Resource Responsible Use of Recycled Tire Rubber

in Asphalt Pavements

PUBLICATION NO. FHWA-HIF-20-043 April 2020

 FOREWORD

Pneumatic tires are designed to fulfill fundamental functions throughout their useful lives like
cushioning, damping, transmitting of torque (driving and braking), dimensional stability,
abrasion resistance, efficient rolling resistance, and durability. Lacking the ability to recycle old
tires into new tires, there are several common repurposing methods to effectively reuse rubber.
Recycling of rubber from old tires may include but is not limited to: tire-derived fuel, ground tire
rubber, and civil engineering applications. GTR is the second highest consumer of recycled tire
rubber. This informational brief provides a review and update on the various GTR processes
used in production of asphalt pavements. It presents the most recent waste tire data along with a
historical perspective of GTR use as a modifier for asphalt binders and as an additive in asphalt
mixtures. Consideration for responsible use of GTR is given to promote sustainable use of GTR
in asphalt pavements. Additional detailed information can be obtained from Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA) publication FHWA-HIF-14-015 on The Use of Recycled Tire Rubber
to Modify Asphalt Binder and Mixtures.

The FHWA has an ongoing Accelerated Implementation and Deployment of Pavement

Technologies (AIDPT) Program, which includes the deployment of innovative technologies to
improve pavement performance and reduce agency risk. This report was prepared under
Development and Deployment of Innovative Asphalt Pavement Technologies Cooperative
Agreement with the University of Nevada, Reno.

Notice
This document is disseminated under the sponsorship of the U.S. Department of
Transportation (USDOT) in the interest of information exchange. The U.S. Government
assumes no liability for the use of the information contained in this document.

The U.S. Government does not endorse products or manufacturers. Trademarks or

manufacturers’ names appear in this report only because they are considered essential to the
objective of the document. They are included for informational purposes only and are not
intended to reflect a preference, approval, or endorsement of any one product or entity.

All of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
standards mentioned in this document are private, voluntary standards that are not required
under Federal law.

Non-Binding Contents
The contents of this document do not have the force and effect of law and are not meant to
bind the public in any way. This document is intended only to provide clarity to the public
regarding existing requirements under the law or agency policies. While this document
contains nonbinding technical information, you must comply with the applicable statutes or
regulations.

Quality Assurance Statement

The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) provides high-quality information to serve
Government, industry, and the public in a manner that promotes public understanding.

ii
 TECHNICAL REPORT DOCUMENTATION PAGE
1. Report No. 2. Government Accession No. 3. Recipient’s Catalog No.
FHWA-HIF-20-043
4. Title and Subtitle 5. Report Date
Resource Responsible Use of Recycled Tire Rubber in Asphalt April 2020
Pavements 6. Performing Organization Code

7. Author(s) 8. Performing Organization Report No.

Gaylon Baumgardner (ORCID: 0000-0002-4791-1093), Adam J. T. WRSC-TR-20-02
Hand (ORCID: 0000-0002-5041-7491), and Timothy B.
Aschenbrener (ORCID: 0000-0001-7253-5504)
9. Performing Organization Name and Address 10. Work Unit No.
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
University of Nevada 11. Contract or Grant No.
1664 North Virginia Street 693JJ31850010
Reno, NV 89557
12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address 13. Type of Report and Period Covered
U.S. Department of Transportation Final Report
Federal Highway Administration September 2018–September 2019
Office of Preconstruction, Construction and Pavements 14. Sponsoring Agency Code
1200 New Jersey Avenue, SE FHWA-HICP-40
Washington, DC 20590
15. Supplementary Notes
FHWA Agreement Officer’s Representative: Timothy B. Aschenbrener, PE.
16. Abstract
Addition of ground tire rubber (GTR) to asphalt binder and mixture is an accepted asphalt mixture practice in
asphalt production that consumes about 12 percent of the total GTR market today. Modification of asphalt
binders with GTR is well established and can provide high performance pavements that aid in reduction of the
number of waste tires disposed of in landfills and elsewhere. This informational brief presents a review and
update of the various processes for use of recycled tire rubber (RTR) in production of asphalt pavements. The
objective is to provide knowledge for resource responsible use RTR to promote sustainable use in asphalt
pavements. RTR is available in a variety of physical forms including: whole tires, stamped items, chunks,
shreds, chips, crumb, and ground. The scope of this report is limited to use of RTR from whole scrap tires
through size reduction and grinding, to the particle size range defined by industry as GTR. The report also
includes information related to specifications and testing of GTR-modified asphalt binders, as well as additional
considerations for GTR-modified asphalt mixture designs.
17. Key Words 18. Distribution Statement
Asphalt rubber, scrap tire, recycling, rubber-modified No restrictions. This document is available to the
asphalt, asphalt binder, asphalt mixture public through the National Technical Information
Service, Springfield, VA 22161.
http://www.ntis.gov
19. Security Classif. (of this report) 20. Security Classif. (of this page) 21. No. of Pages 22. Price
Unclassified Unclassified 41 N/A
Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72) Reproduction of completed page authorized.

iii
 SI* (MODERN METRIC) CONVERSION FACTORS
APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS TO SI UNITS
Symbol When You Know Multiply By To Find Symbol
LENGTH
in inches 25.4 millimeters mm
ft feet 0.305 meters m
yd yards 0.914 meters m
mi miles 1.61 kilometers km
AREA
2 2
in square inches 645.2 square millimeters mm
2 2
ft square feet 0.093 square meters m
yd2 square yard 0.836 square meters m2
ac acres 0.405 hectares ha
2 2
mi square miles 2.59 square kilometers km
VOLUME
fl oz fluid ounces 29.57 milliliters mL
gal gallons 3.785 liters L
ft3 cubic feet 0.028 cubic meters m3
3 3
yd cubic yards 0.765 cubic meters m
3
NOTE: volumes greater than 1000 L shall be shown in m
MASS
oz ounces 28.35 grams g
lb pounds 0.454 kilograms kg
T short tons (2000 lb) 0.907 megagrams (or "metric ton") Mg (or "t")
TEMPERATURE (exact degrees)
°F Fahrenheit 5 (F-32)/9 Celsius °C
or (F-32)/1.8
ILLUMINATION
fc foot-candles 10.76 lux lx
2 2
fl foot-Lamberts 3.426 candela/m cd/m
FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS
lbf poundforce 4.45 newtons N
lbf/in2 poundforce per square inch 6.89 kilopascals kPa

APPROXIMATE CONVERSIONS FROM SI UNITS

Symbol When You Know Multiply By To Find Symbol
LENGTH
mm millimeters 0.039 inches in
m meters 3.28 feet ft
m meters 1.09 yards yd
km kilometers 0.621 miles mi
AREA
mm2 square millimeters 0.0016 square inches in2
2 2
m square meters 10.764 square feet ft
2 2
m square meters 1.195 square yards yd
ha hectares 2.47 acres ac
2 2
km square kilometers 0.386 square miles mi
VOLUME
mL milliliters 0.034 fluid ounces fl oz
L liters 0.264 gallons gal
m3 cubic meters 35.314 cubic feet ft3
3 3
m cubic meters 1.307 cubic yards yd
MASS
g grams 0.035 ounces oz
kg kilograms 2.202 pounds lb
Mg (or "t") megagrams (or "metric ton") 1.103 short tons (2000 lb) T
TEMPERATURE (exact degrees)
°C Celsius 1.8C+32 Fahrenheit °F
ILLUMINATION
lx lux 0.0929 foot-candles fc
2 2
cd/m candela/m 0.2919 foot-Lamberts fl
FORCE and PRESSURE or STRESS
N newtons 0.225 poundforce lbf
2
kPa kilopascals 0.145 poundforce per square inch lbf/in
*SI is the symbol for the International System of Units. Appropriate rounding should be made to comply with Section 4 of ASTM E380.
(Revised March 2003)

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................1
BACKGROUND ............................................................................................................................2
WASTE TIRE ISSUE ..............................................................................................................2
HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE .............................................................................................4
CURRENT USAGE OF GTR-MODIFIED BINDERS AND MIXTURES........................6
RUBBER-MODIFIED ASPHALT PROCESSES AND TECHNOLOGIES .....................7
WET PROCESS–AR TECHNOLOGY .................................................................................9
WET PROCESS–RMB TECHNOLOGY ...........................................................................10
DRY PROCESS .....................................................................................................................11
SUMMARY OF TECHNOLOGIES ....................................................................................12
SPECIFICATIONS AND TESTING OF GTR-MODIFIED ASPHALT BINDERS ............13
WET PROCESS .....................................................................................................................13
DRY PROCESS .....................................................................................................................14
ASPHALT MIXTURE CONSIDERATIONS ...........................................................................15
WET PROCESS .....................................................................................................................16
Dense-Graded Mixtures ..................................................................................................16
Gap-Graded Mixtures .....................................................................................................16
Open-Graded Mixtures ...................................................................................................17
DRY PROCESS .....................................................................................................................17
DISCUSSION ...............................................................................................................................17
SUMMARY ..................................................................................................................................19
REFERENCES.............................................................................................................................20
APPENDIX: GLOSSARY OF TERMS .....................................................................................26

v
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Chart. Triune benefits of recycling and reuse. .................................................................1

