Construction and Building Materials: Solomon Debbarma, M. Selvam, Surender Singh

Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120417
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
Review
Can flexible pavements’ waste (RAP) be utilized in cement concrete

pavements? – A critical review
Solomon Debbarma a, M. Selvam b, Surender Singh b,⇑
a
Transportation Engineering Group, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, India
b
Transportation Engineering Division, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai 600036, India
h i g h l i g h t s
Coarse RAP holds better potential than fine RAP for concrete pavements.
Asphalt film and agglomerated particles reduces the suitability of RAP.
Asphalt cohesion failure is associated with RAP-concrete.
Coarse RAP upto 50% could produce a durable concrete matrix.
Surface treatment is better than adding admixtures for enhanced performance.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Recycling of flexible pavement leads to the accumulation of an enormous quantity of Reclaimed Asphalt
Received 12 November 2019 Pavement (RAP) aggregates which are generally dumped legally/illegally in the nearby vicinities causing
Received in revised form 18 April 2020 several challenges to the agencies. Utilization of these aggregates in cement concrete pavements seem to
Accepted 28 July 2020
be a novelistic approach and could facilitate with many socio-economic-environmental benefits.
Available online 30 August 2020
However, its inclusions may negatively affect structural and functional performance as well. Therefore,
this paper presents an extensive and critical review of the suitability of RAP for the production of concrete
Keywords:
mixes along with identifying the various gaps that need to be bridged to induce sustainability in pave-
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP)
Flexible Pavements
ments. The schematic flow of this paper is as follows: firstly, the RAP aggregates were characterized, fol-
Concrete Pavements lowed by the fresh state RAP-concrete properties, and lastly, the mechanical and durability properties
Review were investigated. The literature review depicted that the RAP aggregates are inferior to natural aggre-
Performance gates but it may not be a big concern from the point of fresh state properties. The presence of asphalt film
Durability and agglomerated particles in RAP were noted to be the primary factors responsible for the reduction in
the overall strength properties; however, coarse and fine RAP (individually) up to 50% could be utilized
since the minimum strength benchmarks could be met. In terms of durability, coarse RAP up to 50% may
provide adequate chloride-ion penetration resistance and freeze–thaw durability. Benefits such as
enhanced toughness and workability were positively identified by the incorporation of RAP, whereas,
porous microstructure could be expected, which may provide passage to aggressive ions from nearby
environments resulting in significant deterioration of the concrete. Including supplementary cementi-
tious admixtures could not improve the mechanical performance due to the asphalt cohesion failure
associated with these hybrid mixes, but durability performance could be enhanced slightly. On the other
hand, surface treatment methods could improve the bonding potential between RAP and mortar paste.
This review is expected to address several key issues on the utilization of RAP in cement concrete pave-
ments and encourages academicians and highway agencies to form a framework for effective utilization
of RAP for sustainable pavement systems.
Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Abbreviations: DLC, Dry Lean Concrete; ITZ, Interfacial Transition Zone; MDD, Maximum Dry Density; OMC, Optimum Moisture Content; PCC, Plain Cement Concrete; RAP,
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement; RAP-C, RAP coarse (only coarse fractions); RAP-F, RAP fine (only fine fractions); RAP-T, RAP total (containing both fractions of coarse and fine
RAP); RCCP, Roller Compacted Concrete Pavement; SCM, Supplementary Cementitious Mineral Admixtures; fck, Compressive Strength; fr, Flexural Strength; Ec, Modulus of
Elasticity; Alm, Abrasion Loss in Mass.
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: solo.debbarma124@gmail.com (S. Debbarma), ce19d009@smail.iitm.ac.in (M. Selvam), surender@iitm.ac.in (S. Singh).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2020.120417
0950-0618/Ó 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 S. Debbarma et al. / Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120417
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Research significance and methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1. Significance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2. Research methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3. Development in bituminous mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
4. Characterization of RAP . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
5. Fresh properties of PCC mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.1. Initial workability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
5.2. Bulk density/unit-weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.3. Air content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.4. Optimum moisture content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
5.5. Maximum dry density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
6. Mechanical properties of PCC mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6.1. Hardened density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6.2. Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6.3. Flexural strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6.4. Relation between compressive and flexural strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.5. Splitting tensile strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
6.6. Modulus of elasticity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.7. Toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
6.8. Abrasion resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
6.9. Porosity and absorption characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7. Durability properties of PCC mix. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7.1. Permeability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7.2. Chloride penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
7.3. Freeze and thaw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.4. Carbonation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.5. pH value, electrical conductivity, and leaching characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
7.6. Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7.7. Performance against chloride and sulphate attack . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
7.8. Efforts in enhancing the properties of RAP concrete. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
8. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
9. Future scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
CRediT authorship contribution statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Declaration of competing interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Acknowledgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1. Introduction of reliable alternate aggregates in the form of recycled concrete

aggregates, copper slag, and steel slag for utilization in cement con-
Roads are considered as the arteries through which the coun- crete mixes. However, the production and availability of such recy-
try’s economy pulses [1]. It reduces the distances between peoples, cled aggregates in developing countries like India are very less
markets, services, and knowledge centers. That is why the World compared to other countries. Moreover, if available, the cost
Bank lends more money for the construction and rehabilitation incurred in the transportation of the same is usually very high, espe-
of roads rather than education, health, and social welfare in collec- cially in high terrain regions, wherein most of the infrastructure is
tive [2]. In a similar line, governments of developing countries like either of wood or bricks [10]. On the other hand, millions of tons of
India are paying the utmost attention to the connectivity within Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) has been reported to be gener-
several parts of the country, and hence, spends a large percentage ated annually worldwide and directly upon their reclamation finds
of the total gross domestic product towards infrastructure devel- way either in dumping lands or in the nearby open areas [11,12].
opment [1]. Traditionally, bituminous mixtures were preferred Fig. 1a shows a typical asphalt pavement being milled and subse-
over rigid pavements due to its lower initial construction cost quently stockpiled in an open environment (Fig. 1b).
[2,3]. However, recent studies depicted that the life cycle cost of Utilization of RAP in place of conventional aggregates for prepa-
concrete pavements is lesser than asphalt pavements [4]. This is ration of concrete mixes has many-fold benefits such as:
due to the higher service life, lower/negligible maintenance cost
and higher durability of concrete pavements [4,5]. Moreover, rigor- a) Reduction in the percentage of natural aggregates demand
ous attempts have been made continuously to lower the initial [2,5,11,13–18]: RAP can be used for partially replacing both
construction cost by means of including several industrial as well the fractions of conventional aggregates i.e. coarse and fine
as agricultural wastes such as fly ash, sugarcane bagasse ash, and aggregates. Studies show that 50% of conventional aggre-
rice husk ash in the mix design [6–8]. However, owing to massive gates could be replaced by RAP without much affecting the
development in the infrastructure sector as well as due to a ban on concrete properties.
quarrying activities at present, a huge scarcity of natural aggre- b) Reduction in the percentage of greenhouse gas emission
gates has been observed around the globe [5,9]. Subsequently, [12,14,19,20]: Mining and quarrying of natural aggregates
the benefits, in terms of cost, incurred via utilizing the afore- have been estimated to produce about 1% of total green-
mentioned wastes have been neutralized. Posteriorly, researchers house gases [12,21]. Therefore, partially replacing these
and academicians put up a substantial effort for the determination
S. Debbarma et al. / Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120417 3
aggregates with RAP could subsequently lower the green- The present study is an effort to bring together the observation
house gases emission percentage. and findings of various studies pertaining to the characterization of
c) Sustainable concrete production [12,22–26]: Sustainability RAP aggregates and its effect on the fresh, mechanical and durabil-
means to utilize the natural materials without affecting the ity properties of cement concrete mixes. It is anticipated that the
future generation demand and thus, the use of RAP in place effective summarization of the studies would help the researchers
of natural aggregates results in the conservation of aggre- and academicians to further advance in the field of RAP for sustain-
gates for future demands. able concrete mixes and also, help the agencies to frame the guide-
d) Savings in transportation cost [5,12,13,17]: The biggest lines on the use of RAP for cement concrete mixes.
advantage of using RAP is that it facilitates with on-spot uti-
lization i.e. a huge reduction in the transportation-related
cost, especially, if the site is located far from the market/ 2. Research significance and methodology
quarrying plant.
