1

CHAPTER 1

FUNCTIONS AND GRAPHS

1-1 Introduction. Previous to the seventeenth century, algebra and

geometry were largely distinct mathematical sciences, each having been
developed independently of the other. In 1637, however, a French mathematician
and philosopher, René Descartes, published his La Géométrie, which introduced a
device for unifying these two branches of mathematics. The basic feature of this
new process, now called analytic geometry, is the use of a coordinate system. By
means of coordinate systems algebraic methods can be applied powerfully in the
study of geometry, and perhaps of still greater importance is the advantage gained
by algebra through the pictorial representation of algebraic equations. Since the
time of Descartes analytic geometry has had a tremendous impact on the
development of mathematical knowledge. And today analytic methods enter
vitally into the diverse theoretical and practical applications of mathematics.
1-2 Rectangular coordinates. We shall describe the rectangular coordinate
system which the student has previously met in elementary algebra and
trigonometry. This is the most common coordinate system and is sometimes
called the rectangular Cartesian system in honor of Descartes.
Draw two perpendicular lines meeting at O (Fig. 1-1). The point O is called the
origin and the lines are called the axes, OX the x-axis and OY is the y-axis. The x-
axis is usually drawn horizontally and is frequently referred to as the horrrizontal
axis, and the y-axis is called the vertical axis. The axes divide their plane into four
parts called quadrants. The quadrants are numbered I, 1I, 1I, and IV, as in Fig. 1-
1. Next select any convenient unit of length and lay off distances from the origin
along the axes. The distances to the right along the x-axis are defined as positive
and those to the left are taken as negative. Similarly, distances upward along the
y-axis are defined as positive and those downward are called negative.
 2

The position of any point P in the plane may be definitely indicated by giving its
distances from the axes. The distance from the y-axis to P is called the abscissa of
the point, and the distance from the x-axis is called the ordinate of the point. The
abscissa is positive if the point is to the right of the y-axis, and negative if the
point is to the left of the y-axis. The ordinate is positive if the point is above the x-
axis, and negative if the point is below the x-axis. The abscissa of a point on the y-
axis is zero and the ordinate of a point on the x-axis is zero. The two distances,
abscissa and ordinate, are called the coordinates of the point. The coordinates are
indicated by writing the abscissa first and enclosing both numbers by parentheses.
For example, P(−2,3), or just (−2,3), stands for the point whose abscissa is −2
and whose ordinate is 3.
To plot a point of given coordinates means to measure the proper distances
from the axes and to mark the point thus determined. Points can be more readily
and accurately plotted by the use of coordinate paper, that is, paper ruled off into
small squares. It is easy to plot a point whose coordinates are distances from the
axes to an intersection of two rulings. For other coordinate values the point is not
at a corner of one of the small squares and its position within or on the side of the
square must be estimated. If coordinate is an irrational number, a decimal
approximation is used in plotting the point.
 3

We assume that to any pair of real numbers (coordinates) there corresponds

one definite point of the coordinate plane. Conversely, we assume that to each
point of the plane there corresponds one definite pair of coordinates. This relation
of points in a plane and pairs of real numbers is called a one-to-one
correspondence.
EXERCISE 1-1
1. Plot the points whose coordinates are (4,3), (4, −3), (−4,3), (−4, −3),
(6,0), (0, −2), and (0,0).
1 3 3 5 11
2. Plot the points whose coordinates are (2 , 4) , (5 , 2) , ( 3 , −4) ,
21 7
( 4 , 5) , (√2, 1), (√3, √3), (√5, −√10). (See Table I in the Appendix

to obtain square roots.)

3. Draw the triangles whose vertices are (a) (2, −1), (0,4), (5,1); (b)
(2, −3), (4,4), (−2,3).
4. In which quadrant does a point lie if (a) both coordinates are positive,
(b) both are negative?
5. Where may a point lie if (a) its ordinate is zero, (b) its abscissa is zero?
6. What points have their abscissas equal to 2? For what points are the
ordinates equal to -2?
7. Where may a point be if (a) its abscissa is equal to its ordinate, (b) its
abscissa is equal to the negative of its ordinate?
8. Draw the right triangle and find the lengths of the sides and hypotenuse
if the coordinates of the vertices are (a) (-1,1), (3,1), (3, −2); (b)
(−5,3), (7,3), (7, −2).
9. Two vertices of an equilateral triangle are (3,0) and (−3,0). Find the
coordinates of the third vertex and the area of the triangle.
10. The points A (0,0), B5,1), and C(1,3) are vertices of a parallelogram.
Find the coordinates of the fourth vertex (a) if BC is a diagonal, (b) if
AB is a diagonal, (c) if AC is a diagonal.