Figure 2. Chart. 2017 largest scrap tire markets. .............................................................................3
Figure 3. Chart. 2017 GTR market distribution, in thousands of tons.............................................3
Figure 4. Map. States allowing GTR-modified usage in current specifications. .............................6
Figure 5. Chart. Primary methods of incorporating GTR into asphalt binders and mixtures. .........9
Figure 6. Chart. Portable AR mixing facility.(49) ...........................................................................10

vi
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Typical components of tires. ..............................................................................................2

Table 2. 2017 scrap tire usage according to U.S. Tire Manufacturer Association (USTMA).........3
Table 3. Reported tons of GTR used in 2018. .................................................................................7
Table 4. Summary of wet process GTR technologies and name. ..................................................12
Table 5. Summary of dry process GTR technologies and name....................................................13

vii
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS

Abbreviations

AASHTO American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials

AR asphalt rubber
BR butyl rubber
Caltrans California DOT
CE civil engineering
CRA Crumb Rubber Asphalt
DGA dense-graded asphalt
DOT Department of Transportation
EPDM ethylene propylene diene monomer
FDOT Florida DOT
FHWA Federal Highway Administration
GDOT Georgia DOT
GTR ground tire rubber
ISTEA Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act
MSCR Multiple Stress Creep and Recovery
NAPA National Asphalt Pavement Association
NCHRP National Cooperative Highway Research Program
NHS National Highway System
NR natural rubber
NYSDOT New York State DOT
OGFC open-graded friction course
PEMD performance engineered mixture design
PG Performance Grade
PRC Public Resources Code
PTSi Paragon Technical Services, Inc.
RAP reclaimed asphalt pavement
RMB rubber-modified binder
RPA Rubber Pavements Association
RTR recycled tire rubber
RUMAC Rubber Modified Asphalt Concrete
SBR styrene butadiene rubber
SBS styrene-butadiene-styrene
SMA stone matrix asphalt
TDF Tire-derived fuel
UNR University of Nevada, Reno
U.S. United States
USTMA U.S. Tire Manufacturer Association
VDOT Virginia DOT
VMA voids in the mineral aggregate
VTM voids in total mixture

viii
Symbols

Vbe effective binder volume

ix
INTRODUCTION

The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) established the FHWA Recycled Materials
Policy regarding sustainable infrastructure in 2006.(1) The FHWA policy states that recycling and
reuse can offer triune benefits of engineering, economic and environmental impact (figure 1).
Comparatively, sustainability is often described as being made up of the three components of
environmental, social, and economic needs, collectively referred to as the “triple-bottom line.”
Within this discussion it is understood that in-service asphalt pavement performance affects
every facet of the FHWA policy. Pavements with longer service lives should involve less
maintenance and are environmentally friendly from the perspective that they involve less
greenhouse gas; generating attention per unit of use. Furthermore, pavements with longer service
lives are more economical, and more efficiently serve public needs (e.g., less congestion due to
recurring maintenance and construction activities), which increases social well-being.

This document presents a review and update of the various processes for use of recycled tire
rubber (RTR) in production of asphalt pavements. The objective is to provide knowledge for
resource responsible use of RTR to promote sustainable use in asphalt pavements. RTR is
available in a variety of physical forms including: whole tires, stamped items, chunks, shreds,
chips, crumb, and ground. The scope of this report is limited to use of RTR from whole scrap
tires through size reduction and grinding, to the particle size range defined by industry as ground
tire rubber (GTR).

Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new materials or objects. It is an
alternative to conventional waste disposal that can save material and reduce environmental
impact. Recycling of rubber from waste tires, commonly referred to as RTR, more specifically as
GTR, into asphalt pavements is an attractive alternative addressing engineering, economic and
environmental issues

ENGINEERING

Figure 1. Chart. Triune benefits of recycling and reuse.(Source Paragon Technical Services, Inc. (PTSi))

1
BACKGROUND

Waste Tire Issue

Large amounts of polymers, such as natural rubber (NR), synthetic styrene butadiene rubber
(SBR), ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM) rubber, and butyl rubber (BR), collectively
referred to as rubber, are used in production of pneumatic tires for passenger cars, trucks,
airplanes, etc. Table 1 shows a breakdown of typical tire components. When these tires are not
serviceable and discarded, only about 1 percent or less rubber has been lost due to abrasion wear.
Almost the entire amount of original rubber from a waste tires is discarded, which necessitates a
very long time for natural degradation. Disposal of waste polymers is a serious environmental
concern as polymeric materials do not decompose easily. This poses two major challenges: waste
of valuable rubber and environmental pollution due to disposal of waste tires.(2,3) Currently, scrap
tires are used in several productive and environmentally safe applications.(4)

Table 1. Typical components of tires.(Source PTSi)

Component Typical Range
Natural rubber (NR) 14 to 27 percent
Synthetic rubber 14 to 27 percent
Carbon black 28 percent
Steel, fabric 14 to 15 percent
Processing oils and additives 16 to 17 percent

In 2017, markets for scrap tires were consuming just over 3.4 million tons, or 81.4 percent, of the
estimated 4.2 million tons of scrap tires generated annually.(5) Table 2 is a summary of scrape tire
usage. The three largest scrap tire markets in 2017 are shown in figure 2 and were:

• Tire-derived fuel (TDF), 50.9 percent, consisting of cement kiln, pulp and paper, and
industrial boiler applications.

• GTR, 29.7 percent, in asphalt, automotive, molded/extruded products,

playgrounds/mulch, and sports surfacing applications.

• Civil engineering (CE), 9.3 percent, including tire shreds used in road and landfill
construction, septic tank leach fields and other construction applications.

The GTR market is reported at slightly more than 1.0 million tons or about 62 million scrap tires.
GTR-modified asphalt pavements represent 11.7 percent, or approximately 119 thousand tons (7.2
million scrap tires) as shown in figure 3.

2
 Table 2. 2017 scrap tire usage according to the U.S. Tire Manufacturer Association
(USTMA).(5)
Market or Disposition Thousands of Millions of Tires % of Total to
Tons Market
Tire-Derived Fuel (TDF) 1,736.3 105.9 50.9
Cement Kilns 805.9 49.2 23.6
Pulp & Paper 503.1 30.7 14.8
Industrial Boilers 427.3 26.1 12.5
Ground Tire Rubber (GTR) 1,013.3 61.8 29.7
Civil Engineering (CE) 316.0 19.3 9.3
Exported 109.8 6.7 9.3
Electric Arc Furnace 39.2 2.4 3.2
Reclamation Projects 44.0 2.7 1.2
Agricultural 7.1 0.4 1.3
Baled Tires/market 14.6 0.9 0.2
Punched/ Stamped 22.5 1.4 0.4
Other 108.5 6.6 0.7
Total to Market 3,411.3 208.1 100.0
Generated 4,189.2 255.6 –
% to Market/Utilized 81.4% 81.4% –
Landfill Disposal 646.8 39.5 –
% Managed (Includes Markets, Baled, and Landfill) 96.9% 96.9% –
– indicates not applicable.

Civil
Engineering,
9.3%

Ground Tire
Rubber, Tire-Derived
29.7% Fuel, 50.9%

Figure 2. Chart. 2017 largest scrap tire markets.(Source PTSi)

Sports Surfacing, 234 Asphalt, 119

Automotive, 32

Playgrounds/Mulch, 243
Molded/Extruded Products, 386

Figure 3. Chart. 2017 GTR market distribution, in thousands of tons.(Source PTSi)

3
Recycling of waste rubber from tires into GTR involves grinding or reduction of tire rubber into
smaller particle size, which results in an increase in surface area. The rubber grinding industry
classifies GTR according to particle size as rubber which is 2.0 mm (10 mesh) and smaller. The
typical sizes of GTR used in modified asphalt binders and mixtures for pavement construction
range from about 1.5 mm (1500 μm) down to 420 μm (15 mesh to 40 mesh), with limited use
sizes as small as 177 μm (80 mesh) and 125 μm (120 mesh). Grinding processes for production
of GTR are well developed and widely used. The most common grinding processers are ambient
grinding and cryogenic grinding. A third method, wet grinding has been used, but is not as
common.(6)

Historical Perspective

Research on GTR-modified asphalt binders over the last 50 years has shown favorable impacts
of GTR modification. GTR ranks second among the most common asphalt polymer modifiers,
behind styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) block copolymers. Modern GTR use in paving began in
the early 1960s with a highly elastic asphalt rubber (AR) modified chip seal developed for the
city of Phoenix, Arizona.(7) The work expanded into larger chip seal projects along with other
crack relief interlayers, and open-graded surface courses. Initial growth of AR applications
included chip seal surface treatments, interlayers, and AR open-graded friction courses
(OGFCs).(8) During the two decades following, AR materials increased as they proved useful in
various pavement maintenance functional applications including asphalt pavement, but by far the
greatest utilization during this time frame was maintenance applications.