e) Saving of precious land [9,11–13,17,27,28,18]: Utilization of RAP 2.1. Significance
has broadly two main benefits as far as the land is concerned:
firstly, reduction in the burden of dumping agencies to search The present study is a comprehensive attempt to bring all the
for extra land for the dumping of RAP, especially in overpopu- studies published in reputed (SCI/Scopus) journals on RAP for con-
lated countries; and preservation of roadside agricultural farm crete mixes under one umbrella. This review will summarize the
for cultivation since RAP is mostly stockpiled alongside source current knowledge on the utilization of RAP in cement concrete
and could harm the organic purity of the same. mixes along with identifying the gaps for future studies. In the past
f) Economical construction [10,12,29,30,9,31]: Since the utiliza- two decades, utilization of RAP as an alternative aggregate for
tion of RAP reduces the demand of conventional aggregates cement concrete mixes has received attention by several academi-
and also, the transportation cost is reduced to a greater cians. Therefore, it is important to bring together the recent devel-
extent, the total project cost of production of 1 m3 concrete opments and critically assess the conclusions drawn by several
could be lowered by about 45% [10,12,29,30]. researchers on the utilization of RAP in cement concrete mixes.
g) Other benefits: Inclusions of RAP for concrete pavements has This review will also cover the latest research on various pavement
been reported to enhance some of the properties such as applications such as roller compacted concrete pavement, dry lean
enhanced workability [3,32–34], increased toughness concrete, self-compacting concrete, and mortar mixes containing
[32,35,36,37] and improvement in the freeze and thaw resis- RAP along with a short discussion on recent advancement in flex-
tance [38], etc. Similarly, the use of stockpiled RAP would ible pavements. Researchers across the globe mainly emphasize
improve the aesthetic of highways owing to the reduction laboratory investigation and therefore, it is imperative to critically
in the heaps of RAP kept at the roadside. Reduction in the review the findings of different researchers’ prior full-fledged
number of trucks carrying natural aggregates would cer- implementation in field applications.
tainly (to some extent) increase the consistency of moving The mechanical and physical properties of RAP are almost sim-
vehicles on the highways. ilar to that of natural aggregates owing to which its utilization in
new pavement applications seems feasible. Moreover, its utiliza-
Despite the above-mentioned benefits of RAP for concrete tion will reduce the need for natural aggregate consumption, cur-
mixes, its utilization is very circumscribed because of the following tail the transportation cost of aggregates as well as provide
reasons: economic and environmental benefits. This literature review will
bridge the gap towards the hesitation of utilizing RAP in cement
a) Lack of codal provisions and guidelines [14]. concrete pavements, amongst highway engineers and is also
b) Lack of awareness [30]. expected to encourage the researchers for future research studies.
c) Hesitation among the contractors regarding the final quality
and durability of concrete mixes [30,14]. 2.2. Research methodology
d) Hesitation among the clients owing to lack of studies and
guidelines [30,14]. A simple methodology was adopted for the preparation of the
e) Lack of research studies, although in the last 2–3 years, there literature review provided in the present study. An effort has been
is a huge increment in the number of studies on RAP made to consider almost all the papers starting from the first pub-
inclusive concrete mixes, etc. lished by Delwar et al. 1997 [39] till the mid of 2020, pertaining to
Fig. 1. (a) Reclamation of Asphalt pavement [13] (b) RAP stockpiling in open environment [12].
the use of RAP for cement concrete mixes. Although all the studies to the aging of binder which in turn makes the asphalt film
have been considered in the framing of the present review, the brittle in nature [54]. The high viscosity of aged asphalt film
main emphasis was given on the papers published in Science Cita- owing to significant oxidation during service life lowers the
tion Indexed Journals. affinity of the same towards virgin binder [55]. This, in turn,
After an initial survey, the considered journal papers have been reduces the durability performance of new bituminous mix-
divided into two fragments: one belonged to the studies on the use tures [51,56]. However, significant improvement in the rutting
of coarse RAP and other exploring the optimum proportion of finer resistance of the mixes has been observed [57,58]. Due to
fraction of RAP for concrete mixes. Papers on the use of the com- lower performance of RAP inclusive bituminous mixtures, sev-
bined fraction of RAP have also been considered and summarized; eral highway agencies recommended inclusions of RAP aggre-
however, no special division has been given owing to a lesser num- gates as the black stone i.e. would reduce only the aggregate
ber of studies on the same in Science Citation Index (SCI) database. demand [59]. Moreover, the maximum specified proportions
The effect of inclusions of individual fractions of RAP (coarse and for the as-received state RAP was only 15%, without the need
fine RAP) on various fresh, mechanical and durability properties to add any extra binder [60,59]. However, in the past few dec-
of concrete mixes has been studied, analyzed and reported in the ades, several techniques have emerged which provide various
present paper. Also, the physical characteristics of RAP have been solutions to increase the proportion of RAP for bituminous
discussed in detail. The fresh properties of concrete mixes that mixes. One of the highly followed methods has been provided
have been considered in the present review are optimum moisture by the Asphalt Institute MS-2 guidelines [60]. It states that RAP
content, maximum dry density, initial slump, fresh density, and air aggregates could be utilized in the as-received state if its pro-
voids. Tests on the hardened concrete matrix such as compressive portion is less than 15%, whereas, recommends using one
strength, flexural strength, split tensile strength, modulus of elas- grade softer binder for the mixes containing RAP between
ticity, toughness index, porosity, percentage and rate of water 16% 25%. On the other hand, if the desired proportion of
absorption, and abrasion resistance have been considered for the RAP is more than 25% then the rejuvenating grade should be
present manuscript. Similarly, the properties that have been calculated based on blending charts. Several researchers
selected to study the effect of inclusions of RAP on the durability observed that the aged asphalt film around the RAP could be
performance of concrete mixes were resistance to chloride and sul- rejuvenated by using certain admixtures such as paraffinic
phate attack, alkalinity (pH), permeability, freeze–thaw resistance, oil, organic oil, naphthalene oil, waste vegetable oil, and
and carbonation. Observations and conclusions from different ref- grease, etc. [52,61,62]. In the recent decade, several new tech-
erences are compared for the effective summarization of the pre- niques have been proposed which has been found to signifi-
sent review. cantly increase the suitability of RAP for bituminous
Attempts on improving the bonding between RAP aggregates mixtures. Warm mix asphalt, cold mix asphalt, and foam mix
and cementitious mortar matrix via the utilization of different sur- asphalt, etc. are some of the new technologies which are being
face treatments and supplementary cementitious admixtures have used worldwide in place of hot mix asphalt technology for
also been considered in the preparation of the present comprehen- reusing of higher proportions of RAP in the bound courses of
sive review. Also, a brief discussion on the development of bitumi- flexible pavements [63–71]. Although a few researchers rec-
nous mixtures containing RAP has been provided in this literature ommended the utilization of RAP up to 50% in such technolo-
review. Based on the review, few gaps that are needed to bridge gies [63,71,72], a few demonstrated that the mixes
were identified which according to the authors would help the containing RAP in higher proportions (more than 50%) have
researchers in strengthening the concept of RAP for sustainable also been found to provide comparable performance to that
concrete mixes. of the hot-mix asphalt mixes [28,73,74]. However, in the
developing and under-developed countries, hot mix technol-
ogy is still the highest-given priority technique, and therefore,
3. Development in bituminous mixtures the incorporation level of RAP is very less. Even the use of RAP
for lower layers of pavements such as in base and subbase
Pavement distresses such as rutting, raveling, thermal cracking, courses is not being carried out on a higher scale owing to lack
longitudinal cracking, and roughness are generally associated with of guidelines and specifications.
flexible pavements [40–44] owing to which the pavement sections
usually does not achieve its design life and hence reclamation
becomes necessary [45]. The reclaimed aggregates may still 4. Characterization of RAP
hold high value despite the completion of the pavement ser-
vice life [27,28]. These reclaimed aggregates are generally As discussed in section 3.0, RAP is the result of the demolition/
known as Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) aggregates milling of a distressed flexible pavement section. The extraction of
[46,47]. Re-use of RAP in bituminous mixtures reduces the RAP can be carried out via controlled milling i.e. removal of the
requirement of both gravel and asphalt binder [48–50]. Sav- bituminous layers only and uncontrolled milling (also known as
ings of about 50–70% in costs have been reported for RAP mix- crushing and ripping) i.e. removal of complete pavement section
tures as compared to conventional mixtures [51]. However, followed by crushing of the chunks [75]. In both the techniques,
there exist few hindrances in achieving the goal of complete initial processing is usually carried out to separate big chunks of
sustainability in using RAP as a replacement of conventional RAP, followed by fractionation of coarser and finer fraction [75].