1-3 Variables and functions. Numbers, and letters standing for numbers,
are used in mathematics. The numbers, of course, are fixed in value. A letter may
 4

stand for a fixed number which is unknown or unspecified. The numbers and
letters standing for fixed quantities are called constants. Letters are also used as
symbols which may assume different numerical values. When employed for this
purpose, the letter is said to be a variable.
For example, we may use the formula 𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑟 to find the circumference of
any circle of known radius. The letters c and r are variables; they play a different
role from the fixed numbers 2 and 𝜋. A quadratic expression in the variable x may
be represented by
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐,
where we regard 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐 as unspecified constants which assume fixed values
in a particular problem or situation.
Variable quantities are often related in such a way that one variable depends
on another for its values. The relationship of variables is a basic concept in
mathematics, and we shall be concerned with this idea throughout the book.

DEFINITION. If a definite value or set of values of a variable y is

determined when a variable x takes any one of its values, then y is said to be
a function of x.

Frequently the relation between two variables is expressed by an equation.

The equation 𝑐 = 2𝜋𝑟 expresses the relation between the circumference and
radius of a circle. When any positive value is assigned to r, the value of c is
determined. Hence c is a funetion of r. The radius is also a function of the
circumference, since r is determined when c is given a value.
Usually we assign values to one variable and find the corresponding values
of the other. The variable to which we assign values is called the independent
variable, and the other, the dependent variable.
The equation 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 + 2 = 0 expresses a relation between the variables x
and y. Either may be regarded as the independent variable. Solving for y, the
equation becomes 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2. In this form we consider x the independent
variable. When expressed in the form𝑥 = ±√𝑦 − 2, we consider y the
independent variable. We notice from the equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 2 that y takes only
 5

one value for each value given to x. The variable y therefore is said to be a single-
valued function of x. On the other hand, taking y as the independent variable, we
see that for each value given to y there are two corresponding values of x. Hence x
is a double-valued function of y.
Restrictions are usually placed on the values which a variable may take. We
shall consider variables which have only real values. This requirement means that
the independent variable can be assigned only those real values for which the
corresponding values of the dependent variable are also real. The totality of values
which a variable may take is called the range of the variable. In the equation 𝑐 =
2𝜋𝑟, giving the circumference of a circle as a function of the radius, r and c take
only positive values. Hence the range for each variable consists of all positive
numbers. The equation
√9 − 𝑥 2
𝑦=
𝑥−2
expresses y as a function of x. The permissible values of x are those from −3 to 3
with the exception of 2. The value 2 would make the denominator zero, and must
be excluded because division by zero is not defined. This range of x may be
written symbolically as
−3 ≤ 𝑥 < 2, 2 < 𝑥 ≤ 3

1-4 Useful notation for functions. Suppose that 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 5. To

indicate that y is a function of x, we write the symbol 𝑦(𝑥 ). Using this notation,
the equation is written as
𝑦(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 5

The symbol y(x) is read y function of x, or, more simply, y of x. In a problem

where there are different functions of x we could designate them by different
letters such as 𝑓 (𝑥 ), 𝑔(𝑥 ), and ℎ(𝑥). Letters other than x, of course, could stand
for the independent variable.

If 𝑦(𝑥) stands for you a fountion of 𝑥, then 𝑦(2) means the value of the
function, or 𝑦, when 𝑥 is given the of value of 2. Thus if

𝑦(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 5

Then
 6

𝑦(2) = 22 − 3(2) + 5 = 3,

𝑦(−1) = −12 − 3(−1) + 5 = 9,

𝑦(𝑠) = 𝑠 2 − 3(𝑠) + 5,

EXERCISE 1-2

1. Give the range of 𝑥, if 𝑥 and 𝑦 are to have only real velues :

1
(a) 𝑦 = (𝑥−2)(𝑥+3) ;

(b) 𝑦 = √𝑥(1 − 𝑥) ;
√𝑥−3
(c) 𝑦 = .
𝑥−4

Solve the equations in problems 2 and 3 for each variable in terms of the
order. Give the range of each variable and tell if each is a single-valued or double-
valued function of the other.