During this same timeframe, versions of dry mixture addition of GTR to asphalt mixtures posed
more of an issue than dry processes employed today. These systems were collectively referred to
as Rubber Modified Asphalt Concrete (RUMAC) by Buncher.(9) RUMAC technology typically
used GTR particles of 10 mesh or greater and was commonly added at 3 percent by weight of
mixture. Trademarked dry processes (e.g., PlusRide™ and TAK™ technologies) were intended
to act as a flexible aggregate rather than modify the asphalt binder. PlusRide™, developed in
Sweden in 1960 and licensed in the U.S. in 1978, used 3 percent “coarse” rubber by weight of
mix, with a maximum particle size of 6.3 mm (3 mesh) and approximately 65 percent larger (by
weight) than 2.0 mm (10 mesh) added directly into the heated aggregate prior to addition of the
asphalt binder. The TAK™ system, the first form of a generic dry process GTR in the U.S.,
attempted to modify both mixture and asphalt binder by using 1 to 3 percent of a combination of
GTR particles larger than 10 mesh and less than 10 mesh with the larger particles believed to be
an aggregate modifier and the smaller particles believed to modify the asphalt binder.(10–12) In
1995, Buncher reported the new generic dry addition system to be used by four States (Arkansas,
Iowa, Kansas and Oklahoma) with only one (Kansas) using the concept successfully for an
extended period.(9) The use of ultra-fine 177 μm (80 mesh) particle size GTR is attributed to the
improved performance of the new generic dry concept used in Kansas. While presented to
provide background information, these technologies using the dry process are no longer
marketed for use in the current U.S. GTR-modified asphalt market.

The late 1980s and early 1990s were a time of heightened interest in GTR. Chapter 599 of the
New York State Laws of 1987 were amended requiring investigation and reporting on the
technical and financial implications of mandating addition of GTR to paving materials used in
public works (13). In response, the New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT)

4
commissioned a study in 1989.(13) Also, in 1989, GTR interest in asphalt mixtures was shown by
the Florida DOT (FDOT), which initiated a study in response to action by the Florida legislature
in passing Senate Bill 1192 on Solid Waste Management.(14) Rouse Rubber Industries developed
a non-proprietary continuous blending method called the Florida generic wet process. It was first
used in Florida in 1989 with fine ground, 177 μm (80 mesh), GTR. The Florida generic wet
process was reported to eliminate perceived drawbacks of the AR technology.(15,16)

During the period from 1989 to 1991, several agencies constructed projects to evaluate GTR-
modified asphalt. In 1990, the Virginia DOT (VDOT) began construction of four test sections of
GTR-modified asphalt concrete.(17) Dense-graded, gap-graded surface asphalt mixes, and a base
mix were constructed. In 1991 an investigation was conducted by the Joint Highway Research
Project Engineering Research Station at Purdue University and the Georgia DOT (GDOT) that
included construction of a GTR test section.(18,19) Also, in 1991, Section §1038(d) of the
Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA) required States to use a minimum
amount of crumb rubber from recycled tires in asphalt surfacing placed each year beginning with
the 1994 paving season.(20) The ISTEA caused a surge of interest in GTR technology, prompting
several thorough literature reviews.(9,21–24)

In 1994, a catalog and software database of publications was developed by the University of
Nevada, Reno (UNR) under the National Cooperative Highway Research Program (NCHRP).(25)
The database began with the bibliography developed by Dr. Jon Epps as part of NCHRP
Synthesis 198: Uses of Recycled Rubber Tires in Highways.(26) Synthesis 198 lists 232
publications that had appeared before December 31, 1993, with the catalog listing an additional
469 publications entered into the database up to June 30, 1994. The university was to continue
updating both the catalog and database regularly; however, currency extended only to 1996, after
which existing documents were transferred to the Rubber Pavements Association (RPA),
resulting in a database containing up to 1,000 publications. This is the largest single source for
literature on GTR. Information is available through the RPA at its website.(27)

The ISTEA mandate was lifted in 1995 under section 205(b) of the National Highway System
(NHS) Designation Act, though a significant number of GTR pavement sections had already
been placed and national research was fostered. Many States discontinued use of GTR after the
mandate was lifted. However, agencies such as Florida, Texas, and Rhode Island continued GTR
use at that time. In 2005, the State of California Public Resources Code (PRC) section 42700-
42703 (PRC 42703) legislated the use of GTR.(28) PRC 42703 states that the DOT shall require
the use of crumb rubber in lieu of other materials at specified levels for State highway
construction or repair projects that use asphalt as a construction material (not a Federal
requirement). Current use levels are set at not less than 11.58 pounds of GTR, on an annual
average, per metric ton of the total amount of asphalt paving materials. As of January 2015, any
material may be used meeting the definition of asphalt containing GTR with respect to product
type specification and annual use levels.

During the 1990s continuing into the 2000s, studies were conducted by several agencies utilizing
various GTR-modified materials. Similar findings were reported by Alaska, Arizona, South
Carolina, Louisiana, California and Colorado.(29–35) Common themes were: improved asphalt
binder properties of GTR-modified asphalt binders, and improved mixture performance with

5
respect to deformation resistance, fatigue cracking, thermal cracking, reflective cracking, aging
properties, design thickness, as well as noise reduction.

Current Usage of GTR-Modified Binders and Mixtures

A review of State DOT published specifications revealed that only twelve States currently
publish specifications allowing GTR-modified asphalt binders for use in construction of asphalt
pavements. The States are shared in figure 4.

OR

NV OH
CA
MO
AZ TN
SC
GA
TX
LA
FL

Figure 4. Map. States allowing GTR-modified usage in current specifications.(Source PTSi)

The National Asphalt Pavement Association (NAPA) recently reported that twenty-one
producers from eleven States indicated using GTR in some asphalt mixtures.(36) The distribution
among States is summarized in table 3. The 20 thousand tons of GTR used reported by NAPA is
about 17 percent of the 119,000 lbs of GTR reported by the USTMA to be used in modified
asphalt binders.(5) The NAPA report did not include use of GTR in surface treatments, such as
chip seals, which is a major source of consumption. NAPA reported that approximately 59
percent of the total asphalt mixture tonnage using GTR was in California, which mandates
widespread use of GTR in asphalt pavements (not a Federal requirement).(28)

California is by far the largest user of GTR-modified asphalt binder, with usage being directed
by PRC 42703. The California DOT (Caltrans) requires (not a Federal requirement) that: GTR be
derived from automobile and truck tires only; GTR-modified binders be homogeneous; GTR-
modified binders may not contain visible rubber particles; and GTR-modified binders contain a
minimum of 10 percent GTR.

Arizona, the second largest user of GTR-modified asphalt binders, has two different
specifications.(37) One is a Crumb Rubber Asphalt (CRA) specification for GTR-modified asphalt
binder produced using AR technology with a minimum of 20 percent GTR by weight of asphalt

6
binder. The second is a Performance Grade (PG) specification (AASHTO M 320, a private,
voluntary standard) for hybrid GTR-modified asphalt binder, produced by the rubber-modified
binder (RMB) technology with minimum of 8 percent GTR and 2 percent SBS.(38) The Arizona
PG specifications are designated as PG 64-28 TR+, PG 70-22 TR+, and PG 76-22 TR+.

Table 3. Reported tons of GTR used in 2018.(Source PTSi)

State Tons of GTR Used % of Total Tons of GTR
Used
Arizona 4,303 21.4
Arkansas 5 <0.1
California 13,412 66.7
Delaware 10 <0.1
Florida 136 0.7
Georgia 378 1.9
Illinois 750 3.7
Massachusetts 710 3.5
Michigan 55 0.3
Missouri 260 1.3
Texas 98 0.5
Total 20,117 100.0

Louisiana, while not listed in the NAPA survey, is also a substantial user of GTR-modified
asphalt binders. Louisiana allows both wet process technologies, in all mixture types, specifying
a maximum GTR concentration of 10 percent, with particles no larger than 30 mesh. GTR-
modified asphalt binders are graded according to AASHTO M 320, a private, voluntary standard,
and designated as PG 76-22M with Multiple Stress Creep and Recovery (MSCR) percent
recovery used as a plus test.

Several States have recently placed evaluation projects with both wet and dry process GTR-
modified asphalt binders and mixtures. Since 2007, dry-process projects referred to by the
suppliers as “chemically engineered rubber” technology have been constructed in Georgia,
Illinois, Indiana, Louisiana, Maryland, Missouri, Oklahoma, Texas, Virginia, and Wisconsin.
These projects account for approximately 5 million total tons of dry-process GTR since 2007
(information on these projects is available online).(39) Liberty Tire and Lehigh Industries report
placement of Dry Process projects, referred to as “dry-mix” technology, in Michigan and Ohio.
GTR consumption on these projects was not published.(40,41)

Rubber-Modified Asphalt Processes and Technologies

Asphalt binder for production of asphalt mixtures is usually used in neat form without additives;
however, it can be modified through addition of non-bituminous components or other processing
methods in order to provide products with improved physical properties for desired performance,
or mode of application. Asphalt modification is not new technology. Asphalt technologists have
used modification methods to improve properties of asphalt binder for about as long as asphalt
binder has been used in construction of pavements. Modification techniques are primarily
dependent on the desired performance of the final product. Typical methods include, but are not

7
limited to, four general classifications: addition of special fillers or extending agents, chemical
modification, air oxidation and polymer modification.(42) The main topic of this document relates
to polymer modification using GTR polymers.