aggregates. Asphalt coating around the RAP has been recog- A typical representation of RAP aggregates is shown in Fig. 2 [3].
nized as the main hurdle towards its complete utilization. Generally, RAP aggregates greater than 16/19 mm size are dis-
Asphalt is a mixture of hydrocarbons and when exposed to carded owing to the presence of a large concentration of agglomer-
the open environment, the volatiles tends to oxidize making ated particles [5,13,33]. The concentration of agglomerated
the same stiffer and brittle in nature [52]. A similar phe- particles in RAP has been reported to be more than 14%, despite
nomenon has been reported for RAP aggregates. The asphalt discarding the particles greater than 16 mm [5,13,33]. The agglom-
film around the RAP has been reported to be very stiff in nature eration effect of RAP aggregates can be seen in Fig. 3 [3], whereas,
owing to exposure to traffic and the environment during its the particle size distribution of a typical RAP is being provided in
service life [53]. Moreover, the stockpiling duration also leads Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 [13,33,34,76–80]. Generally, for research purpose,
RAP is fractionated on No. 4 sieve (4.75 mm sieve) to separate

coarse and finer RAP fraction [3,13,33,36]; however, few studies
considered fraction passing 2.36 mm as RAP fine (RAP-F) aggre-
gates [81]. In almost all the studies [13,14,33,34,78], coarse RAP
(RAP-C) is finer than coarse natural aggregates, contrary, RAP-F
has been reported to be coarser than natural fine [14,75]. The
reported fineness modulus of RAP-F is generally more than 3 [34]
and in some cases, it could also be more than 4.4 [75]. This is
due to the agglomeration effect i.e. the finer portion of RAP-F
adheres around the periphery of RAP-C which makes the RAP-F
coarser and relatively gap-graded than the natural fine [75]. Con-
trary, RAP-C has been observed to be relatively well graded in nat-
ure than the conventional coarse natural aggregates [13]. Singh
et al. 2018 [75] reported that the method of milling of RAP has a
great effect particularly on the gradation of RAP-F, whereas, extrac-
tion of RAP employing uncontrolled milling technique could allow
intermixing of RAP with dust from lower layers of pavement. RAP
extracted employing controlledmilling would be coarser, dust-free Fig. 3. Agglomeration effect in RAP aggregates [3].
and thus gap-graded in nature. Meanwhile, the dust fragments pre-
sent in RAP obtained from uncontrolled milling technique were
reported to be highly water soaking in nature and tend to increase
the absorption capacity of RAP significantly (both RAP-C and RAP- 100
F) [13,75]. Generally, the water absorption of RAP (both coarse and 90 Brand et al. [76]
fine) has been observed to be lower than the conventional aggre- 80
Percentage passing (%)
Brand and Roesler [33]
gates [13,14,34]. This is due to the presence of asphalt coating 70
around the aggregates which is hydrophobic [14]. However, few Brand and Roesler [77]
60
studies indicated the higher water absorption capacity of RAP as
50 Singh et al. [13]
compared to natural aggregates [10,13,33,75,80]. Furthermore,
due to its lower density, the specific weight of both the RAP frac- 40
Berry et al. [78]
tions has been reported to be significantly lower than the natural 30
aggregates [2,3,13,30,33,39,79,82]. The specific gravity of RAP-C 20 Al-Oraimi et al. [79]
has been found to be in-between 2.1 and 2.69, whereas, 1.81 to 10
Hossiney et al. [34]
2.49 has been the reported as the specific gravity range for RAP-F 0
[10,34,75,80]. The thickness of asphalt coating could be between 0.01 0.1 1 10 100
6 and 10 mm [35] and the percentage of asphalt around the aggre- Sieve size (mm)
gates has been reported to be around 2 to 7.5% (by mass) depend-
Fig. 4. Typical particle size distribution of RAP-C aggregates [13,33,34,76–79].
100
Berry et al. [78]
90
Singh et al. [13]
Percentage passing (%)
80
70
Singh et al. [13]
60
Singh et al. [13]
50
40 Abraham and
Ransinchung [80]
30
Al-Oraimi et al. [79]
20
10 Hossiney et al. [34]
0
0.01 0.1 1 10
Sieve size (mm)
Fig. 5. Typical particle size distribution of RAP-F aggregates [13,34,78–80].
ing upon the RAP fraction, initial asphalt content, extraction

method, stockpiling, and service duration. [10,13,14,32,75,83].
Although the presence of soft asphalt coating has been noted to
lower the specific gravity and unit weight of aggregates, some
studies reported that this film could provide with several benefits
such as lower impact value [10,13,82], lower abrasion value [13]
and lower aggregates crushing value [13]. In fact, in some cases,
Fig. 2. Typical RAP aggregates [3]. Note. HOU and AMA are RAP aggregates with
the determination of afore-stated properties of aggregates was
higher coarser fractions, BRY contains un-fractioned RAP with some intermediate size not possible owing to the presence of soft asphalt coating which
particles, and SA is well-graded RAP with larger number of intermediate-sized particles. under confining/impact pressure tends to bind the aggregates into
a single solid mass [30,84]. However, in some cases, higher impact reported a linear reduction in the slump flow and J-Ring slump
value was exhibited by the RAP aggregates as compared to conven- values with incremental introduction levels of RAP-C aggregates.
tional aggregates [36]. This may be due to many reasons such as The study by Huang et al. [32] demonstrated that the addition of
detachment of small agglomerated particles, presence of stiffened a small percentage of RAP could enhance the workability of con-
asphalt coating, method of RAP reclamation and variation in the crete mixes; however, higher proportions of RAP, especially RAP-
parental composition of aggregates. Similarly, few studies depicted F, could produce a stiffer zero-slump mix. A similar observation
that the asphalt coating could be beneficial to aggregates in terms was reported by Katkhuda et al. [93] and Singh et al. [75] wherein
of lower flaky particles; however, the agglomerated particles could inclusions of RAP-F reduced the workability significantly as com-
increase the concentration of elongated particles in the RAP sample pared to RAP-C mixes. Singh et al. [13] observed that RAP-C
considerably [13]. Further studies are required for the effective obtained employing an uncontrolled milling technique could
characterization of RAP properties considering the variations in have higher water absorption value than the conventional aggre-
the RAP sampling, asphalt properties, parental composition of gates and thus, could reduce the initial slump by about 30%; how-
RAP, natural aggregates considered, and the method of RAP excla- ever, washing the aggregates before use could enhance the slump
mation. Table 1 summarizes the trend (relative to natural aggre- value by about 65%. Studies by Singh et al. [75] indicated that
gates) in the RAP aggregate properties. RAP-F obtained by full depth reclamation technique could drasti-
cally make the fresh concrete mixes non-workable in nature and
therefore, approximately double dose of water-reducing admix-
5. Fresh properties of PCC mix tures would be required by these mixes to exhibit comparable
workability to the conventional mixes. Huang et al. [32] also
5.1. Initial workability observed that higher doses of water-reducing admixture would
be beneficial for RAP mixes. Erdem and Blankson [94] found that
It has been widely acknowledged that spherical shaped aggre- the adhered asphalt could get detached from the surface of the
gates with lower water absorption capacity would certainly aggregate during the mixing stage, and thus, the workability of
enhance the workability of cement concrete mixes; however, the mixes could be reduced by around 45% owing to water
for RAP inclusive mixes the same could not be 100% true despite absorption by RAP surface.
their lower absorption properties and relativity sphericity as Contrary to the workability reduction nature of the studies as
compared to conventional aggregates. In many studies, it has mentioned above, some studies supported the fact the inclusions
been observed that inclusions of RAP could reduce the initial of RAP could enhance the workability of fresh concrete mixes.
slump value of mixes as compared to the control mixture. Con- Shi et al. [3] reported an enhancement in the workability of mixes
trary, some studies reported enhancement in workability on owing to the sphericity of the RAP aggregates. Similarly, the studies
inclusions of RAP. The study by Al-Oriami et al. [79] demon- by Brand and Roesler [33] indicated that the workability could be
strated that despite similar water absorption capacities of RAP enhanced by about 40% by including lower water-absorbent RAP
and natural aggregates, 100% inclusive RAP mixes would exhibit aggregates in a proportion of 50% in concrete mixes. Hossiney
lesser workability (~80%) than control mix. Okafor [84] also et al. [34] also reported similar observations wherein the workabil-
reported that despite lower water absorption of RAP than con- ity increased slightly with an increase in the RAP content.