2. (a) 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 9; (b) 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 = 2; (c) 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 .

3. (a) 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥; (b) 𝑥𝑦 = 5; (c) 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 9.
4. If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 3, find 𝑓(2), 𝑓(−3), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑎).
5. If 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + 1, find 𝑔(0), 𝑔(−1), 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑔(8).
6. If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 − 1, and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 − 1, find 𝑓(𝑥 ) ÷ 𝑔(𝑥 ).
7. If ℎ(𝑠) = 2𝑠 + 3, find ℎ(2𝑙 ), ℎ(𝑙 + 1), and ℎ(𝑙 2 ).
8. If 𝑦(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 1, find 𝑦(𝑥 − 1).
𝑥−1 1
9. If 𝐹(𝑥 ) = 𝑥+1, find 𝐹 (2𝑋), 𝐹(𝑥 − 3), and 𝐹(𝑋).

10. If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 2 − 10, show that 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 ).

1-5 Graph of an equation. Consider the equation

𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 3.
If values are assigned to 𝑥, the corresponding values of 𝑦 may be computed. Thus,
setting 𝑥 = −2, we find 𝑦 = 7. Several values of 𝑥and the corresponding values
of 𝑦 are shown in the table. These pairs of values furnish a picture of the relation
of 𝑥 and 𝑦. A better representation is had, however, by pollting each value of 𝑥
 7

and the corresponding value of 𝑦 as the abscissa and ordinate of a point, ad then
drawing a smooth curve through the points thus obtained. This process is called
graphing theequation, and the curve is called the graph or locus of the equation.

𝑥 −2 −1 0 1 1,5 2 3 4 5

𝑦 7 1 −3 −5 −5,25 −5 −3 1 7

The plotted points (Fig. 1-2) are in the range -2 to 5 of 𝑥-values. The range
could be extended, and also any number of intermediate points could be located.
But the points plotted show about where the intermediate points wolud lie. Hance,
we can use the known points to draw a curve which is reasonably accurate. The
exact graph satisfies the following definition.
DEFENITION. The graph of an equation consists of all the points whose
coordinates satisfy the given equation.

1-6 Aids in graphing. The point-by-point method of constructing the graph

of an equation is tedious expect for simple equations. The task can often be
lightened, however, by first discovering certain characteristics of the graph as
revealed by the equation. We shall now discuss three ways by which the graphing
may be facilitated.
 8

Intercepts, the abscissa of a point where a curve touches or crosses the 𝑥-

axis is called an 𝑥-𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡. The ordinate of a point where a curve touches or
crosses the 𝑦-axis is called a 𝑦-𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡. To find the 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑠 of the
graph of an equation, we set 𝑦 = 0 and solve for 𝑥, similarly, the 𝑦-intercepts may
be found by setting 𝑥 = 0 and solving for 𝑦. Thus setting 𝑦 = 0 in the equation
2𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 6, we find 𝑥 = 3. The point (3,0) is on the garph and the 𝑥-intercept is
3. Substituting 𝑥 = 0, the 𝑦-intercept is found to be -2.
The graphs of some equations have no points in common with an axis;

For other equations there may be few or many intercepts. The intercepts are often
easily determined, and are of special significance in may problems.

SYMMETRY. Two points A and Bare said to be symmetric with respect to

a line if the line is the perpendicular bisector of the segment AB. A curve is
symmetric with respect to a line if each of its points is one of a pair of points
symmetric with respect to the line.

At present our interest is mainly in curves which are symmetric with respect
to the coordinate axes. The points (𝑥, 𝑦) and (𝑥, −𝑦) are symmetric with respect to
the 𝑥-axis. A curve is symmetric wiith respect to the 𝑥-axis if for each point (𝑥, 𝑦)
of the curve there is also the point (𝑥, −𝑦) on the curve. Similarly, a curve is
symmetric with repect to the 𝑦-axis if for each point (𝑥, 𝑦) of the curve there is
also the point (−𝑥, 𝑦) on the curve. (See Fig. 1-3)
 9

Two points A and B are symmetric with respect to a point O if O is the

mind-point of the line segment AB. A curve is symmetric with respect to a
point O if each point of the curve is one of a pair of points symmetric with
respect to O.

