COGNITIVE THEORIES Jean Piaget and Erik

Erikson

OF LEARNING Prof. Boutaina Guebba

 Have you ever experienced the following?
You’re trying to explain something to a child, and even though it
seems so obvious to you, the child just doesn’t seem to understand.
They repeat the same mistake, over and over, and you become
increasingly frustrated.
The child is not naughty.
They’re also not stupid.
But their lack of understanding is not your fault either.
Their cognitive development limits their ability to understand
certain concepts. Specifically, they’re not capable right now of
understanding what you’re trying to explain.
 HISTORY
Piaget’s contribution to psychology was mainly through his observations of children’s cognitive
development. Early in his career, Piaget scored the IQ tests that Alfred Binet administered to
children.
Piaget noticed that children of certain ages tended to give the same types of incorrect answers. From
these observations and follow-up interviews with children about these mistakes, he developed a
theory of how children’s cognitive processes developed.
One of the most important implications of his work is that children are not born with the same
cognitive processes as adults.
Instead, children’s cognitive processes:
develop over time,
develop in response to their environment, and
are updated with exposure to new information.
 PIAGET’S COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Piaget argued that children’s cognitive development occurs in stages (Papalia &
Feldman, 2011).
Specifically, he posited that as children’s thinking develops from one stage to the next,
their behaviuor also changes, reflecting these cognitive developments.
The stages in his theory follow a specific order, and each subsequent stage only occurs
after the one before it.
 PIAGET’S COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Sensorimotor stage (0–2 years Preoperational stage (2–7
old) years old)

Formal operational stage (11 Concrete operational stage (7–

years old through adulthood) 11 years old)
 SENSORIMOTOR STAGE (OBJECT
PERMANENCE):
FROM BIRTH TO 18-24 MONTHS
The sensorimotor stage is the first phase of children’s cognitive development. During this
stage, children primarily learn about their environment through their senses and motor
activities.
The infants use their actions and senses to explore and learn about their surrounding
environment.
A variety of cognitive abilities develop at this stage; which mainly include representational
play, object permanence, deferred imitation and self-recognition.
Before acquiring object permanence, infants believe that objects cease to exist when they are
out of sight.
At age of 8 months, the infant will understand different objects' permanence and they will
search for them when they are not present. This allows children to search hidden objects.
As they develop object permanence, they begin to understand that objects have a permanent
existence independent of their immediate sensory experiences.
At this stage, infants live only in present. They do not have anything related to this world
stored in their memory.
Language begins to appear when they realise that they can use words to represent feelings and
objects. The child starts to store information he knows about the world, label it and recall it.
 PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE
(SYMBOLIC THOUGHT)
FROM 2 TO 7 YEARS
Children start to use mental abstractions.
Their ability to use mental representations, rather than the physical appearance of objects or people,
improves greatly.
Examples of abstract representations include engaging in pretend play and talking about events that
happened in the past or people who are not currently in the room.
Infants in this age also show animism, which means that they think that toys and other non-living
objects have feelings and live like a person.
Children also understand identities, where items and people remain the same even if they look
different. For example, at some point during this stage, a caregiver dressing up as Santa Claus might
not be as convincing.
Tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
In this stage, children also learn more about categorization. They can classify items based on
similarities or differences. They also start to understand numbers and quantity (e.g., concepts
such as ‘more’ or ‘bigger’).

