EARTH AND LIFE

SCIENCE
CHAPTER 4:
ROCKS AND MINERALS
LEARNING COMPETENCIES
• classify rocks into igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic
• compare and contrast the formation of
different types of igneous rock
• describe how layers of rocks (strata) are
formed
• describe the change in mineral
components and texture of rocks due to
change in pressure and temperature
(metamorphism)
LEARNING COMPETENCIES
• identify common rock-forming minerals
using their physical and chemical
properties
• devise ways to facilitate own learning
• display scientific values and attitudes
ROCK CYCLE
 lithification, compacting,
cementing

uplift, weathering,
Sedimentary Rocks transportation, Sediments
deposition
uplift,
heat and weathering, weathering,
pressure transportation, transportation,
deposition
deposition

Metamorphic Rocks heat and pressure Igneous Rocks

melting cooling and

crystalization
Magma
IGNEOUS ROCKS
Igneous rocks got their name from Latin
ignis, meaning “fire.” This makes sense
because these rocks are formed by
volcanic activity.
Recall the structure and characteristics of
the core and mantle. The temperature is
very high that the materials melt. Magma is
molten rock generated by partial melting
of rocks in Earth’s mantle. Magma consists
mainly of silicon (as silica), and oxygen and
lesser amounts of aluminum (Al), calcium
(Ca), sodium (Na), potassium (K),
magnesium (Mg), and iron (Fe).
TYPES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
When molten rock solidifies at the surface
(lava), it is called extrusive igneous rock or
volcanic rock. However, most magma lava
loses it mobility before reaching the
surface and crystallizes at depth. Igneous
rocks formed at depth are referred to as
intrusive igneous rocks or plutonic rocks.
Igneous rocks may be characterized by
their texture and composition. Texture
describes the overall appearance of the
igneous rocks based on the size, shape, and
arrangement of their interlocking crystals.
The rate of cooling strongly influences
crystal size. Slow cooling of magma results
in the formation of large crystals. On the
other hand, rapid cooling results into the
formation of small crystals.
• Coarse-grained – grains (crystals) can be
seen with bare eyes
• Medium-grained – grains can only be
through a hand lens
• Fine-grained – grains can only be seen
through the microscope
A mineral’s composition is based on the
chemical makeup of its parent magma.
Rocks may be divided according to their
coloration:
• Light-colored, such as granite and
rhyolite; composed of feldspar and
quartz.
• Medium-colored, such as diorite and
andesite
• Dark-colored, such as gabbro rock and
basalt; composed mainly of pyroxene,
calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar.
Table 4.1. Igneous Rocks Classified by Composition
Texture/Color Light Medium Dark
Coarse-grained Granite Diorite Gabbro
(Intrusive)
Fine-grained Rhyolite Andesite Basalt
(Extrusive)
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
The process by which the sediments are
transformed into solid sedimentary rocks
is called lithification. One of the most
common processes in the rock cycle is
compaction. As piles of sediments
accumulate, the underlying materials are
compacted by the weight of the overlying
layers. As the grains are pressed, pore
spaces are greatly minimized, reducing the
volume. Shale, a fine-grained sedimentary
rock, is formed through compaction.
Another process by which sediments are
converted into sedimentary rock is
through cementation. The water that seeps
through pore spaces between particles
may contain cementing materials. Through
time, the cement settles into the sediment
grains, fills the open spaces, and then binds
the particles together. Common cements
include calcite, silica, and iron oxide.
Sedimentary rocks are of particular
importance to Earth’s history. As layer
upon layer of sediments are accumulated,
they carry with them the records of the
nature of the environment at the time the
sediments are deposited. These layers are
called strata. They are the distinctive
characteristics of sedimentary rocks.
Fossils are only found in sedimentary
rocks.
TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
There are two types of sedimentary rocks
based on their sources. These are
detrimental sedimentary rocks and
chemical sedimentary rocks.
1. Detrimental sedimentary rocks –
These rocks come from weathered
rocks such as igneous rocks.
TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
There are two types of sedimentary rocks
based on their sources. These are
detrimental sedimentary rocks and
chemical sedimentary rocks.
2. Chemical sedimentary rocks –
These rocks come from soluble
materials produced largely by chemical
weathering. The basis for grouping is
their chemical composition.
Table 4.2. Classification of Sedimentary Rocks Based on Particle Size
Particle Size Sediment Rock
Gravel (rounded particles) Conglomerate
Coarse
Gravel (angular particles) Breccia
Medium Sand Sandstone
Fine Mud Siltstone
Very fine Mud Shale
Table 4.3. Classification of Sedimentary Rocks Based on Chemical Composition
Composition Rock Name
Limestone
Fossil ferrous
Calcite
Biochemical limestone
Chalk
Chert (light-colored)
Quartz
Flint (dark-colored)
Gypsum Rock gypsum
Halite Rock salt
Altered plant fragments Bituminous rock
Gravel and sand are used in the
construction of buildings and roads. The
main composition of chalk is calcium
carbonate. Glass is made up of silica (SiO2).
Gypsum is the main ingredient of plaster of
paris. Halite is rock salt used in cooking
and seasoning foods.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks came from preexisting
rocks called parent rocks. The preexisting
rocks may undergo changes in the
mineralogy, texture (like grain size), and
chemical composition by the action of heat,
pressure (stress), and chemical agents. The
process of transformation of parent rocks
is called metamorphism.
The most important agent of
metamorphism is heat that may come from
magma rising from below. The parent rocks
is “baked” by the magma. Another source
of heat is when the rocks formed at the
surface of Earth are transplanted to
greater depth. As rocks go deeper,
temperature increases. Heat causes
chemical reactions that result in
recrystallization of existing minerals and/or
formation of new minerals.
Another metamorphic agent is pressure or
stress. Like temperature, pressure
increases with depth. Pressure causes the
spaces between mineral grains in the
buried rocks to close, producing a more
compact rock with higher density. At
greater depth, minerals may recrystallize
into new minerals that display a more
compact structure.
The other metamorphic agents are
chemically-active fluids. These include
water, carbon dioxide, and other volatile
materials. They act as catalysts to promote
crystallization by enhancing ion migrations
that may change the composition of the
rock.
Table 4.4. Common Metamorphic Rocks
Rock Name Description Parent Rock
Slate foliated; fine grained shale
foliated; medium to coarse- granite, volcanic rock
Gneiss
grained
non-foliated; medium to limestone
Marble
coarse-grained
Common metamorphic rocks have
economic value. Slate is used for roof, floor,
tile, chalkboard, and billiard tables. Marble
is a popular building stone because of its
color (pink, gray, green, black) and relative
softness. White marble is used for statues
and monuments.
ROCK IDENTIFICATION
Recall your activity on classifying rock
samples. You were asked to classify your
rock samples and explain the basis of your
classification. What procedure did you use?
Compare your procedure with the guide
on the next slide:
 Examine rock. Look for the following
characteristics:

