PHYSICS I:

EXPERIMENTS

Erhan Gülmez & Zuhal Kaplan

1
Foreword
This book is written with a dual purpose in mind. Firstly, it aims to guide the students
in the experiments of the elementary physics courses. Secondly, it incorporates the
worksheets that the students use during their 2-hour laboratory session.

There are six books to accompany the six elementary physics courses taught at
Bogazici University. After renovating our laboratories, replacing most of the
equipment, and finally removing the 110-V electrical distribution in the laboratories, it
has become necessary to prepare these books. Each book starts with the basic methods
for data taking and analysis. These methods include brief descriptions for some of the
instruments used in the experiments and the graphical method for fitting the data to a
straight line. In the second part of the book, the specific experiments performed in a
specific course are explained in detail. The objective of the experiment, a brief
theoretical background, apparatus and the procedure for the experiment are given in
this part. The worksheets designed to guide the students during the data taking and
analysis follows this material for each experiment. Students are expected to perform
their experiment and data analysis during the allotted time and then hand in the
completed worksheet to the instructor by tearing it out of the book.

We would like to thank the members of the department that made helpful suggestions
and supported this project, especially Arsin Arşık and Işın Akyüz who taught these
laboratory classes for years. Our teaching assistants and student assistants were very
helpful in applying the procedures and developing the worksheets. Of course, the
smooth operation of the laboratories and the continuous well being of the equipment
would not be possible without the help of our technicians, Erdal Özdemir and Hüseyin
Yamak, who took over the job from Okan Ertuna.

Erhan Gülmez & Zuhal Kaplan

İstanbul, September 2007.

3
TABLE OF CONTENTS:
TABLE OF CONTENTS: ........................................................................................................................ 5

PART I. BASIC METHODS...................................................................................................................... 7

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................... 9
DATA TAKING AND ANALYSIS ...................................................................................................... 11
Dimensions and Units ....................................................................................................................... 11
Measurement and Instruments .......................................................................................................... 11
Reading analog scales: ................................................................................................................................... 12
Data Logger ................................................................................................................................................... 16
Basics of Statistics and Data Analysis............................................................................................... 19
Sample and parent population ........................................................................................................................ 19
Mean and Standard deviation ......................................................................................................................... 19
Distributions................................................................................................................................................... 20
Errors ............................................................................................................................................................. 21
Errors in measurements: Statistical and Systematical errors .......................................................................... 21
Statistical Errors ............................................................................................................................................. 22
Systematical Errors ........................................................................................................................................ 22
Reporting Errors: Significant figures and error values ................................................................................... 24
Rounding off .................................................................................................................................................. 26
Weighted Averages ........................................................................................................................................ 27
Error Propagation ........................................................................................................................................... 28
Multivariable measurements: Fitting procedures ........................................................................................... 29
Reports .............................................................................................................................................. 34
PART II: EXPERIMENTS ...................................................................................................................... 35
1 . T H E S IM P L E P E N D U L U M ......................................................................................................... 37
2 . F O R C E A N D A C C E L E R A T I O N .................................................................................................. 45
3 . B A L L IS T IC P E N D U L U M - P R O J E C T I L E M O T IO N ................................................................ 59
4 . B A L L IS T IC P E N D U L U M - C O N S E R V A T IO N O F M O M E N T U M ........................................... 69
5 . C E N T R IP E T A L F O R C E .............................................................................................................. 79
6 . R O T A T IO N A L I N E R T I A ............................................................................................................. 91
7. TORQUE AND ANGULAR ACCELERATION ..................................................................................... 103
8 . C O N S E R V A T IO N O F A N G U L AR M O M E N T U M .................................................................... 115
APPENDICES..................................................................................................................................... 121
A. Physical Constants: .................................................................................................................... 123
B. CONVERSION TABLES: ................................................................................................................ 125
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................................... 127

5
Part I. BASIC METHODS

7
Introduction

Physics is an experimental science. Physicists try to understand how nature works by

making observations, proposing theoretical models and then testing these models
through experiments. For example, when you drop an object from the top of a building,
you observe that it starts with zero speed and hits the ground with some speed. From
this simple observation you may deduce that the speed or the velocity of the object
starts from zero and then increases, suggesting a nonzero acceleration.

Usually when we propose a new model we start with the simplest explanation.
Assuming that the acceleration of the falling object is constant, we can derive a
relationship between the time it takes to reach the ground and the height of the building.
Then measuring these quantities many times we try to see whether the proposed
relationship is valid. The next question would be to find an explanation for the cause of
this motion, namely the Newton’s Law. When Newton proposed his law, he derived it
from his observations. Similarly, Kepler’s laws are also derived from observations. By
combining his laws of motion with Kepler’s laws, Newton was able to propose the
gravitational law of attraction. As you see, it all starts with measuring lengths, speeds,
etc. You should understand your instruments very well and carry out the measurements
properly. Measuring things correctly is absolutely essential for the success of your
experiment.

Every time a new model or law is proposed, you can make some predictions about the
outcome of new and untried experiments. You can test the proposed models by
comparing the results of these actual experiments with the predictions. If the results
disagree with the predictions, then the proposed model is discarded or modified.
However, an agreement between the experimental results and the predictions is not
sufficient for the acceptance of the specific model. Models are tested continuously to
make sure that they are valid. Galilean relativity is modified and turned into the special
relativity when we started measuring speeds in the order of the speed of light.
Sometimes the modifications may occur before the tests are done. Of course, all
physical laws are based on experimental studies. Experimental results always take
precedence over theory. Obviously, experiments have to be done carefully and

9
objectively without any bias. Uncertainties and any contributing systematic effects
should be studied carefully.

This book is written for the laboratory part of the Introductory Physics courses taken by
freshman and sophomore classes at Bogazici University. The first part of the book
gives you basic information about statistics and data analysis. A brief theoretical
background and a procedure for each experiment are given in the second part.

Experiments are designed to give students an understanding of experimental physics

regardless of their major study areas, and also to complement the theoretical part of the
course. They will introduce you to the experimental methods in physics. By doing these
experiments, you will also be seeing the application of some of the physics laws you
will be learning in the accompanying course.

You will learn how to use some basic instruments and interpret the results, to take and
analyze data objectively, and to report their results. You will gain experience in data
taking and improve your insight into the physics problems. You will be performing the
experiments by following the procedures outlined for each experiment, which will help
you gain confidence in experimental work. Even though the experiments are designed
to be simple, you may have some errors due to systematical effects and so your results
may be different from what you would expect theoretically. You will see that there is a
difference between real-life physics and the models you are learning in class.

You are required to use the worksheets to report your results. You should include all
your calculations and measurements to show that you have completed the experiment
fully and carried out the required analysis yourself.

10
DATA TAKING AND ANALYSIS
Dimensions and Units

A physical quantity has one type of dimension but it may have many units. The
dimension of a quantity defines its characteristic. For example, when we say that a
quantity has the dimension of length (L), we immediately know that it is a distance
between two points and measured in terms of units like meter, foot, etc. This may
sound too obvious to talk about, but dimensional analysis will help you find out if there
is a mistake in your derivations. Both sides of an equation must have the same
dimension. If this is not the case, you may have made an error and you must go back
and recheck your calculations. Another use of a dimensional analysis is to determine
the form of the empirical equations. For example, if you are trying to determine the
relationship between the distance traveled under constant acceleration and the time
involved empirically, then you should write the equation as

d  katn

where k is a dimensionless quantity and a is the acceleration. Then, rewriting this

expression in terms of the corresponding dimensions:


L  LT 2 T n
will give us the exponent n as 2 right away. You will be asked to perform dimensional
analysis in most of the experiments to help you familiarize with this important part of
the experimental work.

Measurement and Instruments

To be a successful experimenter, one has to work in a highly disciplined way. The

equipment used in the experiment should be treated properly, since the quality of the
data you will obtain will depend on the condition of the equipment used. Also, the
equipment has a certain cost and it may be used in the next experiment. Mistreating the
equipment may have negative effects on the result of the experiment, too.

11
In addition to following the procedure for the experiment correctly and patiently, an
experimenter should be aware of the dangers in the experiment and pay attention to the
warnings. In some cases, eating and drinking in the laboratory may have harmful
effects on you because food might be contaminated by the hazardous materials
involved in the experiment, such as radioactive materials. Spilled food and drink may
also cause malfunctions in the equipment or systematic effects in the measurements.

