How Piaget Developed The Theory: Preoperational Stage
How Piaget Developed The Theory: Preoperational Stage
How Piaget Developed The Theory: Preoperational Stage
Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of mental development. His theory focuses not only on understanding
how children acquire knowledge, but also on understanding the nature of intelligence. 1
Piaget's stages are:
Piaget believed that children take an active role in the learning process, acting much
like little scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn about
the world. As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new
knowledge, build upon existing knowledge, and adapt previously held ideas to
accommodate new information.
Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by his
observations of his own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced his
budding hypothesis that children's minds were not merely smaller versions of adult
minds.
Up until this point in history, children were largely treated simply as smaller versions of
adults. Piaget was one of the first to identify that the way that children think is different
from the way adults think.
Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than
adults, they simply think differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple
only a genius could have thought of it."
The Stages
The Sensorimotor Stage
The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping,
looking, and listening
Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen
(object permanence)
They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around
them
During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire
knowledge through sensory experiences and manipulating objects. A child's entire
experience at the earliest period of this stage occurs through basic reflexes, senses,
and motor responses.
It is during the sensorimotor stage that children go through a period of dramatic growth
and learning. As kids interact with their environment, they are continually making new
discoveries about how the world works.
The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively
short period of time and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to
perform physical actions such as crawling and walking; they also learn a great deal
about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also broke this stage
down into a number of different substages. It is during the final part of the sensorimotor
stage that early representational thought emerges.
By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an
existence of their own outside of individual perception, children are then able to begin to
attach names and words to objects.
The Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development
The Preoperational Stage
Ages: 2 to 7 Years
Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects.
Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.
While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think
about things in very concrete terms.
The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous
stage, but it is the emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the
preoperational stage of development. 3
Children become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development,
yet continue to think very concretely about the world around them.
At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the
point of view of other people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of
constancy.
For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and
then give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is
rolled into a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since
the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece even
though the two pieces are exactly the same size.
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events
They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid
in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example
Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a
general principle
While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in
development, they become much more adept at using logic. 2 The egocentrism of the
previous stage begins to disappear as kids become better at thinking about how other
people might view a situation.
While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can
also be very rigid. Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and
hypothetical concepts.
During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how
other people might think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to
understand that their thoughts are unique to them and that not everyone else
necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions
Ages: 12 and Up
At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason
about hypothetical problems
Abstract thought emerges
Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political
issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information
The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use
deductive reasoning, and an understanding of abstract ideas. 3 At this point, people
become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to problems and think more
scientifically about the world around them.
The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the
formal operational stage of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for
the future and reason about hypothetical situations are also critical abilities that emerge
during this stage.
It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a
quantitative process; that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to
their existing knowledge as they get older. Instead, Piaget suggested that there is
a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process through these four
stages.4 A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information about the world than he did
at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.
You can remember the order of these stages by using the mnemonic: “old (oral)
age (anal) pensioners (phallic) love (latent) grapes (genital).
Overview
So what exactly did Erikson's theory of psychosocial development entail? Much like
Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that personality developed in a series of stages.
Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages, however, Erikson's theory described the
impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in how
social interaction and relationships played a role in the development and growth of
human beings.
If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes
referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will
emerge with a sense of inadequacy in that aspect of development.
At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for
everything they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a
caregiver fails to provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that they
cannot trust or depend upon the adults in their life.
Outcomes
If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world. 2
Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to
feelings of mistrust in the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in
fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
During the first stage of psychosocial development, children develop a sense of trust
when caregivers provide reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to
mistrust.
No child is going to develop a sense of 100% trust or 100% doubt. Erikson believed that
successful development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing
sides. When this happens, children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an
openness to experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.
Potty Training
The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal
control over physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an
important role in helping children develop this sense of autonomy.
Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However,
Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that
learning to control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of
independence. Other important events include gaining more control over food choices,
toy preferences, and clothing selection.
Outcomes
Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a
sense of personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads
to feelings of autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.
Finding Balance
Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those
who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that
achieving a balance between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which
is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits.
Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those
who fail to acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of
initiative.
Outcomes
The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to
begin asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to
a sense of purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval,
resulting in a sense of guilt.
When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is
achieved, the ego quality known as purpose emerges.
This Is How Children Develop a Sense of Initiative
Outcomes
Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a
feeling of competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no
encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be
successful.
During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. 2
Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal
exploration will emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of
independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will
feel insecure and confused about themselves and the future.
What Is Identity?
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and
values that help shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage
successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society's
standards and expectations.
While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he
placed a particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is
the conscious sense of self that we develop through social interaction and becomes a
central focus during the identity versus confusion stage of psychosocial development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and
information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new
experiences, we also take on challenges that can help or hinder the development of
identity.
Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that
endures through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences
and interactions with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs,
and behaviors as we age.
Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with
other people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are
enduring and secure.
Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by
the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.
Intimacy vs. Isolation: Forming Intimate Relationships With Others
Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your
accomplishments, watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of
unity with your life partner are important accomplishments of this stage.
How People Develop a Sense of Generativity vs Stagnation
At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who
look back on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of
their lives with a sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will instead
feel fearful that their lives will end without accomplishing the things they feel they should
have.
Outcomes
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted
and may experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of bitterness and
despair.
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity.
Successfully completing this phase means looking back with few regrets and a general
feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain wisdom, even when confronting
death.
Level 1: Preconventional
Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled.
Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and teachers.
A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society’s
conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on external
consequences that certain actions may bring.
Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation
Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For
example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is punished;
the worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is perceived to be.
Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is defined
by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two reasoning
shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it might further
the individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty
or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my back, and I’ll scratch yours” mentality.
An example would be when a child is asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks
“what’s in it for me?” and the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an
allowance.
Level 2: Conventional
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and
societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this
is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and
societal order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these
stages, and a rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.
In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval.
Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.
In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in
maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for everyone, and
obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as valuable and important.
Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited in
stage three. If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an
obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules. Most active members of society remain
at stage four, where morality is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.
Level 3: Postconventional
Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms
of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust
and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that
individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules
inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their
own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life,
liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than
absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional
individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions,
their behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with that of those at
the pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many people may
never reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.
Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such
perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community.
Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not
promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest
good for the greatest number of people. This is achieved through majority decision and
inevitable compromise. Democratic government is theoretically based on stage five
reasoning.
Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for emphasizing justice to the exclusion of other
values, with the result that it may not adequately address the arguments of those who
value other moral aspects of actions. Similarly, critics argue that Kohlberg’s stages are
culturally biased—that the highest stages in particular reflect a westernized ideal of
justice based on individualistic thought. This is biased against those that live in non-
Western societies that place less emphasis on individualism.