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Maths Class 11 Chapter 5 Part -1 Quadratic equations

1. Real Polynomial: Let a0, a1, a2, … , an be real numbers and x is a real variable. Then, f(x) =
a0 + a1x + a2x2 + … + anxn is called a real polynomial of real variable x with real coefficients.

2. Complex Polynomial: If a0, a1, a2, … , an be complex numbers and x is a varying complex
number, then f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + … + an – 1xn – 1 + anxn is called a complex polynomial or a
polynomial of complex variable with complex coefficients.

3. Degree of a Polynomial: A polynomial f(x) = a0 + a1x + a2x2 + a3x3 + … + anxn , real or

complex is a polynomial of degree n , if an ≠ 0.

4. Polynomial Equation: If f(x) is a polynomial, real or complex, then f(x) = 0 is called a

polynomial equation. If f(x) is a polynomial of second degree, then f(x) = 0 is called a
quadratic equation .

Quadratic Equation: A polynomial of second degree is called a quadratic polynomial.

Polynomials of degree three and four are known as cubic and biquadratic polynomials
respectively. A quadratic polynomial f(x) when equated to zero is called quadratic equation.
i.e., ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a ≠ 0.

Roots of a Quadratic Equation: The values of variable x .which satisfy the quadratic equation
is called roots of quadratic equation.

Important Points to be Remembered

 An equation of degree n has n roots, real or imaginary .

 Surd and imaginary roots always occur in pairs of a polynomial equation with real
coefficients i.e., if (√2 + √3i) is a root of an equation, then’ (√2 – √3i) is also its root. .
 An odd degree equation has at least one real root whose sign is opposite to that of its
last’ term (constant term), provided that the coefficient of highest degree term is
positive.
 Every equation of an even degree whose constant term is negative and the coefficient of
highest degree term is positive has at least two real roots, one positive and one negative.
 If an equation has only one change of sign it has one positive root.
 If all the terms of an equation are positive and the equation involves odd powers of x,
then all its roots are complex.

Solution of Quadratic Equation

1.Factorization Method: Let ax2 + bx + c = α(x – α) (x – β) = O. Then, x = α and x = β will

satisfy the given equation.

2. Direct Formula: Quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ≠ 0) has two roots, given by

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where D = Δ = b2 – 4ac is called discriminant of the equation .

Above formulas also known as Sridharacharya formula.

Nature of Roots

Let quadratic equation be ax2 + bx + c = 0, whose discriminant is D.

(i) For ax2 + bx + c = 0; a, b , C ∈ R and a ≠ 0, if

(a) D < => Complex roots

(b) D > 0 => Real and distinct roots

(c) D = 0 => Real and equal roots as α = β = – b/2a

(ii) If a, b, C ∈ Q, a ≠ 0, then

(a) If D > 0 and D is a perfect square => Roots are unequal and rational.

(b) If D > 0, a = 1; b, c ∈ I and D is a perfect square. => Roots are integral. .

(c) If D > and D is not a perfect square. => Roots are irrational and unequal.

(iii) Conjugate Roots The irrational and complex roots of a quadratic equation always occur in
pairs. Therefore,

(a) If one root be α + iβ, then other root will be α – iβ.

(b) If one root be α + √β, then other root will be α – √β.

(iv) If D, and D2 be the discriminants of two quadratic equations, then

(a) If D1 + D2 ≥ 0, then At least one of D1 and D2 ≥ 0 If D1 < 0, then D2 > 0 ,

(b) If D1 + D2 < 0, then At least one of D1 and D2 < 0 If D1 > 0, then D2 < 0

Roots Under Particular Conditions

For the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + e = 0.

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(i) If b = 0 => Roots are real/complex as (c < 0/c > 0) and equal in magnitude but of opposite
sign.

(ii) If c = 0 => One roots is zero, other is – b / a.

(iii) If b = C = 0 => Both roots are zero.

(iv) If a = c => Roots are reciprocal to each other.

(v) If a > 0, c < 0, a < 0, c > 0} => Roots are of opposite sign.

(vi) If a > 0, b > 0, c > 0, a < 0, b < 0, c < 0} => Both roots are negative, provided D ≥ 0

(vii) If a > 0, b < 0, c > 0, a < 0, b > 0, c < 0} => Both roots are positive, provided D ≥ 0

(viii) If sign of a = sign of b ≠ sign of c => Greater root in magnitude is negative.

(ix) If sign of b = sign of c ≠. sign of a => Greater root in magnitude is positive.

(x) If a + b + c = 0 => One root is 1 and second root is c/a.