There is has visible sedimentary may be foliated; has no

arrangement of layer; not foliated and mineral crystals; no layers
mineral crystals:
there is no fossils generally weak; may be and fossils
and foliation broken by a hammer; may
contain fossils

Igneous Rock Sedimentary Rock Metamorphic Rock

describe color describe particle identify as

and texture size and mineral foliated or
nonfoliated
MINERALS
Is mineral the same as rock? Mineral is
different from a rock. A mineral is a solid
inorganic compound, represented by a
chemical formula. A rock is an aggregate of
one or more minerals. For example, coal is
a sedimentary rock composed of carbon.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF
MINERALS
Do you know that there are over 5,000
approved mineral species? The stones are
usually named after the name of the
discoverer, and/or location where the
mineral was found; its name may also be
based on their chemical composition, and
properties. The common suffix of mineral
is –ite, meaning “belonging to.”
CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
Minerals may be classified based on their
crystal structure. Crystal structure
describes the orderly geometric spatial
arrangement of atoms of a mineral.
Table 4.5. Crystal Structures
Crystal Family Length
Isometric a=b=c

Hexagonal a=b≠c

Orthorhombic a≠b≠c

Tetragonal a=b≠c

Monoclinic a≠b≠c

Triclinic a≠b≠c
CRYSTAL HABIT
Crystal habit refers to the overall shape of
a mineral. Common shapes include
needlelike (acicular), plantlike (dendritic),
kidney-shaped (reniform), elongated in one
direction (prismatic), and broad and flat
(tabular).
HARDNESS
Hardness refers to the mineral’s resistance
to scratch. This property is dependent on
the chemical composition and the
crystalline structure of a mineral.
HARDNESS
The most common scale of measurement
is Moha scale. It is describe by ten
indicators. A mineral with a higher index
can scratch the minerals below it.
Table 4.6. Mohs Scale of Hardness
Hardness Mineral Since the minerals of the Mohs scale
1 Talc are not always available, there is
2 Gypsum another way of the identifying
hardness. It is through the field
3 Calcite
hardness scale. This is done by rubbing
4 Fluorite the mineral against the fingers or
5 Apatite other tools.
6 Feldspar
7 Quartz
8 Topaz
9 Corundum
10 Diamond
Table 4.7. Field Hardness Guide
Scale Description
1 Can be rubbed off on a finger
2 Can be scratched with a finger nail
3 Can be scratched with a coin
4 Can be scratched with difficulty
with a knife
5 Can be scratched with a knife blade
6 Can be scratched with a piece of
glass
7 Can be scratched with a piece of
quartz
8-10 Minerals too hard to be included in
this scale
COLOR AND STREAK
Minerals come in different colors especially
mineral gems. Mineral gems are rare and
are used to make jewelry. Examples of
mineral gems commonly referred to as
gemstones include diamond, emerald,
sapphire, ruby, opal, aquamarine, turquoise,
jade, peridot, topaz, garnet, amethyst,
sunstone, and others.
COLOR AND STREAK
The streak of a mineral refers to the color
of the mineral in powdered form. You can
do streak test plate (back side of a
porcelain tile). The streak may or may not
be the same as the body color of the
mineral.
TRANSPARENCY AND LUSTRE
A mineral is transparent (like muscovite) if
it allows the light to pass through and you
can see objects through. It is opaque (like
hematite) if light cannot pass through and
you cannot see object through it. In
between a transparent and opaque is
translucent. It allows some light to pass
through and objects cannot be clearly seen
through it. An example is of a translucent
mineral jadeite.
TRANSPARENCY AND LUSTRE
Lustre indicates how light is reflected off a
surface of a mineral. There are qualitative
terms to describe this property, such as
metallic (galena and pyrite), vitreous or
glass (silicates), pearly (talc), dull (hematite),
greasy (halite), and silky (gypsum).
CLEAVAGE
Cleavage refers to the mineral’s resistance
to being broken. It describes how a mineral
breaks along weakness plain. The quantity
of cleavage can be described in how clearly
or easily the mineral breaks, like perfect,
good, distinct, poor, or indistinct.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Specific gravity describes the mineral’s
density in comparison to the density of a
standard like water. Specific gravity can be
determined using a balance.