Geology and

drilling theory
 Geology
Minerals and rocks
The earth’s crust consists of a variety of rocks, magnesium and titanium, together with oxygen,
formed under different circumstances. Rocks account for about 99 per cent.
consist of one or more composite minerals. Silicon, aluminium and oxygen occur in our
A mineral is a substance formed by nature. A commonest minerals, quartz, feldspar and
mineral may be an element or may consist of mica. They form the large group known as
chemical compounds containing several ele- silicates, a silicate being a compound formed
ments. There are rather more than 3,000 differ- of silicic acid and other elements. Also included
ent minerals. are amphiboles and pyroxenes, which contain
Of 103 known elements, oxygen is by far the aluminium, potassium and iron. Some of the
commonest, making up about 50 per cent of earth’s commonest rocks, granite and gneiss,
the earth’s crust. Silicon, about 25 per cent, are composed of silicates.
aluminium, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium,

Diagram showing occurrences of

minerals in the earth's crust

1. Lakebed: Calcite 5. Weathered orebodies: Azurite, 8. Metamorphic sandstones: Quartz.

malachite, cuprite.
2. Orebodies: Galena, sphalerite, 9. Metamorphic limestones: Calcite,
chalcopyrite, and pyrite. 6. River valleys: Sediments: Gold, pla- dolomite.
tinum, diamond, cassiterite, magne- 10.Metamorphic shales: Garnet, mica,
3. Weathered shale: Kaolin, bauxite tite. feldspar.
and other shales.
7. Volcanic rocks: Feldspar, quartz, 11. Contact zones: Garnet, horn-
4. Weathered sandstone: Quartz. olivine, hornblende, magnetite, mica. blende, sulphides.

2
 Oxygen often occurs in combination with produced when the mineral is scratched against
metallic elements and forms our oxidic ores (the unglazed, white porcelain (e.g. an ordinary elec-
iron ores magnetite and hematite). tric fuse).
Sulphur readily combines with metallic ele- Fracture is the surface produced by breaking
ments and forms sulphide ores (galena, sphal- off a piece of mineral, not following a crystal-
erite, molybdenite, arsenopyrite. lographically defined plane. Fracture is usually
Halogenides (fluorite, halite), carbonates uneven in one way or another.
(calcite, dolomite, malachite), sulphates (barite), Cleavage denotes the properties of a crystal
tungstates (scheelite) and phosphates (apatite) whereby it allows itself to be split along flat
are other large mineral groups. surfaces parallel with certain formed or oth-
Gold, silver, copper and lead are elements erwise crystallographically defined surfaces.
that can occur as native metals.
Feldspar accounts for almost 50 per cent of
the mineral composition of the earth’s crust. The properties of rocks
Next come the pyroxene and amphibole miner-
als, closely followed by quartz and mica. These In order to be able to forecast the result of drill-
minerals make up about 90 per cent of the ing in respect of penetration rate, hole quality,
composition. drill-steel costs, etc., we must be able to make
Some of the characteristics of the minerals a correct appraisal of the rock concerned. In
are hardness, density, colour, streak, lustre, doing so we distinguish between microscopic
fracture, cleavage and crystalline form. and macroscopic properties. A rock is com-
Hardness can be graded according to the posed of grains of various minerals, and among
Moh’s 10-point scale. the microscopic properties are mineral compo-
sition, grain size, and the form and distribution of
Easily scratched with the the grains. Taken together, these factors decide
1. Talc important properties of the rock, such as hard-
fingernail.
ness, abrasiveness, compressive strength and
Just barely scratched with the
2. Gypsum density. These properties, in their turn, deter-
fingernail.
mine the penetration rate that can be achieved
Very easily scratched with a and how heavy the tool wear will be.
3. Calcite
knife. The drillability of a rock depends on, among
other things, the hardness of its constituent
4. Fluorite Easily scratched with a knife. minerals and on the grain size and crystal form.
Quartz is one of the commonest minerals in
5. Apatite Can be scratched with a knife. rocks. Since quartz is a very hard material, a
high quartz content (SiO2) makes the rock very
Hard to scratch with a knife, can hard to drill and causes heavy wear, particularly
6. Orthoclase on the drill bits. We say that the rock is abrasive.
be scratched with quartz.
Conversely, a rock with a high content of calcite
Scratches glass, can be is easy to drill and causes little wear on the drill
7. Quartz
scratched with a hardened file. bits.
Scratches glass, can be As regards crystal form, minerals with high
8. Topaz symmetry, e.g. cubic (galena) are easier to drill
scratched with emery.
than minerals with low symmetry, e.g. fibrous
Scratches glass, can be (amphiboles and pyroxenes).
9. Corundum
scratched with a diamond. A coarse-grained structure is easier to drill in
and causes less wear than a fine-grain struc-
10. Diamond Scratches glass. ture. Consequently, rocks with essentially the
same mineral content may be quite different
Molybdenite, hardness 1.5, blackens a thumb as regards drillability. For example, quartzite
that is rubbed against it. may be fine-grained, grain size 0.5-1 mm, or
The density of light-coloured minerals is for dense, grain size 0,05 mm, while a granite may
the most part below 3.0. Exceptions are barite be coarse-grained, grain size > 5 mm, medium-
or heavy spar (BaSO4), density 4.5, scheelite grained (grain size 1-5 mm) or fine-grained (grain
(CaWO4), density 6.0, and cerussite (PbCO3), size 0.5-1 mm).
density 6.5 Dark-coloured minerals with some A rock can also be classified on the basis of
iron, silicates, have densities between 3.0 and its structure. If the mineral grains are mixed in
4.0. Ore minerals have densities over 4.0. Gold a homogeneous mass, the rock is massive (e.g.
has a very high density at 19.3, and tungsten at granite). In mixed rocks the grains are arranged
19.4. The highest density is shown by osmium in layers. A slaty rock also has the minerals
and iridium, 22.5. arranged in different layers, but in this case
Streak is the colour of the mineral powder pressure and heat have compacted each layer