Relation between Roots and Coefficients

1. Quadratic Equation: If roots of quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ≠ 0) are α and β, then

Sum of roost = S = α + β = -b/a = – coefficient of x / coefficient of x2 Product of roots = P = α
* β = c/a = constant term / coefficient of x2

2. Cubic Equation: If α, β and γ are the roots of cubic equation ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0.

Then,

3. Biquadratic Equation: If α, β, γ and δ are the roots of the biquadratic equation ax4 + bx3 +
cx2 + dx + e = 0, then
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Symmetric Roots: If roots of quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a ≠ 0) are α and β, then

Formation of Polynomial Equation from Given Roots

If a1, a2 a3,…, an are the roots of an nth degree equation, then the equation is xn – S1Xn – 1 +
S2Xn – 2 – S3Xn – 3 +…+( _l)n Sn = 0 where Sn denotes the sum of the products of roots taken n at
a time.

1. Quadratic Equation
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If α and β are the roots of ‘a quadratic equation, then the equation is x 2 – S1X + S2 = 0

i.e., x2 – (α + β) x + αβ = 0

2. Cubic Equation

If α, β and γ are the roots of cubic equation, then the equation is

3. Biquadratic Equation

If α, β, γ and δ are the roots of a biquadratic equation, then the equation is

Equation In Terms of the Roots of another Equation

If α, β are roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, then the equation whose roots are.

The quadratic function f(x) = ax2 + 2hxy + by2 + 2gx + 2fy + c is always resolvable into linear
factor, iff

abc + 2fgh – af2 – bg2 – ch2 = 0

Condition for Common Roots in a Quadratic Equation

1. Only One Root is Common

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If α be the common root of quadratic equations

a1x2 + b1x + C1 = 0,

and a2x2 + b2x + C2 = 0,

then a1a2 + b1α + C1 = 0,

and a2a2 + b2α + C2 = 0,

By Cramer’s Rule

Hence, the condition for only one root common is

(c1a2 – c2a1)2 = (b1c2 – b2c1)(a1b2 – a2b1)

2. Both Roots are Common

The required condition is

a1 / a2 = b1 / b2 = c1 / c2

(i) To find the common root of two equations, make the coefficient of second degree term in
the two equations equal and subtract. The value of x obtained is the required common root.

(ii) Two different quadratic equations with rational coefficient can not have single common
root which is complex or irrational as imaginary and surd roots always occur in pair.

Properties of Quadratic Equation

(i) f(a) . f(b) < 0, then at least one or in general odd number of roots of the equation f(x) = 0 lies
between a and b.
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(ii) f( a) . f( b) > 0, then in general even number of roots of the equation f(x) = 0 lies between a
and b or no root exist f(a) = f(b), then there exists a point c between a and b such that f'(c) = 0,
a < c < b.

(iii) If the roots of the quadratic equation a1x2 + b1x + c1 = 0, a2x2 + b2x + c2 = 0 are in the ratio
(i.e., &alpha1;/β1 = &alpha2;/β2), then

b12 / b22 = a1c1 / a2c2.

(iv) If one root is k times the other root of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 ,then

(k + 1)2 / k = b2 / ac

Quadratic Expression

An expression of the form ax2 + bx + c, where a, b, c ∈ R and a ≠ 0 is called a quadratic

expression in x .

1. Graph of a Quadratic Expression

We have

y = ax2 + bx + c = f(x)
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Let y + D/4a = Y and x + D / 2a = X

Y = a * X2 => X2 = Y / a

(i) The graph of the curve y = f(x) is parabolic.

(ii) The axis of parabola is X = 0 or x + b / 2a = 0 i.e., (parallel to Y-axis). •
(iii) If a > 0, then the parabola opens upward.
If a < 0, then the parabola opens downward.

2. Position of y = ax2 +bx + c with Respect to Axes.

(i) For D > 0, parabola cuts X-axis in two real and distinct points
i.e, x = -b ± √D / 2a

(ii) For D = 0, parabola touch X-axis in one point, x = – b/2a.

(iii) For D < O,parabola does not cut X-axis (i.e., imaginary value of x).
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3. Maximum and Minimum Values of Quadratic Expression

(i) If a > 0, quadratic expression has least value at x = b / 2a. This least value is given by 4ac –
b2 / 4a = – D/4a. But their is no greatest
value.

(ii) If a < 0, quadratic expression has greatest value at x = – b/2a . This greatest value is given
by 4ac – b2 / 4a = – D/4a. But their is no least value.

4. Sign of Quadratic Expression

(i) a > 0 and D < 0, so f(x) > 0 for all x ∈ R i.e., f(x) is positive for all real values of x.