In accordance with this definition, the points (𝑥, 𝑦) and (−𝑥, −𝑦) are
symmetric with respect to origin. Further, a curve is symmetric with respect to the
origin if for each point (𝑥, 𝑦) of the curve there is also the corresponding point
(−𝑥, −𝑦) on the curve.
An equation can be easily tasted to determine if its graph is symmetric with
respect to either axis or the origin. Consider, for example, the equation 𝑦 2 = 4𝑥 +
8. If 𝑦 is replaced b𝑦 − 𝑦, the equation is not altered. This means that if 𝑦 is given
a value and then the negative of that value, the corresponding values of 𝑥 are the
same. Hence for each point (𝑥, 𝑦) of the graph there is also the point (𝑥, −𝑦) on
the graph. The graph therefore is symmetric with respect to the 𝑥-axis. On the
other hand, the assingning of numerically equal values of opposite signs to 𝑥 leads
to difderent corresponding values for 𝑦. Hence the graph is not symmetric with
respect to the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠. Similarly, it may be observed that the graph is not
symmetric with respect to the origin.
From the definitions of symmetry we have the following tests.

1. If an equation is unchanged when 𝑦 is replaced b𝑦 − 𝑦, then the graph

of the equation is symmetric with respect to the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
2. If an equation is unchanged when 𝑥 is replaced b𝑦 − 𝑥, then the graph
of the equation is symmetric with respect to the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
3. If an equation is unchanged when 𝑥 is replaced b𝑦 − 𝑥 and 𝑦 b𝑦 − 𝑦,
then the graph of the equation is symmetric with respect to the origin.
These types of symmetry are illustrated by the equations
𝑦 4 − 2𝑦 2 − 𝑥 = 0, 𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 + 3 = 0, 𝑦 = 𝑥 3
The graphs of these equations are respectively symmetric with respect to the 𝑥-
axis, the 𝑦-axis, and the origin. Replacing 𝑥 b𝑦 − 𝑥 and 𝑦 b𝑦 − 𝑦 in the third
 10

equation gives −𝑦 = −𝑥 2 , which may be reduced to 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 . Which may be

reduced to 𝑦 = 𝑥 8 .
Extent of a graph. Only real values of 𝑥 and 𝑦 are used in graphing an
equation. Hence no value of other imaginary. Some equations may have any real
value assigned to either variable. On the other hand, an equation by its nature may
place restrictions on the values of the variables. Where there are certain excluded
values, the graph of the equation is correspondingly restricted in its extent.
Frequently the admissible, and therefore the excluded, values are readily
determined by solving the equation for each variable in terms of the order.

EXAMPLE 1. Using the ideas of intercepts, symmetry, and extent, discuss

the equation 4𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 = 36 and draw its graph.
Solution. Setting 𝑦 = 0, we find 𝑥 = ±3. Hence the x-intercepts are −3
and 3. By setting 𝑥 = 0, the y-intercepts are seen to be −2 and 2.
The equation is not changed when x is replaced by −𝑥; neither is it changed
when y is replaced by −𝑦. The graph therefore is symmetric with respect to both
axes and the origin.
Solving the equation for each variable in terms of the other, we obtain
2 3
𝑦 = ± √9 − 𝑥 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 = ± √4 − 𝑦 2
3 2
If 9 − 𝑥 2 is negative, y is imaginary. Hence x cannot have a value
numerically greater than 3. In other words, x takes values from −3 to 3, which is
 11

expressed symbolically by −3 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3. Similarly, values of y numerically greater

than 2 must be excluded. Hence the admissible values for y are −2 ≤ 𝑦 ≤ 2.
A brief table of values, coupled with the preceding information, is sufficient
for constructing the graph. The part of the graph in the first quadrant (Fig. 1-4)
comes from the table; the other is drawn in accordance with the known symmetry.