3
 in plates.
Among the macroscopic properties are slati- Igneous rock
ness, fissuring, contact zones, layering, veining
and inclination. These factors are often of great Igneous rocks are formed when a magma solid-
significance in drilling. For example, cracks or ifies deep down in the earth’s crust (plutonic
inclined and layered formations can cause hole rock), or as it rises towards the surface (dyke
deviation and can occasionally cause drilling rock) or on the surface (volcanic rock). The most
tools to get stuck. Soft rocks make it difficult to important constituents (minerals) are quartz
achieve good hole quality, since the walls often and silicates of various composition, chiefly
cave in and in extreme cases the flushing air dis- feldspars. Plutonic rocks solidify slowly and are
appears into cracks in the rock without reaching therefore coarse-grained, while volcanic rocks
the surface. solidify quickly and become fine-grained.
The enormous variety of rocks and rock for- Depending on whether the magma solidifies
mations makes it impossible to give the subject at depth, or as a dyke rock, or on the surface, the
adequate treatment in just a few pages. We rock is given different names even if the compo-
must therefore content ourselves with giving sition is the same. This is evident from the table
a summary description of the more important below, which also shows that it is customary to
rocks and referring interested readers to the classify the igneous rocks by their silicon con-
literature of the subject for further study. tent (SiO2). The greater the silicon content, the
larger the amount of quartz in the rock will be.
Rocks are classified into three main groups
on the basis of their origin and the way in which
they were formed:
1. Igneous or magmatic rocks (formed from
SiO2 content Plutonic Dykes Volcanic
solidified lava or ”magma”).
Basic Gabbro Diabase Basalt
2. Sedimentary rocks (formed by deposition of <52%SiO2
broken material or by chemical precipitation).
3. Metamorphic rocks (formed by the transfor-
Intermediary Diorite Porphyrite Andesite
52–65%
mation of igneous or sedimentary rocks, in SiO2 Syenite Syenite Trachyte
most cases by an increase in pressure and porphyry
heat).
Acid Quartz Quartz Dacite

>65% SiO2 diorite porphyrite

Granodiorite Granodiorite Rhyodacite

porphyry

Granite Quartz Rhyolite

porphyry

Fig 1. Igneous rocks

Some common igneous rocks

Native copper in basalt.

(White Pine Copper. U.S.)

