On Earth, each day begins at sunrise and ends at sunset.

You see the Sun

―come up‖ or rise in the morning and ―go down‖ or set at night. When we use
these phrases, what do you think they imply about the way our solar system
works? Does the Sun really rise and set in the sky throughout the day?

Rotation is a term that describes the

motion of a spinning object. Each of the
planets and moons in our solar system
rotates about an axis. An axis is an
imaginary line about which each planet
or moon spins. This imaginary line
marks the center of a planet or moon’s
rotation.

In space, there is no such thing as up or Rotation can describe the motion of a spinning top
down. An object’s position can be (left). You can think of an axis as the center peg of
a spinning top. This top’s axis is tilted like Earth’s.
measured only relative to other objects. A globe (right) is a model of Earth that represents
The Sun is the center of our solar how the planet rotates about a tilted axis.
system. Therefore, the motion of the
planets and other objects in our solar system can be measured relative to the
Sun. Like the other planets, Earth rotates about an axis. Earth’s axis is not a
perfectly vertical, or perpendicular, line. Instead, our planet tilts at an angle of
23.5° relative to its path around the Sun. The northern end of Earth’s axis, known
as the geographic North Pole, always points at the North Star.

A day is the amount of time a planet takes to complete one full rotation. Earth
takes 24 hours to complete one full rotation, so one day on Earth is 24 hours.
Because Earth rotates, different parts of the planet face
the Sun at different times. When the Western
Hemisphere is facing the Sun, it is daytime there and
nighttime in the Eastern Hemisphere. When the Western
Hemisphere is facing away from the Sun, it is nighttime
there and daytime in the Western Hemisphere.

Even though you can’t feel it, Earth rotates very fast.
Earth’s rotation is so fast, it causes the planet to bulge
out slightly at the equator and shrink slightly at the poles.
This clementine
orange is an oblate Therefore, Earth is not a perfect sphere. Earth’s
spheroid. Earth is more circumference is slightly wider at the equator than it is at
rounded than this the poles. This shape is called an oblate spheroid. In
clementine, but it is still most photographs and diagrams that you will see, Earth
an oblate spheroid. probably looks like a perfect sphere.

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Revolution is a term that describes the motion of one object as it moves around
another object. While each planet rotates about its axis, it is also revolving
around the Sun. Even though the Sun appears to move across the sky each day,
Earth is actually moving around the Sun.

For many years, people believed that the Sun and

other planets revolved around Earth. This was called
the geocentric model of the Solar System. Geo-
means ―Earth,‖ so geocentric means ―Earth-centered.‖
Later, scientists discovered the motion of the planets
makes much more sense if the Sun is the center of
the solar system. This is called the heliocentric model
of the solar system. Helio- means ―Sun,‖ so
heliocentric means ―Sun-centered.‖ This is now the
accepted model of the solar system. The term solar The Sun is the center of the solar
means ―of the Sun,‖ so solar system means a system system. All of the planets revolve
driven by the Sun. around the Sun.

A year is the amount of time a planet takes to complete one full revolution around
the Sun. Earth takes 365.25 days to complete one full revolution. We usually
define one Earth year as 365 days. Because a full Earth year is actually 365.25
days, every four years we have a ―leap year.‖ During a leap year, we make up for
this extra quarter-day by adding an extra day to the calendar. A leap year has
366 days instead of the normal 365 days.

While the planets in our solar system all revolve around the Sun, each of the
moons in our solar system revolves around a planet. Some planets have several
moons, but Earth has just one. Earth’s moon is
called simply the Moon. The Moon takes 28 Earth
days to complete one full revolution around Earth.

The Moon has many recognizable features, such

as craters, that you can see from Earth. You may
have noticed that you always see the same
recognizable features every night. This means that
each night the same side of the Moon is facing you.
Why do you think this is? Do you think the Moon
does not rotate as it revolves around Earth? If not,
We see the same side of the how else can you explain this phenomenon? You
Moon every night as it orbits can read the scientific explanation prior to the What
Earth.
Do You Think? section of this companion.

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Because the Sun is so massive, it has very strong gravity. The force of the Sun’s
gravitational pull holds all of the objects in the solar system—including the
planets—in its orbit. An orbit is the path an object takes as it revolves around
another object. Each planet in our solar system revolves around the Sun in a
predictable orbit. These orbits are not perfect circles—they are elliptical, or oval
shaped. This means that each planet is sometimes closer to and sometimes
farther from the Sun. The diagram titled ―Seasons in the Northern Hemisphere,‖
below, shows an example of an elliptical orbit.

The fact that Earth’s distance from the Sun changes throughout the year might
seem like a good explanation for the seasons. You might think that Earth is
colder when it is farther from the Sun and warmer when it is closer to the Sun.
However, this explanation is incorrect. Not every part of Earth experiences the
same seasons at the same time. When it is summer in the Northern Hemisphere,
it is winter in the Southern Hemisphere. What, then, causes the seasons?

If Earth’s axis were not tilted, we

would not experience different
seasons. However, Earth’s axis is
tilted at a 23.5° angle. As Earth
revolves around the Sun,
sometimes the Northern
Hemisphere is tilted toward the
Sun. When the Northern
Hemisphere is tilted toward the
Sun, it receives more direct rays of
sunlight. It is summer. In summer,
days are longer and weather is
warmer in the Northern
When the Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun,
Hemisphere. Plants there have
it receives more direct rays of sunlight than the Southern
plenty of sunlight for Hemisphere. During this time, the Northern Hemisphere
photosynthesis, and animals have experiences summer and the Southern Hemisphere
plenty to eat. experiences winter.