𝑥 0 1 2 3
2 2
𝑦 2 √8 = 1,9 √5 = 1.5 0
3 3

EXAMPLE 2. Graph the equation 𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 − 12 = 0.

Solution. Setting 𝑦 = 0 and then 𝑥 = 0, we find the 𝑥 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡𝑠 =

±2√3 and the 𝑦 − 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 = 3.

If x is replaced by −𝑥, the equation is unchanged. A new equation results

when y is replaced by −𝑦. Hence the graph is symmetric with respect to the y-
axis, but not with respect to the x-axis or the origin.

Solving the equation in turn for x and y, we obtain

12 − 𝑥 2
𝑥 = ±2√3 − 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦=
4
We see that y must not be greater than 3, but x has no excluded values.
 12

From the preceding facts and the table of values the graph is drawn in Fig.
1-5. Only a part of the graph is indicated because the curve extends downward
indefinitely.

𝑥 0 1 2 3,46 4 5 6

𝑦 3 2,75 2 0 −1 −3,25 −6

EXERCISE 1-3
Discuss each equation with regard to intercepts and symmetry. Determine
excluded values, if any, of each variable, and draw the graph. (See Table 1 in the
Appendix to obtain square roots.)
1. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 16 7. 𝑦 = 𝑥3
2. 𝑦 2 = 9𝑥 8. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥
3. 𝑥2 = 𝑦 − 4 9. 𝑦2 = 𝑥3
4. 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 16 10. 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥
5. 9𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 36 11. 9𝑦 2 − 16𝑥 2 = 144
6. 4𝑥 2 − 9𝑦 2 = 36 12. 25𝑥 2 + 9𝑦 2 = 225

13. Prove that a curve which is symmetric with respect to both axes is
symmetric with respect to the origin. Is the converse true?
14. Prove that a curve which is symmetric with respect to the x-axis and the
origin is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.

1-7 The graph of an equation in factored form. Equations sometimes

appear with one member equal to zero and the other member expressed as the
product of factors in terms of x and y. When an equation is in this form its graph
can be more simply obtained by first setting each of the factors equal to zero. If
the coordinates of a point make one of the factors equal to zero, they make the
product equal to zero and therefore satisfy the given equation. On the other hand,
the coordinates of a point which make no factor equal to zero do not satisfy the
equation. Hence the graph of the given equation consists of the graphs of the
equations formed by setting each of the factors of the nonzero member equal to
zero.
 13

EXAMPLE. Draw the graph of (3𝑥 − 𝑦 − 1)(𝑦 2 − 9𝑥 ) = 0

Solution. Setting each factor equal to zero, we have the equation

3𝑥 − 𝑦 − 1 = 0 and 𝑦 2 − 9𝑥 = 0

INTERSECTIONS OF GRAPHS

The equation 3𝑥 – 𝑦 − 1 = 0 is of the first degree in x and y. We shall see

later that the graph of any first degree equation in two variables is a straight line.
For this reason such equations are called linear. Hence the graph of a linear
equation can be constructed by drawing a line through two points whose
coordinates satisfy the equation. The second equation is not linear, and several
points need to be plotted in order to draw the graph. The graph of the original
equation comprises the two parts shown in Fig. 1-6.

EXERCISE 1-4

Draw the graphs of the following equations:

1. 𝑥2 − 𝑦2 = 0 2. (𝑥 + 1)(2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 4) = 0
 14

3. (𝑥 − 2𝑦 + 3)(2𝑥 + 𝑦 + 7. 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 9𝑦 2 = 0
4) = 0 8. 𝑥(𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4) = 0
4. 𝑥𝑦(𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2) = 0 9.
𝑥2 𝑦2
− 16 = 0
9
5. 𝑥 2 − 𝑥𝑦 − 6𝑦 2 = 0 𝑦2 𝑥2
10. − 25 =
6. 𝑦 2 − 𝑥𝑦 − 4𝑦 = 0 4

1-8 Intersections of graphs. If the graphs of two equations in two variables

have a point in common, then, from the definition of a graph, the coordinates of
the point satisfy each equation separately. Hence the point of intersection gives a
pair of real numbers which is a simultaneous solution of the equations.
Conversely, if the two equations have a simultaneous real solution, then their
graphs have the corresponding point in common. Hence simultaneous real
solutions of two equations in two unknowns can be obtained graphically by
reading the coordinates of their points of intersection. Because of the
imperfections in the process, the results thus found are usually only approximate.
If the graphs have no point of intersection, there is no real solution. In simple
cases the solutions, both real and imaginary, can be found exactly by algebraic
processes.