GTR and SBS are similar in that they both contain styrene and butadiene; however, that is about
as far as the similarities extend. GTR is a thermoset elastomer, due to sulfur cross-linking
(vulcanization), and maintains properties somewhat consistently through heating and cooling.
SBS is a thermoplastic elastomer, meaning that it can be softened by heat and cooled in a
reversible physical process. GTR modification can range from as little as 5.0 percent to as much
as 20.0 percent of the total asphalt binder weight, depending on the properties being targeted.
Compared to SBS modified asphalt binders this would be equivalent to SBS loadings of from
about 1.5 percent to 6.0 percent to achieve equivalent properties. Note from table 1 that the
composition of GTR is not pure polymer (rubber), while SBS is pure polymer. On a mass percent
basis, GTR is about 0.4 percent polymer and 0.6 percent inert material. A simplified assumption
is that 1.0 to 1.5 percent SBS equates to about 3.0 to 4.0 percent GTR as effective asphalt binder
modifier. This assumption depends highly on compatibility with the asphalt binder being
modified. The effect of thermoplastic elastomers, for example SBS, and thermoset elastomers,
such as GTR, on asphalt binders is highly dependent on proper dispersion and solubility in
asphalt binders. Dispersion and solvation are primarily responsible for the elastic nature imparted
to asphalt binders from thermoplastic and thermoset elastomer polymer modification.

Figure 5 presents a chronology of GTR uses in asphalt binders and mixtures in the U.S.
Currently there are two primary processes of incorporating GTR into asphalt binders and
mixtures referred to as either the “wet” or “dry” process. The wet process blends GTR with
asphalt with one of two technologies. It is done either on-site at the asphalt mixture plant or at
the asphalt binder supply terminal, with a prescribed reaction time prior to mixing the GTR-
modified asphalt binder with aggregate. The dry process incorporates GTR directly into the
asphalt mixture during production. This is usually done by adding the GTR directly to the
aggregate in the asphalt plant mixing drum prior to introducing the asphalt binder.

Despite successes, GTR usage has been limited to specific pavement types and regions. Limited
growth in use of GTR-modified asphalt pavements, since the early 1960s can be credited to
successful construction of asphalt pavements with improved reduced permanent deformation,
fatigue cracking, thermal cracking, reflective cracking, and improved aging properties, and noise
reduction (with some mixture types).(9,43,44) These results are primarily observed using GTR-
modified asphalt binders produced via wet process technologies: “asphalt rubber” (AR),
sometimes referred to simply as the “wet process” and “rubber-modified binder” (RMB) also
referred to as “terminal blend.”

8
 Material
Material Process
Process Technology
Technology Product
Product
1960’s - Arizona
McDonald
Process

1989 - Florida GTR Modified Binder

Continuous (Asphalt Rubber or
Wet Blend Rubber Modified
Binder)

1992 - Arizona
Terminal
Ground Blend
Tire
1960’s - Sweden
Rubber
Plus Ride
RUMAC, TAK

1990’s - Kansas
GTR Modified
Generic
Dry Dry-Process
Hot-Mix
Asphalt Mixture

2010’s - Georgia
Asphalt Plus
SmartMix

Figure 5. Chart. Primary methods of incorporating GTR into asphalt binders and
mixtures.(Source PTSi)

Wet Process–AR Technology

Production of the AR technology is a batch wet process consisting of blending from 10 to 22

percent GTR by weight of asphalt binder. The typical GTR particle size is a maximum of around
1.5mm or (15 mesh). Processing temperatures range from 175 to 190°C (≈ 350 to 375°F)
allowing the GTR and asphalt binder to react for 30 to 60 minutes before introduction into the
asphalt mixture production process.(7,23–24,45–48) This process is normally performed entirely at the
asphalt mixture production plant using portable rubber mixing facilities where GTR is brought to
the job site in bulk or super-sacks and blended with asphalt binder available at the mix
production plant. The portable rubber mixing facilities integrate extensive equipment including a
feed system for the GTR, a blending tank and separate storage tank(s), as well as a heating,
metering, and emissions capture systems. Figure 6 is a schematic illustrating the production
equipment and process.(49)

The term “reaction” is used to describe the change in asphalt binder properties when GTR is
added to asphalt binder. This change in properties is more physical, due to swelling of the rubber
particles, than chemical, and depends on proper dispersion of rubber particles and solubility in
the asphalt binder.(45–48) Fully reacted particles may swell as much as three to five times their
original size.(50). As the GTR particle swells asphalt viscosity generally increases and stabilizes
when the swelling nears a maximum. Changes in properties are not only a result of GTR particle
swelling, but also because the asphalt binder is giving up lighter oils through absorption into the
rubber, all in a process of phase inversion.(51,52)

9
 Step 1a Step 1b Step 2a Step 2b Step 2c
Crumb rubber Fine rubber enters The screw conveyor feeds ground The AC pump sends virgin Extender oil flows to
enters the hopper. the hopper. rubber into the mixing chamber. AC to the mixing chamber. the mixing chamber.

Steps 3 & 4 Step 5

A high shear mixer blends the GTR and AC in
the mixing chamber while a pump sends the
The reaction tank moves the blended Step 6
mix across agitating augers, keeping
blending materials on to the reaction tank. the crumb rubber in suspension. A mass flow meter feeds the
blended liquid into the
production process at the plant.

Figure 6. Chart. Portable AR mixing facility.(49)

As previously discussed, depending on temperature, GTR particle size—typically 1.5mm (15

mesh) down to 420 μm (40 mesh), dispersion efficiency and shear, the reaction time with the AR
process is typically 30 to 60 minutes. However, reaction time may be reduced through improved
dispersion and finer GTR particles, smaller than 420 μm (40 mesh). Time to fully react is
reported to be a direct function of GTR relative surface area, prompting use of finely ground
GTR, e.g. 177 μm (80 mesh) in some asphalt binders.(53–56)

Wet Process–RMB Technology

The alternative version to the wet process with the AR technology is the RMB technology. The
RMB technology is commonly referred to as “terminal blend.”(57) RMB or terminally blended
GTR-modified asphalt is produced in a similar manner to AR, except that production occurs in
fixed blending facilities, or terminal. RMB generally consists of blending from 5 to 15 percent
GTR of a size range from 600 μm to 177 μm (30 to 80 mesh) with asphalt binder at temperatures
ranging from 175 to 190°C (≈ 350 to 375°F) and allowing them to react for at least 60 minutes
prior to transfer to large storage tanks. Once mixed, the RMB is stored at elevated temperatures
awaiting delivery to asphalt mixture production facilities in the same manner as conventional and
polymer modified asphalt binders. Note that 600 μm to 420 μm (30 to 40 mesh) are more typical
sizes for GTR in RMB, which is commonly referred to as “30 minus rubber.”

Proprietary technologies for production of RMB eliminate the need for portable on-site blending
units, used in the AR technology, while providing tank storable GTR-modified asphalt binders

10
for asphalt mixture production. Early versions of these products—FLEXOCHAPE and
ECOFLEX—allowed the GTR-modified asphalt binder to be blended at refineries or asphalt
terminals like conventional asphalt binders, without modification at the mix plant.(12,58,59)
Compared to AR at 20 percent GTR by weight of asphalt binder, these processes used only 10
percent and were only used sparsely in the U.S. during the early 1990s.(60) In the middle 1990s a
few, recently expired, U.S. patents were issued to Neste/Wright Asphalt Products Company of
Channelview Texas for a wet process technology referred to in the industry as the “Wright
Process.” This technology is a wet process RMB in which approximately 10 percent GTR is
added to asphalt and processed at elevated temperature for extended periods to provide a GTR-
modified asphalt binder that is storage stable for asphalt mixture production.(61–63) The advent of
the Wright technology spawned development of several RMB technologies, making terminal
blend RMB one of the preferred production technologies of GTR-modified asphalt binders.(64,65)
Arizona now prefers terminal blended rubber, RMB, over AR even though AR has been the
staple of their GTR-modified pavements program.(66) Terminal produced RMB binders has also
led to production of hybrid asphalt binders of GTR combined with synthetic polymers such as
SBS, as well as improvements in testing and certification of GTR-modified asphalt binders.(67)

Dry Process

Today’s accepted technology of the dry process is a modified version of Buncher’s “new generic
dry” system.(68) Typical GTR particle size is in the range of 600 to 420 μm (30 to 40 mesh). GTR
concentrations are considerably less at approximately 10 percent by weight of the asphalt binder,
which equates to approximately 0.5 percent by weight of mixture or 10 pounds of GTR per ton
of asphalt mixture. GTR is typically brought to the job site in bulk or super-sacks and added
through the reclaimed asphalt pavement (RAP) collar along with RAP. Today’s dry processes
often contain additional additives such as polymers or waxes to provide improved mixing and
compaction characteristics.(65,69) These additives are believed to do more in improving mixing
and compaction than function as a property modifier of the base asphalt binder.(70) More recently,
Liberty Tire has introduced a treated GTR technology. This technology incorporates what is
referred to as “Reacted Rubber Particle Technology” to provide a dry process for mixture
modification.