ventional gravel, the workability of the RAP mixes would be les- The published studies demonstrated an unclear trend on the
ser. Huang et al. [35] found that inclusions of combined fractions effect of inclusions of RAP on the workability of fresh mixes. Surely,
of RAP could improve the workability of concrete mixes, but, inclusions of RAP-C were observed to have a lesser negative effect
inclusions of a single RAP fraction could reduce the same consid- on the workability of concrete mixes than RAP-F aggregates [81].
erably. The higher viscous nature of asphalt coating was found to Similarly, RAP obtained by virtue of uncontrolled milling (having
be the reason for the reduction in the slump value, whereas, higher water absorption) would certainly demand higher water
lower water absorption was attributed to the increase in the content. However, more studies are needed to reach to a stronger
workability of the combined RAP mixes. Studies by Ibrahim and clear conclusion. These studies shall consider various aspects
et al. [90] and Mahmoud et al. [91] indicated that 25% of RAP-C of RAP such as shape parameters, water absorption of aggregates,
could reduce the slump flow value of self-compacting concrete milling, and processing techniques. Nevertheless, it can be safely
mix by 18%, whereas, inclusions of 50% RAP-C would have a lesser assumed that introductions of RAP would not be a detrimental
impact by about 8%. On the other hand, Khodair and Raza [92] issue for concrete mixes from the point of segregation and
Table 1
Physical properties of RAP as compared to natural aggregates.
Aggregate property Trend with respect to the control References

Specific Gravity (Coarse) Lower [2,3,5,10,13,27,32,33,35,39,56,73,76,79,85–87]
Specific Gravity (Fine) Lower [10,14,35,75,79,80]
Water Absorption (coarse) Higher [10,13,33,75]
Lower [13,14,34]
Water Absorption (Fine) Higher [34,75,80]
Lower [14]
Unit Weight Lower [3,33]
Grading (coarse) finer [64,13,14,88]
Grading (Fine) Coarser andGap-Graded [10,14,32,75,88]
Fineness Modulus (fine) Higher [34,66,75,85]
Abrasion Value Higher [13]
Crushing Value Lower [13]
Not Possible [89]
Impact Value Lower [13,89]
Flat & Elongated Higher [13]
bleeding, i.e. it can be cast similar to conventional mixes [3], absorption, etc. are needed to be conducted to have a clear effect
although gap-graded RAP-F needs to be filled with natural fines of inclusions of RAP on the air void concentration of fresh concrete
in order to avoid such irregularities [14,75]. mixes.
5.2. Bulk density/unit-weight 5.4. Optimum moisture content
The presence of lower density asphalt coating around the aggre- Generally, stiff mixes also known as ‘zero-slump’ mixes, such as
gates reduces the overall weight of the RAP matrix and thus, inclu- Dry Lean Concrete (DLC) and Roller Compacted Concrete Pavement
sions of both the fractions of RAP, individually or combinedly, (RCCP) mixes, are compacted at the Optimum Moisture Content
could produce a concrete mix of lower density. The aforemen- (OMC) and inclusions of lower water-absorbent aggregates could
tioned is satisfied by all the published studies wherein a slight be assumed to lower the OMC value. However, the same may or
reduction in the unit weight of fresh concrete was noted on inclu- may not be true for RAP inclusive stiff mixes. Fakhri and Amoosol-
sions of both the fractions of RAP. Studies by Brand et al. [33] and tani [37] reported a decrease in the OMC value by incorporating
Brand and Roesler [71] indicated that the mix containing approxi- RAP aggregates. The study by Modarres and Hosseini [36] indicated
mately 50% RAP-C could have a 5–6% lower density than the con- that utilizations of combined RAP fractions could reduce the OMC
trol mix. The study conducted by Delwar et al. [39] considerably by 12%, whereas, RAP-C and RAP-F mixes could
demonstrated that replacing any fraction of aggregates by RAP reduce the water demand by about 6–7%. Debbarma et al. [10]
would have less than 3% effect on the unit weight of the fresh con- reported a decrease of 5% in the water demand for the RCCP mix
crete matrix. Similarly, less than 2% variation was reported by Hos- containing 100% RAP-C; however, for 100% RAP-F mix and 100%
siney et al. [34] for the mix containing combined RAP fraction RAP-T mix, an increase in the OMC by 6% and 11% was noted with
(40%) from the control mix. Singh et al. [13] reported that the respect to the control mix, respectively. Ferrebee et al. [95]
mix containing 100% RAP-C, obtained employing an uncontrolled reported an increase in the OMC value from 5.8% to 6.4% for RAP-
milling technique, had less than 2% variation in the unit weight C inclusive RCCP mix. The study by Settari et al. [96] demonstrated
from the concrete mix. On the other hand, the mix containing that introductions of RAP-C and RAP-T fractions in RCCP mixes
100% RAP-F was exhibiting higher variation than the 100% RAP-C could increase the OMC value considerably, whereas, inclusions
but the variation was again less than 6% from the control mix [75]. of only RAP-F could reduce the same. The reason for an increase
From the published studies, it can be safely concluded that any in the OMC was the slightly higher water absorption of RAP as
fraction of natural aggregates could be replaced by RAP fractions compared to natural aggregates, whereas, presence of micro-
without much affecting the bulk density of fresh concrete mixes. fissures/agglomerated particles in RAP was attributed for the
Both the RAP fraction fresh mixes could achieve a normal unit reduction in the OMC value. Singh et al. [30] also observed that
weight of between 2150 to 2400 kg/m3. the agglomerated particles in RAP could retain more water in the
mixture and thus could increase the OMC value considerably. Also,
5.3. Air content the study depicted that inclusions of gap-graded RAP-F could
increase the water demand as high as by 23% with respect to the
As similar to initial workability, an unclear trend has been control mix. Furthermore, the high RAP-F mixes were observed
observed in the concentration of air voids in the mixes containing to have significant bleeding which segregates and subsequently
RAP aggregates. Some studies reported an increment in the con- could not be molded even for specimen preparation. Definitely,
centration of air voids with inclusions of RAP, whereas, a few more studies are needed to be conducted to draw a clear relation-
reported reductions in the air voids concentration for RAP mixes ship between the percentage of RAP incorporation and the resulted
as compared to the control mix. In the study conducted by Delwar OMC of the stiff mixes. These studies shall consider the effect of
et al. [39], the air voids content was found to be increased from water absorption, surface characteristics and the concentration of
0.5% to 1.0% for both the mixes containing 100% RAP-C and RAP- agglomerated particles in the aggregates.
