Chemical equation

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A chemical equation is the symbolic representation of a chemical reaction in the form of symbols
and formulae, wherein the reactant entities are given on the left-hand side and the product entities
on the right-hand side.[1] The coefficients next to the symbols and formulae of entities are the
absolute values of the stoichiometric numbers. The first chemical equation was diagrammed by Jean
Beguin in 1615.[2]

Formation of chemical reaction

A chemical equation consists of the chemical formulas of the reactants (the starting substances) and
the chemical formula of the products (substances formed in the chemical reaction). The two are
separated by an arrow symbol (usually read as "yields") and each individual substance's chemical
formula is separated from others by a plus sign.
As an example, the equation for the reaction of hydrochloric acid with sodium can be denoted:
2 HCl + 2 Na → 2 NaCl + H2
This equation would be read as "two HCl plus two Na yields two NaCl and H two." But, for
equations involving complex chemicals, rather than reading the letter and its subscript, the
chemical formulas are read using IUPAC nomenclature. Using IUPAC nomenclature, this
equation would be read as "hydrochloric acid plus sodium yields sodium chloride and hydrogen
gas."
This equation indicates that sodium and HCl react to form NaCl and H 2. It also indicates that two
sodium molecules are required for every two hydrochloric acid molecules and the reaction will
form two sodium chloride molecules and one diatomic molecule of hydrogen gas molecule for
every two hydrochloric acid and two sodium molecules that react. The stoichiometric
coefficients(the numbers in front of the chemical formulas) result from the law of conservation of
mass and the law of conservation of charge (see "Balancing Chemical Equation" section below
for more information).

Common symbols
Symbols are used to differentiate between different types of reactions. To denote the type of
reaction:[1]
 "" symbol is used to denote a stoichiometric relation.
 "" symbol is used to denote a net forward reaction.
 "" symbol is used to denote a reaction in both directions. [3]
 "" symbol is used to denote an equilibrium.[4].
The physical state of chemicals is also very commonly stated in parentheses after the chemical
symbol, especially for ionic reactions. When stating physical state, (s) denotes a solid, (l)
denotes a liquid, (g) denotes a gas and (aq) denotes an aqueous solution.
If the reaction requires energy, it is indicated above the arrow. A capital Greek letter delta () is
put on the reaction arrow to show that energy in the form of heat is added to the reaction.  is
used if the energy is added in the form of light. Other symbols are used for other specific types
of energy or radiation.

Balancing chemical equations

As seen from the equation CH

4 + 2 O
2 → CO
2 + 2 H
2O, a coefficient of 2 must be placed before the oxygen gas on the reactants side and before the water
on the products side in order for, as per the law of conservation of mass, the quantity of each element
does not change during the reaction

 + 6 H2O → 4 H3PO4
P4O10

This chemical equation is being balanced by first multiplying H3PO4 by four to match the number of P
atoms, and then multiplying H2O by six to match the numbers of H and O atoms.

