02-11-2020

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPRESSIBLE
FLOW LECTURE 1

 Measurement Challenges in Compressible Flow

Module 08
 Temperature Measurement

Measurement Diagnostics and Experimental  Pressure Measurement

Facilities for Compressible Flow  Measurement of Flow Velocity

 Numerical Problems

Prof. Niranjan Sahoo

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
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Measurement Challenges in Compressible Flow Measurement Challenges in Compressible Flow

• Measurement techniques incorporated for liquids (incompressible) are not
applicable for gases when they cross the incompressible limits (i.e. M > 3).
• The pressure gradient causes predominant change in velocity keeping
density constant for liquids. On the other hand, the pressure gradient in a flow
could lead to substantial change in velocity as well as density.
• Compressible flows are characterized as variable density flow (more than
5%). The density change of the fluid during its motion happens due to
pressure gradient.
• Shock wave formation, variable-area passage, heat exchange and friction are
few mechanisms that can change the density during a flow.
• Hence, all the advanced measurement diagnostics in supersonic/hypersonic
flow, rely of capturing density information during its motion.

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Measurement Challenges in Compressible Flow Temperature Measurement

• There are two important parameters (pressure and temperature) are of
importance in the compressible flow measurement category.
• Localized measurements in a flow field are useful in calculating all other
derived parameters through gas dynamics relation.
• In the regime supersonic/hypersonic limits, the measured parameters refer to
the values within shock layer.
• Advanced measurement techniques involve the complete flow field
visualization through optical methods taking the advantage of density
variation.

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Temperature Measurement Temperature Measurement

• Static temperature and Stagnation temperature determines the thermodynamic Thermocouples
state of a compressible fluid at high velocities (or Mach number).
• The static temperature is measured by device without disturbing the flow while
a stagnation probe protrudes into the flow through a diffuser that decelerates
the velocity to a low value so that fluid reaches stagnation state isentropically.
• Thermocouples are typical devices for temperature measurements. They work
on “Seebeck principle” that states that flow of heat in a metal always induces
electro-motive force and generates a voltage change with respect to
temperature change.
• There are metals (copper, platimum, chromel, iron) in which both heat and emf
flow in same direction while other metals (constantan, alumel, rhodium) have
characteristics of opposing nature of heat and emf flow.
• A thermocouple can be prepared joining two dissimilar metals at two points:
one junction is kept at a place where the temperature is measured while the
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other one has a “known/reference junction”.

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Temperature Measurement Temperature Measurement

Prandtl number: Adiabatic wall temperature:
• With respect to aerodynamic point of view, when the gas passes over the • When a thermocouple is located on the wall surface inside a boundary
probe, the velocity gradient within the boundary layer gives rise to shear stress layer, the flow velocity is zero and no-slip boundary condition is satisfied
resulting in “fluid friction and heat dissipation” within the boundary layer. The due to viscous effect. So, the measured temperature on the wall would be
probe is expected to feel temperature above the stagnation temperature. closure to the total temperature of the flow.
• The temperature gradient in the boundary layer gives rise to heat loss from the • At the same time, if the wall surface is insulated, then the temperature
probe. This has opposite effect due to fluid friction.
measured at the wall is known as “adiabatic wall temperature”.
• The relative effect of both phenomena is judged by a non-dimensional number
known as “Prandtl number”.
• For gases, the Prandtl number is less that implies heat conduction from the
surface dominates and the probe generally feels temperature less than the
stagnation temperature.

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Temperature Measurement Temperature Measurement

Adiabatic recovery factor: Probe recovery factor:
• The deviation in the probe reading and the stagnation temperature is expressed • A stagnation probe is employed for measurement of total temperature in the
through adiabatic recovery factor. absence of wall. The flow is slowed down to zero velocity at the thermocouple
• When the Prandtl number is unity, the adiabatic wall temperature becomes with no gain or loss of heat.
equal to stagnation temperature. • A typical design employs vent-holes (to allow proper ventilation), shields (to
prevent radiation loss from thermocouple), thin lead wires to minimize heat
conduction losses.
• So, it is possible that the probe measures temperature slightly below the true
value of stagnation temperature. Hence, the “probe recovery factor” is defined.
By suitable design and proper calibration, its value can be made close to unity.

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Temperature Measurement Pressure Measurement

Representation of temperature trends in compressible flow: • With respect to compressible flow field, measurement concept of static and
stagnation pressure are equally important.
• When the measurement is made in such a way that velocity of the flow is not
disturbed, the indicated pressure is the “static pressure”.
• On the other hand, if the flow is brought to rest isentopically, then the
measured pressure indicates “stagnation pressure”.
• Normally, “Prandtl-Pitot Static Probe” is used for simultaneous measurement.

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Pressure Measurement Measurement of Flow Velocity

Measurement is subsonic and Supersonic flows: • In most cases, the flow velocity is obtained through simultaneous
• The flow Mach number is one of the important parameter for subsonic as well measurement of static and stagnation pressures using “Prandtl Pitot Static
as supersonic flows. Tube”.
• Simultaneous measurement of static and stagnation pressure is done through • It has opening at the nose for stagnation pressure communications while
“Prandtl Pitot Static Tube” for a given Mach number for a subsonic flow. several equal size holes are available at the circumference of the probe at the
• In supersonic flows, separate pressure measurement is made for stagnation downstream of the nose.
(Pitot static probe) and static pressures (Pitot stagnation probe) due to • The difference in pressure is the dynamic pressure relating to “flow velocity”.
appearance of detached shock wave.

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Measurement of Flow Velocity Numerical Problem

Bernoulli equation for compressible and incompressible flow Q1. The Mach number of compressible air flow are determined from
measurements made by a Pitot-static tube. If the static probe indicates
pressure of 20 kPa and Pitot tube measures 32 kPa, then determine the Mach
number and velocity of air. What will be the Mach number and velocity of air
when Pitot pressure reads 80 kPa?

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Numerical Problem Numerical Problem

Q2. Consider the data from Q1 and calculate the velocity of air assuming the Q3. A stagnation temperature probe has a recovery factor of 0.95 over a wide
flow to be incompressible. range of operating conditions in a supersonic flow. A Pitot tube indicates
pressure of 300 kPa and the static probe measures 60 kPa. If the indicated
temperature of the probe is 600 K, calculate the free stream static and total
temperature. If the adiabatic recovery factor of the probe is 0.72, calculate the
adiabatic wall temperature.

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THANK YOU

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