(ii) a < 0 and D < 0, so f(x) < 0 for all x ∈ R i.e., f(x) is negative for all real values of x.

(iii) a > 0 and D = 0, so f(x) ≥ 0 for all x ∈ R i.e., f(x) is positive for all real values of x except
at vertex, where f(x) = 0.

(iv) a < 0 and D = 0, so f(x) ≤ 0 for all x ∈ R i.e., f(x) is negative for all real values of x except
at vertex, where f(x) = 0.

(v) a > 0 and D > 0

Let f(x) = o have two real roots α and β (α < β), then f(x) > 0 for x ∈ (- ∞, α) ∪ (β,∞) and f (x)
< 0 for all x ∈ (α, β).

(vi) a < 0 and D > 0

Let f(x) = 0 have two real roots α and β (α < β). Then, f(x) < 0 for all x ∈ (- ∞, α) ∪ (β,∞) and
f(x) > 0 for all
x ∈ (α, β). ,

5. Intervals of Roots

In some problems, we want the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 to lie in a given interval.
For this we impose conditions on a, b and c.
Since, a ≠ 0, we can take f(x) = x2 + b/a x + c/a.

(i) Both the roots are positive i.e., they lie in (0,∞), if and only if roots are real, the sum of the
roots as well as the product of the roots is positive.

α + β = -b/a > 0 and αβ = c/a > 0 with b2 – 4ac ≥ 0

Similarly, both the roots are negative i.e., they lie in (- ∞,0) ifF roots are real, the sum of the
roots is negative and the product of the roots is positive.

i.e., α + β = -b/a < 0 and αβ = c/a > 0 with b2 – 4ac ≥ 0

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(ii) Both the roots are greater than a given number k, iFf the following conditions are satisfied

D ≥ 0, -b/2a > k and f(k) > 0

(iii) Both .the roots are less than a given number k, iff the following conditions are satisfied

D ≥ 0, -b/2a > k and f(k) > 0

(iv) Both the roots lie in a’ given interval (k1, k2), iff the following conditions are satisfied

D ≥ 0,k1 < -b/2a < k2 and f(k1) > 0, f(k2) > 0

(v) Exactly one of the roots lie in a given interval (k1, k2), iff

f(k1) f(k2) < 0

(vi) A given number k lies between the roots iff f(k) < O. In particular, the roots of the equation
will be of opposite sign, iff 0 lies between the roots.

⇒ f(0) < 0

Wavy Curve Method

Let f(x) = (x – a1)k1 (x – a2)k2(x — a3)k3 … (x – an – 1)kn – 1 (x – an)kn

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where k1, k2, k3,…, kn ∈ N and a1, a2, a3,…, an are fixed natural numbers satisfying the
condition.

a1 < a2 < a3 < … < an – 1 < an..

First we mark the numbers a1, a2, a3,…, an on the real axis and the plus sign in the interval of
the right of the largest of these numbers, i.e., on the right of an. If kn is even, we put plus sign
on the left of anand if kn is odd, then we put minus sign on the left of an In the next interval we
put a sign according to the following rule.

When passing through the point an – 1 the polynomial f(x) changes sign . if kn – 1 is an odd
number and the polynomial f(x) has same sign if kn – 1 is an even number. Then, we consider
the next interval and put a sign in it using the same rule.

Thus, we consider all the intervals. The solution of f(x) > 0 is the union of all interval in which
we have put the plus sign and the solution of f(x) < 0 is the union of all intervals in which we
have put the minus Sign.

Descarte’s Rule of Signs

The maximum number of positive real roots of a polynomial equation f(x) = 0 is the number of
changes of sign from positive to negative and negative to positive in f(x) .

The maximum number of negative real roots of a polynomial equation f(x) = 0 is the number of
changes of sign from positive to negative and negative to positive in f(x).

Rational Algebraic In equations

(i) Values of Rational Expression P(x)/Q(x) for Real Values of x, where P(x) and Q(x) are
Quadratic Expressions To find the values attained by rational expression of the form a1x2 +
b1x + c1 / a2x2 + b2x + c2

for real values of x.

(a) Equate the given rational expression to y.

(b) Obtain a quadratic equation in x by simplifying the expression,
(c) Obtain the discriminant of the quadratic equation.
(d) Put discriminant ≥ 0 and solve the in equation for y. The values of y so obtained determines
the set of values attained by the given rational expression.

