UNIVERSITY FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

COURSE:
CHILD DEVELOPMENT

NAME: BILALIBAN DANICIA TAWUME

ID: 22016696
 Q1. EXPLAIN THE ASSUMPTIONS BASIC TO PIAGETS THEORY

Jean Piaget is famous for his theories regarding changes in cognitive development that occur as
we move from infancy to adulthood.

A child’s cognitive development is not just about acquiring knowledge, the child has to develop
or construct a mental model of the world.

Cognitive development occurs through the interaction of innate capacities (nature) and

environmental events (nurture), and children pass through a series of stages.

Piaget was employed at the Binet Institute in the 1920s, where his job was to develop French
versions of questions on English intelligence tests. He became intrigued with the reasons
children gave for their wrong answers to the questions that required logical thinking.

He believed that these incorrect answers revealed important differences between the thinking of
adults and children.

Piaget branched out on his own with a new set of assumptions about children’s intelligence:

 Children’s intelligence differs from an adult’s in quality rather than in quantity. This means
that children reason (think) differently from adults and see the world in different ways.

 Children actively build up their knowledge about the world. They are not passive creatures
waiting for someone to fill their heads with knowledge.

 The best way to understand children’s reasoning is to see things from their point of view.

Piaget did not want to measure how well children could count, spell or solve problems as a way
of grading their I.Q. What he was more interested in was the way in which fundamental concepts
like the very idea of number, time, quantity, causality, justice, and so on emerged.

Piaget studied children from infancy to adolescence using naturalistic observation of his own
three babies and sometimes controlled observation too. From these, he wrote diary descriptions
charting their development.

He also used clinical interviews and observations of older children who were able to understand
questions and hold conversations

Q2. Describe the characteristic of each stage

THE SENSORIMOTOR STAGE

Ages: Birth to 2 Years

 The first stage is the sensorimotor stage, and during this stage, the infant focuses on physical
sensations and on learning to coordinate their body.

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 The infant learns about the world through their senses and through their actions (moving
around and exploring their environment).

 During the sensorimotor stage, a range of cognitive abilities develop. These include: object
permanence;
self-recognition (the child realizes that other people are separate from them); deferred
imitation; and representational play.

 They relate to the emergence of the general symbolic function, which is the capacity to
represent the world mentally

 At about 8 months, the infant will understand the permanence of objects and that they will still
exist even if they can’t see them and the infant will search for them when they disappear.

During the beginning of this stage, the infant lives in the present. It does not yet have a mental
picture of the world stored in its memory therefore it does not have a sense of object
permanence.

If it cannot see something, then it does not exist. This is why you can hide a toy from an infant,
while it watches, but it will not search for the object once it has gone out of sight.

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 – 7 Years

Piaget’s second stage of intellectual development is the preoperational stage. It takes place
between 2 and 7 years. At the beginning of this stage the child does not use operations, so the
thinking is influenced by the way things appear rather than logical reasoning.

A child cannot conserve which means that the child does not understand that quantity remains
the same even if the appearance changes.

Furthermore, the child is egocentric; he assumes that other people see the world as he does. This
has been shown in the three mountains study.

As the pre-operational stage develops egocentrism declines and children begin to enjoy the
participation of another child in their games and “let’s pretend “play becomes more important.
 Toddlers often pretend to be people they are not (e.g. superheroes, policeman), and may play
these roles with props that symbolize real life objects. Children may also invent an imaginary
playmate.

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Toddlers and young children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through
language and mental imagery.

 During this stage, young children can think about things symbolically. This is the ability to
make one thing, such as a word or an object, stand for something other than itself.

 A child’s thinking is dominated by how the world looks, not how the world is. It is not yet
capable of logical (problem solving) type of thought.

 Moreover, the child has difficulties with class inclusion; he can classify objects but cannot
include objects in sub-sets, which involves classify objects as belonging to two or more
categories simultaneously.

 Infants at this stage also demonstrate animism. This is the tendency for the child to think that
non-living objects (such as toys) have life and feelings like a person’s.

THE CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE

Ages: 7 – 11 Years

By the beginning of the concrete operational stage, the child can use operations (a set of logical
rules) so she can conserve quantities, she realizes that people see the world in a different way
than he does (decentering) and he has improved in inclusion tasks. Children still have difficulties
with abstract thinking.

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events.

 Children begin to understand the concept of conservation; understanding that, although things
may change in appearance, certain properties remain the same.

 During this stage, children can mentally reverse things (e.g. picture a ball of plasticine
returning to its original shape).
 During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other
people might think and feel.

The stage is called concrete because children can think logically much more successfully if they
can manipulate real (concrete) materials or pictures of them.

Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the child’s cognitive development
because it marks the beginning of logical or operational thought. This means the child can work
things out internally in their head (rather than physically try things out in the real world).

Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight (age 9). Conservation is the
understanding that something stays the same in quantity even though its appearance changes.

But operational thought is only effective here if the child is asked to reason about materials that
are physically present. Children at this stage will tend to make mistakes or be overwhelmed
when asked to reason about abstract or hypothetical problems.