A presumed drawback with the wet process technologies is that they are batch processes
involving special blending equipment to react the GTR with asphalt at elevated temperatures for
a specific duration, which can lead to delays at the asphalt mix plant. Therefore, some suppliers
promote that a significant cost savings can be recognized by adding GTR to the asphalt mixture
in a dry process, versus the wet process, due to reduction in processing and materials
handling.(9,22,71)

A second factor believed to drive the cost of the AR technology higher than the dry process(es)
is a belief that, once blended, the AR has a shelf life limited to 24 hours.(12,46–48) This is primarily
due to higher concentrations of GTR used in the AR technology, often upwards of 20 percent,
and continued swelling of the GTR in mixtures stored at elevated temperature causing asphalt
mixture producers alarm if an unexpected shutdown should occur at the production plant or
jobsite. Stroup-Gardiner reported that the cost to modify asphalt mixture with the dry process
versus the wet process, assuming the same size and concentration of GTR, is about one-third.(72)
Production time of dense-graded asphalt (DGA) mixture with AR was reported to be slower than

11
the dry process with the AR technology. An average increase of 60 percent to production of
dense graded mixture as compared to a 20 percent increase with the dry process.

Summary of Technologies

A summary of the wet process technologies discussed is presented in table 4. Recall the wet
process is defined as: “methods that blend ground tire rubber (GTR) with asphalt binder before
incorporating the asphalt binder into asphalt paving materials. Although most wet process
asphalt rubber (AR) binders involve agitation to keep the scrap tire rubber evenly distributed
throughout the asphalt binder, some rubber modified binders (RMBs) may be formulated in a
wet process manner so as not to need agitation.”

A summary of the dry process technologies discussed is presented in table 5. Recall the dry process
is defined as: “any method that mixes the ground tire rubber (GTR) with the aggregate before the
mixture is charged with asphalt binder. This process only applies to hot mix asphalt production.”

Table 4. Summary of wet process GTR technologies and name.(Source PTSi)

Technologies Included in This Technology Definition Other Names of the
Process Technology
Asphalt Rubber (AR) “An asphalt binder in various • McDonald Process
types of flexible pavement • Arizona Crumb Rubber
construction including surface • Wet Process Rubber
treatments and asphalt mixtures • Recycled Tire Rubber
consisting of a blended asphalt Modified Bitumen (RTR-MB)
binder, ground tire rubber • Asphalt Rubber Binder
(GTR), and certain additives in (ARB)
which the rubber component is • Bitumen Rubber Binder
at least 15 percent by weight of
• Crumb Rubber Binder
the total blend and has reacted in
• Batch Blending
the asphalt binder sufficiently to
cause swelling of the rubber
particles.”
Rubber Modified Binder “A version of the wet process • Terminal Blend
(RMB) where ground tire rubber (GTR) • Terminal Blended Rubberized
is blended with asphalt binder at Asphalt (TBRA)
the refinery or at an asphalt • Recycled Tire Rubber
binder storage and distribution Modified Bitumen (RTR-MB)
terminal and transported to the • Rubber Modified Binder
asphalt mix plant or job site for (RMB)
use. These blends may contain • Hybrid Rubber Binder
from 5 to 12 percent GTR by • Wright Process
total asphalt binder mass. Some
hybrid RMB binders may
contain polymers such as
styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS)
in addition to GTR.”

12
 Table 5. Summary of dry process GTR technologies and name.(Source PTSi)
Technologies Included in This Technology Definition Other Names of the
Process Technology
Dry Process “A process where hot-mix • Dry process rubber
asphalt mixture is modified with • Belt add modifier (BAM)
ground tire rubber (GTR) using
GTR as an aggregate/binder
modifier which is incorporated
into the aggregated prior to
mixing with asphalt binder
producing a GTR-modified hot-
mix asphalt mixture. GTR used
in this technology is generally
less than 0.6mm (30 mesh).”

SPECIFICATIONS AND TESTING OF GTR-MODIFIED ASPHALT BINDERS

Wet Process

Purchase specifications for GTR-modified asphalt binders primarily include test results to
characterize stiffness of the asphalt binder with respect to expected end use conditions
complimented by tests to ensure safety, consistency and retention of properties with aging. Since
GTR-modified asphalt binders are non-homogeneous, dispersed rubber particles tend to
confound conventional characterization by penetration (AASHTO M 20 Standard Specification
for Penetration-Graded Asphalt Cement, a private, voluntary standard) and absolute viscosity
(AASHTO M 226 Standard Specification for Viscosity-Graded Asphalt Cement, a private,
voluntary standard).(73–75) Therefore, non-standard procedures have been used to attempt to
quantify the physical properties of GTR-modified asphalt binders.

Specifications from different agencies may vary in format and extent of the specification, but
they generally have common components describing the type of product or process, materials
(including specifications and test methods), construction requirements, methods of measurement
and basis for payment. For example, agencies specifying modified asphalt binders with AR
technology tend to follow empirical specifications based on their experiences. Common physical
attributes of AR binders under consideration for asphalt mixture applications included viscosity
at high temperature to ensure mixing and compaction characteristics, consistency at high and
moderate temperatures to address properties at pavement surface temperatures, elasticity and low
temperature characteristics.

The Superpave asphalt binder specification (AASHTO M 320 Standard Specification for
Performance-Graded Asphalt Binder, a private, voluntary standard) encourages wider use of
rheology-based testing of GTR-modified asphalt binders using the wet process and either the AR
or RMB technology.(38) Minor adjustments may facilitate Superpave asphalt binder testing of
GTR-modified asphalt binders using the RMB technology with particles less than 30 mesh. An
example is increasing the standard DSR plate-plate testing gap from 1 mm to 2 mm. For GTR-
modified asphalt binders using the AR technology with larger particles, greater than 30 mesh,

13
alternative concentric cylinder (cup and bob) testing fixtures are available to conduct rheological
testing of a wider gap up to 9.5 mm.(76–78) Rheology testing of wet-process GTR-modified
asphalt binders whether with standard 1 mm gap, increased gap, or alternative geometries allows
adherence to standard Superpave asphalt binder grade parameters in AASHTO M 320 (a private,
voluntary standard) as well as new specifications such as MSCR (AASHTO M 332 Standard
Specification for Performance-Graded Asphalt Binder Using Multiple Stress Creep Recovery
(MSCR) Test, a private, voluntary standard).(79)

Regardless of process, GTR-modified asphalt binders are generally less sensitive to temperature
than conventional asphalt binders, thereby improving asphalt pavement performance.(46,47)
Higher relative stiffness at high operating temperatures is desired and is increased by addition
and reaction of GTR, while desired lower relative stiffness at low operating temperatures is
generally achieved by use of lower viscosity base asphalt binder or adding extender oils to soften
the base asphalt binder. The base asphalt binder for GTR modification in the AR and RMB
technologies is typically one or two grades lower than the standard asphalt binder used for
asphalt paving in a specific region. For example, if the climatic/traffic PG asphalt binder
recommended by AASHTO M 320 (a private, voluntary standard) is a PG 76-22, the base
asphalt binder for GTR modification is most likely a PG 64-22 or perhaps even a PG 58-22. In
the case of AASHTO M 332 (a private, voluntary standard) this would mean that PG-S grades
are modified with GTR to achieve -H, -V, and -E grades. As stated, results show improved high
temperature properties with added GTR. Low temperature improvements are not as prevalent but
can be obtained with the combination of a softer asphalt binders and GTR concentration.

While stiffness is the primary measure of the difference between conventional asphalt binder and
GTR-modified asphalt binder, other empirical and physical properties have historically been
evaluated, such as changes in softening point, penetration, elasticity, flexibility, and ductility.(9,80)
At the urging of some suppliers, agencies have implemented solubility as an added parameter for
GTR-modified asphalt binders. This should be considered with caution as tire rubber is not
totally soluble in any solvent and solubility has no indication as to the performance of an asphalt
binder. For the most part solubility only serves to differentiate commercial technologies.

Dry Process

Specification and certification of mixtures modified with GTR using the dry process is not as
straightforward as when the wet process is used. Some agencies have specified the GTR-
modified asphalt binder be evaluated and certified via asphalt binder extraction, recovery, and
subsequent testing of recovered asphalt binder when the dry process is used. This approach raises
concern as to whether the recovered asphalt binder represents the GTR-modified asphalt binder
in the mixture. Testing of extracted asphalt binder from the dry process poses one of two,
possibly both, concerns: was all the GTR recovered from the mixture and/or does solvent
interaction incorporate rubber and asphalt binder in a manner not achieved in the in-place
mixture. Specification of the mixture using the dry process is more appropriately based on
mixture testing schemes such as performance engineered mixture design (PEMD) approach.(81)

14
ASPHALT MIXTURE CONSIDERATIONS

Three general asphalt mixture types are used for production of GTR-modified asphalt
pavements: dense-graded, gap-graded, and open-graded.(82) Standard mixture design procedures,
Marshall, Hveem and Superpave, have been used with modifications to test methods and design
criteria to design mixtures containing GTR-modified asphalt binders using both wet process
technologies and dry process technologies.(83–86) Volumetric mixture designs alone may not
provide mixtures with desired overall performance. The aforementioned PEMD approach to
mixture design may be more appropriate for design and evaluation of GTR-modified systems.