F, whereas, for the combined fraction mix, the increase was noted
to be around 500% w.r.t control mix. In the same study, at different 5.5. Maximum dry density
water-cement ratios, the increase was noted to be around 90% for
both RAP-C and RAP-F mixes, whereas, 150% increase was observed Almost all the studies conducted so far demonstrated a clear
for 100% RAP mix with respect to the control. Huang et al. [35] relationship between the maximum dry density (MDD) of the stiff
reported an increase in air voids contents of 55% and 25% for the mixes and the percentage RAP content included. The MDD value
mixes containing 100% RAP-F and 100% RAP, respectively. was observed to decrease with the increase in the RAP content,
Papakonstantinou [81] reported an increment in air content from although RAP-C was found to have a lesser negative effect than
1.7% to 4.2% for 100% RAP-F. Brand and Roesler [33] reported an RAP-F and total RAP fractions. The study by Settari et al. [96] ver-
increase of around 17% in the concentration of air voids for the ified the aforementioned, wherein the highest reduction in the
mix containing 50% RAP-C aggregates. Singh et al. [13] also MDD was noted for 100% RAP-T mix with respect to the control
reported an increase of 50% for the mix containing 100% RAP-C. mix, followed by 100% RAP-F and 100% RAP-C mixes. Similarly,
The study conducted by Brand et al. [76] indicated that incorpora- Debbarma et al. [10] utilized RAP obtained from full-depth recla-
tions of 45% RAP-C could increase the air voids concentration by mation technique and reported to witnessed the lowest MDD
about 50%. Contrary to the above findings, Hossiney et al. [34] reduction for RAP-C mixes, from 2242 kg/m3 to 2220 kg/m3, fol-
reported an insignificant effect on the air void concentration on lowed by RAP-F mixes, from 2242 kg/m3 to 2183 kg/m3 and total
inclusions of RAP. Similarly, the study conducted by Huang et al. RAP mixes, from 2242 kg/m3 to 2155 kg/m3. The study conducted
[35] indicated that inclusions of only RAP-C could reduce the air by Singh et al. [30] also demonstrated that as the percentage of RAP
void content to some extent. Shi et al. [3] compared four different increases from 25% to 100%, the MDD of DLC mix reduces from
sources of RAP (two gap-graded and two dense-graded) and 2250 kg/m3 to 2141 kg/m3 for RAP-C mixes and from 2250
observed that inclusions of all the types of considered RAP in a pro- kg/m3 to 2021 kg/m3 for RAP-F mixes. When different RAP source
portion of 40% could reduce the concentration of air voids in the was considered by Singh et al. [30], almost similar results were
concrete mixes considerably. Further studies, considering the observed, i.e. RAP-C mixes had a lesser negative effect on MDD of
aggregate’s shape properties, asphalt concentration, and water DLC mixes than RAP-F mixes. However, the percentage reduction
the studies highlighted the negative effect of all the fractions of

2.4 RAP on the compressive strength of concrete mixes. The strength
Maximum Dry Density (g/cc)
almost reduced linearly with the inclusions of incremental RAP
percentages. A reduction of around 70% has also been reported in
the strength of RAP concrete with respect to the control mixture
2.1
[35]. The reason for this drastic reduction in strength was attribu-
ted to the poor affinity of asphalt film towards cement paste. A
y = -0.0331x2 + 0.3837x + 1.12 similar observation was noted by Delwar et al. [39] and subse-
1.8 R² = 0.74 quently, inclusions of RAP for structural application were prohib-
ited. However, with advancements, a large no of studies was
conducted encouraging the use of RAP-C in a proportion of 50%.
For example, Brand and Roesler [33] demonstrated that incorporat-
1.5 ing RAP-C up to 50% could nearly meet the 14 days compressive
3.5 5.5 7.5 9.5
strength requirement for a typical paving concrete. Ibrahim et al.
Optimum Moisture Content (%) [90] also concluded that RAP-C up to 50% could be used for pave-
Fig. 6. Relationship between maximum dry density and moisture content. The
ment applications. Similarly, Singh et al. [5] recommended 100%
model is corresponding to the data taken from literatures [10,14,30,36,97]. replacement of coarse natural aggregates by beneficiated RAP-C
aggregates for the production of cement concrete mixes. The rea-
sons for the reduction in strength are many: poor affinity of asphalt
in the MDD was higher when compared with previously consid- towards mortar paste, incompatibility of organic and inorganic
ered RAP fractions. These studies depicted that inclusions of lower phases [85,98], and asphalt cohesion failure [3,31].
specific gravity RAP aggregates would certainly reduce the MDD of As far as the studies on RAP-F is concerned, in comparison to
stiffer mixes: RAP-C being heavier than RAP-F, would have a lesser RAP-C, lesser attempts have been made owing to various reasons
negative effect on fresh properties than RAP-F and total RAP frac- such as gap-graded distribution, higher asphaltic content, and
tions. Nevertheless, 100% natural aggregates could be replaced by higher water absorption characteristics of RAP-F than conventional
any fraction of RAP since the reduction in MDD has been observed fine. [75]. However, the studies that compared both the fractions of
to be generally less than 10%. Based on the literature, a polynomial RAP observed better performance by RAP-F inclusive concrete than
relationship was observed between the MDD and moisture content RAP-C mixes. For example, in a study conducted by Huang et al.
for RAP inclusive concrete mixes (Fig. 6). The equation developed is [32], RAP-F mixes were found to perform ~ 66% better than RAP-
in the form of MDD = -0.0331w2 + 0.3837w + 1.12, where, MDD is C mixes and this was contradictory to the results of the previous
the maximum dry density and w is the moisture content, for RAP study conducted by the same authors [35]. This was mainly due
concrete mixes. to the presence of a higher quantity of agglomerated particles in
the actual RAP-C as compared to laboratory fabricated RAP-C used
in the authors previous’ study [35]. Similar observations were
6. Mechanical properties of PCC mix
made by Settari et al. [96] and Debbarma et al. [10,14]. Settari
et al. [96] reported that the RAP-F mixes performed ~ 42% better
6.1. Hardened density
than RAP-C mixes, whereas, Debbarma et al. [10,14] observed
68% better performance by RAP-F compared to their counterpart
As similar to bulk density of Plain Cement Concrete (PCC) mixes,
mixes containing RAP-C. The attribution reported were: lesser
partial/complete replacement of heavier natural aggregates by
asphalt content (4.5%) in the considered RAP-F than the literature
lighter RAP aggregates would certainly lower the hardened density
reported asphalt percentage (~7.5%) and the blending of RAP-F will
irrespective of curing days; however, the reduction has been
natural materials to make the RAP-F relatively well graded in the
observed to be nominal. Shi et al. [15] utilized two different
distribution.
sourced RAP aggregates (sized between 4.75 and 9.5 mm) in a pro-
The utilization of 100% RAP-T aggregates for the production of
portion of 40% and observed to have less than 2% variation in the
cement concrete mixes is usually not recommended due to its poor
bulk density of these mixes with that of the referral mix. Abraham
performance as compared to RAP-C/F inclusive mixes. The percent-
and Ransinchung [80] observed a linear reduction in the hardened
age reduction in the compressive strength ranging between 60 and
density of mortar specimens with increments of RAP-F percentage
80% w.r.t. the control mix has been reported by several researchers
from 25% to 100%; however, the reduction in density was reported
when 100% RAP-T aggregates were included in PCC mixes
to be less than 6.7% for 100% RAP-F mix and the reported density
[35,39,99]. Erdem and Blankson [94] investigated the effect of
was 2290 kg/m3. A similar observation was reported by Papakon-
incorporation of 100% RAP-T in precast concrete mixes, wherein,
stantinou [81] wherein introductions of combined RAP fractions
a reduction of 60% in compressive strength was observed. Simi-
and only RAP-F aggregates did not much affect the hardened den-
larly, about 50–70% reduction in the compressive strength was
sity of the mixes; although 100% RAP-F mix had a higher reduction,
noted in the case of RCCP mixes [10,36,37,96]. Interestingly, Deb-
it was again within the variation of 4% only from the control mix
barma et al. [10] observed a reduction of 15% in the 100% RAP-T
and the reported density for the stated mix was well above
mixture and this was mainly due to the combined effect of lesser
2300 kg/m3. These studies indicated that any fraction of RAP could
and stiffened asphalt coating and relatively well-graded particle
be used for the production of a normal/medium density concrete
size distribution of the considered aggregates. In fact, incorpora-
matrix.
tion of a lower proportion of RAP-T, i.e. 50% RAP-T, was found to
achieve the minimum stipulated compressive strength benchmark
6.2. Compressive strength of 27.6 MPa [100] for production of RCCP mixes. Similarly, Settari
et al. [96] also noted a lower reduction in 50% RAP-T than in
Compressive strength is considered to be the main design crite- 100% RAP-T; however, it could not qualify to be used as RCCP
rion for any civil engineering activity, especially for the structural mixes.
concrete application. For concrete pavements also, compressive The effect of incorporation of RAP on the compressive strength
strength is usually considered for quality control measures. All of cement concrete mixes as reported by researchers has been
summarized in Table 2. All the researchers reported that the com- 6.3. Flexural strength
pressive strength of RAP concrete mixes is lower than that of the
control mix. Moreover, with the increase in the RAP proportion, Flexural strength is considered to be the main design criterion
the compressive strength tends to decrease linearly. The presence for any pavement application. Available literature indicates that
of asphalt coating around the RAP aggregates has been accounted the flexural strength of RAP concrete mixes decreases with the
for providing hindrance in the formation of bonding between increase in the RAP percentage, irrespective of any curing ages
RAP aggregate surface and cementitious mortar matrix [13]. Addi- [3,10,13,14,33,34,36,75,76,79,84,94,101]. Replacing natural coarse
tionally, the presence of a significant amount of agglomerated par- aggregates by RAP-C was found to reduce the flexural strength
ticles in RAP has also been accounted for reducing the premium by about 4–79% [3,5,13,33,76,99]. Al-Oraimi et al. [79]; Hassan
properties of concrete mixes [3,13]. Nevertheless, in most of the et al. [99]; Huang et al. [32]; Okafor [84]; Singh et al. [13]; Singh
studies, a mix containing 30% 50% coarse RAP was found to exhi- et al. [15], noted flexural strength reduction ranging 25–79% when
bit sufficient compressive strength to be qualified for paving appli- 100% RAP-C was incorporated in the PCC mixes. On the other hand,
cation, whereas, the suitability of fine RAP shall be investigated a lower reduction ranging from 4 to 25% was noted when a lower
thoroughly considering its particle size distribution, asphalt con- percentage of RAP-C (20–50%) was utilized [33,76]. Similarly, Shi
tent, etc. Also, studies on the combined utilization of RAP shall et al. [3] and Said et al. [101] noted around 8–27% reduction when
need to be conducted. 20 and 40% RAP-C was used in the PCC mixes. A study by Singh
et al. [13] demonstrated that washing the RAP-C aggregates could
lower the reduction rate by 4%, whereas, beneficiating the RAP
with abrasion and attrition method could further lower it to 20%.
