriented styles of
programming and benefit from the approach that’s most suitable for the problem at hand.
Learn to use the many features of this highly concise, fluent, elegant, and expressive
statically typed language with easy-to-understand examples.
Learn to write maintainable, high-performing JVM and Android applications, create DSLs,
program asynchronously, and much more.
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The Joy of Kotlin teaches you the right way to code in Kotlin.
The Joy of Kotlin
In this insight-rich book, you'll master the Kotlin language while exploring coding
techniques that will make you a better developer no matter what language you use. Kotlin
natively supports a functional style of programming, so seasoned author Pierre-Yves
Saumont begins by reviewing the FP principles of immutability, referential transparency,
and the separation between functions and effects.
Then, you'll move deeper into using Kotlin in the real world, as you learn to handle errors
and data properly, encapsulate shared state mutations, and work with laziness.
This book will change the way you code — and give you back some of the joy you had
when you first started.
Learning
Kotlin
with
EduTools
plugin
With the EduTools plugin, available both in Android Studio and IntelliJ IDEA, you can learn Kotlin through code
practicing tasks.
Take a look at the Learner Start Guide, which will get you started with the Kotlin Koans course inside IntelliJ IDEA.
Solve interactive coding challenges and get instant feedback right inside the IDE.
If you want to use the EduTools plugin for teaching, read Teaching Kotlin with EduTools plugin.
Teaching
Kotlin
with
EduTools
plugin
With the EduTools plugin, available both in Android Studio and IntelliJ IDEA, you can teach Kotlin through code
practicing tasks. Take a look at the Educator Start Guide to learn how to create a simple Kotlin course that includes a
set of programming tasks and integrated tests.
If you want to use the EduTools plugin to learn Kotlin, read Learning Kotlin with EduTools plugin.
FAQ
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What
is
Kotlin?
Kotlin is an open-source statically typed programming language that targets the JVM, Android, JavaScript and Native.
It’s developed by JetBrains. The project started in 2010 and was open source from very early on. The first official 1.0
release was in February 2016.
What
is
the
current
version
of
Kotlin?
The currently released version is 1.5.20, published on June 24, 2021.
Is
Kotlin
free?
Yes. Kotlin is free, has been free and will remain free. It is developed under the Apache 2.0 license and the source code
is available on GitHub.
Is
Kotlin
an
object-oriented
language
or
a
functional
one?
Kotlin has both object-oriented and functional constructs. You can use it in both OO and FP styles, or mix elements of
the two. With first-class support for features such as higher-order functions, function types and lambdas, Kotlin is a
great choice if you’re doing or exploring functional programming.
What
advantages
does
Kotlin
give
me
over
the
Java
programming
language?
Kotlin is more concise. Rough estimates indicate approximately a 40% cut in the number of lines of code. It’s also
more type-safe, e.g. support for non-nullable types makes applications less prone to NPE’s. Other features including
smart casting, higher-order functions, extension functions and lambdas with receivers provide the ability to write
expressive code as well as facilitating creation of DSL.
Is
Kotlin
compatible
with
the
Java
programming
language?
Yes. Kotlin is 100% interoperable with the Java programming language and major emphasis has been placed on
making sure that your existing codebase can interact properly with Kotlin. You can easily call Kotlin code from Java
and Java code from Kotlin. This makes adoption much easier and lower-risk. There’s also an automated Java-to-Kotlin
converter built into the IDE that simplifies migration of existing code.
What
can
I
use
Kotlin
for?
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Kotlin can be used for any kind of development, be it server-side, client-side web and Android. With Kotlin/Native
currently in the works, support for other platforms such as embedded systems, macOS and iOS is coming. People are
using Kotlin for mobile and server-side applications, client-side with JavaScript or JavaFX, and data science, just to
name a few possibilities.
Can
I
use
Kotlin
for
Android
development?
Yes. Kotlin is supported as a first-class language on Android. There are hundreds of applications already using Kotlin
for Android, such as Basecamp, Pinterest and more. For more information check out the resource on Android
development.
Can
I
use
Kotlin
for
server-side
development?
Yes. Kotlin is 100% compatible with the JVM and as such you can use any existing frameworks such as Spring Boot,
vert.x or JSF. In addition there are specific frameworks written in Kotlin such as Ktor. For more information check out
the resource on server-side development.
Can
I
use
Kotlin
for
web
development?
Yes. In addition to using for backend web, you can also use Kotlin/JS for client-side web. Kotlin can use definitions
from DefinitelyTyped to get static typing for common JavaScript libraries, and it is compatible with existing module
systems such as AMD and CommonJS. For more information check out the resource on client-side development.
Can
I
use
Kotlin
for
desktop
development?
Yes. You can use any Java UI framework such as JavaFx, Swing or other. In addition there are Kotlin specific
frameworks such as TornadoFX.
Can
I
use
Kotlin
for
native
development?
Yes. Kotlin/Native is available as a part of Kotlin project. It compiles Kotlin to native code that can run without a VM. It
is still in beta, but you can already try it on popular desktop and mobile platforms and even some IoT devices. For more
information, check out the Kotlin/Native documentation.
What
IDEs
support
Kotlin?
Kotlin is supported by all major Java IDEs including IntelliJ IDEA, Android Studio, and Eclipse. In addition, a command
line compiler is available and provides straightforward support for compiling and running applications.
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What
build
tools
support
Kotlin?
On the JVM side, the main build tools include Gradle, Maven, Ant, and Kobalt. There are also some build tools available
that target client-side JavaScript.
What
does
Kotlin
compile
down
to?
When targeting the JVM, Kotlin produces Java compatible bytecode.
When targeting JavaScript, Kotlin transpiles to ES5.1 and generates code which is compatible with module systems
including AMD and CommonJS.
When targeting native, Kotlin will produce platform-specific code (via LLVM).
Which
versions
of
JVM
does
Kotlin
target?
Kotlin lets you choose the version of JVM for execution. By default, the Kotlin/JVM compiler produces Java 8
compatible bytecode. If you want to make use of optimizations available in newer versions of Java, you can explicitly
specify the target Java version from 9 to 16. Note that in this case the resulting bytecode might not run on lower
versions.
Is
Kotlin
hard?
Kotlin is inspired by existing languages such as Java, C#, JavaScript, Scala and Groovy. We've tried to ensure that
Kotlin is easy to learn, so that people can easily jump on board, reading and writing Kotlin in a matter of days. Learning
idiomatic Kotlin and using some more of its advanced features can take a little longer, but overall it is not a
complicated language.
What
companies
are
using
Kotlin?
There are too many companies using Kotlin to list, but some more visible companies that have publicly declared usage
of Kotlin, be this via blog posts, GitHub repositories or talks include Square, Pinterest, Basecamp, and Corda.
Who
develops
Kotlin?
Kotlin is primarily developed by a team of engineers at JetBrains (current team size is 100+). The lead language
designer is Roman Elizarov. In addition to the core team, there are also over 250 external contributors on GitHub.
Where
can
I
learn
more
about
Kotlin?
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The best place to start is this website. From there you can download the compiler, try it online as well as get access to
resources.
Are
there
any
books
on
Kotlin?
There are a number of books available for Kotlin. Some of them we have reviewed and can recommend to start with.
They are listed on the Books page. For more books, see the community-maintained list at kotlin.link.
Are
there
any
online
courses
available
for
Kotlin?
There are a few courses available for Kotlin, including a Pluralsight Kotlin Course by Kevin Jones, an O’Reilly Course
by Hadi Hariri and an Udemy Kotlin Course by Peter Sommerhoff.
There are also many recordings of Kotlin talks available on YouTube and Vimeo.
Does
Kotlin
have
a
community?
Yes. Kotlin has a very vibrant community. Kotlin developers hang out on the Kotlin forums, StackOverflow and more
actively on the Kotlin Slack (with close to 30000 members as of April 2020).
Are
there
Kotlin
events?
Yes. There are many User Groups and Meetups now focused exclusively around Kotlin. You can find a list on the web
site. In addition, there are community-organized Kotlin Nights events around the world.
Is
there
a
Kotlin
conference?
Yes. The official annual KotlinConf is hosted by JetBrains. It took place in San-Francisco in 2017, Amsterdam in 2018,
and Copenhagen in 2019. Kotlin is also being covered in different conferences worldwide. You can find a list of
upcoming talks on the web site.
Is
Kotlin
on
social
media?
Yes. The most active Kotlin account is on Twitter.
Any
other
online
Kotlin
resources?
The web site has a bunch of online resources, including Kotlin Digests by community members, a newsletter, a
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podcast and more.
Where
can
I
get
an
HD
Kotlin
logo?
Logos can be downloaded here. When using the logos, please follow simple rules in the guidelines.pdf inside the
archive and Kotlin brand usage guidelines.
Participate
in
the
Kotlin
Early
Access
Preview
You can participate in the Kotlin Early Access Preview (EAP) to try out the latest Kotlin features before they are
released.
We ship a few Milestone (M) builds before every feature (1.x) and incremental (1.x.y) release.
We’ll be very thankful if you find and report bugs to our issue tracker YouTrack. It is very likely that we’ll be able to fix
them before the final release, which means you won’t need to wait until the next Kotlin release for your issues to be
addressed.
By participating in the Early Access Preview and reporting bugs, you contribute to Kotlin and help us make it better for
everyone in the growing Kotlin community. We appreciate your help a lot!
If you have any questions and want to participate in discussions, you are welcome to join the #eap channel in Kotlin
Slack. In this channel, you can also get notifications about new EAP builds.
Install the Kotlin EAP Plugin for IDEA or Android Studio
By participating in the EAP, you expressly acknowledge that the EAP version may not be reliable, may not
work as intended, and may contain errors.
Please note that we don’t provide any guarantees of compatibility between EAP and final versions of the
same release.
If you have already installed the EAP version and want to work on projects that were created previously, check our
instructions on how to configure your build to support this version.
Build
details
No preview versions are currently available.
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Install
the
EAP
Plugin
for
IntelliJ
IDEA
or
Android
Studio
You can follow these instructions to install the preview version of the Kotlin Plugin for IntelliJ IDEA or Android Studio.
1. Select Tools | Kotlin | Configure Kotlin Plugin Updates.
Select Kotlin Plugin Updates
2. In the Update channel list, select the Early Access Preview X channel, where X is the latest version of Kotlin.
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Select the EAP update channel
3. Click Check again. The latest EAP build version appears.
Install the EAP build
4. Click Install.
If you want to work on existing projects that were created before installing the EAP version, you need to configure your
build for EAP.
Configure
your
build
for
EAP
If you create new projects using the EAP version of Kotlin, you don’t need to perform any additional steps. The Kotlin
Plugin will do everything for you!
You only need to configure your build manually for existing projects — projects that were created before installing the
EAP version.
To configure your build to use the EAP version of Kotlin, you need to:
Specify the EAP version of Kotlin. Available EAP versions are listed here.
Change the versions of dependencies to EAP ones. The EAP version of Kotlin may not work with the libraries of the
previously released version.
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The following procedures describe how to configure your build in Gradle and Maven:
Configure in Gradle
Configure in Maven
Configure
in
Gradle
This section describes how you can:
Adjust the Kotlin version
Adjust versions in dependencies
Adjust
the
Kotlin
version
In the plugins block within build.gradle(.kts), change the KOTLIN-EAP-VERSION to the actual EAP version, such as
1.5.20-RC. Available EAP versions are listed here.
Alternatively, you can specify the EAP version in the pluginManagement block in settings.gradle(.kts) – see Gradle
documentation for details.
Here is an example for the Multiplatform project.