Measurement is a process in which one tries to determine the amount of a specific

quantity in terms of a pre-calibrated unit amount. This comparison is made with the
help of an instrument. In a measurement process only the interval where the real value
exists can be determined. Smaller interval means better precision of the instrument. The
smallest fraction of the pre-calibrated unit amount determines the precision of the
instrument.

You should have a very good knowledge of the instruments you will be using in your
measurements to achieve the best possible results from your work. Here we will explain
how to use some of the basic instruments you will come across in this course.

Reading analog scales:

You will be using several different types of scales. Examples of these different types of
scales are rulers, vernier calipers, micrometers, and instruments with pointers.

The simplest scale is the meter stick where you can measure lengths to a millimeter.
The precision of a ruler is usually the smallest of its divisions.

0 1 2 24 25 26 27 28

Figure 1. Length measurement by a ruler

In Figure 1, the lengths of object A and B are observed to be around 26 cm. Since we
use a ruler with millimeter division the measurement result for the object A should be
given as 26.0 cm and B as 26.2 cm. If you report a value more precise than a millimeter

12
when you use a ruler with millimeter division, obviously you are guessing the
additional decimal points.

Vernier Calipers (Figure 2) are instruments designed to extend the precision of a

simple ruler by one decimal point. When you place an object between the jaws, you
may obtain an accurate value by combining readings from the main ruler and the scale
on the frame attached to the movable jaw. First, you record the value from the main
ruler where the zero line on the frame points to. Then, you look for the lines on the
frame and the main ruler that looks like the same line continuing in both scales. The
number corresponding to this line on the frame gives you the next digit in the
measurement. In Figure 2, the measurement is read as 1.23 cm. The precision of a
vernier calipers is the smallest of its divisions, 0.1 mm in this case.

R=1.2? cm

0 1 2 3 4
0 5 10

?=3
R=1.23cm

Figure 2. Vernier Calipers.

Micrometer (Figure 3) is similar to the vernier calipers, but it provides an even higher
precision. Instead of a movable frame with the next decimal division, the micrometer
has a cylindrical scale usually divided into a hundred divisions and moves along the
main ruler like a screw by turning the handle. Again the coarse value is obtained from
the main ruler and the more precise part of the measurement comes from the scale
around the rim of the cylindrical part. Because of its higher precision, it is used mostly
to measure the thickness of wires and similar things. In Figure 3, the measurement is
read as 1.187 cm. The precision of a micrometer is the smallest of its divisions, 0.01
mm in this case.

Here is an example for the measurement of the radius of a disk where a ruler, a vernier
calipers, and a micrometer are used, respectively:

13
 Measurement Precision Instrument
R  23  1mm 1 mm Ruler
R  23.1  0.1mm 0.1 mm Vernier calipers
R  23.14  0.01mm 0.01 mm Micrometer

0
90
0 1
80

R=1.187 cm

Figure 3. Micrometer.

Spherometer (Figure 4) is an instrument to determine very small thicknesses and the

radius of curvature of a surface. First you should place the spherometer on a level
surface to get a calibration reading (CR). You turn the knob at the top until all four legs
touch the surface. When the middle leg also touches the surface, the knob will first
seem to be free and then tight. The reading at this position will be the calibration
reading (CR). Then you should place the spherometer on the curved surface and turn
the knob until all four legs again touch the surface. The reading at this position will be
the measurement reading (MR). You will read the value from the vertical scale first and
then the value on the dial will give you the fraction of a millimeter. Then you can
calculate the radius of curvature of the surface as:

D A2
R 
2 6D

where D = |CR-MR| and A is the distance between the outside legs.

14
 Figure 4. Spherometer.

Instruments with pointers usually have a scale along the path that the pointer moves.
Mostly the scales are curved since the pointers move in a circular arc. To avoid the
systematic errors introduced by the viewing angle, one should always read the value
from the scale where the pointer is projected perpendicularly. You should not read the
value by looking at the pointer and the scale sideways or at different angles. You
should always look at the scale and the pointer perpendicularly. Usually in most
instruments there is a mirror attached to the scale to make sure the readings are done
similarly every time when you take a measurement (Figure 5). When you bring the
scale and its image on the mirror on top of each other, you will be looking at the pointer
and the scale perpendicularly. Then you can record the value that the pointer shows on
the scale. Whenever you measure something by such an instrument, you should follow
the same procedure.

Figure 5. A voltmeter with a mirror scale.

15
Data Logger

In some experiments we will be using sensors to measure some quantities like position,
angle, angular velocity, temperature, etc. The output of these sensors will be converted
into numbers with the help of a data acquisition instrument called DATA LOGGER
(Figure 6).

Data Logger is a versatile instrument that takes data using changeable sensors. When
you plug a sensor to its receptacle at the top, it recognizes the type of the sensor. When
you turn the data logger on with a sensor attached, it will start displaying the default
mode for that sensor. Data taking with the data logger is very simple. You can start data
taking by pressing the Start/Stop button (7). You may change the display mode by
pressing the button on the right with three rectangles (6). To change the default
measurement mode, you should press the plus or minus buttons (3 or 4). If there is
more than one type of quantity because of the specific sensor you are using, you may
select the type by pressing the button with a check mark (5) to turn on the editing mode
and then selecting the desired type by using the plus and minus buttons (3 or 4). You
will exit from the editing mode by pressing the button with the check mark (5) again.
You may edit any of the default settings by using the editing and plus-minus buttons.
For a more detailed operation of the instrument you should consult your instructor.

16
 1: Turning on/off

3: Cycling within
the selected menu
2: Checking the (back)
reading
4: Cycling within
5: Selecting displayed the selected menu
menu or to confirm the (forward)
operation

6: Cycling between
7: Start & stop the menus
the data recording

Figure 6. Data Logger.

17
Basics of Statistics and Data Analysis

Here, you will have an introduction to statistical methods, such as distributions and
averages.

All the measurements are done for the purpose of obtaining the value for a specific
quantity. However, the value by itself is not enough. Determining the value is half the
experiment. The other half is determining the uncertainty. Sometimes, the whole
purpose of an experiment may be to determine the uncertainty in the results.
Error and uncertainty are synonymous in experimental physics even though they are
two different concepts. Error is the deviation from the true value. Uncertainty, on the
other hand, defines an interval where the true value is. Since we do not know the true
value, when we say error we actually mean uncertainty. Sometimes the accepted value
for a quantity after many experiments is assumed to be the true value.

Sample and parent population

When you carry out an experiment, usually you take data in a finite number of trials.
This is our sample population. Imagine that you have infinite amount of time, money,
and effort available for the experiment. You repeat the measurement infinite times and
obtain a data set that has all possible outcomes of the experiment. This special sample
population is called parent population since all possible sample populations can be
derived from this infinite set. In principle, experiments are carried out to obtain a very
good representation of the parent population, since the parameters that we are trying to
measure are those that belong to the parent population. However, since we can only get
an approximation for the parent population, values determined from the sample
populations are the best estimates.

Mean and Standard deviation

Measuring a quantity usually involves statistical fluctuations around some value.

Multiple measurements included in a sample population may have different values.
Usually, taking an average cancels the statistical fluctuations to first degree. Hence, the
average value or the mean value of a quantity in a sample population is a good estimate
for that quantity.

19
 1 N
x   xi
N i 1

Even though the average value obtained from the sample population is the best
estimate, it is still an estimate for the true value. We should have another parameter that
tells us how close we are to the true value. The variance of the sample:

1 N
2   xi  x 2
N i 1

gives an idea about how scattered the data are around the mean value. Variance is in
fact a measure of the average deviation from the mean value. Since there might be
negative and positive deviations, squares of the deviations are averaged to avoid a null
result. Because the variance is the average of the squares, square root of variance is a
better quantity that shows the scatter around the mean value. The square root of the
variance is called standard deviation:

1 N
s   xi  x 2
N i 1

However, the standard deviation calculated this way is just the standard deviation of the
sample population. What we need is the standard deviation of the parent population.
The best estimate for the standard deviation of the parent population can be shown to
be:

1 N
p   xi  x 2
N  1 i 1

As the number of measurements, N, becomes large or as the sample population

approaches parent population, standard deviation of the sample is almost equal to the
standard deviation of the parent population.

