Presentation

SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
Group Members
M. AHSAN SHEHZAD MS20-EE-26

ABDUL WAJID MS20-EE-19

MUHAMMAD IMRAN MS20-EE-13

HANIA ZAHRA MS20-EE-23

Part_1

RELIABILITY
 Introduction
 Reliability means continuity of electric service to consumers.
 It depends on
Availability of sufficient generation sources to meet actual demand.
Ability of transmission and distribution systems to deliver power.

Previously, reliability was majorly depend on generation system as transmission system were
designed with excess capacity But now, with increasing load demand, transmission system is
equally considered in measuring reliability.
 Measure of Reliability
Traditionally, system reliability was considered simply as “reserve margin of generation
resources” (before 1970’s).
> Standard margin was 20-25%
Disadvantage: failure rate was ignored in this assumption.

Loss-of-load Probability (LOLP)

It is probability derived from failure probabilities of all generating units.
More accurately, it is sum of all the probabilities in which total generating capacity is less
than the maximum expected load
 Measure of Reliability
 Loss-of-load Expectation (LOLE)
In LOLE, probabilities of LOLP for each day are summed up.

Smaller LOLP, longer will it take for outage to happen.

For example: LOLP=0.00274/day
LOLE=one day in ten years
(the probability of outage to happen is one day in ten years at peak hours).

LOLP/LOLE does not tell about duration of outage.

 Measure of Reliability
Service reliability
Outages in are commonly caused by transmission and distributions systems.
So, service reliability depends on topography, climate and population e.g.: in case of
outage, less populated area will gets service lately than dense ones and have less expensive
installed equipment.
Service reliability also depends on:
Outage frequency= how often outage occurs
Outage duration= for how long outage lasts
Outage time= outage frequency x average duration
 Valuation of Reliability
Literature on the valuation of service reliability
In past, utilities were gold plating their assets as they were spending much more in
overdesigning equipment ( in shadow of one-day-in-ten-year criterion)
Utilities has to attain high level of reliability as it was their responsibility to provide
electric services to all customers indiscriminately which in turn provide them the control of
territory and reliability related investments.
System reliability needs commitment to fulfill customer demands
> commitment of utilities to invest in system upgrades timely.
> Commitment of workers to provide service in any case.
 Valuation of Reliability
Customary high standards of reliability
Customer demands uninterrupted electric services (ignoring the risk such as losing the
information in computers etc.).
One issue utilities face is in some areas the are unable to identify the vital loads. Thus, they
have to provide electricity services among all loads with similar emergency.
There must be a mechanism by which customers can provide their preferences in order to
have service reliability with different choices.
Most common mechanism by utilities is to provide discounts in rates in exchange
customer disconnect their loads in case of need.
 Valuation of Reliability
Customary high standards of reliability
Customer demands uninterrupted electric services (ignoring the risk such as losing the
information in computers etc.).
One issue utilities face is in some areas the are unable to identify the vital loads. Thus, they
have to provide electricity services among all loads with similar emergency.
There must be a mechanism by which customers can provide their preferences in order to
have service reliability with different choices.
Most common mechanism by utilities is to provide discounts in rates in exchange
customer disconnect their loads in case of need.
Part_2

SECURITY AND STABILITY

SECURITY

 Security is a measure of the width of the operating envelope,

or set of immediately available operating configurations that
will result in a successful outcome, that is, no load is
interrupted and no equipment is damaged.
 In other words, security describes how many things can go
wrong before service is actually compromised
 Obviously, as a power system serves an increasing load, the
number of alternative operating configurations diminishes, and
the system becomes increasingly vulner able to disturbances.
 Reserve” of transmission capacity, or alternate routes for
power to flow in case one line suddenly goes out of service.
The analysis of such scenarios is called contingency analysis.
STABILITY

 Stability describe the tendency of an alternating current . Power system to

maintain a synchronous and balanced operating state.
 The term stability refers to angle stability, which means that all the system
component remain locked “in step” at a given frequency.
 Stability analysis is concern with these differences in phase and their implications for
keeping the system locked in step.
 We distinguish steady state and transient or dynamic stability. In the steady state, we
evaluate a system’s stability under some fixed set of operating condition,including
constant generator output.
 Transient stability has to do with the system ability to accommodate sudden changes.
 Stability is a rigorous application of the term from physics, where one distinguish
different type of equilibria, stable or un-stable that describe the tendency of a
system to depart from or return to a certain resting condition in response to
disturbance.
Steady- State Stability

 In steady state stability, we are basically asking whether a particular

operating configuration of an a.c. power represent a stable equilibrium .
 In this system we develop a synchronism among all the components ,like
generator transmission lines, and among load and power.
 Synchronism mean that both the frequency and the phase of the two or more
oscillating system match.
 When the synchronous generator are connected together, they must be spinning at
the same rate, and their voltage output peak at about the same time.
 If the timing of voltage and current did not match up for each generator, this
would cause overloading of parts of the generator windings.