For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then
give a child the choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into
a compact ball while the other is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Because the flat
shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely choose that piece, even though the two
pieces are exactly the same size.
 CONCRETE OPERATIONAL STAGE
(LOGICAL THOUGHT)
7 TO 11 YEARS
At this stage, children start to show logical thinking about concrete events.
They start to grasp the concept of conservation. They understand that, even if things change in appearance but some
properties still remain the same.
Conservation refers to the idea that things can be the same, even if they look different.
Children at this stage can reverse things mentally. They start to think about other people's feelings and thinking and
they also become less egocentric.
Categorization abilities improve so that children can arrange items along a dimension, understand that categories
have subcategories, and relate two objects to each other through a third object.
Their numerical abilities improve a lot, and they can perform more complicated mathematical operations.
Their spatial abilities are better. They are better at estimating time and distance. They can read maps and describe
how to navigate from one location to another.
During this stage, children understand the concept of conservation better and, as a
result, are better at solving conservation problems.
An example would be a cup of water poured into two glasses. One glass is tall and
thin, while the other is short and wide. Recognizing that both glasses contain the
same amount of water shows an understanding of conservation.
 FORMAL OPERATIONAL STAGE
(SYMBOLIC REASONING)
AGE 12 AND ABOVE
Abstract thought characterizes this stage. Children can think about abstract concepts and are not
limited to a current time, person, or situation.
They can think about hypothetical situations and various possibilities, like situations that don’t
exist yet, may never exist, or might be unrealistic and fantastical.
They can deal with hypothetical problems with many possible solutions. E.g. if asked
‘What would happen if money were abolished in one hour’s time? they could speculate
about many possible consequences.
They develop higher order thinking skills that enable them to think symbolically.
 IMPORTANT CONCEPTS IN
PIAGET’S WORK
Schemas and constructivism: Piaget argued that children learn about the world by interacting with
it. This notion of gaining knowledge about the world is known as constructivism.
Adaptation: describes how children update their current cognitive organizations and schemas with
new information.
Assimilation: describes how children incorporate new information into existing schemas.
Accommodation: describes how children adapt their cognitive structures to match new information
in the world.
 WHAT EMPIRICAL EVIDENCE IS THERE FOR
THIS THEORY IN PRACTICE?