Distributions

The probability of obtaining a specific value can be determined by dividing the number
of measurements with that value to the total number of measurements in a sample

20
population. Obviously, the probabilities obtained from the parent population are the
best estimates. Total probability should be equal to 1 and probabilities should be larger
as one gets closer to the mean value. The set of probability values associated with a
population is called the probability distribution for that measurement. Probability
distributions can be experimental distributions obtained from a measurement or
mathematical functions. In physics, the most frequently used mathematical distributions
are Binomial, Poisson, Gaussian, and Lorentzian. Gaussian and Poisson distributions
are in fact special cases of Binomial distribution. However, in most cases, Gaussian
distribution is a good approximation. In fact, all distributions approach Gaussian
distribution at the limit (Central Limit Theorem).

Errors

The result of an experiment done for the first time almost always turns out to be wrong
because you are not familiar with the setup and may have systematic effects. However,
as you continue to take data, you will gain experience in the experiment and learn how
to reduce the systematical effects. In addition to that, increasing number of
measurements will result in a better estimate for the mean value of the parent
population.

Errors in measurements: Statistical and Systematical errors

As mentioned above, error is the deviation between the measured value and the true
value. Since we do not know the true value, we cannot determine the error in this sense.
On the other hand, uncertainty in our measurement can tell us how close we are to the
true value. Assuming that the probability distribution for our measurement is a
Gaussian distribution, 68% of all possible measurements can be found within one
standard deviation of the mean value. Since most physical distributions can be
approximated by a Gaussian, defining the standard deviation as our uncertainty for that
measurement will be a reasonable estimate. In some cases, two-standard deviation or
two-sigma interval is taken as the uncertainty. However, for our purposes using the
standard deviation as the uncertainty would be more than enough. Also, from now on,
whenever we use error, we will actually mean uncertainty.

Errors or uncertainties can be classified into two major groups; statistical and
systematical.

21
Statistical Errors

Statistical errors or random errors are caused by statistical fluctuations in the

measurements. Even though some unknown phenomenon might be causing these
fluctuations, they are mostly random in nature. If the size of the sample population is
large enough, then there is equal number of measurements on each side of the mean at
about similar distances. Therefore, averaging over such a large number of
measurements will smooth the data and cancel the effect of these fluctuations. In fact,
as the number of measurements increases, the effect of the random fluctuations on the
average will diminish. Taking as much data as possible improves statistical uncertainty.

Systematical Errors

On the other hand, systematical errors are not caused by random fluctuations. One
could not reduce systematical errors by taking more data. Systematical errors are
caused by various reasons, such as, the miscalibration of the instruments, the incorrect
application of the procedure, additional unknown physical effects, or anything that
affects the quantity we are measuring. Systematic errors caused by the problems in the
measuring instruments are also called instrumental errors. Systematical errors are
reduced or avoided by finding and removing the cause.

Example 1: You are trying to measure the length of a pipe. The meter stick you are
going to use for this purpose is constructed in such a way that it is missing a millimeter
from the beginning. Since both ends of the meter stick are covered by a piece of metal,
you do not see that your meter stick is 1 mm short at the beginning. Every time you use
this meter stick, your measurement is actually 1 mm longer than it should be. This will
be the case if you repeat the measurement a few times or a few million times. This is a
systematical error and, since it is caused by a problem in the instrument used, it is
considered an instrumental error. Once you know the cause, that is, the shortness of
your meter stick, you can either repeat your measurement with a proper meter stick or
add 1 mm to every single measurement you have done with that particular meter stick.

Example 2: You might be measuring electrical current with an ammeter that shows a
nonzero value even when it is not connected to the circuit. In a moving coil instrument
this is possible if the zero adjustment of the pointer is not done well and the pointer

22
always shows a specific value when there is no current. The error caused by this is also
an instrumental error.

Example 3: At CERN, the European Research Center for Nuclear and Particle Physics,
there is a 28 km long circular tunnel underground. This tunnel was dug about 100 m
below the surface. It was very important to point the direction of the digging
underground with very high precision. If there were an error, instead of getting a
complete circle, one would get a tunnel that is not coming back to the starting point
exactly. One of the inputs for the topographical measurements was the direction
towards the center of the earth. This could be determined in principle with a plumb bob
(or a piece of metal hung on a string) pointing downwards under the influence of
gravity. However, when there is a mountain range on one side and a flat terrain on the
other side (like the location of the CERN accelerator ring), the direction given by the
plumb bob will be slightly off towards the mountainous side. This is a systematic effect
in the measurement and since its existence is known, the result can be corrected for this
effect.

Once the existence and the cause of a systematic effect are known, it is possible to
either change the procedure to avoid it or correct it. However, we may not always be
fortunate enough to know if there is a systematic effect in our measurements.
Sometimes, there might be unknown factors that affect our experiment. The repetition
of the measurement under different conditions, at different locations, and with totally
different procedures is the only way to remove the unknown systematic effects. In fact,
this is one of the fundamentals of the scientific method.

We should also mention the accuracy and precision of a measurement. The meaning of
the word “accuracy” is closeness to the true value. As for “precision,” it means a
measurement with higher resolution (more significant figures or digits). An instrument
may be accurate but not precise or vice versa. For example, a meter stick with
millimeter divisions may show the correct value. On the other hand, a meter stick with
0.1 mm division may not show the correct value if it is missing a one-millimeter piece
from the beginning of the scale. However, if an instrument is precise, it is usually an
expensive and well designed instrument and we expect it to be accurate.

23
Reporting Errors: Significant figures and error values

As mentioned above, determining the error in an experiment requires almost the same
amount of work as determining the value. Sometimes, almost all the effort goes into
determining the uncertainty in a measurement.

Using significant figures is a crude but an effective way of reporting the errors. A
simple definition for significant figures is the number of digits that one can get from a
measuring instrument (but not a calculator!). For example, a digital voltmeter with a
four-digit display can only provide voltage values with four digits. All these four digits
are significant unless otherwise noted. On the other hand, reporting a six digit value
when using an analog voltmeter whose smallest division corresponds to a four-digit
reading would be wrong. One could try to estimate the reading to the fraction of the
smallest division, but then this estimate would have a large uncertainty.

Significant figures are defined as following:

 Leftmost nonzero digit is the most significant figure.

Examples: 0.00006520 m
1234 m
41.02 m
126.1 m
4120 m
12000 m
 Rightmost nonzero digit is the least significant figure if there is no decimal point.
Examples: 1234 m
4120 m
12000 m
 If there is a decimal point, rightmost digit is the least significant figure even if it is
zero.
Examples: 0.00006520 m
41.02 m
126.1 m
Then, the number of significant figures is the number of digits between the most and
the least significant figures including them.

24
 Examples: 0.00006520 m 4 significant figures
1234 m 4 sf
41.02 m 4 sf
126.1 m 4 sf
4120 m 3 sf
12000 m 2 sf
1.2000 x 104 m 5 sf

Significant figures of the results of simple operations usually depend on the significant
figures of the numbers entering into the arithmetic operations. Multiplication or
division of two numbers with different numbers of significant figures should result in a
value with a number of significant figures similar to the one with the smallest number
of significant figure. For example, if you multiply a three-significant-figure number
with a two-significant-figure number, the result should be a two-significant-figure
number. On the other hand, when adding or subtracting two numbers, the outcome
should have the same number of significant figures as the smallest of the numbers
entering into the calculation. If the numbers have decimal points, then the result should
have the number of significant figures equal to the smallest number of digits after the
decimal point. For example, if three values, two with two significant figures and one
with four significant figures after the decimal point, are added or subtracted, the result
should have two significant figures after the decimal point.

Example: Two different rulers are used to measure the length of a table. First, a ruler
with 1-m length is used. The smallest division in this ruler is one millimeter. Hence, the
result from this ruler would be 1.000 m. However, the table is slightly longer than one
meter. A second ruler is placed after the first one. The second ruler can measure with a
precision of one tenth of a millimeter. Let’s assume that it gives a reading of 0.2498 m.
To find the total length of the table we should add these two values. The result of the
addition will be 1.2498, but it will not have the correct number of significant figures
since one has three and the other has four significant figures after the decimal point.
The result should have three significant figures after the decimal point. We can get the
correct value by rounding off the number to three significant figures after the decimal
point and report it as 1.250 m.