At the same time, the Southern Hemisphere is tilted away from the Sun and
receives fewer direct rays of sunlight. As a result, days are shorter and weather
is cooler in the Southern Hemisphere. It is winter. Plants there grow less actively,
and many lose their leaves. Animals are also less active; some hibernate, or
sleep through the winter.

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When Earth reaches the opposite side
of its orbit—a process that takes about
six months—the Southern Hemisphere
will be tilted toward the Sun. It will
receive more direct rays of sunlight,
and the Northern Hemisphere will
receive fewer. As a result, the Southern
Hemisphere will experience summer
and the Northern Hemisphere will
experience winter. Therefore, Earth’s
tilted axis and Earth’s revolution around
the Sun—not Earth’s distance from the
Sun—cause seasons.
When the Southern Hemisphere is tilted toward the
Sun, it receives more direct rays of sunlight than the
Seasons are more noticeable in places Northern Hemisphere. During this time, the
that are farther from the equator—the Southern Hemisphere experiences summer and the
imaginary line around the horizontal Northern Hemisphere experiences winter.
center of the planet. No matter where
Earth is along its orbit, the equator is never tilted away from the Sun. It receives
direct rays of sunlight year-round. This is why climates are generally warmer near
the equator. While there is some variation, temperatures near the equator stay
relatively constant from month to month.

You can see how Earth’s orbit is elliptical in

this diagram. As Earth revolves around the
Sun, the planet’s tilted axis causes the
Spring
seasons. When the Northern Hemisphere is
Summer tilted away from the Sun, it experiences
winter. As the planet moves to the opposite
end of its orbit, the northern hemisphere
Winter passes through spring into summer. During
summer, the Northern Hemisphere is tilted
Autum toward the Sun. It then passes through
n autumn (or fall), making its way back to winter.
Remember: The Northern Hemisphere and
the Southern Hemisphere are opposites.
When the Northern Hemisphere is
experiencing summer in the diagram above,
the Southern Hemisphere is experiencing the
opposite season, which is winter.

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Although Earth’s axis is currently tilted at 23.5°, this angle is not always constant.
Earth wobbles slightly over time as it revolves around the Sun. This wobble
causes the angle of Earth’s tilted axis to shift between 22° and 25°. This does not
happen fast enough to be noticed on a human timescale. Rather, the shift
between 22° and 25° takes about 41,000 years. This process is called a
Milankovitch Cycle, named after the astronomer who theorized that changes in
Earth’s tilted axis affect the seasons.

According to Milankovitch’s theory, when Earth’s tilt increases, there is a greater

difference between summer and winter. A strong winter can lead to significant
build-up of ice at the poles. This ice can reflect the Sun’s radiation, blocking it
from warming Earth’s surface. This can cause temperatures to drop even more.
Eventually, this can lead to an ice age. When Earth’s tilt decreases, the seasons
become milder.

It is important to realize that many factors contribute to climate on Earth.

Although Milankovitch cycles likely play a role in climate change, scientists do not
think their effects will be strong enough to produce a new ice age during the next
50,000–100,000 years, and possibly longer.

Why do we see the same side of the Moon every night from Earth? The answer
is the Moon rotates about its axis at the same rate that it revolves around Earth.
In other words, the Moon takes about 28 days to complete one rotation and
about 28 days to complete one revolution. Due to its revolution, every night the
Moon appears in a different part of Earth’s sky. However, the Moon has rotated
just enough on its axis to prevent us from seeing it from a different perspective.

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Earth’s rotation and revolution affect day/night cycles as well as the seasons.
The following diagram shows Earth at two positions in its orbit around the Sun.
(This diagram is not drawn to scale.)

For each position, decide whether each hemisphere is experiencing day or night
and winter or summer. Write your answers in the charts below.

Position 1 Position 2
NE Hemisphere NW Hemisphere NE Hemisphere NW Hemisphere
Day or Winter or Day or Winter or Day or Winter or Day or Winter or
Night? Summer? Night? Summer? Night? Summer? Night? Summer?

Position 1 Position 2
SE Hemisphere SW Hemisphere SE Hemisphere SW Hemisphere
Day or Winter or Day or Winter or Day or Winter or Day or Winter or
Night? Summer? Night? Summer? Night? Summer? Night? Summer?

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To help your child learn more about rotation and revolution, try a few simple
experiments. First, gather a flashlight and a round object such as a globe or ball
(preferably about the size of a basketball or beach ball). Create an axis for the
ball by taping two drinking straws, pencils, or similar objects to opposite ends of
the ball.

In a darkened room, hold the ball a few feet away from your child, and have your
child shine the flashlight on the ball. Hold the ball so that the axis is pointing up
and down at a slight tilt toward the flashlight. Holding the ball steady at this tilt,
walk in a circle around your child, who should keep the flashlight aimed at the
ball. As you revolve around your child, discuss how the ball represents Earth on
its tilted axis and the flashlight represents the Sun. Stop periodically at different
points in the ―orbit,‖ and ask your child to explain which season each hemisphere
is experiencing and where it is day and where it is night.

Try the exercise again, this time holding the ball so that the axis is perfectly
straight up and down, rather than at a tilt. Ask your child how this changes the
effect of Earth’s orbit on each hemisphere. (Earth will still experience day and
night as it rotates, but without a tilted axis different hemispheres will not
experience different seasons.)

Here are some questions to discuss with your child:

How does Earth’s tilted axis affect each hemisphere as the planet
revolves?
(Point to different spots on the ball) What would people living here
experience when Earth is at this point in its orbit?
If Earth’s axis weren’t tilted, what would change?

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