The law of conservation of mass dictates that the quantity of each element does not change in a
chemical reaction. Thus, each side of the chemical equation must represent the same quantity
of any particular element. Likewise, the charge is conserved in a chemical reaction. Therefore,
the same charge must be present on both sides of the balanced equation.
One balances a chemical equation by changing the scalar number for each chemical formula.
Simple chemical equations can be balanced by inspection, that is, by trial and error. Another
technique involves solving a system of linear equations.
Balanced equations are written with smallest whole-number coefficients. If there is no coefficient
before a chemical formula, the coefficient 1 is understood.
The method of inspection can be outlined as putting a coefficient of 1 in front of the most
complex chemical formula and putting the other coefficients before everything else such that
both sides of the arrows have the same number of each atom. If any fractional coefficient exists,
multiply every coefficient with the smallest number required to make them whole, typically
the denominator of the fractional coefficient for a reaction with a single fractional coefficient.
As an example, seen in the above image, the burning of methane would be balanced by putting
a coefficient of 1 before the CH4:
1 CH4 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Since there is one carbon on each side of the arrow, the first atom (carbon) is balanced.
Looking at the next atom (hydrogen), the right-hand side has two atoms, while the left-hand
side has four. To balance the hydrogens, 2 goes in front of the H2O, which yields:
1 CH4 + O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
Inspection of the last atom to be balanced (oxygen) shows that the right-hand side has
four atoms, while the left-hand side has two. It can be balanced by putting a 2 before O 2,
giving the balanced equation:
CH4 + 2 O2 → CO2 + 2 H2O
This equation does not have any coefficients in front of CH4 and CO2, since a
coefficient of 1 is dropped.
Matrix Method
Generally, any chemical equation involving J different molecules can be written as:
where Rj is the symbol for the j-th molecule, and νj is the stoichiometric
coefficient for the j-thmolecule, positive for products, negative for reactants (or
vice versa). A properly balanced chemical equation will then obey:
where the composition matrix aij is the number of atoms of element i in
molecule j. Any vector which, when operated upon by the composition
matrix yields a zero vector, is said to be a member of the kernel or null
space of the operator. Any member νj of the null space of aij will serve to
balance a chemical equation involving the set of J molecules comprising the
system. A "preferred" stoichiometric vector is one for which all of its
elements can be converted to integers with no common divisors by
multiplication by a suitable constant.
Generally, the composition matrix is degenerate: That is to say, not all of its
rows will be linearly independent. In other words, the rank (JR) of the
composition matrix is generally less than its number of columns (J). By
the rank-nullity theorem, the null space of aij will have J-JRdimensions and
this number is called the nullity (JN) of aij. The problem of balancing a
chemical equation then becomes the problem of determining the JN-
dimensional null space of the composition matrix. It is important to note that
only for JN=1, will there be a unique solution. For JN>1 there will be an
infinite number of solutions to the balancing problem, but only JN of them will
be independent: If JN independent solutions to the balancing problem can
be found, then any other solution will be a linear combination of these
solutions. If JN=0, there will be no solution to the balancing problem.
Techniques have been developed [5][6] to quickly calculate a set
of JN independent solutions to the balancing problem and are superior to the
 inspection and algebraic method in that they are determinative and yield all
solutions to the balancing problem.

Ionic equations
An ionic equation is a chemical equation in which electrolytes are written as
dissociated ions. Ionic equations are used for single and double
displacement reactions that occur in aqueoussolutions.
For example, in the following precipitation reaction:
the full ionic equation is:
In this reaction, the Ca2+ and the NO3− ions remain in solution and
are not part of the reaction. That is, these ions are identical on both
the reactant and product side of the chemical equation. Because
such ions do not participate in the reaction, they are
called spectator ions. A net ion icequation is the full ionic equation
from which the spectator ions have been removed. [7] The net ionic
equation of the proceeding reactions is:
or, in reduced balanced form,
In a neutralization or acid/base reaction, the net ionic
equation will usually be:
H+(aq) + OH−(aq) → H2O(l)
There are a few acid/base reactions that produce a
precipitate in addition to the water molecule shown
above. An example is the reaction of barium
hydroxide with phosphoric acid, which produces not
only water but also the insoluble salt barium
phosphate. In this reaction, there are no spectator
ions, so the net ionic equation is the same as the full
ionic equation.
Double displacement reactions that feature
a carbonate reacting with an acid have the net
ionic equation:
If every ion is a "spectator ion" then there
was no reaction, and the net ionic
equation is null.
Generally, if zj is the multiple of elementary
charge on the j-th molecule, charge
neutrality may be written as:
where the νj are the stoichiometric
coefficients described above.
The zj may be incorporated[5][6]as an
additional row in the aij matrix
described above, and a properly
balanced ionic equation will then also
obey:

References
 Atoms, elements and compounds
Chemists use symbols and formulae to represent elements and compounds. Word equations and balanced chemical equations represent the changes that
happen in chemical reactions.