EXAMPLE 1. Draw the graphs of the equations

𝑦 2 − 9𝑥 = 0

3𝑥 − 𝑦 − 1 = 0

and estimate the coordinates of the points of intersection. Solve the system
algebraically and compare results.

Solution. These are the equations whose graphs are shown in Fig. 1-6.
Referring to this figure, we estimate the coordinates of the intersection points to
be (1, −8) and (1.6, 3.8).

To obtain the solutions algebraically, we solve the linear equation for x and
substitute in the other equation. Thus
 15

𝑦+1 𝑦+1
𝑥= and 𝑦2 − 9 ( )=0
3 3

Whence

3±√21
𝑦 2 − 3𝑦 − 3 = 0 and 𝑦= 2

By substituting these values in the linear equation, the corresponding values for x
(5±√21)
are found to be . Hence the exact coordinates of the intersection points are
6

5+√21 3+√21 5−√21 3−√21

( , 2 ) and ( , )
6 6 2

These coordinates to two decimal places are (1.60,3.79) and (0.7, −79).

EXAMPLE 2. Find the points of intersection of the graphs of

𝑦 = 𝑥3 and 𝑦 =2−𝑥

Solution. The graphs (Fig. 1-7) intersect in one point whose coordinates are
(1,1).

Eliminating y between the equations yields

𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0, or (𝑥 − 𝑙)(𝑥2 + 𝑥 + 2) = 0,
 16

whence

−1+√−7 −1−√−7
𝑥 = 1, ,
2 2

The corresponding values of y are obtained from the linear equation. The
solutions, real and imaginary, are

−1+√−7 5−√−7 −1−√−7 5+√−7

(1,1); ( , ); ( , )
2 2 2 2

The graphical method gives only the real solution.

EXERCISE 1-5

Graph each pair of equations and estimate the coordinates of any points of
intersection. Check by obtaining the solutions algebraically.

1. 𝑥 + 2 = 7, 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 = 5. 7. 𝑦 = 𝑥 3 , 𝑦 = 4𝑥.
2. 2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 3, 5𝑥 + 3𝑦 = 8. 8. 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 1 = 0.
3. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 13, 3𝑥– 2𝑦 = 0. 9. 𝑥 2 − 𝑦 2 = 9, 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 6.
4. 𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 = 0, 𝑦 2 = 6𝑥. 10. 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 3 − 4𝑥, 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 4.
5. 𝑥 2 + 2𝑦 2 = 9, 2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 0. 11. 𝑦 2 = 8𝑥, 2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 4.
6. 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 16, 𝑦 2 = 6𝑥. 12. 𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 25, 4𝑥 2 – 7𝑦 2 = 8.

1-9 Asymptotes. If the distance of a point from a straight line approaches

zero as the point moves indefinitely far from the origin along a curve, then the line
is called an asymptote of the curve. (See Figs. 1-8, 1-9.) In drawing the graph of
an equation it is well to determine the asymptotes, if any. The asymptotes, usually
easily found, furnish an additional aid in graphing. At this stage we shall deal with
curves whose asymptotes are either horizontal or vertical. The following examples
illustrate the procedure.

EXAMPLE 1. Determine the asymptotes and draw the graph of the

equation

𝑥𝑦 = 1
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Solution. The graph is symmetric with respect to the origin. We next notice
that if either variable is set equal to zero, there is no corresponding value of the
other variable which satisfies the equation. This means that there is no intercept
on either axis, and also that zero is an excluded value for both variables. There are
no other excluded values, however.
Solving for y, the equation takes the form
1
𝑦=
𝑥
1 1 1 1
Suppose we give to x successively the values 1, 2, 4, 8, and so on. The
16

corresponding values of y are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, and so on. We see that as x is assigned

values nearer and nearer zero, y becomes larger and larger. In fact, by taking x
small enough, the corresponding value of y can be made to exceed any chosen
number. This relation is described by saying that as x approaches zero, y increases
without limit. Hence the curve extends upward indefinitely as the distances from
points on the curve to the y-axis approach zero. The y-axis is therefore an
asymptote of the curve.
Similarly, if we assign values to x which get large without limit, then y,
being the reciprocal of x, approaches zero. Hence the curve extends indefinitely to
the right, getting nearer and nearer to the z-axis, yet never touching it. The x-axis
is an asymptote of the curve. Since there is symmetry with respect to the origin,
the graph consists of the two parts drawn in Fig. 1-8.
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EXAMPLE 2. Draw the graph of 𝑥 2 𝑦 – 4𝑦 = 8.