Groovy
plugins {
id 'java'
id 'org.jetbrains.kotlin.multiplatform' version 'KOTLIN-EAP-VERSION'
}
repositories {
mavenCentral()
}
Kotlin
plugins {
java
kotlin("multiplatform") version "KOTLIN-EAP-VERSION"
}
repositories {
mavenCentral()
}
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Adjust
versions
in
dependencies
If you use kotlinx libraries in your project, your versions of the libraries may not be compatible with the EAP version of
Kotlin.
To resolve this issue, you need to specify the version of a compatible library in dependencies. For a list of compatible
libraries, see EAP build details.
In most cases we create libraries only for the first EAP version of a specific release and these libraries work
with the subsequent EAP versions for this release.
If there are incompatible changes in next EAP versions, we release a new version of the library.
Here is an example.
For the kotlinx.coroutines library, add the version number – 1.5.0-RC – that is compatible with 1.5.20-RC.
Groovy
dependencies {
implementation "org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-coroutines-core:1.5.0-RC"
}
Kotlin
dependencies {
implementation("org.jetbrains.kotlinx:kotlinx-coroutines-core:1.5.0-RC")
}
Configure
in
Maven
In the sample Maven project definition, replace KOTLIN-EAP-VERSION with the actual version, such as 1.5.20-RC.
Available EAP versions are listed here.
<project ...>
<properties>
<kotlin.version>KOTLIN-EAP-VERSION</kotlin.version>
</properties>
<repositories>
<repository>
<id>mavenCentral</id>
<url>https://repo1.maven.org/maven2/</url>
</repository>
</repositories>
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<pluginRepositories>
<pluginRepository>
<id>mavenCentral</id>
<url>https://repo1.maven.org/maven2/</url>
</pluginRepository>
</pluginRepositories>
<dependencies>
<dependency>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<artifactId>kotlin-stdlib</artifactId>
<version>${kotlin.version}</version>
</dependency>
</dependencies>
<build>
<plugins>
<plugin>
<groupId>org.jetbrains.kotlin</groupId>
<artifactId>kotlin-maven-plugin</artifactId>
<version>${kotlin.version}</version>
...
</plugin>
</plugins>
</build>
</project>
Contribution
Kotlin is an open-source project under the Apache 2.0 License. The source code, tooling, documentation, and even
this web site are maintained on GitHub. While Kotlin is mostly developed by JetBrains, there are hundreds of external
contributors to the Kotlin project and we are always on the lookout for more people to help us.
Participate
in
Early
Access
Preview
You can help us improve Kotlin by participating in Kotlin Early Access Preview (EAP) and providing us with your
valuable feedback.
For every release, Kotlin ships a few preview builds where you can try out the latest features before they go to
production. You can report any bugs you find to our issue tracker YouTrack and we will try to fix them before a final
release. This way, you can get bug fixes earlier than the standard Kotlin release cycle.
Contribute
to
the
compiler,
standard
library,
and
tooling
If you want to contribute to the Kotlin compiler, standard library, or tooling, go to GitHub, check out the latest Kotlin
version, and follow the instructions on how to contribute.
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You can help us by completing open tasks. Please keep an open line of communication with us because we may have
questions and comments on your changes. Otherwise, we won't be able to incorporate your contributions.
Contribute
to
other
libraries
and
create
your
own
Besides the standard library that provides core capabilities, Kotlin has a number of additional (kotlinx) libraries that
extend its functionality. Each kotlinx library is developed in a separate repository, has its own versioning and release
cycle.
If you want to contribute to a kotlinx library, follow the contribution process described for each library, such as
kotlinx.coroutines, kotlinx.serialization, and ktor.
If you have a library that could be useful to other Kotlin developers, let us know via feedback@kotlinlang.org.
Contribute
to
the
documentation
If you've found an issue in the Kotlin documentation, feel free to check out the documentation source code on GitHub
and send us a pull request. Follow these guidelines on style and formatting.
Please keep an open line of communication with us because we may have questions and comments on your changes.
Otherwise, we won't be able to incorporate your contributions.
Create
tutorials
or
videos
If you've created tutorials or videos for Kotlin, please share them with us via feedback@kotlinlang.org.
Translate
documentation
to
other
languages
You are welcome to translate the Kotlin documentation into your own language and publish the translation on your
website. However, we won't be able to host your translation in the main repository and publish it on kotlinlang.org.
This site is the official documentation for the language, and we ensure that all the information here is correct and up to
date. Unfortunately, we won't be able to review documentation in other languages.
Hold
events
and
presentations
If you've given or just plan to give presentations or hold events on Kotlin, please fill out the form. We'll feature them on
the event list.
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Kotlin
Evolution
Principles
of
Pragmatic
Evolution
Language design is cast in stone,
but this stone is reasonably soft,
and with some effort we can reshape it later.
Kotlin Design Team
Kotlin is designed to be a pragmatic tool for programmers. When it comes to language evolution, its pragmatic nature
is captured by the following principles:
Keep the language modern over the years.
Stay in the constant feedback loop with the users.
Make updating to new versions comfortable for the users.
As this is key to understanding how Kotlin is moving forward, let's expand on these principles.
Keeping the Language Modern. We acknowledge that systems accumulate legacy over time. What had once been
cutting-edge technology can be hopelessly outdated today. We have to evolve the language to keep it relevant to the
needs of the users and up-to-date with their expectations. This includes not only adding new features, but also phasing
out old ones that are no longer recommended for production use and have altogether become legacy.
Comfortable Updates. Incompatible changes, such as removing things from a language, may lead to painful migration
from one version to the next if carried out without proper care. We will always announce such changes well in advance,
mark things as deprecated and provide automated migration tools before the change happens. By the time the
language is changed we want most of the code in the world to be already updated and thus have no issues migrating
to the new version.
Feedback Loop. Going through deprecation cycles requires significant effort, so we want to minimize the number of
incompatible changes we'll be making in the future. Apart from using our best judgement, we believe that trying things
out in real life is the best way to validate a design. Before casting things in stone we want them battle-tested. This is
why we use every opportunity to make early versions of our designs available in production versions of the language,
but in one of the pre-stable statuses: Experimental, Alpha, or Beta. Such features are not stable, they can be changed
at any time, and the users that opt into using them do so explicitly to indicate that they are ready to deal with the future
migration issues. These users provide invaluable feedback that we gather to iterate on the design and make it rock-
solid.
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Incompatible
changes
If, upon updating from one version to another, some code that used to work doesn't work any more, it is an
incompatible change in the language (sometimes referred to as "breaking change"). There can be debates as to what
"doesn't work any more" means precisely in some cases, but it definitely includes the following:
Code that compiled and ran fine is now rejected with an error (at compile or link time). This includes removing
language constructs and adding new restrictions.
Code that executed normally is now throwing an exception.
The less obvious cases that belong to the "grey area" include handling corner cases differently, throwing an exception
of a different type than before, changing behavior observable only through reflection, changes in
undocumented/undefined behavior, renaming binary artifacts, etc. Sometimes such changes are very important and
affect migration experience dramatically, sometimes they are insignificant.
Some examples of what definitely isn't an incompatible change include
Adding new warnings.
Enabling new language constructs or relaxing limitations for existing ones.
Changing private/internal APIs and other implementation details.
The principles of Keeping the Language Modern and Comfortable Updates suggest that incompatible changes are
sometimes necessary, but they should be introduced carefully. Our goal is to make the users aware of upcoming
changes well in advance to let them migrate their code comfortably.
Ideally, every incompatible change should be announced through a compile-time warning reported in the problematic
code (usually referred to as a deprecation warning) and accompanied with automated migration aids. So, the ideal
migration workflow goes as follows:
Update to version A (where the change is announced)
See warnings about the upcoming change
Migrate the code with the help of the tooling
Update to version B (where the change happens)
See no issues at all
In practice some changes can't be accurately detected at compile time, so no warnings can be reported, but at least
the users will be notified through Release notes of version A that a change is coming in version B.
Dealing
with
compiler
bugs
Compilers are complicated software and despite the best effort of their developers they have bugs. The bugs that
cause the compiler itself to fail or report spurious errors or generate obviously failing code, though annoying and often
embarrassing, are easy to fix, because the fixes do not constitute incompatible changes. Other bugs may cause the
compiler to generate incorrect code that does not fail: e.g. by missing some errors in the source or simply generating
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wrong instructions. Fixes of such bugs are technically incompatible changes (some code used to compile fine, but now
it won't any more), but we are inclined to fixing them as soon as possible to prevent the bad code patterns from
spreading across user code. In our opinion, this serves the principle of Comfortable Updates, because fewer users
have a chance of encountering the issue. Of course, this applies only to bugs that are found soon after appearing in a
released version.
Decision
making
JetBrains, the original creator of Kotlin, is driving its progress with the help of the community and in accord with the
Kotlin Foundation.
All changes to the Kotlin Programming Language are overseen by the Lead Language Designer (currently Roman
Elizarov). The Lead Designer has the final say in all matters related to language evolution. Additionally, incompatible
changes to fully stable components have to be approved to by the Language Committee designated under the Kotlin
Foundation (currently comprised of Jeffrey van Gogh, William R. Cook and Roman Elizarov).
The Language Committee makes final decisions on what incompatible changes will be made and what exact measures
should be taken to make user updates comfortable. In doing so, it relies on a set of guidelines available here.
Feature
releases
and
incremental
releases
Stable releases with versions 1.2, 1.3, etc. are usually considered to be feature releases bringing major changes in the
language. Normally, we publish incremental releases, numbered 1.2.20, 1.2.30, etc, in between feature releases.
Incremental releases bring updates in the tooling (often including features), performance improvements and bug fixes.
We try to keep such versions compatible with each other, so changes to the compiler are mostly optimizations and
warning additions/removals. Pre-stable features may, of course, be added, removed or changed at any time.
Feature releases often add new features and may remove or change previously deprecated ones. Feature graduation
from pre-stable to stable also happens in feature releases.
EAP
builds
Before releasing stable versions, we usually publish a number of preview builds dubbed EAP (for "Early Access
Preview") that let us iterate faster and gather feedback from the community. EAPs of feature releases usually produce
binaries that will be later rejected by the stable compiler to make sure that possible bugs in the binary format survive
no longer than the preview period. Final Release Candidates normally do not bear this limitation.
Pre-stable
features
According to the Feedback Loop principle described above, we iterate on our designs in the open and release versions
of the language where some features have one of the pre-stable statuses and are supposed to change. Such features
can be added, changed or removed at any point and without warning. We do our best to ensure that pre-stable
features can't be used accidentally by an unsuspecting user. Such features usually require some sort of an explicit opt-
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in either in the code or in the project configuration.
Pre-stable features usually graduate to the stable status after some iterations.
Status
of
different
components
To check the stability status of different components of Kotlin (Kotlin/JVM, JS, Native, various libraries, etc), please
consult this link.
Libraries
A language is nothing without its ecosystem, so we pay extra attention to enabling smooth library evolution.
Ideally, a new version of a library can be used as a "drop-in replacement" for an older version. This means that
upgrading a binary dependency should not break anything, even if the application is not recompiled (this is possible
under dynamic linking).
On the one hand, to achieve this, the compiler has to provide certain ABI stability guarantees under the constraints of
separate compilation. This is why every change in the language is examined from the point of view of binary
compatibility.
On the other hand, a lot depends on the library authors being careful about which changes are safe to make. Thus it's
very important that library authors understand how source changes affect compatibility and follow certain best
practices to keep both APIs and ABIs of their libraries stable. Here are some assumptions that we make when
considering language changes from the library evolution standpoint:
Library code should always specify return types of public/protected functions and properties explicitly thus never
relying on type inference for public API. Subtle changes in type inference may cause return types to change
inadvertently, leading to binary compatibility issues.