(ii) Solution of Rational Algebraic In equation If P(x) and Q(x) are polynomial in x, then the
in equation P(x) / Q(x) > 0,
P(x) / Q(x) < 0, P(x) / Q(x) ≥ 0 and P(x) / Q(x) ≤ 0 are known as rational algebraic in
equations.

To solve these in equations we use the sign method as

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(a) Obtain P(x) and Q(x).

(b) Factorize P(x) and Q(x) into linear factors.
(c) Make the coefficient of x positive in all factors.
(d) Obtain critical points by equating all factors to zero.
(e) Plot the critical points on the number line. If these are n critical points, they divide the
number line into (n + 1) regions.
(f) In the right most region the expression P(x) / Q(x) bears positive sign and in other region the
expression bears positive and negative signs depending on the exponents of the factors .

Lagrange’s identity

If a1, a2, a3, b1, b2, b3 ≠ R, then

(a12 + a22 + a32) (b12 + b22 + b32) – (a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3)2

= (a1b2 – a2b1)2 + (a2b3 – a3b2 )2 + (a3b1 – a1b3)2

Algebraic Interpretation of Rolle’s Theorem

Let f (x) be a polynomial having α and β as its roots such that α < β, f(α) = f(β) = 0.Also, a
polynomial function is everywhere continuous and differentiable, then there exist θ ∈ (α, β)
such that f'(θ) = 0. Algebraically, we can say between any two zeros of a polynomial f(x) there
is always a derivative f’ (x) = 0.

Equation and In equation Containing Absolute Value

1. Equation Containing Absolute Value

By definition, |x| = x, if x ≥ 0 OR -x, if x < 0

If |f(x) + g(x)| = |f(x)| + g(x)|, then it is equivalent to the system f(x) . g(x) ≥ 0.

If |f(x) – g(x)| = |f(x)| – g(x)|, then it is equivalent to the system f(x) . g(x) ≤ 0.

2.In equation Containing Absolute Value

(i) |x| < a ⇒ – a < x < a (a > 0)

(ii) |x| ≤ a ⇒ – a ≤ x ≤ a
(iii) |x| > a ⇒ x < – a or x > a
(iv) |x| ≥ a ⇒ x le; – a or x ≥ a

3. Absolute Value of Real Number

|x| = -x, x < 0 OR +x, x ≥ 0

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(i) |xy| = |x||y|

(ii) |x / y| = |x| / |y|
(iii) |x|2 = x2
(iv) |x| ≥ x
(v) |x + y| ≤ |x| + |y|
Equality hold when x and y same sign.
(vi) |x – y| ≥ ||x| – |y||

Inequalities

Let a and b be real numbers. If a – b is negative, we say that a is less than b (a < b) and if a – b
is positive, then a is greater than b (a > b).

Important Points to be Remembered

(i) If a > b and b > c, then a > c. Generally, if a1 > a2, a2 > a3,…., an – 1 > an, then a1 > an.

(vii) If a < x < b and a, b are positive real numbers then a2 < x2 < b2
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Important Inequality

1. Arithmetico-Geometric and Harmonic Mean Inequality

(i) If a, b > 0 and a ≠ b, then

(ii) if ai > 0, where i = 1,2,3,…,n, then

(iii) If a1, a2,…, an are n positive real numbers and m1, m2,…,mn are n positive rational
numbers, then
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i.e., Weighted AM > Weighted GM

(iv) If a1, a2,…, an are n positive distinct real numbers, then

(a)

(b)

(c) If a1, a2,…, an and b1, b2,…, bn are rational numbers and M is a rational number, then

(d)

(v) If a1, a2, a3,…, an are distinct positive real numbers and p, ,q, r are natural numbers, then

2. Cauchy – Schwartz’s inequality

If a1, a2,…, an and b1, b2,…, bn are real numbers, such that

(a1b1 + a2b2 + …+ anbn)2 ≤ (a12 + a22 + …, an2) * (b12 + b22 + …, bn2)

Equality holds, iff a1 / b1 = a2 / b2 = an / bn

3. Tchebychef’s Inequality

Let a1, a2,…, an and b1, b2,…, bn are real numbers, such that
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(i) If a1 ≤ a2 ≤ a3 ≤… ≤ an and b1 ≤ b2 ≤ b3 ≤… ≤ bn, then

n(a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 + …+ anbn) ≥ (a1 + a2 + …+ an) (b1 + b2 + …+ bn)

(ii) If If a1 ≥ a2 ≥ a3 ≥… ≥ an and b1 ≥ b2 ≥ b3 ≥… ≥ bn, then

n(a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 + …+ anbn) ≤ (a1 + a2 + …+ an) (b1 + b2 + …+ bn)