Chemical symbols
All substances are made from tiny particles called atoms. An atom is the smallest part of
an element that can exist.

Atoms of each element are represented by their own chemical symbol. A chemical symbol:

 consists of one or two letters

 always starts with a capital letter, with any other letter in lower case
For example the symbol O represents an atom of oxygen, and Na represents an atom of sodium.
You must write the chemical symbol of sodium as Na, not as NA, na or nA.

There are over 100 different elements. The names and symbols of the elements are shown in the
periodic table. Elements are arranged into groups with similar properties. Groups are numbered
from 1 to 7, then 0.

In the periodic table, metals are on the left of the stepped line, and non-metals are on the right.

Each box in the periodic table shows the chemical symbol for an element

Atoms, elements and compounds

Chemists use symbols and formulae to represent elements and compounds. Word equations and balanced chemical equations represent the changes that
happen in chemical reactions.

Chemical formulae of elements

A chemical formula is used to represent an element or compound in balanced chemical
equations.

The formula for most elements is just its chemical symbol. For example:

 helium, He
 lithium, Li
 beryllium, Be
 boron, B
 carbon, C
 neon, Ne
 sodium, Na
 magnesium, Mg
It's important to use the names and chemical symbols for the first 20 elements in the
periodic table, as well as the elements in groups 1 and 7.
Some non-metal elements exist as molecules that are made up of two atoms joined together. The
formulae of these elements are the element's symbol followed by a subscripted '2'. For example:

 iodine, I2
 bromine, Br2
 chlorine, Cl2
 fluorine, F2
 oxygen, O2
 nitrogen, N2
 hydrogen, H2
A mnemonic can be used to remember these elements:

I Bring Clay For Our New House.

It's important to remember which elements exist as molecules, and which do not. Take care
to use the correct form in chemical equations involving these elements.
Question
What are the chemical formulae of the elements neon, nitrogen and sodium?

Chemical formulae of compounds

A compound is a substance that contains two or more elements that are chemically combined.
The elements in a compound are present in fixed proportions. For example, carbon dioxide
always has 12 g of carbon for every 32 g of oxygen.

A chemical formula can be used to represent a compound. The formula shows:

 the symbols for each element in the compound

 the number of atoms of each element in a unit of the compound
For example, magnesium oxide is made up of two elements, magnesium and oxygen. Its formula
is MgO. This shows that it has one atom of magnesium for every one atom of oxygen.

Here are some more examples of compounds and their formulae. The subscript number in a
formula shows if there is more than one atom of an element.
 Name of compound Formula

Sodium chloride NaCl

Potassium bromide KBr

Magnesium iodide MgI2

Carbon dioxide CO2

Carbon monoxide CO

Sulfur trioxide SO3

Water H2O

Ammonia NH3

Methane CH4

Many compounds exist naturally. They can also be formed from their elements in chemical
reactions. In a chemical reaction, one or more new substances are formed. Most chemical
reactions involve energy changes.

It is not easy to split up a compound into its elements - the only way to do this is in chemical
reactions.

In compounds made up of non-metal elements only, the second word of the compound's
name starts with mon-, di-, or tri-, eg carbon dioxide. This shows the number of atoms of
this element for every one atom of the first element in the name. So for carbon dioxide
there are two oxygen atoms for every carbon atom.

Chemical formulae of ions

An ion is a charged particle formed when an atom, or a group of atoms, loses or gains electrons.
The number and sign of its electrical charges are shown in superscript text.

Names and formulae of some common ions:

Name of ion Formula of ion Electrical charge(s)

Sodium Na+ One positive

 Name of ion Formula of ion Electrical charge(s)

Magnesium Mg2+ Two positive

Chloride Cl- One negative

Oxide O2- Two negative

Simple formulae
The formula of an ionic compound can be predicted using the formulae of its ions. The numbers
of ions in a formula must give an equal number of positive and negative charges.