Overloaded functions and properties provided by the same library should do essentially the same thing. Changes in
type inference may result in more precise static types to be known at call sites causing changes in overload
resolution.
Library authors can use the @Deprecated and @RequiresOptIn annotations to control the evolution of their API surface.
Note that @Deprecated(level=HIDDEN) can be used to preserve binary compatibility even for declarations removed
from the API.
Also, by convention, packages named "internal" are not considered public API. All API residing in packages named
"experimental" is considered pre-stable and can change at any moment.
We evolve the Kotlin Standard Library (kotlin-stdlib) for stable platforms according to the principles stated above.
Changes to the contracts for its API undergo the same procedures as changes in the language itself.
Compiler
keys
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Command line keys accepted by the compiler are also a kind of public API, and they are subject to the same
considerations. Supported flags (those that don't have the "-X" or "-XX" prefix) can be added only in feature releases
and should be properly deprecated before removing them. The "-X" and "-XX" flags are experimental and can be
added and removed at any time.
Compatibility
tools
As legacy features get removed and bugs fixed, the source language changes, and old code that has not been properly
migrated may not compile any more. The normal deprecation cycle allows a comfortable period of time for migration,
and even when it's over and the change ships in a stable version, there's still a way to compile unmigrated code.
Compatibility
flags
We provide the -language-version and -api-version flags that make a new version emulate the behavior of an old one,
for compatibility purposes. Normally, at least one previous version is supported. This effectively leaves a time span of
two full feature release cycles for migration (which usually amounts to about two years). Using an older kotlin-stdlib or
kotlin-reflect with a newer compiler without specifying compatibility flags is not recommended, and the compiler will
report a warning when this happens.
Actively maintained code bases can benefit from getting bug fixes ASAP, without waiting for a full deprecation cycle to
complete. Currently such project can enable the -progressive flag and get such fixes enabled even in incremental
releases.
All flags are available on the command line as well as Gradle and Maven.
Evolving
the
binary
format
Unlike sources that can be fixed by hand in the worst case, binaries are a lot harder to migrate, and this makes
backwards compatibility very important in the case of binaries. Incompatible changes to binaries can make updates
very uncomfortable and thus should be introduced with even more care than those in the source language syntax.
For fully stable versions of the compiler the default binary compatibility protocol is the following:
All binaries are backwards compatible, i.e. a newer compiler can read older binaries (e.g. 1.3 understands 1.0
through 1.2),
Older compilers reject binaries that rely on new features (e.g. a 1.0 compiler rejects binaries that use coroutines).
Preferably (but we can't guarantee it), the binary format is mostly forwards compatible with the next feature release,
but not later ones (in the cases when new features are not used, e.g. 1.3 can understand most binaries from 1.4, but
not 1.5).
This protocol is designed for comfortable updates as no project can be blocked from updating its dependencies even if
it's using a slightly outdated compiler.
Please note that not all target platforms have reached this level of stability (but Kotlin/JVM has).
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Stability
of
Kotlin
components
The Kotlin language and toolset are divided into many components such as the compilers for the JVM, JS and Native
targets, the Standard Library, various accompanying tools and so on. Many of these components were officially
released as Stable which means that they are evolved in the backward-compatible way following the principles of
Comfortable Updates and Keeping the Language Modern. Among such stable components are, for example, the Kotlin
compiler for the JVM, the Standard Library, and Coroutines.
Following the Feedback Loop principle we release many things early for the community to try out, so a number of
components are not yet released as Stable. Some of them are very early stage, some are more mature. We mark them
as Experimental, Alpha or Beta depending on how quickly each component is evolving and how much risk the users
are taking when adopting it.
Stability
levels
explained
Here's a quick guide to these stability levels and their meaning:
Experimental means "try it only in toy projects":
We are just trying out an idea and want some users to play with it and give feedback. If it doesn't work out, we may
drop it any minute.
Alpha means "use at your own risk, expect migration issues":
We decided to productize this idea, but it hasn't reached the final shape yet.
Beta means "you can use it, we'll do our best to minimize migration issues for you":
It’s almost done, user feedback is especially important now.
Still, it's not 100% finished, so changes are possible (including ones based on your own feedback).
Watch for deprecation warnings in advance for the best update experience.
We collectively refer to Experimental, Alpha and Beta as pre-stable levels.
Stable means "use it even in most conservative scenarios":
It’s done. We will be evolving it according to our strict backward compatibility rules.
Please note that stability levels do not say anything about how soon a component will be released as Stable. Similarly,
they do not indicate how much a component will be changed before release. They only say how fast a component is
changing and how much risk of update issues users are running.
Stability
of
subcomponents
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A stable component may have an experimental subcomponent, for example:
a stable compiler may have an experimental feature;
a stable API may include experimental classes or functions;
a stable command-line tool may have experimental options.
We make sure to document precisely which subcomponents are not stable. We also do our best to warn users where
possible and ask to opt in explicitly to avoid accidental usages of features that have not been released as stable.
Current
stability
of
Kotlin
components
Component Status Status since Comment
version
Kotlin/JVM Stable 1.0
kotlin-stdlib (JVM) Stable 1.0
Coroutines Stable 1.3
kotlin-reflect (JVM) Beta 1.0
Kotlin/JS (Classic back-end) Stable 1.3
Kotlin/JVM (IR-based) Alpha 1.4
Kotlin/JS (IR-based) Alpha 1.4
Kotlin/Native Runtime Beta 1.3
KLib binaries Alpha 1.4
KDoc syntax Stable 1.0
dokka Alpha 0.1
Kotlin Scripts (*.kts) Beta 1.2
Kotlin Scripting APIs and custom hosts Alpha 1.2
Compiler Plugin API Experimental 1.0
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Component Status Status since Comment
version
Serialization Compiler Plugin Stable 1.4
Serialization Core Library Stable 1.0.0 Versioned separately from the
language
Multiplatform Projects Alpha 1.3
expect/actual language feature Beta 1.2
Inline classes Stable 1.5
Unsigned arithmetics Beta 1.3
Contracts in stdlib Stable 1.3
User-defined contracts Experimental 1.3
All other experimental components, by Experimental N/A
default
The pre-1.4 version of this page is available here.
Stability
of
Kotlin
components
(pre
1.4)
There can be different modes of stability depending of how quickly a component is evolving:
Moving fast (MF): no compatibility should be expected between even incremental releases, any functionality can be
added, removed or changed without warning.
Additions in Incremental Releases (AIR): things can be added in an incremental release, removals and changes of
behavior should be avoided and announced in a previous incremental release if necessary.
Stable Incremental Releases (SIR): incremental releases are fully compatible, only optimizations and bug fixes
happen. Any changes can be made in a feature release.
Fully Stable (FS): incremental releases are fully compatible, only optimizations and bug fixes happen. Feature
releases are backwards compatible.
Source and binary compatibility may have different modes for the same component, e.g. the source language can
reach full stability before the binary format stabilizes, or vice versa.
The provisions of the Kotlin evolution policy fully apply only to components that have reached Full Stability (FS). From
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that point on incompatible changes have to be approved by the Language Committee.
Component Status Entered at version Mode for Sources Mode for Binaries
Kotlin/JVM 1.0 FS FS
kotlin-stdlib (JVM) 1.0 FS FS
KDoc syntax 1.0 FS N/A
Coroutines 1.3 FS FS
kotlin-reflect (JVM) 1.0 SIR SIR
Kotlin/JS 1.1 AIR MF
Kotlin/Native 1.3 AIR MF
Kotlin Scripts (*.kts) 1.2 AIR MF
dokka 0.1 MF N/A
Kotlin Scripting APIs 1.2 MF MF
Compiler Plugin API 1.0 MF MF
Serialization 1.3 MF MF
Multiplatform Projects 1.2 MF MF
Inline classes 1.3 MF MF
Unsigned arithmetics 1.3 MF MF
All other experimental features, by default N/A MF MF
Compatibility
guide
for
Kotlin
1.5
Keeping the Language Modern and Comfortable Updates are among the fundamental principles in Kotlin Language
Design. The former says that constructs which obstruct language evolution should be removed, and the latter says that
this removal should be well-communicated beforehand to make code migration as smooth as possible.
While most of the language changes were already announced through other channels, like update changelogs or
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compiler warnings, this document summarizes them all, providing a complete reference for migration from Kotlin 1.4 to
Kotlin 1.5.
Basic
terms
In this document we introduce several kinds of compatibility:
source: source-incompatible change stops code that used to compile fine (without errors or warnings) from
compiling anymore
binary: two binary artifacts are said to be binary-compatible if interchanging them doesn't lead to loading or linkage
errors
behavioral: a change is said to be behavioral-incompatible if the same program demonstrates different behavior
before and after applying the change
Remember that those definitions are given only for pure Kotlin. Compatibility of Kotlin code from the other languages
perspective (for example, from Java) is out of the scope of this document.