In the U.S., predominate use of GTR-modified asphalt pavements has been in warmer climates.
Issues with compaction and raveling of mixtures in colder climates and in late season paving has
led some to believe that GTR-modified materials may not perform well in cold climates. Some
trial projects with GTR-modified materials have exhibited early cracking, as well as issues with
permanent deformation. An important factor to consider with respect to these concerns is
effective binder volume (Vbe). Vbe is an important factor in volumetric design of all asphalt
mixtures. Excess asphalt binder content may lead to mixtures susceptible to permanent
deformation, while insufficient asphalt binder content can be a cause of premature cracking. For
DGA mixtures designed with GTR-modified asphalt binders premature cracking has been a
concern. In fact, Crawley reported test section mixture exhibiting early cracking indicative of
mixture with low asphalt binder content.(87) Synonymous to excess asphalt binder is excess filler
content in asphalt mixtures because excess filler may also yield mixtures susceptible to
permanent deformation. To better understand how GTR modification affects Vbe, a review of
GTR composition is necessary. Recall that GTR is not pure polymer (rubber) and on a per mass
percentage basis GTR is only about 0.4 percent polymer, functional as a binder modifier, and 0.6
percent inert material. Baumgardner (2015) and the FDOT specifications report that the typical
functional asphalt binder modifier (polymer) content of GTR is in the range of 40 to 55
percent.(52,88) Therefore, the remaining inert materials are neither polymer nor asphalt.
Considering this, an assumed minimum functional asphalt binder modifier content of 40 percent
can be utilized to calculate the necessary increase in asphalt binder content needed to meet
volumetric demand.

For example, consider a design binder content of 5 percent, designed with conventional asphalt
binder. Substituting GTR-modified asphalt binder containing 10 percent GTR would involve an
increase in asphalt binder content of 0.3 percent. So, 5 percent asphalt binder with 10 percent
GTR modification having 40 percent functional binder modifier would yield only 94 percent
effective asphalt binder in the GTR-modified asphalt binder. To ensure 5 percent asphalt binder
in the mixture, the total asphalt binder should be increased to 5.32 percent. This, and the fact that
GTR absorbs light fractions of virgin binder, has prompted some States to make it common
practice in specifications and design of asphalt mixtures containing GTR-modified asphalt
binders to arbitrarily increase design asphalt binder content by as much as 0.2 to 0.3 percent to
address concerns of lean mixtures and subsequent early cracking. A simple way of looking at this
is to recognize that at a given total asphalt binder content, a neat asphalt binder results in a higher
Vbe than a GTR-modified asphalt binder at the same total asphalt binder content. This is logical
because a portion of the GTR modifier is an inert material. Another way of presenting the same
concept is simply to view a portion of the GTR modifier as a filler, that does not contribute to
Vbe. Thus, for a given aggregate source and gradation, more total binder is needed for a mixture

15
designed with GTR-modified asphalt binder to provide the same Vbe. This concept is very simple
but has not been well recognized when designing mixtures with GTR-modified asphalt binders.

Wet Process

Dense-Graded Mixtures
Addition of GTR, specifically the wet process using AR and RMB technologies, generally raises
optimum asphalt binder content and lowers laboratory stability results in dense-graded asphalt
mixtures, regardless of mix design methodology. This is a result of AR binder having higher
viscosity relative to conventional asphalt binder preventing close packing of aggregate, there-by
needing more binder to get the same level of voids in total mixture (VTM).

GTR used in DGA mixtures is typically in the form of AR binder technology with reduced GTR
concentration (maximum 10 percent) or RMB technology of a similar GTR concentration.
Reduced GTR concentration of these asphalt binders, with well incorporated GTR particles,
allow for substitution of the RMB or AR binder in place of the standard asphalt binder into the
mixture. Use of AR binders, with higher GTR concentration, in DGA is not common but may
occur. This involves selection of an aggregate gradation with higher voids in the mineral
aggregate (VMA) to make room for swollen GTR particles. Recalling that rubber particles may
swell as much as five times their original size, if these soft swollen particles bridge aggregate-
aggregate interaction, compaction may be an issue.(2,48,89) The supplier should provide
information and recommendations on the handling, storage, and mixture production temperatures
for RMB and AR binder.

Depending on GTR content and asphalt binder compatibility, AR and RMB binders may have
much higher viscosities than typical polymer modified binders. The overall effects of GTR-
modified asphalt binder in DGA mixtures may vary based on binder compatibility, aggregate,
and overall gradation. This may involve slightly increased binder contents in the mixture to
produce similar design air voids. Additionally, in some fine-graded dense asphalt mixtures,
reduction of the fine aggregate portion may help compensate for increased asphalt binder
content. Directly substituting the GTR-modified asphalt binder for a polymer modified asphalt
binder may not always provide the same mix properties. Product specific mix designs and
mixture performance testing should be considered to better evaluate the expected mixture
performance.

Gap-Graded Mixtures
Gap-graded asphalt mixtures are typically used in place of dense-graded mixtures with AR
technology at higher GTR concentrations (15 to 22 percent). A portion of the fine aggregates is
removed to allow room for the rubber particles within the gradation. Gap-graded mixes with AR
binders are designed to have binder contents in the 6 to 8 percent range. As stated, Marshall,
Hveem, or Superpave mix design methods have been used for mixture design, with design air
voids varying based on agency specifications. For example, Arizona agencies design these mixes
for 5 percent air voids and California designs for 3 to 4 percent air voids. The specified VMA is
also significantly higher because of the high binder contents.

16
Open-Graded Mixtures
Open-graded asphalt mixtures represent one of the most common uses of wet process GTR-
modified asphalt binder, especially with high GTR concentration AR technology. These OGFC
mixtures are used to promote rapid drainage of water from the pavement surface to reduce splash
and spray, as well as to reduce tire-pavement noise. Design processes for these mixtures typically
involve using a standard open-graded gradation band and specified minimum asphalt binder
content. An asphalt binder drain down test is used to make sure the asphalt binder does not flow
off the aggregate during normal production, placement, and compaction operations. Binder
stabilizing agents such as cellulose fibers may be used to aid in resistance to asphalt binder drain
down. Additionally, higher viscosity provided by GTR-modified asphalt binder serves to lessen
issues with drain down due to thicker films; therefore, higher GTR content and a more
compatible binder/GTR may help increase viscosity.

Dry Process

Dry process GTR-modified asphalt mixtures have been designed using standard Marshall,
Hveem, and Superpave methods, but the criteria for selecting optimum asphalt binder content are
different than typically used with these methods. Typically, laboratory designed asphalt mixtures
are prepared by pre-blending heated dry aggregate and rubber followed by addition of asphalt
binder. Laboratory stability and stiffness values of dry process modified asphalt mixtures are
significantly lower than values of conventional mixtures. As previously stated, there is concern
that the dry added GTR may lack enough reaction time to provide the desired viscosity increase.
This has led some suppliers and agencies to discuss evaluation of hybrid versions of dry process
GTR modification. Hybrid dry process technology is currently being proposed that combines 10
percent concentration of GTR based on asphalt binder volume—as well as lower loadings of
GTR (e.g. 5 percent of asphalt binder volume)—with SBS-modified asphalt binders to produce
AASHTO M 332 (a private, voluntary standard) PG H, and V grades.

DISCUSSION

One should note parallels of recycling GTR with recycling of RAP as ingredients in sustainable
asphalt pavements. Use of RAP has successfully reduced virgin binder demand as GTR has
successfully been used to modify asphalt binder.

Widespread interest in the use of RAP occurred in the early 1970’s and was driven by factors
such as raw material shortages, increased asphalt binder prices, and pavement disposal
restrictions. Over the next few years, this interest dissipated as a lack of understanding of RAP’s
properties and how to properly utilize these properties to produce asphalt mixtures with adequate
performance was lacking.(90) Few engineering driven limits were placed on early RAP usage.
Today, RAP use is accepted as a sustainable paving practice that can produce mixtures with good
performance, but there are engineering based limits. Howard et al. performed a literature review
related to RAP that documents several projects where RAP contents in excess of 25 percent have
been successfully used.(91)

Considering GTR’s use in asphalt pavements and studying parallels to the history of RAP
characterization and performance, one can see that early on there were three primary hypotheses
taken with RAP: 1) RAP is an inert black rock; 2) RAP binder is fully re-livened and fully blends

17
with virgin binder; 3) RAP binder is partially re-livened and partially blends with virgin binder.
Hypothesis 3 has been shown to be more reasonable over the past several years. Today it is
understood that there are numerous factors affecting how RAP performs in mixtures including:
binder properties (RAP and virgin), temperature and time factors associated with mixing and
transport, mixing energy, and additives (e.g., rejuvenators). Every one of these categories of
factors apply to GTR. For example, virgin binder properties affect incorporation of GTR, mixing
temperature and time affect dispersion of GTR, and so forth.