THE FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE

Ages: 12 and Over

The formal operational period begins at about age 11. As adolescents enter this stage, they gain
the ability to think in an abstract manner, the ability to combine and classify items in a more
sophisticated way, and the capacity for higher-order reasoning.

Adolescents can think systematically and reason about what might be as well as what is (not
everyone achieves this stage).. This allows them to understand politics, ethics, and science
fiction, as well as to engage in scientific reasoning.

Adolescents can deal with abstract ideas: e.g. they can understand division and fractions without
having to actually divide things up, and solve hypothetical (imaginary) problems.

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Concrete operations are carried out on things whereas formal operations are carried out on
ideas. Formal operational thought is entirely freed from physical and perceptual constraints.

 During this stage, adolescents can deal with abstract ideas (e.g. no longer needing to think
about slicing up cakes or sharing sweets to understand division and fractions).

 They can follow the form of an argument without having to think in terms of specific
examples.
 Adolescents can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions. E.g. if asked
‘What would happen if money were abolished in one hour’s time? They could speculate about
many possible consequences.

From about 12 years children can follow the form of a logical argument without reference to its
content. During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts, and
logically test hypotheses.

Q3. EXPLAIN PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

Physical development refers to the advancements and refinements of motor skills, or, in other
words, children’s abilities to use and control their bodies. Physical development is one of the
many domains of infant and toddler development. It relates to the growth and skill of
development in the body, including the brain, muscles, and senses. For example, babies learn
about the world as they develop their physical senses of sight, touch, smell, sound, and taste. In
fact, babies can even hear before they are born. Very early on newborns are interested in looking
at faces, bright colors, and contrasting patterns. Within several days after birth an infant can
recognize its mother’s smell and the sound of her voice. From birth, infants are aware of the
world around them. Their ability to grow, develop, and learn occurs quickly as they explore the
world through their senses and use motor skills.

Q4. EXPALIN FACTORS THAT AFFECTS PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT

There are many factors affecting physical development of Children. Some importance
factors are given below:
(i) Heredity:
Development depends upon the potentials that child gets from his parents. These potentials
decide the limit of development of a child, e.g., height, weight, body structure, etc.
(ii) Nutrition:
The nutrition that child gets before birth or after birth affects his development. If the child
gets good nutrition he develops well and completes his developmental tasks. His bones,
muscles and internal organs also develop well.
(iii) Immunization at proper time saves the child from various diseases:
This helps the child to grow properly. Children who suffer from infectious diseases become
weak and their body development lags behind.
(iv) Proper ventilation:
Sunlight and pure air helps in good body development. Sun rays are good source of Vitamin
D which makes bones of the child strong.
(v) Endocrine gland:
Hormones help in the development of the child. Secretions of thyroid and parathyroid
glands help in the growth and development of bones and body. Hypo secretion of pituitary
gland makes the child midget and hyper secretion makes the child abnormally tall. Thyroxin
secreted by thyroid gland controls the physiological activities of the body.
(vi) Pre-natal period:
Health of the mother, her nutrition, immunization, her mental state affect the baby in the
womb as the body of the fetus develops in the womb of the mother. If the mother is healthy
and tension free then the development of the baby will be good. Even after birth such babies
grow well.
(vii) Family:
Family where the development of the baby takes place directly affects the development of
the child. It provides proper atmosphere, opportunities, encouragement to the child to
explore his environment so that he develops himself through this exploration.
(viii) Sex difference:
At the time of birth the rate of physical development is more but it is different in boys and
girls. In the beginning bones and muscle development is better in girls but till the end of
childhood boys also grow and are ahead of girls. Sexually girls mature faster.
(ix) Intelligence:
It has been seen that intelligence affects the physical development. Children who are
intelligent grow fast physically and children with low intelligence achieve their
developmental tasks at a slow speed.
Q5. DESCRIBE FEATURES OF EACH STAGE OF DEVELOPMENT
The Five Categories of Child Development
Looking at only one category of development is like trying to decide if your daughter is doing
well at school and only looking at her math scores. These five categories show a fuller
developmental picture. 
For many children, these areas often develop at the same time. Helping your child grow in one
area can facilitate his development in other areas. 
1. Cognitive
This is your child’s ability to use logic and problem-solving skills, including the skill of thinking
about thinking. Cognitive development can include areas like information processing, reasoning,
memory, and language development.
It is theorized there are four major stages of cognitive development, each with its own
milestones. But these stages aren’t about the amount of knowledge a kid knows.  Rather, they’re
about how children process and think about that information. A child in an earlier stage might
have more information and knowledge than one in a later stage but lack the skills to process that
information. 

2. Social and Emotional

Your child needs to know how to interact with himself and others in a healthy and manageable
way. You need to make sure that he is able to be socially aware and an active member of
society. 
For an infant, a social and emotional milestone can be as simple as a sociable smile. But you
should watch an older child to see the more complex ways she interacts with other kids, adults,
and people of authority like teachers and coaches. 