Solution. The y-intercept is −2. But if we set 𝑦 = 0, there is obviously no

value of x which will satisfy the equation. Hence there is no x-intercept. The graph
has symmetry with respect to the y-axis but not with respect to the x-axis. The part
of the graph to the right of the y-axis may first be determined and then the other
drawn by the use of symmetry.

Solving the equation for y gives

8
𝑦=
𝑥2
−4
Notice the right member of the equation. We see that it is negative for
−2 < 𝑥 < 2, and the graph in this range is below the x-axis. Further, if x has a
value slightly less than 2, the denominator is near zero. Then the fraction, which is
equal to y, has a numerically large value. As x increases still closer to 2, the
corresponding values of y can be made to increase numerically without limit. If,
however, x approaches 2 through values greater than 2, the values of y are positive
and increase without limit. Hence the line 𝑥 = 2 is an asymptote of the curve
both below and above the x-axis.
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𝑥 0 1 1.5 1.9 1.99 1.999

𝑦 −2 −2.7 −4.6 −20.5 −200 −2005

To examine for a horizontal asymptote, we notice equation (1) and let x

become large without limit. The corresponding values of y approach zero, and
𝑦 = 0 is therefore an asymptote. This asymptote also becomes evident when the
given equation is solved for x. Taking the positive roots, we get

𝑦+2
𝑥 =2√
𝑦

In this form we see that as y approaches zero through positive values, x

increases without limit. This shows that 𝑦 = 0 is an asymptote. This form also
reveals the excluded values of y. Since the radicand is not to be negative, the
values −2 < 𝑦 < 0 are excluded.
The graph is constructed in Fig. 1-9.

In each of the preceding problems the asymptotes are evident when the
equation is solved for each variable in terms of the other. For equations which are
thus readily solvable, we state the following rules.
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13. Solve the given equation for y in terms of x. If the result is a fraction
whose denominator contains x, set each real linear factor of the
denominator equal to zero. This gives the vertical asymptotes.
14. Solve the given equation for x in terms of y. If the result is a fraction
whose denominator contains y, set each real linear factor of the
denominator equal to zero. This gives the horizontal asymptotes.

EXERCISE 1-6
Discuss and sketch the graphs of each of the following equations. Draw the
horizontal and vertical asymptotes.

1. 𝑥𝑦 + 1 = 0
2. 𝑥𝑦 − 𝑧 = 3
3. (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑦 − 1) = 1
4. 𝑥𝑦 + 3𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 8 = 0
5. 𝑥𝑦 2 = 4
6. 𝑥 2𝑦 − 9 = 0
7. 𝑥 2𝑦 = 8
8. 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 = 64
9. 𝑥𝑦 2 + 3𝑦 2 − 4 = 0
10. 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥 2 − 4 = 0
11. 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑦 = 4
12. 𝑥𝑦 2 − 𝑥 − 4 = 0
13. 𝑦 2 (𝑥 + 3) = 10
14. 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 + 4 = 0
15. 𝑦(𝑥 − 2)2 = 16
16. 𝑥𝑦2 + 𝑦2 + 4𝑥 + 4 = 0
17. 𝑥 2 𝑦 + 9𝑦 = 4
18. 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 + 9𝑦 2 = 4
19. 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 − 4𝑦 2 = 0
20. 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 = 0
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21. 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥 2 − 9𝑦 + 16 = 0
22. 𝑥 2 𝑦 − 𝑥 2 − 16𝑦 + 9 = 0
23. 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 − 9𝑦 2 + 16 = 0
24. 𝑥 2 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2 − 16𝑦 2 + 9 = 0