25
More Examples for Addition and Subtraction:

4 .122
3 .74
+ 0 .011
7 .873 = 7.87 (2 digits after the decimal point)

Examples for Multiplication and Division:

4.782 x 3.05 = 14.5851 = 14.6 (3 significant figures)
3.728 / 1.6781 = 2.22156 = 2.222 (4 significant figures)

Rounding off

Sometimes you may have more numbers than the correct number of significant figures.
This might happen when you divide two numbers and your calculator may give you as
many digits as it has in its display. Then you should reduce the number of digits to the
correct number of significant figures by rounding it off. One common mistake is by
starting from the rightmost digit and repeatedly rounding off until you reach the correct
number of significant figures. However, all the extra digits above and beyond the
number of correct significant figures have no significance. Usually you should keep
one extra digit in your calculations and then round this extra digit at the end. You
should just discard the extra digits other than the one next to the least significant figure.
The reasoning behind the rounding off process is to bring the value to the correct
number of significant figures without adding or subtracting an amount in a statistical
sense. To achieve this you should follow the procedure outlined below:

 If the number on the right is less than 5, discard it.

 If it is more than 5, increase the number on its left by one.
 If the number is exactly five, then you should look at the number on its left.
 If the number on its left is even then again discard it.
 If the number on the left of 5 is odd, then you should increase it by one.

This special treatment in the case of 5 is because there are four possibilities below and
above five and adding five to any of them will introduce a bias towards that side.
Hence, grouping the number on the left into even and odd numbers makes sure that this
ninth case is divided into exactly two subsets; five even and five odd numbers. We

26
count zero in this case since it is in the significant part. We do not count zero on the
right because it is not significant.

Example: Rounding off 2.4456789 to three significant figures by starting from all
the way to the right, namely starting from the number 9, and repeatedly rounding off
until three significant figures are left would result in 2.45 but this would be wrong. The
correct way of doing this is first dropping all the non-significant figures except one and
then rounding it off, that is, after truncation 2.445 is rounded off to 2.44.

More Examples: Round off the given numbers to 3 significant figures:

43.37468 = 43.37 = 43.4

43.34468 = 43.34 = 43.3
43.35468 = 43.35 = 43.4
43.45568 = 43.45 = 43.4

If we determine the standard deviation for a specific value, then we can use that as the
uncertainty since it gives us a better estimate. In this case, we should still pay attention
to the number of significant figures since reporting extra digits is meaningless. For
example if you have the average and the standard deviation as 2.567 and 0.1,
respectively, then it would be appropriate to report your result as 2.6±0.1.

Weighted Averages

Sometimes we may measure the same quantity in different sessions. As a result we will
have different sets of values and uncertainties. By combining all these sets we may
achieve a better result with a smaller uncertainty. To calculate the overall average and
standard deviation, we can assign weight to each value with the corresponding variance
and then calculate the weighted average.

m
xi
 2
 i 1
m
i
1

i 1
2
i

Similarly we can also calculate the overall standard deviation.

27
 1
  m
1

i 1
2
i

Error Propagation

If you are measuring a single quantity in an experiment, you can determine the final
value by calculating the average and the standard deviation. However, this may not be
the case in some experiments. You may be measuring more than one quantity and
combining all these quantities to get another quantity. For example, you may be
measuring x and y and by combining these to obtain a third quantity z:

z  ax  by or z  f  x, y 

You could calculate z for every single measurement and find its average and standard
deviation. However, a better and more efficient way of doing it is to use the average
values of x and y to calculate the average value of z. In order to determine the variance
of z, we have to use the square of the differential of z:

2
 f f 
(dz )    ( )dx  ( )dy 
2

 x y 

Variance would be simply the sum of the squares of both sides over the whole sample
set divided by the number of data points N (or N-1 for the parent population). Then, the
general expression for determining the variance of the calculated quantity as a function
of the measured quantities would be:

2
k  f  2
 z2     j
 for k number of measured quantities.
i 1  x j 

Applying this expression to specific cases would give us the corresponding error
propagation rule. Some special cases are listed below:

 z2  a 2 x2  b 2 y2 for z  ax  by

28
  z2  x2  y2 ax ay
2
 2
 2 for z  axy or or
z x y y x

 z2  x2
2
b 2
2 for z  ax b
z x

 z2
 b ln a   x2 z  a bx
2
2 for
z

 z2
2
 b 2 x2 for z  aebx
z

 x2
 a z  a ln bx 
2 2
z for
x2

Multivariable measurements: Fitting procedures

When you are measuring a single quantity or several quantities and then calculating the
final quantity using the measured values, all the measurements involve unrelated
quantities. There are no relationships between them other than the calculated and
measured quantities. However, in some cases you may have to set one or more
quantities and measure another quantity determined by the independent variables. This
is the case when you have a function relating some quantities to each other. For
example, the simplest function would be the linear relationship:

y  ax  b

where a is called the slope and b the y-intercept. Since we are setting the value of the
independent variable x, we assume its uncertainty to be negligible compared to the
dependent variable y. Of course, we should be able to determine the uncertainty in y.
From such an experiment, usually we have to determine the parameters that define the
function; a and b. This can be done by fitting the data to a straight line.

The least squares (or maximum likelihood, or chi-square minimization) method would
provide us with the best possible estimates. However, this method involves lengthy
calculations and we will not be using it in this course.

29
We will be using a graphical method that will give us the parameters that we are
looking for. It is not as precise as the least squares method and does not give us the
uncertainties in the parameters, but it provides answers in a short time that is available
to you.

Graphical method is only good for linear cases. However, there are some exceptions to
this either by transforming the functions to make them linear or plotting the data on a
semi-log or log-log or polar graph paper (Figure 7). 1 / r , 1 / r 2 , y  ax 5 , y  ae bx , are
some examples for nonlinear functions that can be transformed to linear expressions.
1 / r n type expressions can be linearized by substituting 1 / r n with a simple x:
y  A  B / r n  y  A  Bx where x  1 / r n . Power functions can be linearized by

taking the logarithm of the function: y  ax n becomes log y  log a  n log x and then
through y   log y , a   log a , and x  log x transformation it becomes y   a  nx .
Exponential functions can be transformed similar to the power functions by taking the
natural logarithm: y  ae bx becomes ln y  ln a  bx and through y   ln y and
a   ln a transformation it becomes y   a   bx .

Before attempting to obtain the parameters that we are looking for, we have to plot the
data on a graph paper. As long as we have linearly dependent quantities or transformed
quantities as explained above, we can use regular graph paper.

Figure 7: Different types of graph papers: linear, semi-log, log-log, and polar.

You should use as much area of the graph paper as possible when you plot your data.
Your graph should not be squeezed to a corner with lots of empty space. To do this,
first you should determine the minimum and maximum values for each variable, x and
y, then choose a proper scale value. For example, if you have values ranging from 3 to
110 and your graph paper is 23 centimeters long, then you should choose a scale factor
of 1 cm to 5 units of your variable and label your axis from 0 to 115 and marking each

30
big square (usually linear graph papers prepared in cm and millimeter divisions) at
increasing multiples of 5. You should choose the other axis in a similar way. When you
select a scale factor you should select a factor that is easy to divide by, like 1, 2, 4, 5,
10, etc. Usually scale factors like 3, 4.5, 7.9 etc., are bad choices. Both axis may have
different scale factors and may start from a nonzero value. You should clearly label
each axis and write down the scale factors. Then you should mark the position
corresponding to each data pair with a cross or similar symbols. Usually you should
also include the uncertainties as vertical bars above and below the data point whose
lengths are determined according to the scale factor. Once you finish marking all your
data pairs, then you should try to pass a straight line through all the data points.
Usually, this may not be possible since the data points may not fall into a straight line.
However, since you know that the relationship is linear there should be a straight line
that passes through the data points even though not all of them fall on a line. You
should make sure that the straight line passes through the data points in a balanced way.
An equal number of data points should be below and above the straight line. Then, by
picking two points on the line as far apart from each other as possible, you should draw
parallel lines to the axes, forming a triangle (Figure 8). The slope is the slope of the
straight line. You can calculate the slope as:

y
Slope 
x

and read the y-intercept from the graph by finding the point where the straight line
crosses the y-axis. You can estimate the uncertainties of the slope and intercept by
finding different straight lines that still pass through all the data points in an acceptable
manner. The minimum and maximum values obtained from these different trials would
give us an idea about the uncertainties. However, obtaining the parameters will be
sufficient in this course.

31
 y
90 data points

80
slope points

70

60
85  35 50
slope    10
50 3  (2) 5
40
y  Intercept  55
x
-6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6

Figure 8: Determining the slope and y-intercept.

Special graph papers, like semi-log and log-log graph papers, are used when you have
relationships that can be transformed into linear relationships by taking the base-10
logarithm of both sides. Semi-log graph papers are used if one side of the expression
contains powers of ten or single exponential function resulting in a linear variable when
you take the base-10 logarithm of both sides.