4
 Sedimentary rocks
Sedimentary rocks are formed by the deposi-
tion of material by mechanical or chemical
action and a consolidation of this material under
the pressure of overlying layers. It frequently
occurs that the rock formation is broken down
by mechanical action (weathering), carried away
by running water and deposited in still water.
Thus the original rock will determine the char-
acteristics of the sedimentary rock. The weath-
ering or erosion may proceed at different rates
depending partly on climate and partly on how
easily the rock breaks up.
Sedimentary rocks can also arise as a result of
the chemical precipitation of minerals or by pro-
Pegmatite, also called graphic granite, in which the
liferation of organic organisms, as for example
whitish-grey veins are quartz in reddish-brown feldspar. in coral reefs or carbon deposits. Since forma-
The flaky element is muscovite mica. tion takes place by deposition, several distinct
(Forshammars bergverk, Sweden) layers can often be observed in a sedimentary
formation. Sedimentary rocks make up a very
heterogeneous family with widely varying char-
acteristics.

Rock Original material

Conglomerate Gravel, stones, boulders
Greywacke Clay, gravel
Sandstone Sand
Argillaceous Clay
schist
Aluminous slate Clay plus organisms
Limestone Calcium carbonate or various
organisms

Fig 2. Sedimentary rocks

Diabase with lime-filled gas blisters. Volcanic rock that

has solidified rapidly. The upper part is vitreous diabase.
(Katrineholm, Sweden) Some common sedimentary rocks

Granite Sandstone with an undulating structure, showing that it is

(Älvdalen, Sweden) an old lakebed. (Mångsbodarna, Sweden)

5
 flux, and the various rock formations may be
subjected to very powerful forces. The result
is deformation in one way or another, and in
nature we may therefore observe, for example,
pronounced folding, crushed zones, faults and
other phenomena that can have a telling effect
on drilling.

Rock Original rock Degree of

metamorphism

Amphibolite Basalt, diabase, gabbro High

Mica-schist Mudstone, Medium/high

greywacke, etc.

Gneiss Various igneous rocks High

Dolomite limestone, well banded.
(North Bay, Canada) Greenschist Basalt, diabase, gabbro Low

Quartzite Sandstone Medium/high

Leptite Dacite Medium

Slate Shale Low

Veined Silicic-acid-rich High

gneiss silicate rocks

Fig 3 Metamorphic rocks

Hematite, with quartz bands.

(Norberg, Sweden)

Some common metamorphic rock

Metamorphic rocks
The effects of chemical action or increased
pressure and/or temperature on a rock forma-
tion can some­times be so great that it produces
a transformation, which the geologist calls
metamorphism. For example, pressure and
temperature might increase under the influence
of up-welling magma, or because the formation
has sunk down deeper into the earth’s crust.
This results in the recrystallization of the mineral
grains or the formation of new minerals. A char-
acteristic of the metamorphic rocks is that they
are formed without any complete melting. They
are also frequently hard or very hard, and also
compact and fine-grained, and are therefore
often difficult to drill. Amphibolite which is a heavily metamorphosed gabbro.
The earth’s crust is in a constant state of (Norberg, Sweden)

6
Green skarn, in which the green constituent is epidote. Chalcopyrite in a metamorphic environment.
(Bäckegruvan, Sweden) (Bäckegruvan, Sweden)

Gneiss. Metamorphosed granite. Can be recognized by Grey leptite with folded quartz bands.
the banding. (Malingsbo, Sweden) (Bäckegruvan, Sweden)

Chlorite schist with a folded structure. Rose-pink calcite marble. Metamorphosed from
(Senja, Norway) limestone. (Gråmyren, Uppland, Sweden)