Table 2 In the case of RCCP mixes, incorporating RAP-C aggregates has
Summary of literature review on compressive strength of RAP inclusive concrete been found to lower the flexural strength by 11–31% [10,36].
mixes. As far as the RAP-F mixes are concerned, its utilization in PCC
RAP References Trend with Reduction range was found to lower the flexural strength by about 17–42% when
fraction respect to @ 28 days (%) RAP-F aggregates were added in increments of 25–100% [75]. Abra-
control ham and Ransinchung [80] reported a reduction of 39% in the flex-
Coarse RAP Al-Oriami et al. [79] Decrease 60 ural strength when natural fines were replaced by mass by RAP-F;
Brand and Roesler [33] 16–39 however, when the RAP-F were included by the volumetric
Brand et al. [76] 44
method, the reduction was noted to be lower (6–25%). A lesser per-
Debbarma et al. [10] 24–33
Debbarma et al. [14] 33–59 centage reduction in the flexural strength values, as compared to
Delwar et al. [39] 13–15 PCC mixes, was noted (13–22%) in the case of RCCP mixes
Erdem and Blankson [94] 62 [10,14,36]. The percentage reduction rate for combined RAP i.e.
Hassan et al. [99] 66 RAP-T mixes were found to be as high as 68% [10,14,36]. Despite
Huang et al. [35] 41
significant reductions in the flexural strength values w.r.t. control
Huang et al. [32] 22–71
Ibrahim et al. [90] 9–29 mixture, several authors recommended the use of RAP-C in propor-
Khodair and Raza [92] 15–35 tions of 75% [79], 20–50% [33,76], 40% [101], and 100%
Modarres and Hosseini 25 [5,13,10,14,36] for PCC and RCC, based upon the minimum flexural
[36]
strength benchmark. In the case of RAP-F inclusive PCC mixes,
Okafor [84] 42
Settari et al. [96] 56 Singh et al. [75] and Debbarma et al. [14] recommended the use
Shi et al. [3] 10–47 of RAP-F aggregates up to 50% and 100% for PCC and RCCP, respec-
Singh et al.[13] 23 tively, since these mixes could provide with sufficient flexural stiff-
Singh et al.[30] 35–70 ness for paving application. On the other hand, utilization of RAP-T
Thomas et al. [38] 36–59
up to 100% could also be used for the construction of PCC and RCCP
Fine RAP Abraham and Decrease 13–38
Ransinchung [80] mixes according to a few studies [10].
Abraham and 5–30 As can be seen in Table 3, inclusions of RAP could reduce the
Ransinchung [83] flexural strength of concrete mixes, irrespective of curing ages.
Also, with the increment in RAP proportion, the strength reduces
Delwar et al. [39] 19–22
gradually. However, most of the studies found that the mixture
Huang et al. [35] 50 containing 30–50% coarse RAP could achieve the minimum flexural
Huang et al. [32] 15–67 strength benchmark for various paving applications. On the other
Modarres and Hosseini 43 hand, few studies also promote the use of fine RAP up to a propor-
[36]
tion of less than 50%; however, many reject the concept of fine RAP
Settari et al. [96] 51
Singh, Ransinchung et al. 6–36 owing to its gap-graded nature and higher asphalt concentration.
[75] Whereas, very limited studies on the utilization of combined RAP
Total RAP Debbarma et al. [10] Decrease 6–15 for the production of cement concrete mixes are available. Avail-
able studies depict the lesser potential of combined RAP in PCC
Delwar et al. [39] 49–81
Erdem and Blankson [94] 60
mixes than RCCP mixes. Interestingly, in most of the studies, the
Fakhri and Amoosoltani 12–60 percentage reduction in the compressive strength and flexural
[37] strength, with respect to the control mixtures, was not similar.
Hassan et al. [99] 82 The reduction in flexural strength seems to be lesser as compared
Hossiney et al. [34] 32–55
to compressive strength. Usually, the percentage reduction (with
Huang et al. [35] 72
Modarres and Hosseini 60 respect to control mix) was found to be atleast 5–30% lesser than
[36] the corresponding reduction in compressive strength of RAP con-
Said et al. [101] 21–62 crete mixes [3,10,14]. This shows that RAP has more suitability
Settari et al. [96] 41–55
for pavement applications wherein flexural strength is the main
governing criterion.
Table 3
Summary of literature review on flexural strength of RAP inclusive concrete mixes.
RAP fraction References Trend with respect to control Reduction range @ 28 days (%) Type of mix Minimum benchmark achieved?
Coarse RAP Al-Oriami et al. [79] decrease 33% PCC up to 75% RAP-C
Brand and Roesler [33] 20% reduction at 14 days age PCC All mix achieved
Brand et al. [76] 25% reduction at 38 days age PCC Yes
Debbarma et al. [10] 11–31% RCCP Yes
Hassan et al. [99] 35% PCC n.a.
Modarres and Hosseini [36] 11–31% RCCP Yes
Okafor [84] 25–30% PCC No
Said et al. [101] 8–27% PCC Yes
Shi et al. [3] 7–24% PCC n.a.
Singh et al. [13] 26% PCC Yes
Fine RAP Abraham and Ransinchung [83] decrease 39% Mortar n.a.
Abraham and Ransinchung [80] 6–25% Mortar n.a.
Debbarma et al. [10] 20% RCCP Yes
Modarres and Hosseini [36] 13–22% RCCP Yes
Khay et al. [102] 10–48% CTB Yes
Singh et al. [75] 17–42% PCC up to 50%
Total RAP Debbarma et al. [10] decrease 30–31% RCCP Yes
Delwar et al. [39] 4.8 MPa at 7 days PCC yes
Hassan et al. [99] 45% PCC n.a.
Hossiney et al. [34] 15–24% PCC n.a.
Modarres and Hosseini [36] 50 RCCP Yes
Erdem and Blankson [94] 26–36% PCC n.a.
Khay et al. [102] 30–68 CTB Yes
6.4. Relation between compressive and flexural strength

6
This study
Although the compressive and flexural strength was found to y = 0.6521x0.58
decrease due to the inclusion of RAP-C, RAP-F, and RAP-T, the rela- 5 R² = 0.75
Flexural Strength (MPa)
tionship between the compressive and flexural strength of con-

crete with RAP almost followed the same trend as that of
conventional concrete. The relationship between the compressive 4
and flexural strength of conventional concrete mixes is in the form
of a power equation as presented in Equation (1). Based on test ACI 318
3
results and analyses of several studies, a power equation was y = 0.62x0.5
developed with a high value of coefficient of correlation (Fig. 7) R² = 1
to demonstrate the relation between the compressive and flexural 2
strength of RAP concrete mixes, moist cured till 28 days. From
Equation (2), it can be observed that the established relationship
model for RAP concrete overpredicts the flexural strength, to some 1
extent, relative to the ACI 318 [104] model of predicting flexural 0 10 20 30 40
strength from corresponding compressive strength at 28 days. This Compressive Strength (MPa)
may probably due to the difference in the material properties Fig. 7. Relationship between compressive strength and flexural strength of RAP
between the RAP and natural aggregates. Moreover, this behavior concrete. The model is corresponding to the data taken from literatures
was positively demonstrated by Singh and Ransinchung [103] [3,33,34,75,76,84,101].