Logarithmic graph papers are used when you prefer to use the measured values directly
without taking the logarithms and still obtaining a linear graph. Each logarithmic axis is
divided in such a way that when you use the divisions marked on the paper it will have
the same effect as if you first took the logarithm and then plotted on a regular graph
paper. Logarithmic graph papers are divided linearly into decades and in each decade is
divided logarithmically. There is no zero value in a logarithmic axis. You should plot
your data by choosing appropriate scale factors for each axis and then mark the data
points directly without taking the logarithms. You should again draw a straight line that
will pass through all the data points in a balanced way. The slope of the line would give
us the exponent in the relationship. For example, a relationship like y  ax n would be
linearized as log y  log a  n log x . If you plot this on a regular graph paper, the slope
will be given by n  log y 2  log y1  / log x2  log x1  where you will read the
logarithms directly from the graph. On the other hand, when you plot your data on a
log-log paper, you will be using the measured values directly. When you picked the two
points from the straight line that fits the data points best, the slope should be calculated

32
by n  log y 2  log y1  / log x2  log x1  where you will calculate the logarithms using
the values read from the graph. y-intercept would be directly the value where the
straight line crosses the vertical axis at x  1 .

y(m)
10
8

1 x(m)

1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 20 30 40 60 80 100

Figure 9: Determining the slope and y-intercept.

slope point 1: ( 2.0 ; 2.6 ) and slope point 2 : (18.0 ; 7.0 )

log( 7.0)  log( 2.6) 0.4301

slope    0.4507 and y-intercept = 2.0.
log( 18.0)  log( 2.0) 0.9542

33
Reports

Obviously, doing an experiment and getting some results are not enough. The results of
the experiment should be published so that others working on the same problem will
know your results and use them in their calculations or compare with their results. The
reports should have all the details so that another experimenter could repeat your
measurements and get the same results. However, in an introductory teaching lab there
is no need for such extensive reports since the experiments you will be doing are well
established and time is limited. You have to include enough details to convince your
lab instructor that you have performed the experiment appropriately and analyzed it
correctly. The results of your analysis, including the uncertainties in the measurements,
should be clearly expressed. The comparisons with the accepted values may also be
included if possible.

34
Part II: EXPERIMENTS

35
1. T HE S IMPLE P ENDULUM
OBJECTIVE : To study the motion of a simple pendulum and to determine
the acceleration due to gravity using a simple pendulum.

THEORY : For small angular displacements less than about ten degrees, it
can be shown that the motion of a point mass attached to the end of a string of length L
is a periodic motion with the period:

L
T  2 .
g

We can calculate the gravitational acceleration, g, if we measure the length of the string
and the period of oscillations:

L
g  4 2 .
T2
APPARATUS : A string of length L, a
stopwatch, a metal ball and a meter stick.

PROCEDURE :

support

string of
length L

mass m

Choose an initial length for the pendulum which should

not be less than 120 cm. Set the pendulum into
oscillation making sure that the maximum amplitude is
less than ten degrees. Measure the time, t, for 10
complete oscillations and determine the period, T,
corresponding to the chosen length. Repeat this for 4
more length values. Calculate g for each measurement.

37
T HE S IMPLE P ENDULUM
Name & Surname : Experiment # :
Section : Date :

QUIZ:

DATA:

Description Symbol Value & Unit # of Significant

Figures

Acceleration
due to gravity gTV = ................................. ................

Number of
Oscillations N = ................................. ................

Length of Pendulum 10 periods One Period

L( ) t( ) T( )
# of Significant Figures : # of Significant Figures : # of Significant Figures :

39
CALCULATIONS and RESULT:

Symbol Calculations (show each step) Result & Unit

g1 = ............................................. .....................

g2 = ............................................. .....................

g3 = ............................................. .....................

g4 = ............................................. .....................

g5 = ............................................. .....................

gaverage = ............................................. .....................

% Deviation for g: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ....................

...............................................................

Show the dimensional analysis for g: .........................................

...............................................................

41
QUESTIONS :

1) What are the possible sources of systematic errors in this experiment?

2) At what point of its swing, does the ball have its maximum velocity?
Maximum acceleration?

3) Assume that your pendulum passes through its equilibrium point

every second,

a. What is the period of this pendulum?

b. What must the length of this pendulum be?

43
2. F ORCE AND A CCELERATION
OBJECTIVE : To measure the effect of force acting on a mass.

THEORY :

position sensor x

mc

x0
mo

In this experiment, the motion of the car on a special track is studied. Masses are placed
on the mass holder that is attached to the car. When the masses are released, they fall to
the floor while applying a force on the cars due to the gravitation. Acceleration of the
car can be calculated from the Newton’s Law:

M totala  mo g

mo
a g
M total

M total  mc  m0

To measure the acceleration we have to record the motion of the mass+car system as a
function of time. As you know, the velocity is the derivative of the position and the
acceleration is the derivative of the velocity with respect to the time. So, if we know the
position as a function of time, we can determine the velocity and the acceleration.
However, it is difficult to record the position on a continuous base experimentally. We
can only determine the position at specific times. Even though the velocity and the
acceleration may not be constant, we can still determine the average velocity for a
specific interval.

vaverage  x / t

From the plot of the average velocity versus the time we can determine the acceleration
by taking the derivative of the function defined by this graph.

APPARATUS : Car and track, masses with hanger, position sensor, data
logger, balance

45
PROCEDURE :

 You will be determining the positions with the help of a position sensor. The
sensor works by sending ultrasound pulses forward and listening for the echoes.
From the known speed of sound in the air and the time between the transmission
and reception of the ultrasound signals, the data logger determines the distance
to the sensor.

 Set the position sensor approximately 20 cm away from the car before releasing
it.

 Adjust the data logger to an appropriate rate (suggested value is 10 per second)
and compensate for the friction force.

 Place the given mass on the holder. Start the data logger and release the car.
Stop the data logger when the mass holder hits the ground.

 Using the up and down buttons on the data logger, read the position information
in its memory. Measure the length of each interval and calculate the average
velocity for each interval.

 On a graph paper, plot the average velocity versus time and determine the
acceleration.

46
F ORCE AND A CCELERATION
Name & Surname : Experiment # :
Section : Date :

QUIZ:

DATA:

Description / Symbol Value & Unit # of Significant

Figures

Mass
on the holder mo = ......................... ....... ................

Initial distance
of the Car x0 = .......................... ....... ................

Number of Cylinders
in the Car = .......................... ....... ................

Data Taking
Rate = .......................... ....... ................

47
Number of t x x Vave = x/ t
Intervals ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

49
CALCULATIONS and RESULT:

A) From the graph, choose two SLOPE POINTS other than data points,

SP1 :( ; )

SP2 :( ; )

51
B) By using SP1 and SP2, calculate:

Description / Symbol Calculations Result

(show each step)

SLOPE = ............ ......................... ..............

........................................................

Acceleration a = ............ ......................... ..............

Total Mass Mtotal = ............ ......................... ..............

........................................................

Mass of the Car mc = ............ ......................... ..............

........................................................

53
QUESTIONS :

1) Should the masses of the washers, which are placed on the hanger to
overcome the friction, be added to the total mass? Why?

2) If the velocity versus time graph does not pass through the origin,
what is the meaning of this nonzero y-intercept value physically?

55
57
3. B ALLISTIC P ENDULUM - P ROJECTILE
M OTION
OBJECTIVE : To study the fundamentals of projectile motion.

THEORY : When the ball is shot with an initial speed v in the horizontal
direction, its range will be

R  vt

where t is the time of flight and it will be free falling. The height it falls down will
determine the flight time:

1 2
H gt
2

By combining these two equations, we can determine the initial speed in terms of the
range and the height:

g
vo  R
2H

Spring gun
vo

On the other hand, when the ball is shot at an angle it will follow a parabolic
trajectory:

59
 R
Spring
gun
vo


It can be shown that the trajectory equation is

gR 2  gR 2 
tan 2
  R tan   
 2v 2  H   0 .
2vo2  o 

APPARATUS : Ballistic pendulum with plastic ball, meter stick, balance,

carbon paper.

PROCEDURE :

Part 1: The spring gun is leveled on the table and the plastic ball is
projected horizontally. The initial velocity of the ball can be determined by measuring
the range, R, and the initial height, H, of the ball.