7
 The higher the DRI, the higher penetration
Rock classification rate. Figure 4 shows how the DRI can vary from
one rock to another.
Many attempts have been made to classify BWI stands for ”bit-wear index”, and gives an
rocks on the basis of their drillability, and various indication of how fast the bit wears down. It is
measuring methods have been evolved with determined by an abrasive test. The higher the
the aim of making it possible to predict produc- BWI, the faster will be the wear. In most cases
tivity and tool wear by carrying out a laboratory the BWI and the DRI are inversely proportional
test before a rock job begins. The term ”drillabil- to each other, so that a high DRI will give a low
ity” is used here to mean primarily the rate at BWI and vice versa. However, the presence of
which the tool penetrates into the rock, but in hard minerals may pro­duce heavy wear on the
the wider sense it extends to the resulting hole bit despite relatively good drillability. This is
quality, the straightness of the hole, the risk of particularly true in the case of quartz. The quartz
tool jamming etc. Tool wear is often proportional content has been shown to exert great influ-
to drillability, though it also depends on how ence on wear, which explains why a relatively
abrasive the rock is. easily drilled sandstone, for example, can cause
very heavy wear on the bits. In other cases,
metamorphic, compact, quartz-bearing rocks
may also prove to be very difficult to drill. Other
examples of hard minerals that impair drillability
are certain sulphides in orebodies.

Fig. 4. Relationship between drilling-rate index and

various rock types.

The drillability of a given rock is determined

by a number of factors. Foremost among these
are the mineral composition, the grain size and
the brittleness. Attempts are often made to
describe drillability by stating the compressive
strength or hardness; these are crude methods
but they will often suffice for rough calculations.
The Norwegian Technical University has devel-
oped a more sophisticated method for calculat-
ing the DRI and BWI. DRI, the drilling-rate index,
describes how fast the drill steel can penetrate;
it also includes on the one hand a measurement
of brittleness and on the other hand drilling with
a small rotating bit into a sample of the rock.

8
 Drilling theory
Principle of percussive
drilling
The energy required to break the
rock is generated by a pneumatic
or hydraulic rock drill. Machines
of this kind build up a pressure
which, on being released, drives
the piston forward (Fig. 1). The
piston strikes on the shank adap-
tor. The kinetic energy of the
piston is converted into a stress
wave which travels along the drill
string to the rock. Fig 1
In order to obtain the best pos­sible drilling
economy the whole system, i.e. rock drill – drill
steel – rock, must harmonize. On the following
pages we give a theoretical description of how
this is achieved in hydraulic rock drills.

Wave shape and output

power
Theoretically, the wave has a rectangular shape.
Its length is twice that of the piston, while its
Fig 2
height (Fig. 2) depends on the speed of the
piston at the moment of impact and on the rela-
tionship between the cross-sectional area of
the piston and that of the drill steel.
The total energy that the wave contains is
indicated diagramatically by the grey field in fig.
2. To calculate the output power obtained from
a rock drill we multiply the wave energy by the
impact frequency of the piston, and it is usually
stated in kW. The designer seeking to evolve
rock drills with special characteristics will com-
bine several variables, such as the piston geom-
etry, the impact rate and the frequency. Two
machines with the same nominal power rating Fig 3
might therefore behave quite differently.
The shock waves that are generated by
hydraulic (Fig. 3) and pneumatic (Fig. 4) rock
drills are different in shape. A drill steel used
with hydraulic machines will normally show a
substantially longer service life than one used
with pneumatic machines, the reason being
that the stress level is higher with a pneumatic
piston.
This is due to the fact that the pneumatic
piston has a larger cross-section, and this in
its turn is explained by the circumstance that a
considerably greater cross-section is needed,
since the pneumatic drill operates at a substan- Fig 4

9
 tially lower working pressure, 6-8 bars as com- How much force does this produce for the
pared with the 150-250 bars found with hydrau- drill steel to transmit to the rock so that the drill
lic systems. The slimmer the piston, the lower bit can crush it? An extension rod with a diam-
will be the stress produced in the drill steel. eter of 38 mm has a cross-sectional area of
Fig. 5 shows three pistons, of which the about 975 mm2, and with a stress of 25 kg/mm2
upper one is the piston of a pneumatic rock drill the shock wave in the drill steel gives us a force
operating at a pressure of 0.8 MPa (8 bars), the of 25 x 975 = 24,500 kg or 24.5 tonnes.
middle one is a hydraulic piston operating at a If we are to transmit that amount of power to
pressure of 12 MPa (120 bars) and the lower one the rock in a drill string it is easy to understand
is a hydraulic piston operating at a pressure of how important it is for the equipment to be
20 MPa (200 bars). The pistons in this example ”braced up” as well as possible, meaning that
are of the same weight, and their impact speed, the drill support and other ”guide equipment”
i.e. the speed at which the piston hits the adap- on the rig must be in the best possible condition
tor, is also the same (normally about 10 m/sec.). (e.g. guides on the cradle of the rock drill).
If we calculate the stress in the drill steel
produced by these three pistons we get the
diagram shown at the bottom of fig. 5. It reveals
that the lowest stress (shock-wave ampli-
tude) is obtained with the long, slender piston
(No. 3).