Too much RAP or too much GTR can be used if there is not a framework for that quantity of
material to be successful in the mixture. Simply placing large quantities of GTR into a mix, but
not providing suitable conditions for the GTR to successfully contribute to positive performance
is environmentally conscious only when looking back at the landfill, not when looking forward
to pavement performance. A lesson can be learned from RAP’s history; RAP and GTR are black,
but they are not inert. Lessons and experience from RAP’s past can benefit GTR’s future and
help to advance GTR to an efficiently used post-consumer polymer at a faster rate than if the
industry did not have the experiences from RAP to draw from. While obvious, the paving
industry occasionally needs to be reminded that the same approach to similar problems often
leads to the same result.

GTR has been used regionally for approximately 50 years, and modification has ranged from as
little as 5 percent to as much as 20 percent of the total binder weight. AR has generally been
restricted to use in more gap or open-graded mixtures such as stone matrix asphalt (SMA) and
OGFC, with terminally blended RMB and dry-process GTR being expanded to use in DGA
mixture applications. Restricted GTR usage has been attributed to volumetric limitations
resulting from GTR particle size and content. For example, using GTR-modified asphalt binder
with conventional loadings of 10–20 percent of total binder weight and particle sizes ranging
from 1.5 mm–420 μm (15–40 mesh) in DGA mixtures creates a dilemma of too much rubber that
is too big for the limited binder space available in DGA. Considering that DGA is the most
commonly used asphalt mixture it is obvious that DGA presents an opportunity for greater use of
GTR nationwide. Lower GTR loadings such as 5 percent in wet processed binders or 5 pounds of
rubber per mix ton in dry-process mixtures may provide alternatives suitable for DGA mixture
applications. Innovative alternatives using lowered loadings of GTR combined with synthetic
polymers, such as SBS, may also provide suitable performance.

GTR can be used to close the price gap between standard grade asphalt binders and modified
asphalt binders such as in the case of hybrid binders(67,92). For example, take a PG 67-22 base
asphalt binder that was modified to a PG 76-22 with 3 percent SBS. Assuming a 1:1 replacement
of GTR effective polymer with SBS (a simplified assumption), 3.0 percent SBS and somewhere
around 10 percent GTR should modify the PG 67-22 to PG 76-22.

Aside from simplifying assumptions for discussion purposes, 1 to 2 percent SBS and 3 to 8
percent GTR are reasonable ranges of dosages that should work well in hybrid polymer
modification systems(67,92). At these loadings, there is still enough SBS to provide the consistent
and desirable behaviors the industry has relied upon for several years, while also getting
performance benefits from GTR, reducing binder costs, and being environmentally conscious
(i.e., improving engineering, economic and environmental benefits). SBS/GTR loadings in this
range are going to be useable in almost any type of DGA (coarse or fine graded), SMA, or

18
OGFC mixture an entity needs, as the issues documented herein and elsewhere aren’t expected at
lower total GTR loadings. The maximum amount of SBS replacement should be set with the idea
of limiting GTR loadings so that mixture performance is improved and more consistent over
time. A hybrid approach with better performance is also likely to increase the approximately 12
percent share of GTR used in asphalt paving.

SUMMARY

Pneumatic tires are designed to fulfill fundamental functions throughout their useful lives like
cushioning, damping, transmitting of torque (driving and braking), dimensional stability,
abrasion resistance, efficient rolling resistance, and durability. Lacking the ability to recycle old
tires into new tires, there are several common repurposing methods to effectively reuse rubber.
Recycling of rubber from old tires may include but is not limited to: TDF, GTR, and CE
applications. GTR is the second highest consumer of RTR with uses in:

• Molded and extruded products.

• Playground and mulch applications.
• Sports surfacing.
• Asphalt binder modification.
• Automotive uses.

Addition of GTR to asphalt binder and mixture is an accepted asphalt mixture practice in asphalt
production and consumes about 12 percent of the total GTR market today. Modification of
asphalt binders with GTR is well established and can provide high performance pavements that
aid in reduction of the number of waste tires disposed of in landfills and elsewhere. GTR, as a
post-consumer polymer, ranks second among the most common asphalt polymer modifiers
behind SBS copolymers. Growth in use of GTR-modified asphalt pavements can be credited to
successful construction of high-performance asphalt pavements primarily using GTR-modified
asphalt binders produced via two versions of the wet-process: “asphalt rubber,” (AR) commonly
simply referred to as the “wet process” and “rubber-modified binder” (RMB) also referred to as
“terminal blend.” A second process known as the dry-process addition of GTR to asphalt
mixtures is somewhat in its infancy with current technologies. Current dry-process technologies
have generated promising reports from some agencies. Some have also expressed concern with
long-term mixture performance, non-load related cracking and low temperature performance.
This is likely due to a lack of recognition that with the dry-process effective binder content has to
be closely considered. Because GTR contain 0.6 percent inert filler, the total binder content of a
GTR-modified asphalt mixture has to be higher than the total binder content with a conventional
or SBS-modified asphalt binder.

19
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25
APPENDIX: GLOSSARY OF TERMS

Ambient grinding
A method of processing recycled tire rubber where reduced size scrap tire rubber is ground or
processed at or above ordinary room temperature. Ambient processing typically provides
irregularly shaped, torn particles with relatively large surface areas.

Ambient Ground Rubber

Result of processing where recycled tire rubber is ground or processed at or above ordinary room
temperature.

Asphalt
A dark brown to black cementitious material, solid or semisolid in consistency, composed
predominately of bitumen which occurs in nature or are obtained as residua in petroleum
refining.

Asphalt-rubber
An asphalt binder in various types of flexible pavement construction including surface treatments
and hot mixes consisting of a blend of asphalt cement, reclaimed tire rubber, and certain
additives in which the rubber component is at least 15 percent by weight of the total blend and
has reacted in the hot asphalt cement sufficiently to cause swelling of the rubber particles.

Asphalt-rubber asphalt concrete (ARAC)

Consists of asphalt-rubber binder hot mixed with a gap graded aggregate. The resultant mixture
is placed as a final wearing surface or base support layer. It is generally placed from 1-2 inches
(25 to 50 mm) in thickness.

Asphalt-rubber friction course (ARFC)

Asphalt-rubber friction course which consists of asphalt-rubber hot mixed with an open graded
aggregate. The resultant mixture is placed as a final wearing course. It is generally placed 0.5 to
1.0 inch (12.5 to 25 mm) in thickness.

Asphalt-rubber gap graded mix

Consists of asphalt rubber binder hot mixed with a gap-graded aggregate. The resulting mixture
is placed as a final wearing surface or base support layer. It is generally placed from 1–2 inch (25
to 50 mm) in thickness.

Asphalt-rubber Type 1
Asphalt and crumb rubber from scrap tires only and no other additives, modifiers or extenders.

Asphalt-rubber Type 2
Consists of a maximum of 85 percent asphalt combined with a minimum of 15 percent rubber.
The rubber portion consists of 75 percent crumb rubber from scrap tires and 25 percent from a
high natural rubber source. An extender oil is added to the combination of asphalt and rubber.

26
The amount of extender oil is generally about 2 percent of the total mixture. Type 2 is primarily
used in California.

Automobile tires
Tires with an outside diameter less than 26 inch (660 mm) used on automobiles, pickups, and
light trucks.

Bitumen
Dark brown to black cement-like residuum obtained from distillation of suitable crude oils.
Outside the U.S., bitumen is the liquid asphalt binder (asphalt cement in the U.S.) comprised of
any of various natural substances, consisting mainly of hydrocarbons.

Course rubber
“Course” rubber or course tire rubber is one of two classes of particle sizes in the crumb tire
rubber market, derived from the recycling of scrap tires, which is larger than 2.0 mm (10 mesh),
with a maximum size of 12.75 mm (0.5 inch).

Continuous-blend Rubber Modification (CRM)

A general term for ground tire rubber (GTR) modified asphalt binder using reduced size (80
mesh) GTR as a paving asphalt binder modifier. Finer grind GTR than that of the conventional
asphalt rubber (AR) process and asphalt binder are continuously blended and stored in tanks.

Cryogenic/Cryogenic grinding
A method of processing recycled tire rubber where reduced size scrap tire rubber is ground or
processed by freezing the scrap tire rubber and crushing the rubber to the desired particle size.
The process uses liquid nitrogen to freeze the scrap tire rubber until it becomes brittle and then
uses a hammer mill to shatter the frozen rubber into smooth particles with relatively small
surface area. This method is sometimes used to produce reduced size scrap tire rubber prior to
grinding at ambient temperatures.

Dense-graded aggregate
Refers to a continuously graded aggregate blend typically having particle size distribution that
upon compaction results in air voids between aggregate particles that are relatively small,
expressed as a percentage of the total volume occupied by the material. Used to make hot-mix
asphalt concrete with conventional or modified asphalt binders.