Piaget's theory has important educational implications. To make learning opportunities effective, they need
to encourage accommodation by challenging children's pre-existing schemas, as well as considering
children's readiness to make sure they understand new information.
To develop an understanding of new concepts, children should learn through experience instead of being presented
with facts to memorise. New experiences allow for making mistakes and learning from them.
Discussions with peers are also effective for learning. They can reveal new, conflicting information, which children
can then use to develop their knowledge.
The difficulty level of activities and challenges should be matched to children's current ability to understand the
world.
Educators should prepare a range of challenges for children at different levels of development instead of employing
a one-size-fits-all approach.
Based on Piaget's theory, formative testing can be a useful tool for assessing a child's baseline understanding and
readiness for learning new information.
 EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
OF PIAGET'S COGNITIVE
DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Hands-on Learning Activities: Teachers can design hands-on learning activities such as experiments,
projects, and group discussions to encourage students to explore and discover concepts on their own.
Scaffolding: Teachers can scaffold learning by breaking down complex tasks into smaller steps,
offering hints and prompts, and providing feedback to help students reach higher levels of
understanding.
Discovery Learning: Teachers can create opportunities for discovery learning by presenting open-
ended problems, encouraging inquiry-based learning, and fostering curiosity in students.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Teachers can identify students' ZPD and provide appropriate
challenges and assistance to promote cognitive growth.
Promoting Cognitive Conflict: Teachers can create opportunities for cognitive conflict by presenting
challenging tasks, encouraging critical thinking, and fostering discussions that challenge students'
assumptions.
Respect for Individual Differences: Teachers should recognize and respect individual
differences in students' cognitive abilities, providing differentiated instruction and support as
needed.
Hands-on Materials: Teachers can use hands-on materials such as manipulatives, models, and
educational games to facilitate active learning and help students grasp abstract concepts.
Social Interaction: Teachers can promote social interaction through collaborative learning
activities, group projects, and peer discussions, allowing students to learn from each other's
perspectives and experiences.
Reflective Practices: Teachers can incorporate reflective practices such as journaling, self-
assessment, and metacognitive strategies to help students develop awareness of their thinking
processes and become more independent learners.
ERIK ERIKSON’S
STAGES OF Prof. Boutaina Guebba
PSYCHOSOCIAL
DEVELOPMENT
ERIK ERIKSON
He explored three aspects of identity: the ego identity (self), personal identity
(the personal idiosyncrasies that distinguish a person from another,
social/cultural identity (the collection of social roles a person might play).
Erikson maintained that personality develops in a predetermined order
through eight stages of psychosocial development, from infancy to adulthood.
During each stage, the person experiences a psychosocial crisis that could
positively or negatively affect personality development.
For Erikson (1958, 1963), these crises are psychosocial because they involve
the psychological needs of the individual (i.e., psycho) conflicting with the
needs of society (i.e., social).
According to the theory, successful completion of each stage results in a
healthy personality and the acquisition of basic virtues. Basic virtues are
characteristic strengths that the ego can use to resolve subsequent crises.
Failure to complete a stage can result in a reduced ability to complete further
stages and, therefore, a more unhealthy personality and sense of self.
 STAGE 1. TRUST VS. MISTRUST:
CAN I TRUST THE WORLD?
This stage begins at birth continues to approximately 18 months of age. During this stage, the
infant is uncertain about the world in which they live, and looks towards their primary
caregiver for stability and consistency of care.
If the caregiver is reliable, consistent, and nurturing, the child will develop a sense of trust,
believing that the world is safe and that people are dependable and affectionate.
Conversely, if the caregiver fails to provide consistent, adequate care and affection, the child
may develop a sense of mistrust and insecurity.
An example is infant feeding: when they have a need, such as hunger, someone will be there to
provide for that need.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant
can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there
as a source of support.
 STAGE 2. AUTONOMY VS. SHAME
AND DOUBT:
IS IT OKAY TO BE ME?
1-3 yrs: Children at this stage are focused on developing a sense of personal control over physical skills
and a sense of independence.
If encouraged and supported in their increased independence, children will become more confident
and secure in their ability to survive.
They will feel comfortable making decisions, explore their surroundings more freely, and have a sense
of self-control. Achieving this autonomy helps them feel able and capable of leading their lives.
On the other hand, if children are overly controlled or criticized, they may begin to feel ashamed of
their autonomy and doubt their abilities.
This can lead to a lack of confidence, fear of trying new things, and a sense of inadequacy about their
self-control abilities.
The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile, discovering that he or she has many
skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will. The infant develops a sense of personal control over
physical skills and a sense of independence.
 STAGE 3. INITIATIVE VS. GUILT:
IS IT OKAY FOR ME TO DO, MOVE,
AND ACT?
During the initiative versus guilt stage, children assert themselves more frequently through directing
play and other social interaction.
When caregivers encourage and support children to take the initiative, they can start planning activities,
accomplish tasks, and face challenges.
The children will learn to take the initiative and assert control over their environment. They can begin to
think for themselves, formulate plans, and execute them, which helps foster a sense of purpose.
If caregivers discourage the pursuit of independent activities or dismiss or criticize their efforts,
children may feel guilty about their desires and initiatives.
This could potentially lead to feelings of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
Success at this stage leads to the virtue of purpose. Children begin to plan activities, make up games,
and initiate activities with others.
Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense
of guilt.
 STAGE 4. INDUSTRY VS.
INFERIORITY: CAN I MAKE IT IN THE
WORLD OF PEOPLE AND THINGS?
It occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve.
In this stage, children start to compare themselves with their peers to gauge their abilities
and worth.
If children are encouraged by parents and teachers to develop skills, they gain a sense of
industry—a feeling of competence and belief in their skills.
They start learning to work and cooperate with others and begin to understand that they can
use their skills to complete tasks. This leads to a sense of confidence in their ability to
achieve goals.