Synchronism also require a stable equilibrium , where there is a restoring force that
tends to slow down a generator that has sped up and to speed up a generator that has
slowed down, otherwise it will break.
 When the synchronism is break each generator run at the different speed , and this
will cause damage in coupling system.
 When the speed is disturb , different power will be supplied to individual.
 Whose power angle is ahead of other must supply additional power, whereas
whose power angle is behind supplies less power.
 When we say a power system is in steady state stability . It mean in this system
stabilizing restoring forces exists.
 In order to transmit the maximum amount of power along the line, it looks as if we
could make D12 equal to 90 degree, where sin D12 would take its maximum value
of 1. However, this is not generally safe to do. Rather, there is a stability limit on
D12, which might be somewhere in the neighborhood of 45 degree.
 This stability limit arises because, as D12 increases, the negative feedback between
the generators at nodes 1 and 2 diminishes. The object is to have D12 large enough
to transmit plenty of power, but not too large so as to risk losing the negative
feedback between generators. This reasoning extends to an entire network, where
each transmission link is examined for the D12 between its two ends.
 Let us now discuss why the negative feedback between generators should depend
on their difference in power angle.
 There are two approaches to illustrating this: first, referring to the mathematical
expression just given, and second, referring back explicitly to the circulating
currents responsible for exchanging power between generator.
 There are two types of feedbacks in this system positive feedback and negative
feedback
 The negative feedback between generators as a function of power angle refers
directly to the exchange of power between (and among) generators, which lies at
the heart of stability.
 We introduced “difference voltage” that arises due to a difference in the timing of
the voltage maximum because one generator has pulled ahead (greater power
angle) or fallen behind (smaller power angle). The difference voltage results in a
current that circulates between the armature windings of the respective generators.
 As a result, the curve produce from this, is sometimes positive and sometimes
negative, which means that the generator is supplying additional power during
some portions of the cycle and absorbing power during other portions of the cycle.
 Because there is now an oscillation of power back and forth, rather than a
continuous transfer of power from one generator to the other, the stabilizing effect
is gradually lost as the difference in power angles increases.
 The effective control of interconnected synchronous generators becomes more
difficult with increasing difference in power angle.
Valuation of Reliability
Literature on the valuation of service reliability
 In past, utilities were gold plating their assets as they were spending much more in
overdesigning equipment ( in shadow of one-day-in-ten-year criterion)
 Utilities has to attain high level of reliability as it was their responsibility to
provide electric services to all customers indiscriminately which in turn provide
them the control of territory and reliability related investments.
 System reliability needs commitment to fulfill customer demands
 Commitment of utilities to invest in system upgrades timely.
 Commitment of workers to provide service in any case.
Valuation of Reliability
Customary high standards of reliability
 Customer demands uninterrupted electric services (ignoring the risk such as losing
the information in computers etc.).
 One issue utilities face is in some areas the are unable to identify the vital loads.
Thus, they have to provide electricity services among all loads with similar
emergency.
 There must be a mechanism by which customers can provide their preferences in
order to have service reliability with different choices.
 Most common mechanism by utilities is to provide discounts in rates in exchange
customer disconnect their loads in case of need.
Part 3

STABILITY
Dynamic Stability
 The ability of the power system to return to reach its stable condition after a small
disturbance in the network condition.
 Dynamic stability is also called transient stability because the displacement of the
power angle is generally due to a temporary, transient disturbance.
 It is concerned with how large a disturbance can the generator sustain and still
return to equilibrium and will it return to equilibrium in a reasonable amount of
time.
 It occurs mostly due to fluctuation in load or generation level.
Dynamic Stability is lower than
Steady state stability
 If the system experiences a shock by sudden and large power changes and
violation of fluctuations occurs.
 Consequently, machine or group of machines go out of step. The rapidly of the
application of the large disturbances is responsible for the loss of stability,
otherwise it may be possible to maintain stability if the same large load is applied
gradually.
 Thus the dynamic stability limit is lower than steady state stability limit.
Swing Equation

 This power balance can be written as the generator swing equation, which is a
differential equation7 that implicitly describes the behavior of the power angle d.
 It is simply a power balance equation, which is a statement of energy
conservation: at any instant, the power going into the spinning rotor must equal
the power going out.
 In equilibrium, the mechanical torque from the turbine shaft equals the electrical
power that is pushed out the armature windings through the magnetic field, plus a
certain amount of damping power that acts to slow down the rotor.
Variation of Generated Power with
Power Angle
Equal Area Criterion
Voltage Stability

 Voltage stability means that as load increases (i.e., load impedance goes down),
power consumption also increases (i.e., voltage does not go down)
 Voltage stability is enhanced, and thus the limit on power that can be sent to the
load is increased, by placing reactive compensation or voltage support near the
load
 When voltage and power cannot be controlled, this condition is termed voltage
instability.
 System may be completely lost during Voltage Collapse condition.
Part_4

POWER QUALITY
POWER QUALITY

 Power quality includes voltage, frequency, and waveforms. From a

theoretical point of view, good power quality can be taken to mean
that the voltage supplied by the utility at the customer’s service
entrance is steady.