Language
and
stdlib
Forbid
spread
operator
in
signature-polymorphic
calls
Issue: KT-35226
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: Kotlin 1.5 will outlaw the use of spread operator (*) on signature-polymorphic calls
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.5: introduce warning for the problematic operator at call-site
>= 1.5: raise this warning to an error, -XXLanguage:-ProhibitSpreadOnSignaturePolymorphicCall can be
used to temporarily revert to pre-1.5 behavior
Forbid
non-abstract
classes
containing
abstract
members
invisible
from
that
classes
(internal/package-private)
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Issue: KT-27825
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: Kotlin 1.5 will outlaw non-abstract classes containing abstract members invisible from that
classes (internal/package-private)
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.5: introduce warning for the problematic classes
>= 1.5: raise this warning to an error, -XXLanguage:-ProhibitInvisibleAbstractMethodsInSuperclasses can
be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.5 behavior
Forbid
using
array
based
on
non-reified
type
parameters
as
reified
type
arguments
on
JVM
Issue: KT-31227
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: Kotlin 1.5 will outlaw using array based on non-reified type parameters as reified type
arguments on JVM
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.5: introduce warning for the problematic calls
>= 1.5: raise this warning to an error, -XXLanguage:-ProhibitNonReifiedArraysAsReifiedTypeArguments
can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.5 behavior
Forbid
secondary
enum
class
constructors
which
do
not
delegate
to
the
primary
constructor
974
Issue: KT-35870
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: Kotlin 1.5 will outlaw secondary enum class constructors which do not delegate to the
primary constructor
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.5: introduce warning for the problematic constructors
>= 1.5: raise this warning to an error, -XXLanguage:-RequiredPrimaryConstructorDelegationCallInEnums
can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.5 behavior
Forbid
exposing
anonymous
types
from
private
inline
functions
Issue: KT-33917
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: Kotlin 1.5 will outlaw exposing anonymous types from private inline functions
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.5: introduce warning for the problematic constructors
>= 1.5: raise this warning to an error, -XXLanguage:-
ApproximateAnonymousReturnTypesInPrivateInlineFunctions can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.5
behavior
Forbid
passing
non-spread
arrays
after
arguments
with
SAM-conversion
975
Issue: KT-35224
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: Kotlin 1.5 will outlaw passing non-spread arrays after arguments with SAM-conversion
Deprecation cycle:
1.3.70: introduce warning for the problematic calls
>= 1.5: raise this warning to an error, -XXLanguage:-ProhibitVarargAsArrayAfterSamArgument can be
used to temporarily revert to pre-1.5 behavior
Support
special
semantics
for
underscore-named
catch
block
parameters
Issue: KT-31567
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: Kotlin 1.5 will outlaw references to the underscore symbol (_) that is used to omit parameter
name of an exception in the catch block
Deprecation cycle:
1.4.20: introduce warning for the problematic references
>= 1.5: raise this warning to an error, > -XXLanguage:-
ForbidReferencingToUnderscoreNamedParameterOfCatchBlock can be used to temporarily revert to pre-
1.5 behavior
Change
implementation
strategy
of
SAM
conversion
from
anonymous
class-based
to
invokedynamic
976
Issue: KT-44912
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: Since Kotlin 1.5, implementation strategy of SAM (single abstract method) conversion will be
changed from generating an anonymous class to using the invokedynamic JVM instruction
Deprecation cycle:
1.5: change implementation strategy of SAM conversion, -Xsam-conversions=class can be used to revert
implementation scheme to the one that used before
Generate
nullability
assertion
for
delegated
properties
with
a
generic
call
in
the
delegate
expression
Issue: KT-44304
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: Since Kotlin 1.5, the Kotlin compiler will emit nullability assertions for delegated properties
with a generic call in the delegate expression
Deprecation cycle:
1.5: emit nullability assertion for delegated properties (see details in the issue), -Xuse-old-backend or -
language-version 1.4 can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.5 behavior
Turn
warnings
into
errors
for
calls
with
type
parameters
annotated
by
@OnlyInputTypes
977
Issue: KT-45861
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: Kotlin 1.5 will outlaw calls like contains, indexOf, and assertEquals with senseless
arguments to improve type safety
Deprecation cycle:
1.4.0: introduce warning for the problematic constructors
>= 1.5: raise this warning to an error, -XXLanguage:-StrictOnlyInputTypesChecks can be used to
temporarily revert to pre-1.5 behavior
Use
the
correct
order
of
arguments
execution
in
calls
with
named
vararg
Issue: KT-17691
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: Kotlin 1.5 will change the order of arguments execution in calls with named vararg
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.5: introduce warning for the problematic constructors
>= 1.5: raise this warning to an error, -XXLanguage:-UseCorrectExecutionOrderForVarargArguments can
be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.5 behavior
Use
default
value
of
the
parameter
in
operator
functional
calls
978
Issue: KT-42064
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: Kotlin 1.5 will use default value of the parameter in operator calls
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.5: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.5: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-JvmIrEnabledByDefault can be used to temporarily revert to
pre-1.5 behavior
Produce
empty
reversed
progressions
in
for
loops
if
regular
progression
is
also
empty
Issue: KT-42533
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: Kotlin 1.5 will produce empty reversed progressions in for loops if regular progression is
also empty
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.5: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.5: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-JvmIrEnabledByDefault can be used to temporarily revert to
pre-1.5 behavior
Straighten
Char-to-code
and
Char-to-digit
conversions
out
979
Issue: KT-23451
Component: kotlin-stdlib
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: Since Kotlin 1.5, conversions of Char to number types will be deprecated
Deprecation cycle:
1.5: deprecate Char.toInt()/toShort()/toLong()/toByte()/toDouble()/toFloat() and the reverse functions like
Long.toChar(), and propose replacement
Inconsistent
case-insensitive
comparison
of
characters
in
kotlin.text
functions
Issue: KT-45496
Component: kotlin-stdlib
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: Since Kotlin 1.5, Char.equals will be improved in case-insensitive case by first comparing
whether the uppercase variants of characters are equal, then whether the lowercase variants of those
uppercase variants (as opposed to the characters themselves) are equal
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.5: old behavior (see details in the issue)
1.5: change behavior for Char.equals function
Remove
default
locale-sensitive
case
conversion
API
980
Issue: KT-43023
Component: kotlin-stdlib
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: Since Kotlin 1.5, default locale-sensitive case conversion functions like String.toUpperCase()
will be deprecated
Deprecation cycle:
1.5: deprecate case conversions functions with the default locale (see details in the issue), and propose
replacement
Gradually
change
the
return
type
of
collection
min
and
max
functions
to
non-nullable
Issue: KT-38854
Component: kotlin-stdlib (JVM)
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: return type of collection min and max functions will be changed to non-nullable in 1.6
Deprecation cycle:
1.4: introduce ...OrNull functions as synonyms and deprecate the affected API (see details in the issue)
1.5.0: raise the deprecation level of the affected API to error
>=1.6: reintroduce the affected API but with non-nullable return type
Raise
the
deprecation
level
of
conversions
of
floating-point
types
to
Short
and
Byte
981
Issue: KT-30360
Component: kotlin-stdlib (JVM)
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: conversions of floating-point types to Short and Byte deprecated in Kotlin 1.4 with
WARNING level will cause errors since Kotlin 1.5.0.
Deprecation cycle:
1.4: deprecate Double.toShort()/toByte() and Float.toShort()/toByte() and propose replacement
1.5.0: raise the deprecation level to error
Tools
Do
not
mix
several
JVM
variants
of
kotlin-test
in
a
single
project
982
Issue: KT-40225
Component: Gradle
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: several mutually exclusive kotlin-test variants for different testing frameworks could have
been in a project if one of them is brought by a transitive dependency. From 1.5.0, Gradle won't allow having
mutually exclusive kotlin-test variants for different testing frameworks.
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.5: having several mutually exclusive kotlin-test variants for different testing frameworks is allowed
>= 1.5: behavior changed,
Gradle throws an exception like "Cannot select module with conflict on capability...". Possible solutions:
use the same kotlin-test variant and the corresponding testing framework as the transitive dependency
brings.
find another variant of the dependency that doesn't bring the kotlin-test variant transitively, so you can
use the testing framework you would like to use.
find another variant of the dependency that brings another kotlin-test variant transitively, which uses
the same testing framework you would like to use.
exclude the testing framework that is brought transitively. The following example is for excluding JUnit
4:
configurations {
testImplementation.get().exclude("org.jetbrains.kotlin", "kotlin-test-junit")
}
After excluding the testing framework, test your application. If it stopped working, rollback excluding
changes, use the same testing framework as the library does, and exclude your testing framework.
Compatibility
guide
for
Kotlin
1.4
Keeping the Language Modern and Comfortable Updates are among the fundamental principles in Kotlin Language
Design. The former says that constructs which obstruct language evolution should be removed, and the latter says that
this removal should be well-communicated beforehand to make code migration as smooth as possible.
While most of the language changes were already announced through other channels, like update changelogs or
compiler warnings, this document summarizes them all, providing a complete reference for migration from Kotlin 1.3 to
Kotlin 1.4.
983
Basic
terms
In this document we introduce several kinds of compatibility:
source: source-incompatible change stops code that used to compile fine (without errors or warnings) from
compiling anymore
binary: two binary artifacts are said to be binary-compatible if interchanging them doesn't lead to loading or linkage
errors
behavioral: a change is said to be behavioral-incompatible if the same program demonstrates different behavior
before and after applying the change
Remember that those definitions are given only for pure Kotlin. Compatibility of Kotlin code from the other languages
perspective (for example, from Java) is out of the scope of this document.
Language
and
stdlib
Unexpected
behavior
with
in
infix
operator
and
ConcurrentHashMap
Issue: KT-18053
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: Kotlin 1.4 will outlaw auto operator contains coming from the implementors of java.util.Map
written in Java
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: introduce warning for problematic operators at call-site
>= 1.4: raise this warning to an error, -XXLanguage:-ProhibitConcurrentHashMapContains can be used to
temporarily revert to pre-1.4 behavior
Prohibit
access
to
protected
members
inside
public
inline
members
984
Issue: KT-21178
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: Kotlin 1.4 will prohibit access to protected members from public inline members.
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: introduce warning at call-site for problematic cases
1.4: raise this warning to an error, -XXLanguage:-ProhibitProtectedCallFromInline can be used to
temporarily revert to pre-1.4 behavior
Contracts
on
calls
with
implicit
receivers
Issue: KT-28672
Component: Core Language
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: smart casts from contracts will be available on calls with implicit receivers in 1.4
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-ContractsOnCallsWithImplicitReceiver can be used to
temporarily revert to pre-1.4 behavior
Inconsistent
behavior
of
floating-point
number
comparisons
985
Issues: KT-22723
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, Kotlin compiler will use IEEE 754 standard to compare floating-point
numbers
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-ProperIeee754Comparisons can be used to temporarily revert
to pre-1.4 behavior
No
smart
cast
on
the
last
expression
in
a
generic
lambda
Issue: KT-15020
Component: Core Language
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: smart casts for last expressions in lambdas will be correctly applied since 1.4
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-NewInference can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4
behavior. Note that this flag will also disable several new language features.
Do
not
depend
on
the
order
of
lambda
arguments
to
coerce
result
to
Unit
986
Issue: KT-36045
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, lambda arguments will be resolved independently without implicit coercion
to Unit
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-NewInference can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4
behavior. Note that this flag will also disable several new language features.
Wrong
common
supertype
between
raw
and
integer
literal
type
leads
to
unsound
code
Issue: KT-35681
Components: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, common supertype between raw Comparable type and integer literal type
will be more specific
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-NewInference can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4
behavior. Note that this flag will also disable several new language features.
Type
safety
problem
because
several
equal
type
variables
are
instantiated
with
a
different
types
987
Issue: KT-35679
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, Kotlin compiler will prohibit instantiating equal type variables with different
types
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-NewInference can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4
behavior. Note that this flag will also disable several new language features.
Type
safety
problem
because
of
incorrect
subtyping
for
intersection
types
Issues: KT-22474
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: in Kotlin 1.4, subtyping for intersection types will be refined to work more correctly
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-NewInference can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4
behavior. Note that this flag will also disable several new language features.
No
type
mismatch
with
an
empty
when
expression
inside
lambda
988
Issue: KT-17995
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, there will be a type mismatch for empty when expression if it's used as the
last expression in a lambda
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-NewInference can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4
behavior. Note that this flag will also disable several new language features.
Return
type
Any
inferred
for
lambda
with
early
return
with
integer
literal
in
one
of
possible
return
values
Issue: KT-20226
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, integer type returning from a lambda will be more specific for cases when
there is early return
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-NewInference can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4
behavior. Note that this flag will also disable several new language features.
Proper
capturing
of
star
projections
with
recursive
types
989
Issue: KT-33012
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, more candidates will become applicable because capturing for recursive
types will work more correctly
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-NewInference can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4
behavior. Note that this flag will also disable several new language features.
Common
supertype
calculation
with
non-proper
type
and
flexible
one
leads
to
incorrect
results
Issue: KT-37054
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, common supertype between flexible types will be more specific protecting
from runtime errors
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-NewInference can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4
behavior. Note that this flag will also disable several new language features.
Type
safety
problem
because
of
lack
of
captured
conversion
against
nullable
type
argument
990
Issue: KT-35487
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, subtyping between captured and nullable types will be more correct
protecting from runtime errors
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-NewInference can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4
behavior. Note that this flag will also disable several new language features.
Preserve
intersection
type
for
covariant
types
after
unchecked
cast
Issue: KT-37280
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, uchecked casts of covariant types produce the intersection type for smart
casts, not the type of the unchecked cast.
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-NewInference can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4
behavior. Note that this flag will also disable several new language features.
Type
variable
leaks
from
builder
inference
because
of
using
this
expression
991
Issue: KT-32126
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, using this inside builder functions like sequence {} is prohibited if there are
no other proper constraints
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-NewInference can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4
behavior. Note that this flag will also disable several new language features.