Part 2: The spring gun is inclined at an angle  with the horizontal and
the ball is shot freely. Range, height and the initial velocity of the ball are used to
calculate .

60
B ALLISTIC P ENDULUM -
P ROJECTILE M OTION
Name & Surname : Experiment # :
Section : Date :

QUIZ:

DATA:

PART 1 – HORIZONTAL MOTION

Description / Symbol Value & Unit # of Significant

Figures

Height H = ..................................... .........

Range (1st trial) R1 = ..................................... .........

Range (2nd trial) R2 = ..................................... .........

Range (3rd trial) R3 = ..................................... .........

Average Range Rave = ..................................... .........

61
 PART 2 – PROJECTILE MOTION

Description and Symbol Value & Unit # of Significant

Figures

Height H = .......................................... .........

Range (1st trial) R1 = .......................................... .........

Range (2nd trial) R2 = .......................................... .........

Range (3rd trial) R3 = .. ......................................... .........

Average Range Rave = .......................................... .........

Measured Angle MV = .......................................... .............

CALCULATIONS and RESULT:

gR 2  gR 2 
Equation for  : 2
tan   R tan    2  H   0
2

2vo  2vo 

Solve for tan :

63
Description Calculations Result & Unit
(show each step)

Initial velocity
of the ball vo = ........................................ ...............

.............................................................

tan  EV1 = ........................................ ..............

.............................................................

tan  EV 2 = ........................................ ..............

.............................................................

% Difference in  values: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .............

65
QUESTIONS :

1) What would the uncertainty v in the velocity be if the uncertainty in

the height and range values were about a millimeter?

2) What are the possible sources of error in this experiment?

3) In this experiment we are ignoring the effect of air friction. Assuming

that the experiment is done in a very viscous liquid, discuss the effect
of the friction due to the liquid on the motion of the ball.

4) Assume that the ballistic pendulum is moving upward with a speed of

vb in the first part. Derive the equations for the range and the final
velocity with which the ball strikes the floor.

67
4. B ALLISTIC P ENDULUM -
C ONSERVATION OF M OMENTUM
OBJECTIVE : To study the principle of conservation of momentum, and by
applying this principle to measure the initial velocity of a ball.

THEORY :

1 2 3


L

vo H

mball mpend h1 h2
(mball+mpend)

just before the just after final

collision the collision

In this experiment we will study the conservation of momentum using the ballistic
pendulum. When the steel ball is shot towards the pendulum attachment of the
apparatus, it will hit and stay inside the pendulum attachment. This is an example of a
completely inelastic collision. We can express the conservation of momentum during
the collision as:

mballvo  mball  m pend v final .

Since the pendulum attachment is free to swing up, it will do so until all its kinetic
energy turns into the potential energy:

1
2
mball  m pend v 2 final  mball  m pend gH

The pendulum attachment pushes a pointer as it swings up until it reaches the

maximum. Using this maximum angle information and the length of the pendulum
attachment, we can determine H:

69
 H  L(1  cos ) .

Then using this value and working backwards from the equations above, we can
determine the initial velocity of the ball:

mball  m pend mball  m pend

v0  2 gH  2 gL(1  cos ) .
mball mball

APPARATUS : Ballistic pendulum with the pendulum attachment, meter stick,

balance, steel ball

PROCEDURE :

 By equating the momentum before the collision to that after the collision, and
equating the kinetic energy of the system just after the collision to the increase
in potential energy at the height h2, the initial velocity of the ball can be
calculated.

 Fire the ball into the pendulum three times for each compression level of the
spring gun and determine the mean increase in height H. Do not forget to reset
the angle pointer just before shooting the ball to the pendulum attachment.
Calculate the initial velocity of the ball vo for corresponding compression level.

70
B ALLISTIC P ENDULUM –
C ONSERVATION OF M OMENTUM
Name & Surname : Experiment # :
Section : Date :

QUIZ:

DATA:

Description/Symbol Value & Unit # of Significant

Figures

Mass of mball = ............................ ...................

the ball

Mass of mpend = ............................ ...................

the pendulum

Length of L = ............................ ...................

the pendulum

Acceleration g = ............................ ...................

due to gravity

71
 Level of H = L(1-Cos)
Compression  ( )
#
# of # of Significant Figure:
(i)
Significant
Figure:
Short Range
1
Compression
2
3

1 3 SR
Average of HSR 
3 i 1
Hi 
Medium Range
1
Compression
2
3

1 3 MR
Average of HMR 
3 i 1
Hi 
Long Range
1
Compression
2
3

1 3 LR
Average of HLR 
3 i 1
Hi 

73
CALCULATIONS:

Description/Symbol Calculations Result Dimension

(show each step)

Velocity of
the ball for SR
vSR-ave = .......................... ............. .............

...........................................................

Velocity of
the ball for MR
vMR-ave = .......................... ............. .............

...........................................................

Velocity of
the ball for LR
vLR-ave = .......................... ............. .............

...........................................................

75
QUESTIONS :

1) Calculate the energy loss during the calculation. Where does this
energy go?

2) What are the possible sources of error in this experiment?

3) At what height is half the kinetic energy converted into potential

energy? Give your answer with respect to the initial height.

77
5. C ENTRIPETAL F ORCE
OBJECTIVE : To study the motion of a body moving in a circle and verify
the centripetal force equation.

THEORY :

jolly
balance

vernier
scale
glass tube
plug

R
R

bob
H

ho h

A mass swinging at the end of a string does a circular motion. The mass undergoing a
uniform circular motion has the acceleration given by

v2
a cent  (1)
R

where R is the length of the string. Since the velocity of the mass in a simple pendulum
is not constant, the acceleration will be changing.

We will start the motion of the mass by releasing it from a height that we measure.
When the ball passes through its lowest position, all the potential energy difference
between the initial height and the lowest position will be converted into kinetic energy.

mv 2
mgh  (2)
2

Using the speed calculated from this expression, we can determine the acceleration at
this position. The centripetal acceleration is usually caused by the tension in the string
if the pendulum is just a string hanging from the ceiling.

79
 Fcent  ma cent (3)

But we will hang the string from a spring to be able to measure the centripetal force. In
this case the restoring force in the spring will be the centripetal force.

mv 2
Frest  kx  Fcent  (4)
R

By combining Equations (2), (4), and the initial extension of the spring due to the mass
of the bob:

mg  kD (5)

we can get

mg 2mgh
x (6)
D R

and

Rx
h . (7)
2D

This is a straight line with a slope of R/2D. Hence, recording the height from which we
release the bob and the corresponding extension of the spring, we can determine the
slope by plotting the data. Then, we can calculate the length of the pendulum R and
compare it with the measured value.

APPARATUS : Centripetal force apparatus, meter stick.

PROCEDURE :

 Place the bob on the table.

 To read r1, adjust the jolly balance until the glass tube barely touches the
shoulder of the plug.

 Let the bob hang freely, pulling the spring down and adjust the jolly balance
again until the glass tube barely touches the shoulder of the plug. Read r2.

 For the first measurement, extend the spring by a distance of 1.90 cm.

 Find the height h, so that it will pull the plug out of the tube by a distance of x
cm when the bob swings through its equilibrium position. Since the elongation
due to the centripetal force is x  0.10 cm, total spring extension, x will be
2.00 cm.

80
 Increase the spring extension at 2.00 cm increments, measure the corresponding
h as a function of the spring extension.

 Plot your data and determine the slope of the straight line that fits the data best.

81
C ENTRIPETAL F ORCE
Name & Surname : Experiment # :
Section : Date :

QUIZ:

DATA:

Description / Symbol Value & Unit # of Significant

Figures

Length RTV = ..................................... ...............

of the pendulum

Height
from the floor ho = ..................................... ...............
to the center of the bob

Reading
in vernier scale r1 = ..................................... ...............
without the bob

Reading
in vernier scale r2 = ..................................... ...............
with the bob

Extension in the
spring = r2–r1= D = ..................................... ...............
due to bob

83
 Reading in Total Extension Height of the bob
increment vernier in the spring from floor H = h – ho
in vernier r( ) x( ) h( ) ( )

CALCULATIONS and RESULTS:

A) From the graph, choose two SLOPE POINTS other than data points,

SP1 :( ; )

SP2 :( ; )

85
B) Calculate:

Symbol Calculation (show each step) Result Dimension

Slope = ............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .............

......................................................................

R / 2D = ............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .............

........................................................... ...........

REV = ............................. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .............

........................................................... ...........

% Error for the Length of the Pendulum, R: ..................................