4. Weierstrass Inequality

(i) If a1, a2,…, an are real positive numbers, then for n ≥ 2

(1 + a1)(1 + a2) … (1 + an) > 1 + a1 + a2 + … + an

(ii) If a1, a2,…, an are real positive numbers, then

(1 – a1)(1 – a2) … (1 – an) > 1 – a1 – a2 – … – an

5. Logarithm Inequality

(i) (a) When y > 1 and logy x > z ⇒ x > yz

(b) When y > 1 and logy x < z ⇒ 0 < x < yz

(ii) (a) When 0 < y < 1 and logy x > z ⇒ 0 < x < yz

(b) hen 0 < y < 1 and logy x < z ⇒ x > yz

Application of Inequalities to Find the Greatest and Least Values

(i) If xl,x2,…,xn are n positive variables such that xl + x2 +…+ xn = c (constant), then the
product xl * x2 *….* xn is greatest when x1 = x2 =… =xn = c/n and the greatest value is (c/n)n.

(ii) If xl,x2,…,xn are positive variables such that xl,x2,…,xn = c (constant), then the sum xl +
x2 +….+ xn is least when x1 = x2 =… =xn = c1/n and the least value of the sum is n (c1/n).

(iii) If xl,x2,…,xn are variables and ml,m2,…,mn are positive real number such that xl + x2 +….+
xn = c (constant), then xlml * x2m2 *… * xnmn is greatest, when

xl / ml = x2 / m2 =…= xn / mn

= xl + x2 +….+ xn / ml + m2 +….+ mn
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Maths Class 11 Chapter 5 Part -1 Complex Numbers

Imaginary Quantity

The square root of a negative real number is called an imaginary quantity or imaginary number.
e.g., √-3, √-7/2

The quantity √-1 is an imaginary number, denoted by ‘i’, called iota.

Integral Powers of Iota (i)

i=√-1, i2 = -1, i3 = -i, i4=1

So, i4n+1= i, i4n+2 = -1, i4n+3 = -i, i4n+4 = i4n = 1

In other words,

in = (-1)n/2, if n is an even integer

in = (-1)(n-1)/2.i, if is an odd integer

Complex Number

A number of the form z = x + iy, where x, y ∈ R, is called a complex number

The numbers x and y are called respectively real and imaginary parts of complex number z.

i.e., x = Re (z) and y = Im (z)

Purely Real and Purely Imaginary Complex Number

A complex number z is a purely real if its imaginary part is 0.

i.e., Im (z) = 0. And purely imaginary if its real part is 0 i.e., Re (z)= 0.

Equality of Complex Numbers

Two complex numbers z1 = a1 + ib1 and z2 = a2 + ib2 are equal, if a2= a2 and b1 = b2 i.e., Re (z1)
= Re (z2) and Im (z1) = Im (z2).

Algebra of Complex Numbers

1. Addition of Complex Numbers

Let z1 = (x1 + iyi) and z2 = (x2 + iy2) be any two complex numbers, then their sum defined as

z1 + z2 = (x1 + iy1) + (x2 + iy2) = (x1 + x2) + i(y1 + y2)

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Properties of Addition

(i) Commutative z1 + z2 = z2 + z1

(ii) Associative (z1 + z2) + z3 = + (z2 + z3)

(iii) Additive Identity z + 0 = z = 0 + z

Here, 0 is additive identity.

2. Subtraction of Complex Numbers

Let z1 = (x1 + iy1) and z2 = (x2 + iy2) be any two complex numbers, then their difference is
defined as

z1 – z2 = (x1 + iy1) – (x2 + iy2)

= (x1 – x2) + i(y1 – y2)

3. Multiplication of Complex Numbers

Let z1 = (x1 + iyi) and z2 = (x2 + iy2) be any two complex numbers, then their multiplication is
defined as

z1z2 = (x1 + iy1)(x2 + iy2) = (x1x2 – y1y2) + i(x1y2 + x2y1)

Properties of Multiplication

(i) Commutative z1z2 = z2z1

(ii) Associative (z1 z2) z3 = z1(z2 z3)

(iii) Multiplicative Identity z • 1 = z = 1 • z

Here, 1 is multiplicative identity of an element z.

(iv) Multiplicative Inverse Every non-zero complex number z there exists a complex number
z1 such that z.z1 = 1 = z1 • z

(v) Distributive Law

(a) z1(z2 + z3) = z1z2 + z1z3 (left distribution)

(b) (z2 + z3)z1 = z2z1 + z3z1 (right distribution)

4. Division of Complex Numbers

Let z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2 be any two complex numbers, then their division is defined as
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where z2 # 0.