Wrong
overload
resolution
for
contravariant
types
with
nullable
type
arguments
Issue: KT-31670
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, if two overloads of a function that takes contravariant type arguments differ
only by the nullability of the type (such as In<T> and In<T?> ), the nullable type is considered more specific.
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-NewInference can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4
behavior. Note that this flag will also disable several new language features.
Builder
inference
with
non-nested
recursive
constraints
992
Issue: KT-34975
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, builder functions such as sequence {} with type that depends on a recursive
constraint inside the passed lambda cause a compiler error.
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-NewInference can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4
behavior. Note that this flag will also disable several new language features.
Eager
type
variable
fixation
leads
to
a
contradictory
constraint
system
Issue: KT-25175
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, the type inference in certain cases works less eagerly allowing to find the
constraint system that is not contradictory.
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-NewInference can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4
behavior. Note that this flag will also disable several new language features.
Prohibit
tailrec
modifier
on
open
functions
993
Issue: KT-18541
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, functions can't have open and tailrec modifiers at the same time.
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: report a warning on functions that have open and tailrec modifiers together (error in the progressive
mode).
>= 1.4: raise this warning to an error.
The
INSTANCE
field
of
a
companion
object
more
visible
than
the
companion
object
class
itself
Issue: KT-11567
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, if a companion object is private, then its field INSTANCE will be also private
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: the compiler generates object INSTANCE with a deprecated flag
>= 1.4: companion object INSTANCE field has proper visibility
Outer
finally
block
inserted
before
return
is
not
excluded
from
thecatch
interval
of
the
inner
try
block
without
finally
994
Issue: KT-31923
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, the catch interval will be computed properly for nested try/catch blocks
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-ProperFinally can be used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4
behavior
Use
the
boxed
version
of
an
inline
class
in
return
type
position
for
covariant
and
generic-specialized
overrides
Issues: KT-30419
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, functions using covariant and generic-specialized overrides will return
boxed values of inline classes
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed
Do
not
declare
checked
exceptions
in
JVM
bytecode
when
using
delegation
to
Kotlin
interfaces
995
Issue: KT-35834
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: Kotlin 1.4 will not generate checked exceptions during interface delegation to Kotlin
interfaces
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-DoNotGenerateThrowsForDelegatedKotlinMembers can be
used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4 behavior
Changed
behavior
of
signature-polymorphic
calls
to
methods
with
a
single
vararg
parameter
to
avoid
wrapping
the
argument
into
another
array
Issue: KT-35469
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: Kotlin 1.4 will not wrap the argument into another array on a signature-polymorphic call
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed
Incorrect
generic
signature
in
annotations
when
KClass
is
used
as
a
generic
parameter
996
Issue: KT-35207
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: Kotlin 1.4 will fix incorrect type mapping in annotations when KClass is used as a generic
parameter
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed
Forbid
spread
operator
in
signature-polymorphic
calls
Issue: KT-35226
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: Kotlin 1.4 will prohibit the use of spread operator (*) on signature-polymorphic calls
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: report a warning on the use of a spread operator in signature-polymorphic calls
>= 1.5: raise this warning to an error, -XXLanguage:-ProhibitSpreadOnSignaturePolymorphicCall can be
used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4 behavior
Change
initialization
order
of
default
values
for
tail-recursive
optimized
functions
997
Issue: KT-31540
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: Since Kotlin 1.4, the initialization order for tail-recursive functions will be the same as for
regular functions
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: report a warning at declaration-site for problematic functions
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-ProperComputationOrderOfTailrecDefaultParameters can be
used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4 behavior
Do
not
generate
ConstantValue
attribute
for
non-const
vals
Issue: KT-16615
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: Since Kotlin 1.4, the compiler will not generate the ConstantValue attribute for non- const
val s
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: report a warning through an IntelliJ IDEA inspection
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-NoConstantValueAttributeForNonConstVals can be used to
temporarily revert to pre-1.4 behavior
Generated
overloads
for
@JvmOverloads
on
open
methods
should
be
final
998
Issue: KT-33240
Components: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: overloads for functions with @JvmOverloads will be generated as final
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed, -XXLanguage:-GenerateJvmOverloadsAsFinal can be used to temporarily
revert to pre-1.4 behavior
Lambdas
returning
kotlin.Result
now
return
boxed
value
instead
of
unboxed
Issue: KT-39198
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, lambdas returning values of kotlin.Result type will return boxed value
instead of unboxed
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed
Unify
exceptions
from
null
checks
999
Issue: KT-22275
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: behavior
Short summary: Starting from Kotlin 1.4, all runtime null checks will throw a java.lang.NullPointerException
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: runtime null checks throw different exceptions, such as KotlinNullPointerException,
IllegalStateException, IllegalArgumentException, and TypeCastException
>= 1.4: all runtime null checks throw a java.lang.NullPointerException. -Xno-unified-null-checks can be
used to temporarily revert to pre-1.4 behavior
Comparing
floating-point
values
in
array/list
operations
contains,
indexOf,
lastIndexOf:
IEEE
754
or
total
order
Issue: KT-28753
Component: kotlin-stdlib (JVM)
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: the List implementation returned from Double/FloatArray.asList() will implement contains,
indexOf, and lastIndexOf, so that they use total order equality
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed
Gradually
change
the
return
type
of
collection
min
and
max
functions
to
non-nullable
1000
Issue: KT-38854
Component: kotlin-stdlib (JVM)
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: return type of collection min and max functions will be changed to non-nullable in 1.6
Deprecation cycle:
1.4: introduce ...OrNull functions as synonyms and deprecate the affected API (see details in the issue)
1.5.x: raise the deprecation level of the affected API to error
>=1.6: reintroduce the affected API but with non-nullable return type
Deprecate
appendln
in
favor
of
appendLine
Issue: KT-38754
Component: kotlin-stdlib (JVM)
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: StringBuilder.appendln() will be deprecated in favor of StringBuilder.appendLine()
Deprecation cycle:
1.4: introduce appendLine function as a replacement for appendln and deprecate appendln
>=1.5: raise the deprecation level to error
Deprecate
conversions
of
floating-point
types
to
Short
and
Byte
1001
Issue: KT-30360
Component: kotlin-stdlib (JVM)
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, conversions of floating-point types to Short and Byte will be deprecated
Deprecation cycle:
1.4: deprecate Double.toShort()/toByte() and Float.toShort()/toByte() and propose replacement
>=1.5: raise the deprecation level to error
Fail
fast
in
Regex.findAll
on
an
invalid
startIndex
Issue: KT-28356
Component: kotlin-stdlib
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, findAll will be improved to check that startIndex is in the range of the valid
position indices of the input char sequence at the moment of entering findAll, and throw
IndexOutOfBoundsException if it's not
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed
Remove
deprecated
kotlin.coroutines.experimental
1002
Issue: KT-36083
Component: kotlin-stdlib
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, the deprecated kotlin.coroutines.experimental API is removed from stdlib
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: kotlin.coroutines.experimental is deprecated with the ERROR level
>= 1.4: kotlin.coroutines.experimental is removed from stdlib. On the JVM, a separate compatibility
artifact is provided (see details in the issue).
Remove
deprecated
mod
operator
Issue: KT-26654
Component: kotlin-stdlib
Incompatible change type: source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.4, mod operator on numeric types is removed from stdlib
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: mod is deprecated with the ERROR level
>= 1.4: mod is removed from stdlib
Hide
Throwable.addSuppressed
member
and
prefer
extension
instead
1003
Issue: KT-38777
Component: kotlin-stdlib
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: Throwable.addSuppressed() extension function is now preferred over the
Throwable.addSuppressed() member function
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: old behavior (see details in the issue)
>= 1.4: behavior changed
capitalize
should
convert
digraphs
to
title
case
Issue: KT-38817
Component: kotlin-stdlib
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: String.capitalize() function now capitalizes digraphs from the Serbo-Croatian Gaj's Latin
alphabet in the title case (Dž instead of DŽ)
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: digraphs are capitalized in the upper case (DŽ)
>= 1.4: digraphs are capitalized in the title case (Dž)
Tools
Compiler
arguments
with
delimiter
characters
must
be
passed
in
double
quotes
on
Windows
1004
Issue: KT-30211
Component: CLI
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: on Windows, kotlinc.bat arguments that contain delimiter characters (whitespace, =, ;, ,)
now require double quotes (")
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: all compiler arguments are passed without quotes
>= 1.4: compiler arguments that contain delimiter characters (whitespace, =, ;, ,) require double quotes (")
KAPT:
Names
of
synthetic
$annotations()
methods
for
properties
have
changed
Issue: KT-36926
Component: KAPT
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: names of synthetic $annotations() methods generated by KAPT for properties have changed
in 1.4
Deprecation cycle:
< 1.4: names of synthetic $annotations() methods for properties follow the template
<propertyName>@annotations()
>= 1.4: names of synthetic $annotations() methods for properties include the get prefix:
get<PropertyName>@annotations()
Compatibility
guide
for
Kotlin
1.3
Keeping the Language Modern and Comfortable Updates are among the fundamental principles in Kotlin Language
Design. The former says that constructs which obstruct language evolution should be removed, and the latter says that
this removal should be well-communicated beforehand to make code migration as smooth as possible.
While most of the language changes were already announced through other channels, like update changelogs or
compiler warnings, this document summarizes them all, providing a complete reference for migration from Kotlin 1.2 to
Kotlin 1.3.
1005
Basic
terms
In this document we introduce several kinds of compatibility:
Source: source-incompatible change stops code that used to compile fine (without errors or warnings) from
compiling anymore
Binary: two binary artifacts are said to be binary-compatible if interchanging them doesn't lead to loading or linkage
errors
Behavioral: a change is said to be behavioral-incompatible if one and the same program demonstrates different
behavior before and after applying the change
Remember that those definitions are given only for pure Kotlin. Compatibility of Kotlin code from the other languages
perspective (e.g. from Java) is out of the scope of this document.
Incompatible
changes
Evaluation
order
of
constructor
arguments
regarding
call
Issue: KT-19532
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: evaluation order with respect to class initialization is changed in 1.3
Deprecation cycle:
<1.3: old behavior (see details in the Issue)
>= 1.3: behavior changed, -Xnormalize-constructor-calls=disable can be used to temporarily revert to
pre-1.3 behavior. Support for this flag is going to be removed in the next major release.
Missing
getter-targeted
annotations
on
annotation
constructor
parameters
1006
Issue: KT-25287
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: behavioral
Short summary: getter-target annotations on annotations constructor parameters will be properly written to
classfiles in 1.3
Deprecation cycle:
<1.3: getter-target annotations on annotation constructor parameters are not applied
>=1.3: getter-target annotations on annotation constructor parameters are properly applied and written to
the generated code
Missing
errors
in
class
constructor’s
@get:
annotations
Issue: KT-19628
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: Source
Short summary: errors in getter-target annotations will be reported properly in 1.3
Deprecation cycle:
<1.2: compilation errors in getter-target annotations were not reported, causing incorrect code to be
compiled fine.
1.2.x: errors reported only by tooling, the compiler still compiles such code without any warnings
>=1.3: errors reported by the compiler too, causing erroneous code to be rejected
Nullability
assertions
on
access
to
Java
types
annotated
with
@NotNull
1007
Issue: KT-20830
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: Behavioral
Short summary: nullability assertions for Java-types annotated with not-null annotations will be generated
more aggressively, causing code which passes null here to fail faster.
Deprecation cycle:
<1.3: the compiler could miss such assertions when type inference was involved, allowing potential null
propagation during compilation against binaries (see Issue for details).
>=1.3: the compiler generates missed assertions. This can case code which was (erroneously) passing
null s here fail faster.