Name of compound Formula Electrical charges

Sodium chloride NaCl One positive, one negative

Sodium oxide Na2O Two positive, two negative

Magnesium oxide MgO Two positive, two negative

Magnesium chloride MgCl2 Two positive, two negative

Word equations
A word equation represents a chemical reaction using the names of the substances involved.
Word equations do not show any chemical symbols or formulae.

Reactants and products

Reactants are substances that react together in a chemical reaction. In a chemical reaction,
the atoms or ions in reactants separate from one another. They join back together in a different
way to form products.

Word equations always take this form:

reactants → products

A + sign separates two or more reactants, or two or more products.

Example word equations

 Potassium hydroxide reacts with sulfuric acid. Potassium sulfate and water are formed in the
reaction. This means that:

 the reactants are potassium hydroxide and sulfuric acid

 the products are potassium sulfate and water
 the word equation is: potassium hydroxide + sulfuric acid → potassium sulfate + water
Chemical equations contain an arrow and not an equals sign. The arrow means 'reacts to
make'.
There can be different numbers of reactants and products. For example:

 sodium + chlorine → sodium chloride

 calcium carbonate → calcium oxide + carbon dioxide
Question
Nitrogen and hydrogen react together to form ammonia. Give the word equation for the
reaction.

Balanced chemical equations

A balanced chemical equation represents a chemical reaction using the formulae of
the reactants and products. It shows the number of units of each substance involved.

State symbols
Balanced chemical equations sometimes include state symbolsin brackets after each formula.
They show the physical state of that substance.

State symbol Meaning

(s) Solid

(l) Liquid

(g) Gas

(aq) Aqueous solution

An aqueous solution forms when a substance dissolves in water.

State symbols are useful because they show what a substance is like. For example:

 H2O(l) is liquid water but H2O(g) is steam and H2O(s) is ice

 HCl(g) is hydrogen chloride gas but HCl(aq) is hydrochloric acid

Balancing an equation
The law of conservation of mass states that no atoms are lost or made during a chemical reaction,
so the total mass of the products is equal to the total mass of the reactants.

This means that chemical reactions can be represented by symbol equations. A balanced symbol
equation has the same number of atoms of each element on both sides of the arrow.

To balance an equation, add numbers to the left of one or more formulae. Here is one way to
work out how to do this for the reaction between nitrogen and hydrogen.

Step Result

Check to see if there are an equal number of atoms of each element

N2 + H2 → NH3
on both sides. There aren't.

There are two nitrogen atoms on the left but only one on the right,
N2 + H2 → 2NH3
so put a big 2 on the left of the NH3.

Check again. There are two hydrogen atoms on the left but (2 × 3)
N2 + 3H2 → 2NH3
= 6 on the right, so put a big 3 in front of the H2.

Check again to see if there are equal numbers of each element on (Two nitrogen atoms and six
both sides. There are. hydrogen atoms)

Add the state symbols if asked to do so. N2(g) + 3H2(g) → 2NH3(g)

Balanced chemical equations only show formulae, not names. A balancing number, written
in normal script, multiplies all the atoms in the substance next to it.
Even though chemical compounds are broken up and new compounds are formed during a
chemical reaction, atoms in the reactants do not disappear nor do new atoms appear to form the
products. In chemical reactions, atoms are never created or destroyed. The same atoms that were
present in the reactants are present in the products - they are merely reorganized into different
arrangements. In a complete chemical equation, the two sides of the equation must be present on
the reactant and the product sides of the equation.

Coefficients and Subscripts

There are two types of numbers that appear in chemical equations. There are subscripts, which
are part of the chemical formulas of the reactants and products and there are coefficients that are
placed in front of the formulas to indicate how many molecules of that substance is used or
produced.
Figure 7.4.17.4.1: Balancing Equations. You cannot change subscripts in a chemical formula to
balance a chemical equation; you can change only the coefficients. Changing subscripts changes
the ratios of atoms in the molecule and the resulting chemical properties. For example, water
(H2O) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) are chemically distinct substances. H2O2 decomposes to
H2O and O2  gas when it comes in contact with the metal platinum, whereas no such reaction
occurs between water and platinum. 
The subscripts are part of the formulas and once the formulas for the reactants and products are
determined, the subscripts may not be changed. The coefficients indicate the number of each
substance involved in the reaction and may be changed in order to balance the equation. The
equation above indicates that one mole of solid copper is reacting with two moles of aqueous
silver nitrate to produce one mole of aqueous copper (II) nitrate and two atoms of solid silver.