Conjugate of a Complex Number

If z = x + iy is a complex number, then conjugate of z is denoted by z

i.e., z = x – iy

Properties of Conjugate

Modulus of a Complex Number

If z = x + iy, , then modulus or magnitude of z is denoted by |z| and is given by

|z| = x2 + y2.
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It represents a distance of z from origin.

In the set of complex number C, the order relation is not defined i.e., z1> z2 or zi <z2 has no
meaning but |z1|>|z2| or |z1|< | z2 | has got its meaning, since |z| and |z2| are real numbers.

Properties of Modulus
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Reciprocal/Multiplicative Inverse of a Complex Number

Let z = x + iy be a non-zero complex number, then

Here, z-1 is called multiplicative inverse of z.

Argument of a Complex Number

Any complex number z=x+iy can be represented geometrically by a point (x, y) in a plane,
called Argand plane or Gaussian plane. The angle made by the line joining point z to the origin,
with the x-axis is called argument of that complex number. It is denoted by the symbol arg (z)
or amp (z).

Argument (z) = θ = tan-1(y/x)

Argument of z is not unique, general value of the argument of z is 2nπ + θ. But arg (0) is not
defined.

A purely real number is represented by a point on x-axis.

A purely imaginary number is represented by a point on y-axis.

There exists a one-one correspondence between the points of the plane and the members of the
set C of all complex numbers.

The length of the line segment OP is called the modulus of z and is denoted by |z|.

i.e., length of OP = √x2 + y2.

Principal Value of Argument

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The value of the argument which lies in the interval (- π, π] is called principal value of
argument.

(i) If x> 0 and y > 0, then arg (z) = 0

(ii) If x < 0 and y> 0, then arg (z) = π -0
(iii) If x < 0 and y < 0, then arg (z) = – (π – θ)
(iv) If x> 0 and y < 0, then arg (z) = -θ

Properties of Argument
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Square Root of a Complex Number

If z = x + iy, then

Polar Form

If z = x + iy is a complex number, then z can be written as

z = |z| (cos θ + i sin θ) where, θ = arg (z)

this is called polar form.

If the general value of the argument is 0, then the polar form of z is

z = |z| [cos (2nπ + θ) + i sin (2nπ + θ)], where n is an integer.

Eulerian Form of a Complex Number

If z = x + iy is a complex number, then it can be written as

z = rei0, where

r = |z| and θ = arg (z)

This is called Eulerian form and ei0= cosθ + i sinθ and e-i0 = cosθ — i sinθ.

De-Moivre’s Theorem

A simplest formula for calculating powers of complex number known as De-Moivre’s theorem.

If n ∈ I (set of integers), then (cosθ + i sinθ)n = cos nθ + i sin nθ and if n ∈ Q (set of rational
numbers), then cos nθ + i sin nθ is one of the values of (cos θ + i sin θ)n.
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The nth Roots of Unity

The nth roots of unity, it means any complex number z, which satisfies the equation zn = 1 or z
= (1)1/n

or z = cos(2kπ/n) + isin(2kπ/n) , where k = 0, 1, 2, … , (n — 1)

Properties of nth Roots of Unity

1. nth roots of unity form a GP with common ratio e(i2π/n) .

2. Sum of nth roots of unity is always 0.
3. Sum of nth powers of nth roots of unity is zero, if p is a multiple of n
4. Sum of pth powers of nth roots of unity is zero, if p is not a multiple of n.
5. Sum of pth powers of nth roots of unity is n, ifp is a multiple of n.
6. Product of nth roots of unity is (-1)(n – 1).
7. The nth roots of unity lie on the unit circle |z| = 1 and divide its circumference into n
equal parts.

The Cube Roots of Unity

Cube roots of unity are 1, ω, ω2,

where ω = -1/2 + i√3/2 = e(i2π/3) and ω2 = (-1 – i√3)/2

ω3r + 1 = ω, ω3r + 2 = ω2
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Properties of Cube Roots of Unity

(i) 1 + ω + ω2r =
0, if r is not a multiple of 3.
3, if r is,a multiple of 3.

(ii) ω3 = ω3r = 1

(iii) ω3r + 1 = ω, ω3r + 2 = ω2

(iv) Cube roots of unity lie on the unit circle |z| = 1 and divide its circumference into 3 equal
parts.

(v) It always forms an equilateral triangle.

(vi) Cube roots of – 1 are -1, – ω, – ω2.