87
89
6. R OTATIONAL I NERTIA
OBJECTIVE : To determine experimentally the rotational inertia of a body.

THEORY :

r
m

A mass connected to a rotating drum is free to descend down to the floor. For this mass
the loss in potential energy is equal to the gain in the translational and rotational kinetic
energy:

1 2 1 2
mv  I  mgh
2 2

The velocity of mass where it touches the floor and the corresponding angular velocity
are:

2h
v and   v/r
t

As a result, rotational inertia of the drum is given as:

 gt 2 
I  mr  2
 1
 2h 

91
   

R R Ro Ri

Disk about its CM Disk about its diameter Ring

As a special case, the rotational inertia of a uniform disk about an axis passing through
its center of mass (CM) and perpendicular to the disk is given by

1
Iz  MR 2 ,
2

or about its diameter:

1
Ir  MR 2 .
4

Moment of inertia of a ring about an axis passing through its center perpendicularly:

I ring 
1

M Ri2  Ro2 
2

APPARATUS : Rotational inertia apparatus, disk and ring masses, mass and
hanger set, string.

PROCEDURE :

92
 Wind the cord onto the drum and hang a mass m at the end of the cord. Place
the disk mass on the drum. After determining the height of the mass above the
floor, release the mass and determine the time for descent. Repeat twice and
find the average t. Calculate the rotational inertia of the disk + drum assembly.

 Repeat the same procedure with the disk mounted on its side. The difference of
the moment of inertias should be equal to the moment of inertia of the disk
mounted on its side or half the moment of inertia when it is mounted
horizontally.

 Calculate the moment of inertia of the disk and the drum part separately for both
cases.

 Repeat the measurements for the ring to determine the moment of inertia of the
ring and the drum assembly. Calculate the moment of inertia of the ring using
the value for the drum part from the previous step.

 Calculate the moment of inertias theoretically from the geometry of the disk and
the ring masses and compare your results to the values you determined in the
previous step.

93
R OTATIONAL I NERTIA
Name & Surname : Experiment # :
Section : Date :

QUIZ:

DATA:

Description / Symbol Value & Unit # of Significant

Figures

Diameter of
the drum d = .............................. .............

Radius of
the drum r = .............................. .............

Height of mass holder

from the floor h = .............................. .............

Part 1: Rotational Inertia of Disk

ABOUT CM ABOUT DIAMETER

Mass on the
mass holder m* = ...................... .......................

Time for
descent t*1 = ...................... .......................

Time for
descent t*2 = ...................... .......................

Average time
for descent t*ave = ...................... .......................

95
 Part 2: Rotational Inertia of the Ring

Mass on the
mass holder m* = ..........................................................

Time for
descent t1 = ..................... t2 = .....................

Average time
for descent tave = ..........................................................

Description / Symbol Value & Unit # of Significant

Figures

Mass of the Disk Mdisk = ............................... ................

Diameter of the Disk Ddisk = ............................... ................

Radius of the Disk Rdisk = ............................... ................

Mass of the Ring Mring = ............................... ................

Inner Diameter
of the Ring Di-ring = ............................... ................

Outer Diameter
of the Ring Do-ring = ............................... ................

Inner Radius
of the Ring Ri-ring = ............................... ................

Outer Radius
of the Ring Ro-ring = ............................... ................

97
CALCULATIONS and RESULTS:

Description / Symbol Calculations Result

(show each step)

Rotational Inertia of the

CM
drum + Disk I drum disk = ......................... ...................
about its CM

.....................................................

Rotational Inertia of the

DIAMETER
drum + Disk I drum disk = ......................... ...................
about its DIAMETER

.....................................................

Rotational Inertia of the

drum + the Ring + disk
I drum ring disk = ......................... ...................

.....................................................

Rotational Inertia
CM
of the DISK I DISK = ......................... ...................
about its CM

Rotational Inertia
diameter
of the DISK I DISK = ......................... ...................
about its DIAMETER

Rotational Inertia
of the RING I RING = ......................... ...................

Rotational Inertia
of the DRUM I DRUM = ......................... ...................

99
Theoretical Values for I:

CM
I DISK = .....................................................................

diameter
I DISK = ........................................................ .............

I RING = .....................................................................

% Error for Rotational Inertia:

I DISK
CM
:

I DISK
diameter
:

I RING :

Show the Dimensional Analysis of Rotational Inertia, I:

101
7. T ORQUE AND A NGULAR
A CCELERATION
OBJECTIVE : To measure the effect of torque acting on a rotating mass.

THEORY :

r
m

A rotating object also obeys the Newton’s Laws of motion. When we apply a torque on
an object, we can express the Newton’s Law in terms of the torque and the angular
acceleration:

  I
where torque is applied through a string wrapped around the drum with a radius r
attached to a free falling object of mass m. T is tension in the string:
 
  Fxr  mgr = T r

Then the torque and angular acceleration equation becomes

I  T r

Using the force equation

T - mg = -ma ( a=r )

we can determine the moment of inertia by measuring the angular acceleration.

mgr
I  mr 2

We can also determine the moment of inertia from the free fall time:

 gT 2 
I  mr 2
 1
 2h 

103
APPARATUS : Rotational inertia apparatus with rotational sensor, data logger,
mass and hanger set.

PROCEDURE :

 Using a small mass (50 g) on the mass holder, observe the rotational motion of
the disk on the rotational inertia apparatus. You should set the data logger to 2
samples/s. When the free fall is completed, retrieve the rotation angles as a
function of time from the data logger.

 Calculate the average angular velocity for successive time intervals and plot the
result as a function time. ( average   / t )

 From your graph, obtain the angular acceleration of the disk assembly by
determining the slope of the straight line fit to your data.

 Determine the moment of inertia of the disk assembly using the angular
acceleration.

 Determine the free fall time and the height of the mass holder from the floor and
calculate the moment of inertia using the equation given above.

 Compare both results for the moment of inertia and calculate the percentage
difference between them:

| I1  I 2 |
%diff   100
I1  I 2

104
T ORQUE AND A NGULAR A CCELERATION
Name & Surname : Experiment # :
Section : Date :

QUIZ:

DATA:

Description / Symbol Value & Unit # of Significant

Figures

Diameter of the drum d = ..........................................

Radius of the drum r = ..........................................

Mass on the
mass holder m = ..........................................

Height of the mass holder

from the floor h = ..........................................

Time for descent T = ...........................................

105
Number of t t   average =  / t
Intervals ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

107
CALCULATIONS and RESULT:

A) From the graph, choose two SLOPE POINTS other than data points,

SP1 :( ; )

SP2 :( ; )

109
B) By using SP1 and SP2, calculate:

Description / Symbol Calculations Result Dimension

(show each step)

SLOPE = ............................ ................ ...............

..........................................................................

Angular
Acceleration  = ............................ ................ ...............

Moment of Inertia
mgr
I  mr 2 = ............................ ................ ...............


 gT 2 
I  mr 
2
 1 = ............................ ................ ...............
 2h 

..........................................................................

%difference for I:

111
113
8. C ONSERVATION OF A NGULAR
M OMENTUM
OBJECTIVE : To study the conservation of angular momentum of a system
about a fixed axis.

THEORY :

TOP VIEW


v
r
 m
 H
D h

 R
Mb p
spring gun
g
  vR
Lball  D p 2H  gt 2 
  I  mr 
2
 1
LTurnTable  I   P  M bv  2h 

In a system shown on the left of the figure above we can study the conservation of
angular momentum. When the spring gun is released and shoots the ball, the ball has
also an angular momentum defined by its linear momentum since the spring gun is
fixed on the turntable. The turntable is free to rotate around its axis. Since this is like an
inverse collision, the momentum and the angular momentum are conserved:

Lball  Lturntable

or

M b vD  I

Determining the moment of inertia of the spring gun assembly will be done similar to
the previous experiment, Rotational Inertia. The important points are summarized on
the right side of the figure above.

115
PROCEDURE :

 Fire the ball at 5 different positions (every 4 cm) on the aluminum rotating
platform by releasing the compressed spring. The initial velocity of the ball can
be determined by measuring the range and the initial height of the ball.

 Read the angular velocity of the turntable from the data logger.

 For the rotational inertia of the turntable when the spring gun is placed at the
center, wind the cord onto the drum and hang a mass m at the end of the cord.
After determining the height of the mass above the floor, release the mass and
determine the time for descent. Calculate the Rotational Inertia of the assembly
CM
when the spring gun is at the center ( I SPRINGGUN ).