wherein the authors constructed a PCC test track with 65% RAP-C
aggregates. Based on the Falling-Weight Deflectometer (FWD) test,
it was noticed that the general equation to predict the flexural where, fr is the flexural strength at 28 days and fck is the corre-
strength from the corresponding compressive strength does not sponding compressive strength at 28 days.
hold valid in the case of RAP inclusive PCC pavements. Moreover,
the authors also demonstrated that despite the compressive 6.5. Splitting tensile strength
strength benchmark of PCC pavements not being met, the flexural
strength benchmark was met due to which the authors recom- The incorporation of RAP has been found to reduce the splitting
mended the utilization of RAP-C aggregates in proportion of 65% tensile strength of cement concrete mixes, irrespective of any frac-
for the construction of PCC pavements. But still, more field-based tion. The incorporation of RAP-C aggregates in PCC mixes was
studies need to be taken up by researchers to verify this prominent found to reduce the splitting tensile strength by about 5–57%
trend. [32,35]. Brand and Roesler [33] noted a reduction ranging from
For Conventional concrete: 27 to 52% when fractionated RAP-C was incorporated in incre-
qffiffiffiffiffiffi ments of 20–50%. Likewise, Ibrahim et al. [90] also found that
Flexural strength; f r ¼ 0:62 f ck ð1Þ the splitting tensile strength of high strength SCC mixes reduces
by ~ 18% when 50% RAP-C was incorporated. Whereas, a reduction
For RAP concrete, ranging from 14 to 53% was noted in the case of RCCP mixes
Flexural strength; f r ¼ 0:652 ðf ck Þ
0:58
ð2Þ [10,14,96]. Singh et al. [13] observed a reduction of 26% when
100% RAP-C was used in PCC mixes and this reduction further low-
ered to 19% and 16% when the RAP-C was used in the washed and
beneficiated states. In the study by Shi et al. [3], the authors found 40000
This study:
that the incorporation of a lower proportion of RAP-C (20% in their Ec = 2736.2 fck0.69
case) could enhance the splitting tensile strength of PCC mixes; but 35000
R² = 0.72
Modulus of Elasticity, Ec (MPa)

this phenomenon occurred mostly during early ages (7 days) as 30000
compared to latter days (28 days). This was because in the early
days, owing to lesser hydration, aggregates will dominate the per- 25000
formance, whereas, at later days, the asphalt-cement interface will
20000
govern the strength characteristics. Therefore, at 28 days, the RAP
replacement level becomes the main influencing factor in deter- 15000
mining the overall concrete properties [3].
In the case of RAP-F mixes, several researchers noted a signifi- 10000 ACI 318 [104]:
cant reduction ranging between 7 and 55% Shi et al. 2017 [3]: Ec = 393 fck0.5
5000
[10,14,32,35,75,83,96]. Huang et al. [35] and Singh et al. [75] noted Ec = 455 fck0.5
a reduction of about 21–44% when RAP-F aggregates were incorpo- 0
rated in increments of 0–100% for the production of PCC mixes. 0 10 20 30 40
Interestingly, a study by Huang et al. [32] revealed that RAP-F Compressive Strength, fck (MPa)
mixes could perform better than RAP-C mixes. For example, the
reduction in splitting tensile strength of RAP-F inclusive PCC mixes Fig. 8. Correlation between compressive strength and modulus of elasticity. The
model is corresponding to the data taken from literatures [3,104].
was noted to be around 7–55%, whereas, the same for RAP-C mixes
was around 15–57%. As far as combined RAP i.e. RAP-T mixes is
concerned, a significant reduction of about 20–56% in the splitting inclusion of RAP aggregates in concrete mixes would reduce the
tensile strength of PCC mixes was noted [10,14,34,35,96]. The modulus of elasticity significantly.
review of the literature indicates that the reduction in splitting
tensile strength is mainly due to the weakness of ITZ or/and
asphalt cohesion failure.
There seems to be an unclear trend in split tensile strength 6.7. Toughness
when different fractions of RAP are compared, although, inclusions
of any fraction would reduce the strength. In lieu of this, a study In the medium to high strength grade concrete, the crack prop-
shall be carried out evaluating the optimum fraction of RAP based agation usually develops within the aggregate, whereas, in the case
upon split tensile strength. Also, a detailed investigation is of RAP concrete, the crack travels around the surface of the RAP
required for studying the behavior of fine RAP concrete especially aggregate owing to the presence of asphalt layer around the aggre-
at early days of curing wherein higher strength has been noted gates (Fig. 9) [35]. As a result, RAP concrete has the potential to
in a couple of studies. sustain loading even after failure and thereby increasing its tough-
ness post-cracking [10,14,32,35–37,75,105]. Huang et al. [35]
reported that RAP specimens could sustain the peak load while
6.6. Modulus of elasticity undergoing relatively long displacements. In fact, the RAP speci-
mens did not even break suddenly at failure like the control spec-
Incorporation of RAP aggregates has been found to reduce the imens did (Fig. 10) [14,35,75]. Only a few micro hair cracks (Fig. 10)
modulus of elasticity (Ec) of cement concrete mixes irrespective appeared on the surface of RAP concrete specimens after failure
of the fraction. Researchers noted a reduction of 53% in the Ec value [14,35]. The toughness index of RAP concrete has been reported
when 50% RAP-C was incorporated in PCC mixes [19,32,96]. Brand to increase linearly with an increase in the RAP content [35–37].
et al. [76] reported a 25% decrease in the Ec upon incorporating 45% Study by Fakhri and Amoosoltani [37] also revealed a noticeable
fractionated RAP-C. In another study by Brand and Roesler [33], the increase in the toughness with the addition of RAP. Debbarma
reduction rate increased from 16 to 30% with the incorporation of et al. [14] reported that the incorporation of RAP aggregates could
fractionated RAP-C percentages from 20 to 50%. In the case of RAP- improve the load-carrying capacity of RCCP mixes after failure, and
F mixes, a similar reduction rate to that of the RAP-C mix was thus, could increase its functional life. In another study by Deb-
observed [96,101]. On the other hand, incorporation of RAP-T barma et al. [10], the authors noted that the failure mode in RAP
aggregates resulted in a drastic reduction in the Ec by ~ 18–60% concrete was cement mortar failure (asphalt cohesion), whereas,
[94], 44% [96], and 25–58% [34,37]. Khay et al. [102] on the other in the case of concrete made with natural aggregates, the failure
hand reported a reduction of 72% when 100% RAP-T aggregates mode was an aggregate failure (Fig. 11). As far as the comparison
were used for cement-treated base mixture. Interestingly, the between the RAP fractions is concerned, RAP-F has been reported
asphalt film thickness may not be the main influencing factor that to induce similar toughness like that of conventional materials
affects the strength and modulus of RAP inclusive concrete, rather [35,75], whereas, RAP-C and RAP-T demonstrated higher toughness
the reduced bonding potential between the RAP aggregates and the indexes [35]. The presence of asphalt coating is detrimental for
cement paste may be held responsible [85]. Taking in account the strength properties, but the results of most of the studies depicted
results presented by several researchers [3,33,34,101], a relation- its beneficial effect in terms of enhanced toughness of concrete
ship was developed (Fig. 8) and compared with ACI equations matrixes. Most of the studies (except study by Huang et al. [29],
[104] wherein it was observed that the ACI equations does overes- Huang et al. [32] and Fakhri and Amoosoltani [34]) highlighted
timate the modulus of elasticity of RAP inclusive concrete mixes. the enhanced toughness by visual identification method only (con-
Shi et al. [3] also demonstrated that the ACI equations [104] over- dition of specimens post-failure) but quantification is very much
estimate the modulus of elasticity of RAP-PCC mixes. This inconsis- required i.e. how much RAP percentage would enhance the tough-
tency in the trends of the equations may possibly be due to the ness. Also, studies shall be carried out comparing different fraction
incorporation of both RAP-C and RAP-F aggregates that were used of RAP in enhancing the toughness of pavements. These studies
to make the PCC mixes, and as result, may have resulted in softer may consider the stiffness of the asphalt as a governing parameter
mixes as compared to the conventional mixes [3]. Nevertheless, since the soft coating of asphalt may induce higher ductility than
this review of the available literature clearly indicates that the the oxidized asphalt film.
layer application (wearing course) [106]. Incorporations of RAP-C

aggregates in PCC mixes has been reported to reduce the abrasion
resistance by approximately 4 to 66% [5,13], whereas, utilization of
RAP-F aggregates has been noted to exhibit even higher percentage
reductions (46 to 75%); at a linear rate with high values of coeffi-
cient of correlation (R2) (Fig. 12) [75]. A similar observation has
also been reported in a study by Debbarma et al. [1410] wherein
strong linear relationships with R2 value of 0.92 and 0.50 were
observed between the abrasion mass loss and the corresponding
compressive strength of the RCCP mixes. All these studies reported
the asphalt film as the primary cause for inducing lower compres-
sive strength, and subsequently, lowering the abrasion resistance
of cement concrete mixes. The review of the literature indicates
the better potential of RAP-C than RAP-F in terms of abrasion resis-
tance of cement concrete mixes. However, RAP-F up to 50% has
been reported to exhibit good tolerance against abrasion and could
even be utilized as a surface course material for RCC pavements.