Geometrical Representations of Complex Numbers

1. Geometrical Representation of Addition

If two points P and Q represent complex numbers z1 and z2 respectively, in the Argand plane,
then the sum z1 + z2 is represented

by the extremity R of the diagonal OR of parallelogram OPRQ having OP and OQ as two

adjacent sides.
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2. Geometrical Representation of Subtraction

Let z1 = a1 + ib1 and z2 = a2 + ia2 be two complex numbers represented by points P (a1, b1) and
Q(a2, b2) in the Argand plane. Q’ represents the complex number (—z2). Complete the
parallelogram OPRQ’ by taking OP and OQ’ as two adjacent sides.

The sum of z1 and —z2 is represented by the extremity R of the diagonal OR of parallelogram
OPRQ’. R represents the complex number z1 — z2.

3. Geometrical Representation of Multiplication of Complex Numbers

R has the polar coordinates (r1r2, θ1 + θ2) and it represents the complex numbers z1z2.

4. Geometrical Representation of the Division of Complex Numbers

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R has the polar coordinates (r1/r2, θ1 – θ2) and it represents the complex number z1/z2.
|z|=|z| and arg (z) = – arg (z). The general value of arg (z) is 2nπ – arg (z).

If a point P represents a complex number z, then its conjugate i is represented by the image of P
in the real axis.

Concept of Rotation

Let z1, z2 and z3 be the vertices of a ΔABC described in anti-clockwise sense. Draw OP and
OQ parallel and equal to AB and AC, respectively. Then, point P is z2 – z1 and Q is z3 – z1. If
OP is rotated through angle a in anti-clockwise, sense it coincides with OQ.

Important Points to be Remembered

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(a) zeiα a is the complex number whose modulus is r and argument θ + α.

(b) Multiplication by e-iα to z rotates the vector OP in clockwise sense through an angle α.

(ii) If z1, z2, z3 and z4 are the affixes of the points A, B,C and D, respectively in the Argand
plane.

(a) AB is inclined to CD at the angle arg [(z2 – z1)/(z4 – z3)].

(b) If CD is inclines at 90° to AB, then arg [(z2 – z1)/(z4 – z3)] = ±(π/2).

(c) If z1 and z2 are fixed complex numbers, then the locus of a point z satisfying arg [([(z –
z1)/(z – z2)] = ±(π/2).

Logarithm of a Complex Number

Let z = x + iy be a complex number and in polar form of z is reiθ , then

log(x + iy) = log (reiθ) = log (r) + iθ

log(√x2 + y2) + itan-1 (y/x)

or log(z) = log (|z|)+ iamp (z),

In general,

z = rei(θ + 2nπ)

log z = log|z| + iarg z + 2nπi

Applications of Complex Numbers in Coordinate Geometry

Distance between complex Points

(i) Distance between A(z1) and B(1) is given by

AB = |z2 — z1| = √(x2 + x1)2 + (y2 + y1)2

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where z1 = x1 + iy1 and z2 = x2 + iy2

(ii) The point P (z) which divides the join of segment AB in the ratio m : n is given by

z = (mz2 + nz1)/(m + n)

If P divides the line externally in the ratio m : n, then

z = (mz2 – nz1)/(m – n)

Triangle in Complex Plane

(i) Let ABC be a triangle with vertices A (z1), B(z2) and C(z3 ) then

(a) Centroid of the ΔABC is given by

z = 1/3(z1 + z2 + z3)

(b) Incentre of the AABC is given by

z = (az1 + bz2 + cz3)/(a + b + c)

(ii) Area of the triangle with vertices A(z1), B(z2) and C(z3) is given by

For an equilateral triangle,

z12 + z22 + z32 = z2z3 + z3z1 + z1z2

(iii) The triangle whose vertices are the points represented by complex numbers z 1, z2 and z3 is
equilateral, if

Straight Line in Complex Plane

(i) The general equation of a straight line is az + az + b = 0, where a is a complex number and b
is a real number.
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(ii) The complex and real slopes of the line az + az are -a/a and – i[(a + a)/(a – a)].

(iii) The equation of straight line through z1 and z2 is z = tz1 + (1 — t)z2, where t is real.

(iv) If z1 and z2 are two fixed points, then |z — z1| = z — z2| represents perpendicular bisector
of the line segment joining z1 and z2.

(v) Three points z1, z2 and z3 are collinear, if

This is also, the equation of the line passing through 1, z2 and z3 and slope is defined to be (z1 –
z2)/z1 – z2

(vi) Length of Perpendicular The length of perpendicular from a point z1 to az + az + b = 0 is

given by |az1 + az1 + b|/2|a|

(vii) arg (z – z1)/(z – z2) = β

Locus is the arc of a circle which the segment joining z1 and z2 as a chord.