Fig 6

Efficiency and losses

The wave loses some of its energy, 6-10 per
cent or so, for every coupling on its way along
the drill string. This loss is due in part to the
difference in the cross-sectional area between
rod and sleeve and in part to the fact that the
rod faces are never in perfect contact with each
other. The poorer the contact, the greater the
energy loss.
When the shock wave reaches the bit the
latter is forced against the rock, thereby crush-
ing it. The efficiency at the bit never reaches 100
per cent. Some of the energy is reflected back in
the form of a tensile pulse. The poorer the con-
tact between the bit and the rock, the poorer
Fig 5 will be the efficiency. (Fig. 7)

If we measure the stress in the drill steel for

pistons 2 and 3 we get the diagram shown in
Fig. 6. From this diagram we see that the stress
in the drill steel is 250-300 MPa (25-30 kg/
mm2) and that the ”primary shock wave” has a
length of about 1,200 mm, which is the speed of
sound in steel, 5,200 m/sec., multiplied by the
time in thousands of a second, 0.23 msec.

0.23 1.2 M = 1,200 mm

5,200 x =
1,000
Fig 7

10
 cussion pressure and thus to vary the energy
Rock-drill development transmitted to the rock.
A professional rockdriller knows his rock and
The development of rock drills has gone ahead
his equipment, the drilling machine just as well
very fast since the hydraulic breakthrough at
as the drill steel, and he knows how to utilize his
the beginning of the 1970s, and it is not going to
equipment in the right way to achieve optimal
get any slower in the future. Hydraulics makes
drilling economy. He knows how to make proper
these things possible. If we study a drilling oper-
use of the drilling parameters:
ation with a 25-metre-long string of extension
rods we can calculate how many shock waves
can pass through this drill steel per second. We • Percussion pressure
stated earlier on that the shock wave travels • Feed force
through the drill steel at a speed of 5,200 m/
sec. We do not want to have more than one • Rotation
shock wave travelling along the drill steel at
any one time, which means that the spacing
between the shock waves must be greater than
the length of the ”drilling package”. If we put this Percussion pressure
figure at 30 metres, it means that we can have
a percussive rock drill that in theory will strike The percussion pressure that we select gives us
the drill steel 5,200/30 ≈ 175 times per sec. A the percussion energy. The higher the percus-
COP 1238 delivers 50 blows a sec., meaning sion pres­sure, the higher will be the speed of
in theory that we could treble the percussion the piston and in consequence the higher will
frequency without increasing the stress in the be the energy. If we are working on a very hard
drill steel. We can manage this by increasing the rock and the bit and rock are in good contact,
oil throughput, meaning that we must increase we can utilize maximum energy in the shock
the power output of the drive motors and the wave. If we are not in contact with the rock
pumps. Apart from this there are no differences and strike with the bit ”up in the air” the energy
in principle. In point of fact, however, the matter cannot leave the drill string; it reverses direction
is by no means as problem-free as it sounds. down in the bit and travels back into the drill
A very rapid percussion rate brings other trou- steel, but instead of a pressure wave we get a
bles in its train. tensile wave of the same ”power”, i.e. 24 tonnes.

Fig 9

The shock wave can also be illustrated sche-

Fig 8 matically in the manner shown in fig. 9.
The power contained in the shock wave (Fs) is
The great advantage of hydraulic rock drills, 24.5 tonnes for a 38-mm drill steel, assuming
apart from the fact that they are easier on the full utilization of the percussion mechanism in
drill steel, is that they enable us to vary the per- for example a COP 1238 rock drill from Epiroc.