On the other hand, if children receive negative feedback or are not allowed to demonstrate
their skills, they may develop a sense of inferiority.
They may start to feel that they aren’t as good as their peers or that their efforts aren’t
valued, leading to a lack of self-confidence and a feeling of inadequacy.
Success leads to the virtue of competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
 STAGE 5. IDENTITY VS. ROLE
CONFUSION: WHO AM I?
WHO CAN I BE?
It occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years.
During this stage, adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense
exploration of personal values, beliefs, and goals.
If adolescents are supported in their exploration and given the freedom to explore different roles, they
are likely to emerge from this stage with a strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control.
This process involves exploring their interests, values, and goals, which helps them form their own
unique identity.
If adolescents are restricted and not given the space to explore or find the process too overwhelming or
distressing, they may experience role confusion.
This could mean being unsure about one’s place in the world, values, and future direction. They may
struggle to identify their purpose or path.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity. being able to commit one’s self to others on the
basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences.
 STAGE 6. INTIMACY VS.
ISOLATION: CAN I LOVE?
This stage takes place during young adulthood between the ages of approximately 18 to 40 yrs.
During this stage, the major conflict centers on forming intimate, loving relationships with other
people.
Individuals who successfully navigate this stage are able to form intimate, reciprocal relationships
with others.
They can form close bonds and are comfortable with mutual dependency. Intimacy involves the ability
to be open and share oneself with others, as well as the willingness to commit to relationships and
make personal sacrifices for the sake of these relationships.
If individuals struggle to form these close relationships, perhaps due to earlier unresolved identity
crises or fear of rejection, they may experience isolation.
Isolation refers to the inability to form meaningful, intimate relationships with others. This could lead
to feelings of loneliness, alienation, and exclusion.
Successfully navigating this stage develops the virtue of love. Individuals who develop this virtue have
the ability to form deep and committed relationships based on mutual trust and respect.
 STAGE 7. GENERATIVITY VS.
STAGNATION: CAN I MAKE MY LIFE
COUNT?
This stage takes place during during middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs).
During this stage, individuals focus more on building our lives, primarily through our careers,
families, and contributions to society.
If individuals feel they are making valuable contributions to the world, for instance, through
raising children or contributing to positive changes in society, they will feel a sense of
generativity.
Generativity involves concern for others and the desire to contribute to future generations,
often through parenting, mentoring, leadership roles, or creative output that adds value to
society.
If individuals feel they are not making a positive impact or are not involved in productive or
creative tasks, they may experience stagnation.
Stagnation involves feeling unproductive and uninvolved, leading to self-absorption, lack of
growth, and feelings of emptiness.
Success leads to feelings of usefulness and accomplishment-Care-, while failure results in
shallow involvement in the world.
 STAGE 8. EGO INTEGRITY VS.
DESPAIR:
IS IT OKAY TO HAVE BEEN ME?
This stage begins at approximately age 65 and ends at death.
It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and can develop integrity if we
see ourselves as leading a successful life.
If individuals feel they have lived a fulfilling and meaningful life, they will experience ego
integrity.
This is characterized by a sense of acceptance of their life as it was, the ability to find coherence
and purpose in their experiences, and a sense of wisdom and fulfillment.
On the other hand, if individuals feel regretful about their past, feel they have made poor
decisions, or believe they’ve failed to achieve their life goals, they may experience despair.
Despair involves feelings of regret, bitterness, and disappointment with one’s life, and a fear of
impending death.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. looking back on their life with a sense
of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear instead of feelings of fear and
dread about their mortality.
 APPLICATIONS
Understanding Developmental Milestones: to tailor their teaching approaches and expectations
to align with students' developmental needs.
Creating a Safe and Supportive Environment: teachers can foster a positive and inclusive
atmosphere where students feel comfortable expressing themselves, taking risks, and learning from
their experiences.
Encouraging Identity Exploration: Teachers can facilitate identity exploration by providing
opportunities for students to reflect on their values, beliefs, interests, and goals through activities
such as journaling, self-reflection exercises, and discussions about identity and diversity.
Supporting Autonomy and Independence: Teachers can encourage autonomy by offering
choices, fostering self-directed learning experiences, and providing age-appropriate responsibilities
and challenges.
Building Trust and Relationships: teachers can build trust with students by being consistent,
empathetic, and responsive to their needs. Positive relationships lay the foundation for effective
teaching and learning.
Promoting Lifelong Learning and Growth: Teachers can foster a growth mindset
by encouraging resilience, adaptability, and a willingness to learn from challenges
and setbacks. Creating a learning environment that values growth and development
supports students' lifelong learning journeys.
Encouraging Reflection and Goal Setting:Teachers can encourage students to
reflect on their strengths, values, aspirations, and achievements, setting personal and
academic goals that align with their evolving sense of self and purpose.
Role-Playing and Dramatic Play:Encourage students to engage in role-playing and dramatic play
activities that allow them to explore different roles, perspectives, and social interactions. This can help
them develop empathy, communication skills, and a deeper understanding of social dynamics.
Peer Mentoring and Collaboration: Implement peer mentoring programs where older students mentor
younger ones, fostering a sense of responsibility, leadership, and mutual support. Encourage
collaborative learning projects that promote teamwork, cooperation, and shared problem-solving.
Emotional Check-Ins: Incorporate regular emotional check-ins or reflections during class meetings or
discussions. Provide opportunities for students to share their feelings, experiences, and challenges in a
supportive and non-judgmental environment. This promotes emotional awareness, self-expression, and
empathy.
Strengths-Based Approaches: Focus on identifying and building upon students' strengths, interests, and
talents. Encourage them to pursue activities and projects that align with their passions and goals,
promoting a sense of competence, purpose, and self-esteem.
Conflict Resolution and Mediation Skills: Teach students constructive conflict resolution strategies
such as active listening, compromise, negotiation, and problem-solving. Encourage them to resolve
conflicts peacefully, respectfully, and collaboratively, fostering positive interpersonal relationships.