Balancing a Chemical Equation

Because the identities of the reactants and products are fixed, the equation cannot be balanced by
changing the subscripts of the reactants or the products. To do so would change the chemical
identity of the species being described, as illustrated in Figure 7.4.17.4.1.

The simplest and most generally useful method for balancing chemical equations is “inspection,”
better known as trial and error. The following is an efficient approach to balancing a chemical
equation using this method.
STEPS IN BALANCING A CHEMICAL EQUATION
1. Identify the most complex substance.
 2. Beginning with that substance, choose an element(s) that appears in only one reactant and
one product, if possible. Adjust the coefficients to obtain the same number of atoms of
this element(s) on both sides.
3. Balance polyatomic ions (if present on both sides of the chemical equation) as a unit.

1. Identify The most complex substance is the one with the largest number of diffe
the most is C7H16C7H16. We will assume initially that the final balanced chemical equation
complex or formula unit of this substance.
substance.

2. Adjust the a. Because one molecule of n-heptane contains 7 carbon atoms, we need 7 CO

coefficients. which contains 1 carbon atom, on the right side:
  C7H16 (l)   +   O2 (g)  →  7 CO2 (g)  +  H2O (g) 
 
Reactants Element/Polyatomic Ion

7 C

 
b. Because one molecule of n-heptane contains 16 hydrogen atoms, we need 8 H
of which contains 2 hydrogen atoms, on the right side:
C7H16 (l)  +  O2 (g)  →  7 CO2 (g)  +    8H2O (g) 

Reactants Element/Polyatomic Ion

7 C

16 H

3. Balance There are no polyatomic ions to be considered in this reaction.

polyatomic
ions as a
unit.

4. Balance The carbon and hydrogen atoms are now balanced, but we have 22 oxygen ato
the and only 2 oxygen atoms on the left. We can balance the oxygen atoms by adjust
remaining front of the least complex substance, O2, on the reactant side:
atoms. C7H16 (l)   +  11 O2 (g)  →  7 CO2 (g)         +     8H2O (g) 
 
Reactants Element/Polyatomic Ion
 7 C

16 H

22 O

5.  Check The equation is now balanced, and there are no fractional coefficients: there are 7
your work. hydrogen atoms, and 22 oxygen atoms on each side. Always check to be sure tha
equation is balanced.

1. Balance the remaining atoms, usually ending with the least complex substance and using
fractional coefficients if necessary. If a fractional coefficient has been used, multiply both
sides of the equation by the denominator to obtain whole numbers for the coefficients.
2. Count the numbers of atoms of each kind on both sides of the equation to be sure that the
chemical equation is balanced.

EXAMPLE 7.4.17.4.1: COMBUSTION OF HEPTANE
Balancing the chemical Equation for the combustion of Heptane (C7H16C7H16)
C7H16(l)+O2(g)→CO2(g)+H2O(g)C7H16(l)+O2(g)→CO2(g)+H2O(g)
SOLUTION
EXAMPLE 7.4.27.4.2: COMBUSTION OF ISOOCTANE
Combustion of Isooctane (C8H18C8H18)
C8H18(l)+O2(g)→CO2(g)+H2O(g)C8H18(l)+O2(g)→CO2(g)+H2O(g)
SOLUTION
The assumption that the final balanced chemical equation contains only one molecule or formula
unit of the most complex substance is not always valid, but it is a good place to start. The
combustion of any hydrocarbon with oxygen produces carbon dioxide and water.