-XXLanguage:-StrictJavaNullabilityAssertions can be used to temporarily return to the pre-1.3 behavior.
Support for this flag will be removed in the next major release.
Unsound
smartcasts
on
enum
members
Issue: KT-20772
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: Source
Short summary: a smartcast on a member of one enum entry will be correctly applied to only this enum entry
Deprecation cycle:
<1.3: a smartcast on a member of one enum entry could lead to an unsound smartcast on the same
member of other enum entries.
>=1.3: smartcast will be properly applied only to the member of one enum entry.
-XXLanguage:-SoundSmartcastForEnumEntries will temporarily return old behavior. Support for this flag
will be removed in the next major release.
val
backing
field
reassignment
in
getter
1008
Issue: KT-16681
Components: Core language
Incompatible change type: Source
Short summary: reassignment of the backing field of val -property in its getter is now prohibited
Deprecation cycle:
<1.2: Kotlin compiler allowed to modify backing field of val in its getter. Not only it violates Kotlin
semantic, but also generates ill-behaved JVM bytecode which reassigns final field.
1.2.X: deprecation warning is reported on code which reassigns backing field of val
>=1.3: deprecation warnings are elevated to errors
Array
capturing
before
the
for-loop
where
it
is
iterated
Issue: KT-21354
Component: Kotlin/JVM
Incompatible change type: Source
Short summary: if an expression in for-loop range is a local variable updated in a loop body, this change
affects loop execution. This is inconsistent with iterating over other containers, such as ranges, character
sequences, and collections.
Deprecation cycle:
<1.2: described code patterns are compiled fine, but updates to local variable affect loop execution
1.2.X: deprecation warning reported if a range expression in a for-loop is an array-typed local variable
which is assigned in a loop body
1.3: change behavior in such cases to be consistent with other containers
Nested
classifiers
in
enum
entries
1009
Issue: KT-16310
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: Source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.3, nested classifiers (classes, object, interfaces, annotation classes, enum
classes) in enum entries are prohibited
Deprecation cycle:
<1.2: nested classifiers in enum entries are compiled fine, but may fail with exception at runtime
1.2.X: deprecation warnings reported on the nested classifiers
>=1.3: deprecation warnings elevated to errors
Data
class
overriding
copy
Issue: KT-19618
Components: Core language
Incompatible change type: Source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.3, data classes are prohibited to override copy()
Deprecation cycle:
<1.2: data classes overriding copy() are compiled fine but may fail at runtime/expose strange behavior
1.2.X: deprecation warnings reported on data classes overriding copy()
>=1.3: deprecation warnings elevated to errors
Inner
classes
inheriting
Throwable
that
capture
generic
parameters
from
the
outer
class
1010
Issue: KT-17981
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: Source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.3, inner classes are not allowed to inherit Throwable
Deprecation cycle:
<1.2: inner classes inheriting Throwable are compiled fine. If such inner classes happen to capture
generic parameters, it could lead to strange code patterns which fail at runtime.
1.2.X: deprecation warnings reported on inner classes inheriting Throwable
>=1.3: deprecation warnings elevated to errors
Visibility
rules
regarding
complex
class
hierarchies
with
companion
objects
Issues: KT-21515, KT-25333
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: Source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.3, rules of visibility by short names are stricter for complex class hierarchies
involving companion objects and nested classifiers.
Deprecation cycle:
<1.2: old visibility rules (see Issue for details)
1.2.X: deprecation warnings reported on short names which are not going to be accessible anymore.
Tooling suggests automated migration by adding full name.
>=1.3: deprecation warnings elevated to errors. Offending code should add full qualifiers or explicit
imports
Non-constant
vararg
annotation
parameters
1011
Issue: KT-23153
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: Source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.3, setting non-constant values as vararg annotation parameters is prohibited
Deprecation cycle:
<1.2: the compiler allows to pass non-constant value for vararg annotation parameter, but actually drops
that value during bytecode generation, leading to non-obvious behavior
1.2.X: deprecation warnings reported on such code patterns
>=1.3: deprecation warnings elevated to errors
Local
annotation
classes
Issue: KT-23277
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: Source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.3 local annotation classes are not supported
Deprecation cycle:
<1.2: the compiler compiled local annotation classes fine
1.2.X: deprecation warnings reported on local annotation classes
>=1.3: deprecation warnings elevated to errors
Smartcasts
on
local
delegated
properties
1012
Issue: KT-22517
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: Source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.3 smartcasts on local delegated properties are not allowed
Deprecation cycle:
<1.2: the compiler allowed to smartcast local delegated property, which could lead to unsound smartcast
in case of ill-behaved delegates
1.2.X: smartcasts on local delegated properries are reported as deprecated (the compiler issues
warnings)
>=1.3: deprecation warnings elevated to errors
mod
operator
convention
Issues: KT-24197
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: Source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.3 declaration of mod operator is prohibited, as well as calls which resolve to
such declarations
Deprecation cycle:
1.1.X, 1.2.X: report warnings on declarations of operator mod, as well as on calls which resolve to it
1.3.X: elevate warnings to error, but still allow to resolve to operator mod declarations
1.4.X: do not resolve calls to operator mod anymore
Passing
single
element
to
vararg
in
named
form
1013
Issues: KT-20588, KT-20589. See also KT-20171
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: Source
Short summary: in Kotlin 1.3, assigning single element to vararg is deprecated and should be replaced with
consecutive spread and array construction.
Deprecation cycle:
<1.2: assigning one value element to vararg in named form compiles fine and is treated as assigning
single element to array, causing non-obvious behavior when assigning array to vararg
1.2.X: deprecation warnings are reported on such assignments, users are suggested to switch to
consecutive spread and array construction.
1.3.X: warnings are elevated to errors
>= 1.4: change semantic of assigning single element to vararg, making assignment of array equivalent to
the assignment of a spread of an array
Retention
of
annotations
with
target
EXPRESSION
Issue: KT-13762
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: Source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.3, only SOURCE retention is allowed for annotations with target EXPRESSION
Deprecation cycle:
<1.2: annotations with target EXPRESSION and retention other than SOURCE are allowed, but silently
ignored at use-sites
1.2.X: deprecation warnings are reported on declarations of such annotations
>=1.3: warnings are elevated to errors
Annotations
with
target
PARAMETER
shouldn't
be
applicable
to
parameter's
type
1014
Issue: KT-9580
Component: Core language
Incompatible change type: Source
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.3, error about wrong annotation target will be properly reported when
annotation with target PARAMETER is applied to parameter's type
Deprecation cycle:
<1.2: aforementioned code patterns are compiled fine; annotations are silently ignored and not present in
the bytecode
1.2.X: deprecation warnings are reported on such usages
>=1.3: warnings are elevated to errors
Array.copyOfRange
throws
an
exception
when
indices
are
out
of
bounds
instead
of
enlarging
the
returned
array
Issue: KT-19489
Component: kotlin-stdlib (JVM)
Incompatible change type: Behavioral
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.3, ensure that the toIndex argument of Array.copyOfRange, which represents
the exclusive end of the range being copied, is not greater than the array size and throw
IllegalArgumentException if it is.
Deprecation cycle:
<1.3: in case toIndex in the invocation of Array.copyOfRange is greater than the array size, the missing
elements in range fill be filled with null s, violating soundness of the Kotlin type system.
>=1.3: check that toIndex is in the array bounds, and throw exception if it isn't
Progressions
of
ints
and
longs
with
a
step
of
Int.MIN_VALUE
and
Long.MIN_VALUE
are
outlawed
and
won’t
be
allowed
to
be
instantiated
1015
Issue: KT-17176
Component: kotlin-stdlib (JVM)
Incompatible change type: Behavioral
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.3, prohibit step value for integer progressions being the minimum negative
value of its integer type (Long or Int ), so that calling IntProgression.fromClosedRange(0, 1, step =
Int.MIN_VALUE) will throw IllegalArgumentException
Deprecation cycle:
<1.3: it was possible to create an IntProgression with Int.MIN_VALUE step, which yields two values [0, -
2147483648], which is non-obvious behavior
>=1.3: throw IllegalArgumentException if the step is the minimum negative value of its integer type
Check
for
index
overflow
in
operations
on
very
long
sequences
Issue: KT-16097
Component: kotlin-stdlib (JVM)
Incompatible change type: Behavioral
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.3, make sure index, count and similar methods do not overflow for long
sequences. See the Issue for the full list of affected methods.
Deprecation cycle:
<1.3: calling such methods on very long sequences could produce negative results due to integer
overflow
>=1.3: detect overflow in such methods and throw exception immediately
Unify
split
by
an
empty
match
regex
result
across
the
platforms
1016
Issue: KT-21049
Component: kotlin-stdlib (JVM)
Incompatible change type: Behavioral
Short summary: since Kotlin 1.3, unify behavior of split method by empty match regex across all platforms
Deprecation cycle:
<1.3: behavior of described calls is different when comparing JS, JRE 6, JRE 7 versus JRE 8+
>=1.3: unify behavior across the platforms
Discontinued
deprecated
artifacts
in
the
compiler
distribution
Issue: KT-23799
Component: other
Incompatible change type: Binary
Short summary: Kotlin 1.3 discontinues the following deprecated binary artifacts:
kotlin-runtime: use kotlin-stdlib instead
kotlin-stdlib-jre7/8: use kotlin-stdlib-jdk7/8 instead
kotlin-jslib in the compiler distribution: use kotlin-stdlib-js instead
Deprecation cycle:
1.2.X: the artifacts were marked as deprecated, the compiler reported warning on usage of those artifacts
>=1.3: the artifacts are discontinued
Annotations
in
stdlib
1017
Issue: KT-21784
Component: kotlin-stdlib (JVM)
Incompatible change type: Binary
Short summary: Kotlin 1.3 removes annotations from the package org.jetbrains.annotations from stdlib and
moves them to the separate artifacts shipped with the compiler: annotations-13.0.jar and mutability-
annotations-compat.jar
Deprecation cycle:
<1.3: annotations were shipped with the stdlib artifact
>=1.3: annotations ship in separate artifacts
Compatibility
modes
When a big team is migrating onto a new version, it may appear in a "inconsistent state" at some point, when some
developers have already updated, and others haven't. To prevent the former from writing and committing code that
others may not be able to compile, we provide the following command line switches (also available in the IDE and
Gradle/ Maven ):
-language-version X.Y- compatibility mode for Kotlin language version X.Y, reports errors for all language features
that came out later.
-api-version X.Y- compatibility mode for Kotlin API version X.Y, reports errors for all code using newer APIs from the
Kotlin Standard Library (including the code generated by the compiler).
Below, we use OV for "Older Version", and NV for "Newer Version".
Binary
compatibility
warnings
If you use the NV Kotlin compiler and have the OV standard library or the OV reflection library in the classpath, it can be
a sign that the project is misconfigured. To prevent unexpected problems during compilation or at runtime, we suggest
either updating the dependencies to NV, or specifying the API version / language version arguments explicitly.
Otherwise, the compiler detects that something can go wrong and reports a warning.
For example, if OV = 1.0 and NV = 1.1, you can observe one of the following warnings:
Runtime JAR files in the classpath have the version 1.0, which is older than the API version 1.1. Consider using the
runtime of version 1.1, or pass '-api-version 1.0' explicitly to restrict the available APIs to the runtime of version 1.0.
This means that you're using the Kotlin compiler 1.1 against the standard or reflection library of version 1.0. This can
be handled in different ways:
1018
If you intend to use the APIs from the 1.1 Standard Library, or language features that depend on those APIs, you
should upgrade the dependency to the version 1.1.