 The AC. frequency is steady and very close to its nominal value
and that the waveform of the voltage curve versus time very much
similar to the smooth sine wave (the absence of harmonic
distortion).
VOLTAGE

 The voltage received by a utility customer varies along with power

flows in the transmission and the distribution system. Initially,
generators inject their power at a fixed voltage magnitude, But as
consumption and the line current increases, there is an increasing
voltage drop along the power lines. This means that the difference
between the voltage supplied at the generation end and that received
by a given load varies continuously with demand. The utility can
take diverse steps to correct for this variance, primarily at the
distribution level but never perfectly. The traditional norm is to
allow for a tolerance of +5% for voltage magnitude.
VOLTAGE
 LOW VOLTAGE LEVEL:
Low voltage may result if a power system’s resources are
overtaxed by high demand, a condition known as “brownout,”
because lights become dim at lower voltage. Operations at low
voltage can also damage electric motors.

 HIGH VOLTAGE LEVEL:

High voltage can also damage appliances simply by overloading their
circuits. Incandescent light bulbs, for example, have a shorter life if
exposed to higher voltages because of strain on the filament.
This situation could change with the installation of new voltage-
control technology, including equipment at customer locations.
VOLTAGE
 VOLTAGE SWELLS AND SAGS:
In power quality are voltage swells and sags, or sudden and
temporary departures from normal voltage levels that result from
events in the distribution system. Abrupt voltage changes can be
caused by lightning strike, or by large inductive loads.
Temporary voltage increases, the term swell is generally used to
denote a longer event, whereas an impulse would last on the order
of microseconds; the word spike, though used colloquially and
found in the common “spike protector, To protect against this
obvious risk, power strips with spike protectors have become very
popular
 Indeed, the more important job of a spike protector may be to mitigate
temporary decreases in voltage (sags to Americans) and (dips to the
British) that can cause electronic loads to shut off or otherwise behave
strangely. One might expect voltage sags to be essentially a nuisance,
noticeable as a brief dimming of lights.
FREQUENCY
 Frequency departs from its nominal value if generation and
demand are not balanced. If the demand exceeds available real
power generation, energy will be drawn from the rotational kinetic
energy of the generators, which will slow down.
 EFFECTS OF LOW AND HIGH FREQUENCY
At lower frequency, the amount of real power transmitted will be
less, and so the loads are prevented from consuming more
power than can be generated. Conversely, in the case of
overgeneration, frequency will increase.
Transmission and distribution systems may be separated by over-
and underfrequency relays. A key objective is to prevent
cascading blackouts, in which one portion of the grid that has
lost its ability to maintain frequency control pulls other sections
down with it as generators become unable to stabilize the
frequency and eventually trip off-line
FREQUENCY

 One practical and intuitive reason for maintaining a very exact

frequency is that electric clocks will in fact go slower if the
frequency is low and faster if it is high.
 Example: Suppose the nominal 60-Hz frequency remains low at
59.9 Hz for one day. How much time is “lost” on AC clocks?
 Normally, there are 60 complete AC cycles in each second. The
time lost corresponds to the number of cycles lost, where each
cycle represents 1/60 of a second. At 0.1 Hz below nominal, 1/10
of a cycle is lost every second, or one full cycle lost every 10 s.
This is equivalent to 60 cycles lost every 600 s, or one second
every 10min. Over the course of an hour, 6s are lost, which comes
to 144s or about two and a half minutes per day. Repeating the
exercise for a more realistic frequency of 59.99 Hz, the error
comes to one-tenth that, or 14.4s per day.
WAVEFORMS

 A clean waveform means that the oscillation of voltage and current

follow the mathematical form of a sine or cosine function.
 Aside from transient disturbances, this sinusoidal waveform can be
altered by the imperfect behavior of either generators or loads. Any
AC machine, whether producing or consuming power, can “inject”
into the grid time variations of current and voltage. Voltage
waveform distortions are typically created by generators, while
current distortion results from loads. These distortions of voltage or
current occur in the form of oscillations that are more rapid than 60
Hz and are called harmonic. While there are infinitely many
possible higher-frequency components that can distort a wave, we
care here about those that are periodic.
WAVEFORMS

 When superimposed onto the basic 60-cycle wave, harmonics

manifest as a jagged or squiggly appearance instead of a smooth
curve. Mathematically, such a jagged periodic curve is equivalent
to the sum of sinusoidal curves of different frequencies and
magnitudes. The relative contribution of these higher-frequency
harmonics compared to the base frequency can be quantified as
harmonic content or total harmonic distortion (THD).
 A desirable waveform is one with low harmonic content, which is
synonymous with a smooth, round sine wave. While resistive loads
are unaffected by waveform, harmonics can cause vibration,
buzzing, or other distortions in transformers.
WAVEFORMS

 When a transformer is supplied by power with high harmonic

content, some fraction of that power becomes “stuck” and
converted to heat in the conductor coils, as well as in the magnetic
core, which resists rapid reversals. The overall result is that the
transformer not only operates at lower efficiency but also faces a
shortened life span due to chronic overheating.