3. Speech and Language

Being able to communicate is a major developmental skill for every child. This can include an
infant babbling and practicing basic vowel noises or a grade-schooler using basic vocabulary to
create a fictional story. 
Language development can start as soon as a 12-month-old starts to say his first words and
should continue into adulthood. The goal is to empower your child to have the words she needs
to understand the world and express herself in that world. 

4.  Fine Motor Skills

Physical development in early childhood is the groundwork to important lifelong skills like
writing and self-care. These movements use the small muscles in the hand, fingers, and thumb
and are involved in tasks like getting dressed, eating, and writing. 
If your child is struggling to develop fine motor skills, play can help, which might include
drawing with chalk, building with legos, or putting together puzzles.
UNIVERSITY FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

COURSE:
INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE

NAME: BILALIBAN DANICIA TAWUME

ID: 22016696
Q1. DISCUSS THE FOLLOWING AS THEY PERTAIN TO DRAMA

THEME

The theme of a play refers to its central idea. It can either be clearly stated through dialog or
action, or can be inferred after watching the entire performance. The theme is the philosophy that
forms the base of the story or a moral lesson that the characters learn. It is the message that the
play gives to the audience. For example, the theme of a play could be of how greed leads to
one’s destroyal, or how the wrong use of authority ultimately results in the end of power. The
theme of a play could be blind love or the strength of selfless love and sacrifise, or true
friendship. For example, the play Romeo and Juliet, is based on a brutal and overpowering
romantic love between Romeo and Juliet that forces them to go to extremes, finally leading them
to self-destruction.

PLOT

The order of events occurring in a play make its plot. Essentially, the plot is the story that the
play narrates. The entertainment value of a play depends largely on the sequence of events in the
story. The connection between the events and the characters in them form an integral part of the
plot. What the characters do, how they interact, the course of their lives as narrated by the story,
and what happens to them in the end, constitutes the plot. A struggle between two individuals,
the relation between them, a struggle with self, a dilemma, or any form of conflict of one
character with himself or another character in the play, goes into forming the story’s plot. The
story unfolds through a series of incidents that share a cause-and-effect relationship. Generally, a
story begins with exposing the past or background of the main and other characters, and the point
of conflict, then proceeds to giving the central theme or climax. Then come the consequences of
the climax and the play ends with a conclusion.

CHARACTERS

The characters that form a part of the story are interwoven with the plot of the drama.
Each character in a play has a personality of its own and a set of principles and beliefs. Actors in
the play have the responsibility of bringing the characters to life. The main character in the play
who the audience identifies with, is the protagonist. He/she represents the theme of the play. The
character that the protagonist conflicts with, is the antagonist or villain. While some characters
play an active role throughout the story, some are only meant to take the story forward and some
others appear only in certain parts of the story and may or may not have a significant role in it.
Sometimes, these characters are of help in making the audiences focus on the play’s theme or
main characters. The way in which the characters are portrayed and developed is known as
characterization.

Q2, GIVE BRIEF DEFINITIONS OF THE FOLLOWING

 CLIMAX: Turning point of the story. Reader’s or audience wonders what will happen
next; will the conflict be resolved or not? Consider the climax as a three-fold
phenomenon: • Main character receives new information. • Main character accepts this
information (realizes it but does not necessarily agree with it). • Main character acts on
this information (makes a choice that will determine whether or not objective is met).
 DYNAMIC; Character undergoes an important change in personality hi the story o
Comes to some sort of realization that permanently changes the character. A change
occurs within the character because of the events of the story The protagonist is usually
dynamic,
 STATIC CHARACTER: Remains the same throughout the story although something
may happen to the character, it does not cause the character to change.

Q3. DISCUSS CHARACTER AND ITS MAIN CHARACTERISTICS IN DRAMA

The main character in the play who the audience identifies with, is the protagonist. He/she
represents the theme of the play. The character that the protagonist conflicts with, is the
antagonist or villain. While some characters play an active role throughout the story, some are
only meant to take the story forward and some others appear only in certain parts of the story and
may or may not have a significant role in it. Sometimes, these characters are of help in making
the audiences focus on the play’s theme or main characters. The way in which the characters are
portrayed and developed is known as characterization.
Q4. DISCUSS THE FOLLOWING AS SEEN IN THE PLOT OF DRAMA
a. Exposition is a literary term that refers to the part of a story that sets the stage for the
drama to follow: it introduces the theme, setting, characters, and circumstances at the
story’s beginnings. To understand what exposition is, look at how the writer sets the
scene for the story and the characters within it. Read through the first few paragraphs or
pages where the author gives a description of the setting and the mood before the action
takes place.
b. Climax is the highest point of tension or drama in a narratives’ plot. Often, climax is also
when the main problem of the story is faced and solved by the main character or
protagonist. The phrase climax is derived from the Greek word klimax meaning “ladder.”
Reading a story is like climbing a ladder, with the climax at the top.
UNIVERSITY FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

COURSE:
INTRODUCTION TO LITERATURE

NAME: INIMBIWUN RUTH NAKOL

ID: 22016625
UNIVERSITY FOR DEVELOPMENT STUDIES

COURSE:
CHILD DEVELOPMENT

NAME: INIMBIWUN RUTH NAKOL

ID: 22016625