If you want to keep your code compatible with the 1.0 standard library, you can pass -api-version 1.0.
If you've just upgraded to Kotlin 1.1 but can not use new language features yet (e.g. because some of your
teammates may not have upgraded), you can pass -language-version 1.0, which will restrict all APIs and
language features to 1.0.
Runtime JAR files in the classpath should have the same version. These files were found in the classpath: kotlin-
reflect.jar (version 1.0) kotlin-stdlib.jar (version 1.1) Consider providing an explicit dependency on kotlin-reflect 1.1
to prevent strange errors Some runtime JAR files in the classpath have an incompatible version. Consider removing
them from the classpath
This means that you have a dependency on libraries of different versions, for example the 1.1 standard library and
the 1.0 reflection library. To prevent subtle errors at runtime, we recommend you to use the same version of all
Kotlin libraries. In this case, consider adding an explicit dependency on the 1.1 reflection library.
Some JAR files in the classpath have the Kotlin Runtime library bundled into them. This may cause difficult to debug
problems if there's a different version of the Kotlin Runtime library in the classpath. Consider removing these
libraries from the classpath
This means that there's a library in the classpath which does not depend on the Kotlin standard library as a
Gradle/Maven dependency, but is distributed in the same artifact with it (i.e. has it bundled ). Such a library may
cause issues because standard build tools do not consider it an instance of the Kotlin standard library, thus it's not
subject to the dependency version resolution mechanisms, and you can end up with several versions of the same
library in the classpath. Consider contacting the authors of such a library and suggesting to use the Gradle/Maven
dependency instead.
Kotlin
Foundation
The Kotlin Foundation was created by JetBrains and Google with the mission to protect, promote and advance the
development of the Kotlin programming language. The Foundation secures Kotlin's development and distribution as
Free Software, meaning that it is able to be freely copied, modified and redistributed, including modifications to the
official versions.
Scope
The main functions of the Kotlin Foundation are:
Holding the trademarks associated with the project
Appointing the Lead Language Designer
Controlling incompatible changes to the language
1019
Development. The code for the project is developed openly on GitHub primarily by the team employed at JetBrains,
with contributions from Google and others. The Foundation has no developers on its payroll. The respective
contributors hold the copyright for the code they author. The code is distributed under the Apache License, Version
2.0.
Trademarks. The Kotlin trademark and associated marks, logos and domain names belong to the Kotlin Foundation.
The Foundation permits the usage of the trademarks according to the Kotlin Brand Usage Guidelines. All usages not
permitted automatically, require explicit written permission from the Foundation.
Lead Language Designer is in charge of all decisions regarding the development of the project and evolution of the
language. The Foundation appoints the Lead Language Designer, but does not directly make decisions about the
course of the project.
Incompatible changes. A special Language Committee appointed by the Foundation reviews the changes proposed by
the Lead Language Designer and has the power to reject incompatible changes or require certain deprecation
procedures to be carried out. The Language Committee has no power over compatible changes such as adding new
features to the language. Compatible changes are made at the sole discretion of the Lead Language Designer. The
Committee maintains a set of guidelines that are being consulted when making decisions. Meeting minutes of the
Language Committee are available online.
Structure
The Kotlin Foundation is a nonprofit nonstock corporation registered in the state of Delaware, USA. The Foundation is
governed by the Board of Directors that makes all decisions by voting. The Board appoints the Lead Language
Designer and the members of the Language Committee.
The President and the Secretary are elected by the Board of Directors as well. The President acts as the chief officer of
the Foundation and supervises its affairs and operations. The Secretary keeps record of all meetings of the Board and
its committees, and keeps track of membership and notices to the members, directors and third parties.
Current
personnel
President: Maxim Shafirov (JetBrains)
Secretary: David Winer (Google)
Board of Directors:
Maxim Shafirov (JetBrains)
Roman Elizarov (JetBrains)
William R. Cook (University of Texas at Austin)
Grace Kloba (Google)
1020
Anwar Ghuloum (Google)
Lead Language Designer: Roman Elizarov (JetBrains)
Language Committee:
Roman Elizarov (JetBrains)
William R. Cook (University of Texas at Austin)
Jeffrey van Gogh (Google)
Language
Committee
guidelines
The Kotlin Language Committee has to approve every incompatible change before it lands in a stable version. The
committee determines whether the change is appropriate and motivated enough to be introduced and what
deprecation procedures have to be carried out to ensure comfortable migration for end users.
These guidelines describe the process the Committee follows and the criteria used for decision making. We realize that
these criteria can not be fully formalized and treat them as general guidelines, not a mechanical set of rules.
Review
process
Incompatible changes are submitted to the Language Committee by the Lead Language Designer. The Committee
evaluates the implications of such changes, considering the following:
Substance: what is going to be changed
Impact: who will be affected by the change and in what ways
Motivation: why the change is needed
Detectability: can problematic code be automatically detected
Migration: to what extent can the code be migrated automatically
Estimating
impact
When in doubt, we inspect large bodies of code available to us and test the implementations in EAP builds to collect
information about the expected impact of a change.
Proposals
A proposal is usually written by a developer responsible for the change or the relevant subsystems. See the Guide to
submitting incompatible changes.
1021
When an issue has all the necessary details, it can be scheduled for review by the Language Committee. Approved
proposals are to be implemented by the development team and shipped in the appropriate stable release.
Scope
Only features and components published as Stable are in the scope of Language Committee. Besides, the Language
Committee's scope is limited to the following:
Language: syntax, static checks, execution semantics of language constructs
The interop subsystem of the language: how foreign declarations are seen from Kotlin, and how Kotlin declarations
are seen from other languages
Compatibility of binary artifacts produced by kotlinc with one another and with other binaries (e.g. Java binaries)
Standard library: API and contracts of the declarations in kotlin-stdlib (and its extensions such as for kotlin-stdlib-
jdk7)
CLI parameters of the compiler except for the -X/-XX keys
KDoc syntax
For example, the following matters are out of scope for the Language Committee:
Pre-stable language features & APIs
Build tools and plugins for them (e.g. Gradle support)
IDE and static analysis tools (other than the compiler)
Java2Kotlin converter and other source code manipulation tools
APIs and contracts of libraries other than the standard library
API of the compiler
Scripting support and Compiler REPL
Internal packages of the standard library
Also, see Appendix A for examples of changes that are not considered to be compatibility issues.
Migration
aids
and
deprecation
Normally, incompatible changes to stable features only land in feature releases. We announce the changes in a
previous release (it may be an incremental update to the previous feature release, but should allow enough time for
users to migrate their code).
1022
The announcement is best done through compiler warnings, or in some cases IDE inspections and/or other tools. If
places in the code that should be changed in advance to prevent compatibility issues in the future can be detected
automatically, we announce the change and publish detection tools.
If the necessary changes to user code can be automated, we publish a migration tool along with the announcement.
Preferably, the IDE should suggest running the migration when it encounters deprecated constructs in the code.
When automatic detection and/or migration is not practically possible, we publish instructions on how user code
should be adjusted.
Insignificant
changes
Some types of changes can be made without a deprecation cycle:
Small fixes that virtually no users will encounter can normally be made right away (but still require committee review)
Bugs causing compiler errors in good code can be fixed right away
Bugs causing bad code to compile, but always fail at runtime can be fixed right away
Incompatible
changes
to
the
language
The typical deprecation cycle for an incompatible language change:
The change planned for version B is announced in release notes to a previous version A
The compiler reports deprecation warnings (messages provide some guidance to possible replacements)
Automated migration tools are available in the IDE
For eligible changes, the -progressive flag enables the change before version B (e.g. in version A or an
incremental update to it)
Version B ships with the change enabled (e.g. warnings turn into errors)
Migrations aids are kept available in the IDE
Backward compatibility flags in the compiler (-language-version and -api-version) support the behavior of version
A
Future versions can remove migration aids and compatibility flags, but a version capable of automated migration
should be kept available for a reasonable amount of time
Incompatible
changes
to
the
libraries
The typical deprecation cycle for libraries:
The change planned for version B is announced in release notes to a previous version A
Relevant declarations are marked as @Deprecated(level = WARNING)
Migration is automated through ReplaceWith or sometimes custom tooling
1023
In some cases an optional support dependency that exposes the same API is published
Version B marks the declarations as @Deprecated(level = ERROR)
Version C can mark the declarations as @Deprecated(level = HIDDEN)
Note: for inline functions, complete removal is sometimes possible at this point
Changes
to
these
guidelines
Changes to these guidelines need to be approved by the Kotlin Language Committee.
Any proposed change needs to be published in advance providing a reasonable time to allow for comments on the
change by the Kotlin Community.
Appendix
A.
Examples
of
non-issues
The following cases are not considered to be compatibility issues and thus are out of scope for the Language
Committee.
Changes
related
to
binaries
and
translation
A binary compiled against kotlin-stdlib fails to link or run because kotlin-stdlib is absent or outdated (older version
than used during compilation).
Adding generic parameters to existing declarations does not change the ABI on the JVM (due to erasure).
Changes to signatures of functions marked @InlineOnly are not changing the ABI on the JVM.
Adding supertypes to existing library classes/interfaces.
Source
language
changes
Code compilable with a newer version fails to compile with an older version (e.g. due to usages of new language
features).
The code breaks only if the user alters the build configuration or compiler settings explicitly (i.e. in addition to
advancing the compiler version).
Library
changes
Relaxing a contract on existing APIs.
Clarification for unspecified behaviors.
Changes in hashCode() are not breaking changes.
1024
Changes in toString() on other than Boolean, Numeric, and String types are not breaking changes.
Issues connected with loading of two different versions of the same library at runtime or link time.
Changes
affecting
performance
We recognize that runtime performance and bytecode size are important metrics, and will make reasonable effort to
keep them in a good shape, but we don't consider every slowdown (e.g. in edge cases or in very cold code) and every
extra byte in the classfile a breaking change.
Appendix
B.
Assumptions
for
pragmatic
language
evolution
We make decisions on language changes under the assumption that most user code is designed with the following
considerations in mind. We do not optimize for smooth migration that disregards these considerations.
Availability
of
the
standard
library
All Kotlin code should be linked and run against the Standard Library of at least the same version as specified by the -
api-version upon compilation.
Type
inference
and
overload
resolution
algorithms
Improvements in type inference algorithms may result in more precise static types known for some expressions, this
may cause changes in overload resolution and even in signatures of declarations that don't specify return types
explicitly.
Overloads of the same function should be intended to do the same thing. Language improvements may cause a
different overload to be selected in a new language version.
Declarations sensitive to API/ABI stability (e.g. public APIs) should specify return types explicitly. Language
improvements may cause a different type to be inferred for a given body expression. Also, some innocuous-looking
changes in the source code, done by the user, may cause similar effects.
Non-public
API
Internal declarations have no separate compilation guarantees. While sometimes accessible from other languages (e.g.
Java), declarations marked internal in Kotlin should not be called from outside the module they are declared in.
Private and synthetic declarations should not be relied upon. On some platforms, reflection has access to declarations
marked private and synthetic. We do not provide any compatibility guarantees for code that relies on such access.
Impedance
mismatches
across
language
boundaries
A Kotlin API exposed to another language may yield values that work in that language differently from Kotlin. For
example, Kotlin's unsigned integers will look signed for Java clients, and the programmer that works with the same API
1025
in the Java code will be surprised by getting different result. While an undesirable situation, this is sometimes
inevitable, and should not be considered a breaking change (it does not fall under the intuitive definition of one
anyway).