Devulcanized rubber
The term used to describe rubber that has been subjected to treatment by heat, pressure, or the
addition of softening agents after grinding to alter physical and chemical properties of the
recycled material during reclaiming. Technically a misnomer since vulcanization is irreversible.

27
Dry Process
A process where hot-mix asphalt mixture is modified with ground tire rubber (GTR), using GTR
as an aggregate/binder modifier which is incorporated into aggregate prior to mixing with asphalt
binder, producing a rubber modified hot-mix asphalt concrete. GTR used in this process is
generally less than 0.6 mm (30 mesh).

Extender oil
A low-gravity material, typically aromatic oil, used to promote the reaction of the asphalt cement
and the recycled tire rubber modifier.

Gap-graded aggregate
Aggregate that is not continuously graded for all size fractions, typically lacking or low on one
or two of the finer sizes. Used to promote stone-to-stone contact in hot-mix asphalt concrete.
This type of gradation is most frequently used to make rubberized asphalt concrete-gap graded
mixtures. Referred to in Arizona as asphalt-rubber asphalt concrete (ARAC) and in California as
rubberized asphalt concrete gap-graded (RAC-G) paving mixture.

Ground tire rubber (GTR)

“Ground” rubber or ground tire rubber is one of two classes of particle sizes in the crumb tire
rubber market, derived from the recycling of scrap tires, which is 2.0 mm (10 mesh) and smaller.

Hot-mix asphalt (HMA)

Result of mixing asphalt and aggregate at elevated temperature and placing the resultant mix as
the asphalt pavement.

High natural rubber

Scrap rubber product that includes natural rubber or isoprene and a rubber hydrocarbon. Sources
of high natural rubber include scrap tire rubber from some types of heavy truck tires, scrap from
tennis balls, and mat rubber.

Interaction
Commonly used term for the interaction between asphalt binder and crumb rubber modifier
when blended together at elevated temperatures. The reaction is more appropriately defined as
polymer swell. It is not a chemical reaction. It is a physical interaction in which the crumb rubber
absorbs aromatic oils and light fractions (small volatile or active molecules) from the asphalt
binder, and releases some of the similar oils used in rubber production into the asphalt binder.

28
O

Open-graded aggregate
Aggregate gradation that is intended to be free draining. Consisting mostly of two or three sizes
of aggregate particles with few fines and 0 to 4 percent by mass passing the No. 200 (0.075 mm)
sieve.

Open-graded friction course (OGFC)

Friction course typically used on high speed roadways, asphalt to provide relatively thin surface
or wearing courses with good frictional characteristics that quickly drain surface water to reduce
hydroplaning, splash, and spray.

Performance Grade (PG)

A form of American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
specified grading of asphalt by the climatic zone such that the asphalt meets the needed
properties for the climatic zone.

Rubber Asphalt Foundation (RAF)

Rubber Asphalt Foundation located in Scottsdale, Arizona.

Reaction
The interaction between asphalt cement and crumb rubber modifier (CRM) when blended
together at a certain temperature for a certain period. The reaction, more appropriately defined as
polymer swell, is not a chemical reaction. It is the absorption of aromatic oils from the asphalt
cement into the polymer chains of the crumb rubber.

Recycled tire rubber (RTR)

Reduced size rubber obtained by processing used automobile, truck, or bus tires (essentially
highway or “over the road” tires).

Rubber Pavements Association (RPA)

Rubber Pavements Association located in Tempe, Arizona.

Rubber Aggregate
Crumb rubber modifier added to hot mix asphalt mixture using the dry process which retains its
physical shape and rigidity.

Rubber-modified asphalt
General term that refers to a broad family of asphalt binder products that contain ground tire
rubber (GTR). Also used to describe wet-process terminal blended recycled tire rubber (GTR)
modified asphalt binders.

29
Rubber-modified asphalt concrete
Hot mix asphalt concrete mixture with dense graded aggregates using a rubberized asphalt type
of asphalt binder. (Note: The ground tire rubber (GTR) percentage is generally low (5 to 10
percent) and is generally the finer mesh (30 mesh size or smaller).

Rubber-modified asphalt technologies

Term used to refer to any technology that uses ground tire rubber (GTR) in asphalt pavements.

Rubber-modified binder (RMB)

Synonymous with terminal blend. A version of wet process where ground tire rubber (GTR) is
blended with hot asphalt binder at the refinery or at an asphalt binder storage and distribution
terminal and transported to the asphalt concrete mixing plant or job site for use. These blends
may contain from 5 to 12 percent GTR by total asphalt binder mass. Some hybrid terminal blend
asphalt binders may contain polymers such as styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) in addition to
GTR

Rubberized asphalt
Refers to a broad family of asphalt binder products that contain ground tire rubber (GTR).
Terminology often used for virtually any asphalt binder that contains some amount of ground tire
rubber derived from scrap tires.

Rubberized asphalt concrete (RAC)

Caltrans terminology for a material produced for hot mix applications by mixing asphalt-rubber
or rubberized asphalt binder with graded aggregate. RAC may be dense-, gap-, or open-graded.

Sieve Sizes
Sieve sizes various nomenclature in accordance with ASTM E11.

Sieve Designation
Nominal Sieve Opening
Standard U.S. Alternative
25 mm 1 inch 1.00 inch
19 mm 3/4 inch 0.750 inch
12.5 mm 1/2 inch 0.500 inch
9.5 mm 3/8 inch 0.375 inch
6.4 mm 1/4 inch 0.250 inch
4.75 mm No. 4 0.187 inch
2.36 mm No. 8 0.0937 inch
2 mm No. 10 0.0787 inch
1.68 mm No. 12 0.0661 inch
1.18 mm No. 16 0.0469 inch
0.8 mm No. 20 0.0331 inch
0.6 mm No. 30 0.0234 inch
0.4 mm No. 40 0.0165 inch
0.3 mm No. 50 0.0117 inch
0.15 mm No. 100 0.0059 inch
75 micron No. 200 0.0029 inch

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Stress-absorbing membrane (SAM)
A stress absorbing membrane used primarily to mitigate reflective cracking of an existing
distressed asphalt or rigid pavement. It is usually associated with an asphalt-rubber binder
sprayed on an existing pavement surface at 0.60 gallons per square yard (2.9 liters per square
meter) and immediately followed by an application of a uniform pre-coated aggregate, which is
then rolled, embedding the aggregate into the asphalt binder layer. The nominal thickness
normally ranges between 1/4 and 3/8inch (6 and 9 mm).

Stress absorbing membrane interlayer (SAMI)

A stress absorbing membrane is a ground tire rubber (GTR) modified asphalt membrane
interlayer beneath an overlay designed to resist the stress strain of reflective cracks and delay
propagation of cracking through the overlay. The term SAMI has also been used to include an
interlayer of GTR-modified asphalt chip seal (SAMI-R), fabric (SAMI-F), or fine unbound
aggregate.

Terminal blend
A version of wet process where ground tire rubber (GTR) is blended with hot asphalt binder at
the refinery or at an asphalt binder storage and distribution terminal and transported to the
asphalt concrete mixing plant or job site for use. These blends may contain from 5 to 12 percent
GTR by total asphalt binder mass. Some hybrid terminal blend asphalt binders may contain
polymers such as styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) in addition to GTR.

Thermoplastic
Substances (especially polymers) that soften or become plastic on heating and harden or return to
original condition on cooling and can repeat these processes

Thermoset
Substances (especially polymers) that solidify or “set” irreversibly when heated. This property is
usually associated with a crosslinking reaction as in the case with vulcanized rubber.

Truck tires
Tires with an outside diameter greater than 660 mm (26 inches) and less than 60 inches (1520
mm) used on commercial trucks and buses.

Vulcanization
A physiochemical change resulting from cross-linking of the unsaturated hydrocarbon chain of
polyisoprene (rubber) with sulfur, usually with the application of heat.

Vulcanized rubber
A crude or synthetic rubber that has been subjected to treatment by chemicals (primarily sulfur),
heat and/or pressure to improve physical properties and performance. The odor of recycled tire
rubber (RTR) is associated with the use of sulfur in the vulcanized rubber.

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W

Warm-mix asphalt (WMA)

The name given to certain technologies that reduce production and placement temperatures of
asphalt mixes. Generally, the placement temperatures are between 185°F and 275°F for an
asphalt to be considered warm mix asphalt.

Wet process
Methods that blend ground tire rubber (GTR) with asphalt binder before incorporating the
asphalt binder into asphalt paving materials. Although most wet process asphalt-rubber binders
involve agitation to keep the scrap tire rubber evenly distributed throughout the asphalt binder,
some rubber modified asphalt binders may be formulated in a wet process manner so as not to
need agitation.

Wet-grind
A milling process that uses a water and rubber particle slurry to prevent the fine rubber particles
that result from the milling process from becoming airborne and floating away in the plant.

Whole tire rubber

Scrap tire rubber that includes tread and sidewalls in proportions that approximate the respective
weights in an average tire.

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