11
 The shock wave is transported at a velocity VS
of 5200 m/s. The force contained in the drill
steel before and after the shock wave is only the
feed force FM, which is around 1.0-1.5 tonnes.
Only when the front portion of the shock wave
reaches the front of the bit is a force FS of 24.5
tonnes obtained between the bit and the rock
and it is at this moment that the bit commences
its penetration into the rock. The length of the
shock wave in an Epiroc COP 1238 is about 1200
mm.
All materials are compressed under load
Fig 10
and if a rod with a diameter of 38 mm and a
length of 1200 mm is subjected to a load of 24.5
tonnes, the rod is compressed about 1.2 mm. In area of 2A. The force Frock is equal to the com-
other words, in the shock wave the drill still is pressive strength of the rock x a factor K x the
shortened by about 1.2 mm. Since the volume area A. The factor K is depending on the nature
is constant, the drill steel will also be thickened of the rock but is normally between 7 and 10, the
in the actual shock wave (see Fig. 9). While the surface pressure between button and rock thus
shock wave is passing the front of the bit, the being 7-10 times greater than the compressive
drill steel resumes its original length, so that strength of the rock. If, for example, the factor
when the shock wave has left the drill steel the for granite (2200 bar) is K = 10, then the surface
drill steel becomes 1.2 mm longer than when pressure between button and rock is 22000
the shock wave is in the drill steel. This ”elonga- kp/cm2. If Fbutton reaches double its value (4
tion” takes only 0.23 thousandths of a second tonnes) an area 2A is obtained which is equal to
and it is during this time that the penetration of
the cemented carbide into the rock takes place. 4000 = 0.19 cm2

The compression which can be accom- 22000
plished in the shock wave and the correspond- which gives a contact diameter of approxi-
ing ”elongation” of the drill steel, which is mately 5 mm. There is thus only a very small
obtained when the shock wave leaves the drill portion of the button that actually comes into
steel, is also a measure of the maximum pene- contact with the rock.
tration that can be obtained irrespective of how Assume that we instead are drilling in very
loose the formations being drilled in acutally soft rock where, on account of the soft nature
are. A rock drill intended for drilling in soft rock of the rock, the maximum penetration is very
can for example be designed with a very long easily obtained and where on penetration i = imax
piston, which gives a long shock wave. For a = 1.2 mm, the resistance of the rock is less than
maximum highest permissible stress in the drill Fbutton. Let us also assume that the resistance of
steel it thus gives an increased compression of the rock is 1.2 tonnes and that Fbutton is 2 tonnes.
the drill steel. If we compare with the example We now have a tensile stress in the drill steel
above and the piston should be 1.2 mm, the which is the difference between Fbutton and Frock
shock wave will be 2.4 m and with the same (2.0 - 1.2 = 0.8 tonne) times the number of but-
force (FS = 24.5 tonnes) the compression per tons, in this case 12 x 0.8 = 9.6 tonnes.
blow will be 2.4 mm. With a changing load from a compression of
In bench drilling with a 76-mm bit with 12 24.5 tonnes to a tensile load of 9.6 tonnes a sub-
buttons and a setting of the percussion pres- stantially shorter drill steel life is obtained than if
sure so that we obtain the maximum force of we go from 24.5 to 0 in compression. To obtain
24.5 tonnes in the shock wave, we get a force the best possible drill steel life the percussion
of about 2 tonnes per button when the shock pressure must be changed so that Fbutton is
wave reaches the front of the buttons. The adapted to the resistance offered by the rock,
rock in which we are drilling permits a certain in this case 1.2 tonnes. In other words, Fs must
penetration of the button until the rock gives a be lowered from about 24 tonnes to about 14
resistance of the same magnitude (2 tonnes). tonnes. This is achieved by reducing the percus-
See fig. 10 sion pressure.
If, for example, Fbutton = 2 tonnes and when A is Consequently, it is only with sufficiently hard
so large that the hardness of the rock gives Frock rocks that we can utilize the maximum energy
= 2 tonnes, the penetration = p ceases. If, now, ”p” per blow. With very soft rocks the percus-
is smaller than the maximum penetration which sion pressure (percussion energy) will have to
is 1.2 mm, the force of 2 tonnes is reflected as a be reduced, so that we deliver the amount of
reflecting shock wave. For a brief moment Fbut- energy that the rock can take in order to reduce
ton is then doubled to 4 tonnes and the button the reflected energy in the form of a tensile
can, in theory, penetrate until we have a contact wave in the drill string. Fig.11.