Guide
to
submitting
incompatible
changes
A proposal is usually written by a developer responsible for the change or the relevant subsystems. It has to be
described in the issue tracker and marked with the "for-language-committee" tag. To provide all the necessary details,
issue in the tracker should follow the template below.
Issue
template
The issue should follow this template:
# Classification
Type of change: <see guide below>
Motivation types: <see guide below>
Impact types: <see guide below>
Detection and Migration modes: <see guide below>
# Background
> Optional section. Describe the background of the issue and possibly some motivation
# Existing behavior
> 1. (Minimal) code example
> 2. What's wrong with it
> 3. Detailed explanation of why and how this happens
> 4. Any known reasoning behind such behavior
> 5. Affected versions: when did the problem appear first?
# Proposed changes
> 1. Proposed changes
> 2. How it fixes the issue?
# Impact
> Examples of negative effects: changes of behavior, previously compiled code forbidden, etc.
> If possible:
> * number of impacted users
> * how common this pattern is
> * if we believe it's a rare case, why
> * is automated migration possible
# Migration plan
> Provide a detailed step-by-step migration plan
> Can the proposed changes be implemented immediately in the progressive mode?
Classification
1026
The Classification section needs to classify the change, without describing its essence. The classification is used by
the Committee to quickly assess the severity of the issue. Here are the common categories to be used.
This section can be used as a checklist of things that need to be evaluated/thought of.
Type
of
change
Specify one or more of the following:
New errors are introduced
Some valid language constructs change their meaning
Change in the standard library
API removal
Affecting ABI
Not affecting ABI
API moved to different artifact
API type signature change
Affecting ABI
Not affecting ABI
Contract refinement
Other contract changes
Change in compilation strategy
Change in ABI
Change in the behavior of generated code
Change in interoperability layer(s)
Motivation
types
Specify one or more of the following:
User code fails with exception(s)
Compiler/Tooling fails with exception(s)
The implementation does not abide by a published spec or documentation
Type safety guarantees are not met (including fail-fast behavior for non-null types)
Separate/incremental compilation guarantees are not met
1027
API stability guarantees are not met
ABI stability guarantees are not met
Implementation changes are required for implementation design/architectural reasons
Problematic/meaningless usage patterns need to be discouraged/blocked (e.g. counterintuitive behaviors)
Code is error-prone
Code can't be compiled correctly
Some prospective language changes are blocked
Inconsistency in the design (things are done differently in different contexts)
Redundant/outdated mechanism
Impact
types
Compilation. Some code that used to compile won't compile any more
Such code always caused the compiler to fail with exception
Such code always threw an exception immediately upon execution or could not link
Such code inevitably caused exceptions to be thrown somewhere down the line after it was executed
There were cases when such code worked with no exceptions
There was a warning reported on all such code
Some such code could compile without any warnings
Binaries. Some binary metadata will change after recompilation
Internal (and maybe private) signatures
None of them could have been called from other languages
Some of them may have been callable from other languages (Java/JS/C/Swift/...)
Public and/or protected signatures may change
Behavior changes
Exceptions
Some exceptions may change their type or place, but all code that ran without exceptions keeps doing so
Some exceptions can be thrown earlier than before
Some exceptions can be thrown later than before
Some exceptions change their type, but not the point of execution at which they are thrown
The new type is a subtype of the old one
The new type is not a subtype of the old one
1028
Some code that compiled and ran without exceptions will throw exceptions in the new version
The behavior in question belongs under a previously released specification, contract or official documentation
By the contract, the old behavior is incorrect (thus a fix is needed)
The contract doesn't specify this behavior
The new behavior needs to be specified
The new behavior will remain unspecified
The new behavior contradicts the contract (i.e. the contract has to be changed)
Performance and code size
Some code may run slower (including "small" changes like extra checks and indirections)
Some code may make more allocations or otherwise consume more memory
Code size may increase
The increase in code size is constant regardless of the source
The increase in code size is proportional to some parameters of the source
Detection
and
migration
modes
All code locations affected by this change can be accurately detected statically
Some, but not all code locations affected by this change can be accurately detected statically
No code locations affected by this change can be accurately detected statically
Migration can be fully automated
Some automated migration is possible
Migration can't be automated
Kotlin
brand
usage
guidelines
One of the goals of The Kotlin Foundation is to protect the use of the Kotlin word and to make sure it is not misused.
The following guidelines provide guidance on how to reference the Kotlin word trademark (“Trademark”) in an
approved manner while ensuring the Trademark remains subject to protection under applicable laws around the world,
and continues to serve as a source indicator for the Kotlin programming language and related offerings.
Any use of the Trademark other than those described in these Guidelines must be approved in advance. Please
contact the Kotlin Foundation to request an express trademark license if you desire to use the Kotlin trademark, or a
derivative of the Kotlin trademark, in a manner not permitted under these Guidelines. To submit a usage request,
please contact us, clearly describing the intended usage and duration.
1029
General
goals
We want the word Kotlin to refer to the Kotlin Programming Language, and we want to avoid it being used to refer to
any other programming language, or used in any way that may imply that the language is not free nor open source.
Permitted
uses
Given the open nature of Kotlin, you may use the Trademark to refer to the Kotlin programming language. Examples of
these references include the following:
Identify that your software is written in the Kotlin programming language
Is compatible with the Kotlin programming language
Targets the Kotlin programming language
Is for use with the Kotlin programming language
Contains the Kotlin programming language.
Aims to promote or teach the Kotlin programming language
The use must be referential and describe the relationship of your products or services to the Kotlin programming
language.
Unpermitted
uses
The Trademark may never be used in a manner that would cause confusion as to JetBrains, Google, or the Kotlin
Foundation’s sponsorship, affiliation, or endorsement, including as part of a company name, product name, domain
name, or business trading name. Other than as allowed herein, the Kotlin word mark should not be combined with
other trademarks, terms, or source identifiers.
Under no circumstances can you claim any trademark rights in the Kotlin name or attempt to register a name or source
identifier that incorporates the Kotlin trademark or logo, or anything confusingly thereto, as a trademark, domain name,
business name or other source identifier.
Usage
guidelines
Please follow these guidelines when referencing the Trademark:
The first or most prominent mention of the Kotlin trademark should be immediately followed by the TM symbol. For
example "Kotlin™ ..." This requirement is waived in all contexts where such marks are not normally included, such
as non-marketing emails, online discussions, and academic papers. We encourage the use of the TM symbol
whenever possible, but recognize that many non-commercial and informal uses will omit it.
1030
Where identifying that a product or service is built on the Kotlin programming language or runs the Kotlin
programming language, use the product’s own name followed by “in Kotlin™”, “for Kotlin™”, “compatible with
Kotlin™”, “running Kotlin™” etc. Do not incorporate Kotlin into the product name.
User groups, communities and/or meet-ups should follow the naming convention " Kotlin User Group" where
represents the location and optionally other wordings. These entities should also prominently disclaim any affiliation
with or endorsement by The Kotlin Foundation.
Do not display the word Kotlin using any different stylization, color, or font from the surrounding text.
Don’t use the trademark as verb (“Kotlin your code”), or create derivatives of it such as “Kotlinize”, etc.
Do not use Kotlin in possessive form (i.e. Kotlin’s).
Do not use alternative spellings (e.g., “Ktln”).
In certain usage context, and at the discretion of the Trademark Subcommittee of The Kotlin Foundation, you may
need to add a disclaimer on your site, publication, book, product, etc. where it clearly indicates that the product
and/or service provided is not associated with The Kotlin Foundation.
Example
usages
User groups and Kotlin meetups A valid name for a user group could be “San Diego Kotlin User Group” If you’re a user
group or Kotlin meetup, please use the User Group assets provided.
Events If you’re organising a conference or educational event, you can use the word Kotlin to refer to the technology
that the event covers. However, Kotlin cannot be contained in the brand name for your conference or educational event
(such as KotlinConf or Kotlin Conference). Instead, you should use your own brand name, but indicate that it is a
conference for “Kotlin Language Users.” Your conference or educational event title also should not cause any
confusion or suggest any affiliation with or sponsorship by the Kotlin Foundation. Example of appropriate usages could
be “XYZ Conference for Kotlin” with XYZ being your own brand name.
Other commercial or non-commercial names Whether you’re referring to a product, company or service, you shouldn’t
incorporate Kotlin as your brand name, i.e. your company cannot be called “Kotlin Consulting” or “Kotlin IDE”. It can
however indicate that you provide consulting for the Kotlin programming language as part of the description. For
example, XYZ Consulting, which focuses on the Kotlin programming language.
Kotlin
Foundation
FAQ
How
can
I
contribute
or
provide
feedback
to
Kotlin?
Kotlin is an open source project, and there are many ways you can contribute:
Language features. Please use the Kotlin Evolution and Enhancement process (KEEP) if you'd like to make a
1031
proposal for the Kotlin programming language.
Code contributions. Please refer to Contributions section at the Kotlin GitHub repository.
Filing issues or suggestions. Please use the Kotlin Issue Tracker to file issues or suggestions.
How
can
I
get
more
involved
with
the
Kotlin
community?
There are many online and in-person Kotlin communities. Please visit the Kotlin community page to see a list of user
groups, Kotlin nights and other ways that you can get involved!
How
is
the
Kotlin
Foundation
governed?
The Foundation is governed by the Board of Directors, who then appoint a president, Lead Language Designer and
members of the Language Committee. JetBrains and Google each delegate two directors to the board. The
independent member is elected by the rest of the board.
Do
JetBrains
and
Google
contribute
financially
to
the
foundation?
Yes, to cover the operational and administrative expenses.
Does
the
foundation
generate
any
revenue?
No, Kotlin Foundation is a non-profit entity whose operational costs are covered by JetBrains and Google.
Can
I
license
the
Kotlin
trademark?
Yes. You are free to use the Kotlin trademark in accordance with our Kotlin brand usage guidelines. Any use of the
Trademark other than those described in the Guidelines must be approved in advance. If you need a specific license,
please refer to the request form
How
can
a
company
or
an
individual
join
the
foundation?
We are discussing possible ways for companies and individuals to participate, and will provide updates here in the
future.
1032
What
resources
should
I
follow
to
stay
up-to-date
on
Kotlin?
The best way to stay up-to-date on Kotlin is to visit the official Kotlin website, and follow the official Kotlin blog.
Security
We do our best to make sure our products are free of security vulnerabilities. To reduce the risk of introducing a
vulnerability, you can follow these best practices:
Always use the latest Kotlin release. For security purposes, we sign our releases published on Maven Central with
these PGP keys:
Key ID: kt-a@jetbrains.com
Fingerprint: 2FBA 29D0 8D2E 25EE 84C1 32C3 0729 A0AF F899 9A87
Key size: RSA 3072
Use the latest versions of your application’s dependencies. If you need to use a specific version of a dependency,
periodically check if any new security vulnerabilities have been discovered. You can follow the guidelines from
GitHub or browse known vulnerabilities in the CVE base.
We are very eager and grateful to hear about any security issues you find. To report vulnerabilities that you discover in
Kotlin, please post a message directly to our issue tracker or send us an email.
For more information on how our responsible disclosure process works, please check the JetBrains Coordinated
Disclosure Policy.
Kotlin
documentation
as
PDF
Here you can download a PDF version of Kotlin documentation that includes everything except tutorials and API
reference.
Kotlin documentation is constantly being updated. The Kotlin PDF includes Kotlin 1.4.30 documentation
updates but doesn't include later changes.
We recommend using the latest version of Kotlin documentation available online.
Download Kotlin 1.4.30 documentation (PDF)
View the latest Kotlin documentation (online)
1033
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