(viii) The equation of a line parallel to the line az + az + b = 0 is az + az + λ = 0, where λ ∈ R.

(ix) The equation of a line parallel to the line az + az + b = 0 is az + az + iλ = 0, where λ ∈ R.

(x) If z1 and z2 are two fixed points, then I z — z11 =I z z21 represents perpendicular bisector
of the segment joining A(z1) and B(z2).

(xi) The equation of a line perpendicular to the plane z(z1 – z2) + z(z1 – z2) = |z1|2 – |z2|2.

(xii) If z1, z2 and z3 are the affixes of the points A, B and C in the Argand plane, then

(a) ∠BAC = arg[(z3 – z1/z2 – z1)]

(b) [(z3 – z1)/(z2 – z1)] = |z3 – z1|/|z2 – z1| (cos α + isin α), where α = ∠BAC.

(xiii) If z is a variable point in the argand plane such that arg (z) = θ, then locus of z is a
straight line through the origin inclined at an angle θ with X-axis.

(xiv) If z is a variable point and z1 is fixed point in the argand plane such that (z — z1)= θ, then
locus of z is a straight line passing through the point z1 and inclined at an angle θ with the X-
axis.
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(xv) If z is a variable point and z1, z2 are two fixed points in the Argand plane, then

(a) |z – z1| + |z – z2| = |z1- z2|

Locus of z is the line segment joining z1 and z2.

(b) |z – z1| – |z – z2| = |z1- z2|

Locus of z is a straight line joining z1 and z2 but z does not lie between z1 and z2.

(c) arg[(z – z1)/(z – z2)] = 0 or &pi;

Locus z is a straight line passing through z1 and z2.

(d) |z – z1|2 + |z – z2|2 = |z1 – z2|2

Locus of z is a circle with z1 and z2 as the extremities of diameter.

Circle in Complete Plane

(i) An equation of the circle with centre at z0 and radius r is

|z – z0| = r

or zz – z0z – z0z + z0

 |z — z0| < r, represents interior of the circle.

 |z — z0| > r, represents exterior of the circle.
 |z — z0| ≤ r is the set of points lying inside and on the circle |z — z0| = r. Similarly, |z —
z0| ≥ r is the set of points lying outside and on the circle |z — z0| = r.
 General equation of a circle is

zz – az – az + b = 0

where a is a complex number and b is a real number. Centre of the circle = – a

Radius of the circle = √aa – b or √|a|2 – b

(a) Four points z1, z2, z3 and z4 are concyclic, if

[(z4 — z1)(z2 — z3)]/[(z4 – z3)(z2 – z1)] is purely real.

(ii) |z — z1|/|z – z2| = k ⇒ Circle, if k ≠ 1 or Perpendicular bisector, if k = 1

(iii) The equation of a circle described on the line segment joining z1 and 1 as diameter is (z –
z1) (z – z2) + (z – z2) (z — z1) = 0
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(iv) If z1, and z2 are the fixed complex numbers, then the locus of a point z satisfying arg [(z –
z1)/(z – z2)] = ± π / 2 is a circle having z1 and z2 at the end points of a diameter.

Conic in Complex plane

(i) Let z1 and z2 be two fixed points, and k be a positive real number.

If k >|z1- z2|, then |z – z1| + |z – z2| = k represents an ellipse with foci at A(z1) and B(z2) and
length of the major axis is k.

(ii) Let z1 and z2 be two fixed points and k be a positive real number.

If k ≠ |z1- z2| , then |z – z1| – |z – z2| = k represents hyperbola with foci at A(z1) and B(z2).

Important Points to be Remembered

 √-a x √-b ≠ √ab

√a x √b = √ab is possible only, if both a and b are non-negative.

So, i2 = √-1 x √-1 ≠ √1

 is neither positive, zero nor negative.

 Argument of 0 is not defined.
 Argument of purely imaginary number is π/2
 Argument of purely real number is 0 or π.
 If |z + 1/z| = a then the greatest value of |z| = a + √a2 + 4/2 and the least value of |z| = -a
+ √a2 + 4/2
 The value of ii = e-π2
 The complex number do not possess the property of order, i.e., x + iy < (or) > c + id is
not defined.
 The area of the triangle on the Argand plane formed by the complex numbers z, iz and z
+ iz is 1/2|z|2.
 (x) If ω1 and ω2 are the complex slope of two lines on the Argand plane, then the lines
are

(a) perpendicular, if ω1 + ω2 = 0.
(b) parallel, if ω1 = ω2.