12
Fig 11 Fig 13

For any given percussion pressure, the ampli-

tude, and with it the stress in the drill steel, Rotation
will be higher the lower its cross-section is. In
The purpose of rotation is to turn the drill bit to
order to get the longest possible service life
a suitable point for the next blow. For button
from shank adaptors and rods we must there-
bits we recommend that the periphery of the
fore ensure that the working pressure is at all
bit should be turned about 10 mm after each
times suited to the drilling equipment we have
blow. To take an example, a 76-mm drill bit has
chosen. Fig 12.
a circumference of 76 x 3.14 = 240 mm, and if
we want it to turn 10 mm for each blow from
the rock drill this bit would have to be moved
240/10 = 24 times per revolution.
If the impact frequency is 3,000 blows/min.
(COP 1238) this will give 3,000/24 = 125 rpm as
the rotation rate.
If the impact frequency is 1,800 blows/min.
(a typical figure for a pneumatic machine), this
would give 1,800/24 = 75 rpm. It will be appar-
ent from this that the rotation rate must be
increased for a higher impact frequency and for
a reduced bit dimension. (See fig. 14.)
Fig. 12. The percussion pressure must be reduced when
the steel dimension is reduced.

With the same hammer and with the same

setting of the percussion pressure, we get the
same amount of energy delivered to the drill
steel per blow. In other words, if we select a drill
steel with a diameter of 32 mm instead of one
with a diameter of 38 mm we will still have 24.5
tonnes as the power in the shock wave, and this
will give us an increase in the specific stress,
which can be disastrous for the drill steel.

Feed
The feed must always be suited to the per-
cussion pressure, a high percussion pressure
requiring a high feed and a low percussion pres-
sure requiring a lower feed. (See Fig. 13.)
The purpose of the feed is to keep the drill bit
against the rock, but since the feed is applied
the whole time the drill bit must still be able to
rotate. Fig 14
The feed will normally be around 500-1,500
kg, depending on the rock drill we are using.

13
 Fig. 15. Rotation rate as a function of bit diameter.

Fig. 16. Ppm in relation to rpm penetration rate

Fig. 15 shows in the form of a graph how the In DTH drilling the same formula as above
rpm changes with changing bit size. The graph can be used to calculate the rotation rate, but
is valid for a hydraulic machine operating at the result of the calculation gives the rate in soft
about 3,000 blows/min. rock and must be halved when drilling in hard
The procedure in practice is that the driller rock.
sets the percussion pressure that the rock can Example: A 165-mm drill bit with a hammer
take, and then sets the rpm with due regard to giving 1800 blows/min. The circumference of
the frequency and the bit diameter. When he the bit is 165 x π = 520 mm
then begins to drill he adjusts the feed so that
he gets nice, smooth rotation without jerks. This No. of blows/r = 520 = 52
tells him that he has got the feed right. If he 10
doesn’t succeed with this, which will show up
in the service life of the adapter, the percussion Rotation rate (soft rock) = 1800 = 35 rpm
pressure will have to be reduced and a new trial 52
will have to be carried out to find a feed that
gives the nice, smooth rotation he wants. Rotation rate (hard rock) = 35 = 17.5 rpm
The temperature of the adaptor sleeve can be 2
checked to make sure that the drilling param- In some rocks, drilling problems arise what-
eters are correct. Immediately after a rod has ever parameters we are using. It is difficult to
been drilled the temperature is measured. For keep the couplings together while drilling. In
dry drilling the temperature should be 60-70° order to tighten the couplings during drilling we
(max 100°) and for wet drilling approximately 40° need to increase the friction of the bit against
(max 60°). the bottom of the hole. We can do this by:
As mentioned above, the adapter will imme-
diately indicate to the driller whether the drill-
ing parameters are right. Short adapter lives 1. increasing the feed,
accompanied by failure, often arising from ”pit- 2. increasing the rotation rate, or
tings” in the thread are a sign that parameters 3. changing the bit.
are at fault. Do we have to adjust all our param-
eters in that case? Not always; it may be enough If alternatives 1 and 2 do not help,
to try altering the rotation rate in order to hold we must resort to 3.
the couplings together better. And the nice
thing about this is that the rotation speed is not When it comes to drill bits the insert bits have
particularly critical to the penetration rate, as fig. the best rotation resistance, followed by button
16 makes clear, especially if we raise the rpm. bits with pointed buttons, while the poorest
If insert bits are used, what should the rotation rotation resist­ance is found with button bits
rate be with these? Recommendations differ, having spherical buttons. And remember this:
but it is generally believed that the rotation rate worn bits, insert or button, always give poorer
should be faster, roughly 25 %. In other words, rotation resistance than new or newly ground
if the periphery of a button bit shifts 10 mm bits. Conclusion: regrind in good time!
between consecutive blows that of an insert bit
should be shifted 12.5 mm.