1. Identify the most complex substance. The most complex substance is the one with th
initially that the final balanced chemical equatio

2. Adjust the coefficients. a. The first element that appears only once in
  must be 8 CO2 molecules in the products:
  C8H18 (l)    

Reactants E
 8

b. Eighteen hydrogen atoms in isooctane mean

C8H18 (l)  +

Reactants E

18

3. Balance polyatomic ions as a unit. There are no polyatomic ions to be considered

4. Balance the remaining atoms. The carbon and hydrogen atoms are now bala
  atoms on the left. We can balance the leas
O2 molecule, we must use a fractional coefficien
C8H18 (l)      +   2

Reactants E

18

25

The equation is now balanced, but we usually

fractional coefficient by multiplying all coefficien
2C8H18(l) 

5.  Check your work. The balanced chemical equation has 16 carbon

 
Reactants E

16
 36

50

Balancing equations requires some practice on

large coefficients or if you have spent several
the formulas of the reactants and products corr

EXAMPLE 7.4.37.4.3: PRECIPITATION OF LEAD (II) CHLORIDE

Aqueous solutions of lead (II) nitrate and sodium chloride are mixed. The products of the
reaction are an aqueous solution of sodium nitrate and a solid precipitate of lead (II) chloride.
Write the balanced chemical equation for this reaction.
SOLUTION

1. Identify the most complex substance. The most c

Pb(NO3)2(aq)   +

2. Adjust the coefficients. There are twice as many chloride ions in the r
  balance the chloride ions.
Pb(NO3)2(aq)   +

Reactants Eleme

3. Balance polyatomic ions as a unit. The nitrate ions are still unbalanced. Place a 2
  Pb(NO3)2(aq)   +

Reactants E

1
 2

4. Balance the remaining atoms. There is no need to balance the remaining atom

5.  Check your work. Pb(NO3)2(aq)   +

 
Reactants E

EXERCISE 7.4.17.4.1
Is each chemical equation balanced?
a. 2Hg(ℓ)+O2(g)→Hg2O2(s)2Hg(ℓ)+O2(g)→Hg2O2(s)
b. C2H4(g)+2O2(g)→2CO2(g)+2H2O(g)C2H4(g)+2O2(g)→2CO2(g)+2H2O(g)
c. Mg(NO3)2(s)+2Li(s)→Mg(s)+2LiNO3(s)Mg(NO3)2(s)+2Li(s)→Mg(s)+2LiNO3(s)
Answer a
Answer b
Answer c

EXERCISE 7.4.27.4.2
Balance the following chemical equations.
a. N2 (g) + O2 (g)  →  NO2 (g)    
b. Pb(NO3)2(aq)   +   FeCl3(aq)   →  Fe(NO3)3(aq)   +   PbCl2(s)
c. C6H14(l) +  O2(g)→  CO2(g)  +  H2O(g)
Answer a
Answer b
 Answer c

Summary
 To be useful, chemical equations must always be balanced. Balanced chemical equations
have the same number and type of each atom on both sides of the equation.
 The coefficients in a balanced equation must be the simplest whole number ratio. Mass is
always conserved in chemical reactions.

Vocabulary
 Chemical reaction: The process in which one or more substances are changed into one or
more new substances.
 Reactants: The starting materials in a reaction.
 Products: Materials present at the end of a reaction.
 Balanced chemical equation: A chemical equation in which the number of each type of
atom is equal on the two sides of the equation.
 Subscripts: Part of the chemical formulas of the reactants and products that indicate the
number of atoms of the preceding element.
 Coefficient: A small whole number that appears in front of a formula in a balanced
chemical equation.

Contributors
 CK-12 Foundation by Sharon Bewick, Richard Parsons, Therese Forsythe, Shonna
Robinson, and Jean Dupon.
 Marisa Alviar-Agnew (Sacramento City College)
 Henry Agnew (UC Davis)
1. Back to top
2.
o 7.3: The Chemical Equation
 
o 7.5: Aqueous Solutions and Solubility: Compounds Dissolved in Water

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