 Calculate I at 5 different positions (D) on the aluminum rotating platform by

CM
using parallel axes theorem ( ID = I SPRINGGUN + Mgun D2 )

 Calculate Mb for different D values.

116
C ONSERVATION OF A NGULAR
M OMENTUM
Name & Surname : Experiment # :
Section : Date :

QUIZ:

DATA:
Description / Symbol Value & Unit # of Significant
Figures

Mass of the ball Mb = ................................. .............

Mass of the
spring gun Mgun = ................................. .............

Initial height of
the ball H = ................................. .............

Mass on the
mass holder m = ................................. .............

Height of the mass holder

from the floor h = ................................. .............

Time for descent t = ................................. .............

Diameter of the drum d = ................................. .............

Radius of the drum r = ................................. .............

117
CALCULATIONS :

D R Velocity of the ball

( ) ( ) v( )

CM
I SPRINGGUN =........................................................ .............

D  ID Mb
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

M
i 1
i
b 

RESULTS:

Average mass of the ball Mb = ...................................................

% Error for Mb = .......................................................

119
APPENDICES

121
A. Physical Constants:

Planck’s constant h 6.626x10-34 J or 4.136x10-21Mev

 1.05x10-34J.sec or 6.58x10-22 Mev.sec

Universal Gas Constant R 8.314 J/oK mole

Avagadro’s Number NA 6.022x1023

Boltzman Constant k 1.381x10-23 J/oK or 8.617x10-5 ev/oK

Electron charge e 1.602x10-19 C

Speed of light in vacuum c 2.998x108 m/sec

Stefan-Boltzman Constant  5.67x10-8 W/m2.oK4

Gravitational Constant G 6.672x10-11 N.m2/kg2

Gravitational acceleration g 9.81 m/sec2

Permeability of Vacuum o 1.257x10-6 H/m

or
Permitivity of Vacuum o 4 x 10-7 -12
8.854x10 H/m C2/J.m

Rydberg Constant R 1.097x107 m-1

Fine structure constant   e 2 / 2 o hc 7.297x10-3

First Bohr radius o 5.29x10-11 m

Charge to mass ratio of the electron e/m 1.759x1011 C/kg

Bohr Magneton B 9.27x10-24 A.m2

Atomic mass unit (amu) u 1.66x10-27 kg or 931.5 Mev

Electron rest mass me 9.11x10-31 kg or 511 kev

Proton rest mass Mp 1.672x10-27 kg or 938.2 Mev

Neutron rest mass Mn 1.675x10-27 kg or 939.6 Mev

Compton wavelength of electron C 2.43x10-12 m

c 197 Mev. Fermi

Standard volume of ideal gas 2.24x10-2 m3/mole

1 eV 1.602x10-19 J

1 amu 931.14 Mev

1g 5.610x1026 Mev

1 electron mass 0.51098 Mev

Ice point To 273.16 oK

123
B. Conversion Tables:
LENGTH
cm meter km 0 inch foot mile
A
cm 1 10-2 10-5 108 0.3937 3.281x10-2 6.214x10-6
meter 100 1 10-3 1010 39.37 3.281 6.214x10-4
km 105 1000 1 1013 3.937x104 3281 0.6214
8 10 13
0 10 10 10 1 3.937x10-9 3.281x10-10 4.214x10-14
A
inch 28.540 0.0254 2.540x10-5 2.540x108 1 0.0833 1.578x10-5
foot 30.48 0.3048 3.048x10-4 3.048x109 12 1 1.894x10-4
mile 1.609x105 1609 1.609 1.609x1013 6.336x104 5280 1

AREA
m2 cm2 ft2 in.2 circ mile
2 4
m 1 10 10.76 1550 1.974x109
cm2 10-4 1 1.076x10-3 0.1550 1.974x105
2 -2
ft 9.290x10 929.0 1 144 1.833x108
in.2 6.452x10-4 6.452 6.944x10-3 1 1.273x106
circular mill 5.067x10-10 5.065x10-6 5.454x10-9 7.854x10-7 1

VOLUME
m3 cm3 liter ft3 in.3
m3 1 106 1000 35.31 6.102x104
cm3 10-6 1 1.000x10-3 3.531x10-5 6.102x10-2
liter 1.000x10-3 1000 1 3.531x10-2 61.02
3 -2 4
ft 2.832x10 2.832x10 28.32 1 1728
in.3 1.639x10-5 16.39 1.639x10-2 5.787x10-4 1

MASS
kg gram ounce pound amu m slug ton
kg 1 103 35.27 2.205 6.024x1026 1.021x10-1 10-3
gram 10-3 1 3.527x10-2 2.205x10-3 6.024x1023 1.021x10-4 10-6
ounce 2.835x10-2 28.35 1 6.250x10-2 1.708x1025 2.895x10-3 2.835x10-5
pound 4.536x10-1 4.536x102 16 1 2.372x1025 4.630x10-2 4.536x10-4
-27 -24 -26 -27 -28
amu 1.66x10 1.66x10 5.854x10 3.66x10 1 1.695x10 1.660x10-30
m slug 9.806 9.806x103 3.454x102 21.62 5.9x1027 1 9.806x10-3
ton 103 106 3.527x104 2.205x10-3 6.024x1029 1.021x102 1

TIME
second minute hour year
-2 -4
second 1 1.667 x 10 2.778 x 10 3.165 x 10-8
minute 60 1 1.667 x 10-2 1.901 x 10-6
hour 3600 60 1 1.140 x 10-4
year 3.156 x 107 5.259 x 105 8.765 x 103 1

125
FORCE
Nt Dyne Kg F
Nt 1 105 0.1020
-5
Dyne 10 1 1.020x10-6
Kg F 9.807 9.807x105 1

PRESSURE
pa mm Hg mbar kgf/m2 dyne/cm2 atmosphere
-3 -2
Pascal 1 7.501x10 10 0.1020 10 9.869x10-6
2 3
torr 1.333x10 1 1.333 13.6 1.333x10 1.316x10-3
mbar 102 0.7501 1 10.20 103 9.869x10-4
dyne/cm2 0.1 7.501x10-4 10-3 10.20x10-3 1 9.869x10-7
kgf/m2 9.807 9.807x10-2 9.807x10-2 1 98.07 9.679x10-5
atm 1.013x105 7.601x102 1.013x10-3 1.033x104 1.013x106 1

ENERGY
Joule kilowatt-hour Btu erg Calorie electron volt
-7 -4 7
Joule 1 2.778x10 9.480x10 10 0.2389 6.242x1018
6 3 13 5
kilowatt-hour 3.6x10 1 3.412x10 3.6x10 8.6x10 2.247x1025
Btu 1.055x103 2.930x10-4 1 1.055x1010 2.468x102 6.585x1021
erg 10-7 2.778x10-14 9.480x10-11 1 2.389x10-8 6.242x1011
calorie 4.187 1.163x10-6 4.053x10-3 4.187x107 1 2.613x1019
electron volt 1.602x10-19 4.450x10-26 1.519x10-22 1.602x10-12 3.827x10-20 1

POWER
watt erg/sec calorie/sec kgfm/sec Btu/sec HP
7
watt 1 10 0.2388 0.1020 3.413 1.360x10-3
erg/sec 10-7 1 2.388x10-8 1.020x10-8 3.413 x10-7 1.360x10-10
calorie/sec 4.187 4.187x107 1 0.4268 14.29 5.694x10-3
kgfm/sec 9.807 9.807x107 2.343 1 33.47 133.3
6 -2 -2
Btu/sec 0.2931 2.931x10 6.999x10 2.987x10 1 3.982x10-4
HP 735.5 7.355x109 175.7 75 2.511x103 1

MAGNETIC FIELD
gauss TESLA milligauss
-4
gauss 1 10 1000
TESLA 104 1 107
milligauss 0.001 10-7 1

126
REFERENCES

1. Yersel, M., “Experiments in Physics,” Boğaziçi University Publications, İstanbul

1997.
2. Resnick, R., Halliday, D. and Krane, K. S., “Physics, 4th Edition,” John Wiley, 1992.
3. Serway, R.A. and Jewett, J. W., “Physics for Scientists and Engineers, 6th edition,”
Brooks Cole, 2003.
4. Product manuals, PASCO.
5. Product manuals, CENCO.
6. Product manuals, LD Didactic GmbH (Leybold).
7. Product manuals, Philip Harris.

127