14
Flushing
As the power output from rock drills increases,
accompanied by increases in penetration rate,
efficient flushing becomes more and more
significant. The flushing medium is normally air
for surface drilling and water for underground
drilling. So what do we expect from effective
flushing?

The purpose of flushing is to:

1. clean the bottom of the hole ready for the

next blow,
2. carry the cuttings out of the hole.

The first of these tasks usually gives no trou-

ble. But it is necessary to make sure that the
passageways for the cuttings on the sides of Fig 17
the drill bit are sufficient, and that the flushing
holes in the drill bit are so directed that effective
cleaning of the hole bottom is ensured.
Task No. 2, however, demands rather more,
and the ability of air to carry the cuttings away The necessary air volume can be calculated,
will depend on the cuttings, as follows: since we know the bit diameter and the rod
diameter for the drilling operation under notice.
If, for example, we are using T38 equipment and
1. Specific gravity a drill bit 76 mm in diameter the annular cross-
Higher specific gravity calls for a higher sectional area between the drill steel and the
flushing speed (more flushing air). wall of the hole. (Fig. 18)

2. Particle size (762 - 382) π

≈ 3400 mm2
4
The larger the particles obtained in breaking
the rock, the higher will be the necessary
flushing speed. 3400 2
or m
3. Particle shape 106
The more equilateral the particles are, the
greater will be the necessary flushing speed. With an air velocity of 10 m/sec., the volume
To illustrate this, it is easy to carry away a is given by:
particle in the shape of a leaf than one of the 10 x 3400 0.034 m3/sec.
same weight which is spherical. V = =
106
or about 35 litres/sec.

If, on the other hand, we want to drill holes

with a diameter of 102 mm using T38 equip-
ment, the annular cross-sectional area is given
by:

(1022 - 382) π 7030 mm2

A = =
4
Air flushing 7030 2
or 6 m
The air speed up in the drill-hole for a normal 10
rock with a density of 2.0 tonnes/m3 must be at With an air velocity of 10 m/sec., the volume
least 10 m/sec. It can be reduced if the density is given by
is lower, and must be increased if it is higher. For
example, an iron ore with a density of 4 tonnes/
m3 may call for an air speed of 25-30 m/sec. in 10 x 7030 70 l/sec.
V = =
the drill hole (Fig. 17). 106

15
 This is a combination that is unsuitable not
only from the standpoint of flushing. The normal Water flushing
air capacity is 50-60 l/sec. for rigs with a com-
pressor on board. Since water has a considerably better lifting
The indicated air demand in litres/sec. must capacity than air it will be sufficient to have a
be compared with what is available, this being velocity of 0.5 metres/sec. in the annular area,
stated as the air capacity in free air for the com- a considerably lower velocity than is needed
pressor in question. with air.
In drilling long holes upwards we have to bear
in mind that we get a backpressure of 1 bar for
every 10 metres, and this backpressure has to
be overcome (Fig. 19)

Fig 19

Fig 18

16
Notes

17
 Notes

18
Notes

19
 9866 0262 01 Subjected to alterations without prior notice. © Epiroc Drilling Tools AB. All rights reserved. 2018.09.

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20