Fig. 9. Crack Propagation in natural and RAP aggregates. Modified from reference Interestingly, a nearly insignificant effect on abrasion resistance
[35].
could be expected on incorporation of RAP-C aggregates. For exam-
ple, Singh et al. [13] reported a comparable abrasion resistance to
6.8. Abrasion resistance that of the control mixes when low asphalt containing beneficiated
RAP-C aggregates were utilized. As far as incorporation of RAP-T
Abrasion resistance is considered to be an important functional aggregates are concerned, its utilization in proportion of 50–100%
parameter that governs the suitability of a mixture for surface is not recommended owing to significant reduction in abrasion
Fig. 10. Specimens after compression test (a) Normal concrete before test, (b) Normal concrete after test, and (c) RAP concrete after test [35].
Fig. 11. Failure mode in natural and RAP concrete [10].

0.45 9
Reference no. [75]: W = 0.3204 P + 1.8648
Water Absorption, W (%)

Abrasion Loss in Mass, Alm (%)
0.4 Alm = -0.0136 fck + 0.8383 7 R² = 0.72

R² = 0.95
0.35 5
3
0.3
1
0.25 0 5 10 15
Reference no. [5]:
Alm = -0.0027 fck + 0.363
Porosity, P (%)
R² = 0.92
0.2 Fig. 13. Relationship between porosity and water absorption of RAP inclusive
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 concrete mixes. The model is corresponding to the data taken from literatures
[10,13,14,30].
Compressive Strength, fck (MPa)
Fig. 12. Linear Relationship between compressive strength and abrasion resistance
lesser asphalt content in the beneficiated RAP aggregates as com-
of RAP concrete mixes. The model is corresponding to the data taken from literatures
[5,75]. pared to those having high asphalt content.
There seems to be an inconsistent trend on the percentage of
porosity on inclusions of RAP. Some studies have shown enhanced
porosity, some insignificant and some cited flowing of asphalt for
resistance by approximately 35–60%; however, lower proportion reducing the porosity values. More studies need to be conducted
(less than 50%) may be recommended but more studies need to for evaluating the true effect. These studies should consider the
be carried out to validate this statement. effect of agglomerated particles, the absorption characteristics
and particle size distribution of coarse and fine RAP aggregates.
Also, other methods that avoid the specimens to be heated should
be used to minimize the effect of flowing of asphalt at elevated
6.9. Porosity and absorption characteristics temperatures. Porosity and water absorption has linear relation-
ship i.e. higher the porosity more would be the water absorption
Porosity and absorption characteristics are the indirect mea- and vice versa (Fig. 13) [10,13,14,30].
sures to accurately access the durability aspects of concrete mixes
[107,108]. Porous mixes are vulnerable to aggressive ions such as
sulphate and chloride etc. and could lead to complete degradation 7. Durability properties of PCC mix
of the pavements [109]. Incorporations of RAP have been observed
to induce the porousness in the concrete mixes, irrespective of the 7.1. Permeability
type of fraction. The increase in the porosity has been reported
from 10.8% to 14.5% max [30,99]. The reason for increased porosity The permeability of concrete mixes was found to increase when
is the weaker, larger and porous ITZ [33]. The porosity of RAP- RAP aggregates were added as per a study by Hassan et al. [99];
mortar mixes, when determined using Mercury Intrusion 100% RAP-T aggregates showed the highest permeability values,
Porosimeter (MIP), was also noted to be higher due to an increase followed by 100% RAP-C. In fact, the increase was as high
in the porosity of the ITZ relative to the mortar mixes made with as ~ 600% w.r.t. control mixture, whereas, the increase in 100%
natural aggregates [110]. Meanwhile, the agglomerated particles RAP-C lowered down to ~ 300%. Adding fly Ash in 100% RAP-C
in RAP-C have also been attributed to incur porosity in the mixes. mix again helped in significantly lowering down the permeability
The study conducted by Singh et al. [30] on lean concrete mixes to about 50% [99]. Though the strength properties of fly ash inclu-
depicted that these agglomerated particles could induce voids in sive RAP-PCC mixes do not exhibit positive results, it could
the hardened matrixes which subsequently happened to store improve the microstructure and reduce the transport properties
more water. Contrary to the above, many studies conducted using of RAP inclusive concrete mixes; however, more studies need to
ASTM C642 [111] boiling method demonstrated that RAP could be carried out to come to a stronger conclusion.
lower the porosity of the concrete mixes significantly [112]. This
is on account of the flowing of asphalt at elevated temperatures 7.2. Chloride penetration
(higher than the softening point of asphalt) which eventually clogs
the pores and subsequently reduces the porosity, water absorption, Corrosion of reinforcing steel due to chloride ingress is one of
and capillarity porosity values [13]. Lowering the test temperature the most common environmental attacks that lead to the deterio-
from 100 °C to 48 ± 2 °C and increasing the test duration from ration of concrete structures [113]. A low porosity concrete usually
3 days to 8 days could help in assessing the true effect of inclusions tends to limit the flow of chlorides into the concrete matrix, and as
of RAP on the absorption characteristics of concrete mixes [112]. result, concrete mixes containing supplementary cementitious
Some studies favor the use of RAP based on the insignificant effect mineral admixtures such as silica fume, fly ash, slag could reduce
on the porosity value. For example, Singh et al. [13] reported that the chloride penetration owing to its reduced concentration of per-
the utilization of beneficiated RAP aggregates would have little meable voids and permeability [38]. The utilization of RAP aggre-
or no effect on the porosity of the PCC mixes. Similarly, the varia- gates in concrete mixes may be a little concern in reducing the
tion in water absorption of RAP concrete was reported to vary by chloride penetration resistibility. Berry et al. [78] investigated the
just 0.38% which is not significant. The reason behind such is the effect of RAP-C aggregates against chloride penetration; however,
no comparison was made between the control and RAP mixes due Table 5
to which no conclusion could be drawn. On the other hand, Brand Summary of literature review on average freeze–thaw durability (after 300 cycles) of
RAP concrete mixes.
and Roesler [33] demonstrated that the chloride penetration rating
for concrete mixes containing 0%, 20%, 25%, and 50% fractionated References Berry et al. Brand and Roesler Thomas et al.
RAP-C was very low to low (Table 4). Similarly, in another study [78] [33] [38]
by Thomas et al. [38], the chloride penetration of high strength Type of RAP Hardy Creek Fractionated RAP- Air-dried
concrete remained unaffected by the incorporation of 25–50% RAP C RAP
Control Mix – 100 55
RAP-C aggregates (Table 4). In fact, the chloride penetration was 20% RAP-C – 103 –
reported to lower down when RAP, fly ash, and slag were added 25% RAP-C – – 80
into the SCC mixes [92]. But in a study by Singh et al. [13], incor- 30% RAP-C – – 88
porating dirty 100% RAP-C and washed 100% RAP-C was reported 35% RAP-C – 90 96
40% RAP-C – – 92
to increase the chloride content by about 56% and 32% w.r.t. con-
45% RAP-C – – 70
trol mix; however, the use of surface-treated 100% RAP-C could 50% RAP-C – 87 69
result in lowering the chloride ion content considerably. From 50% RAP-C + 100RAP-F 94 – –
the available literature, it can be noted that the incorporation of 25% RAP-C + 50% RAP-F 98 – –
RAP-C aggregates had very little negative effect on the chloride
penetration in concrete mixes. However, in order to reach a con-
crete conclusion, more studies need to be conducted thoroughly. noted between the RAP-C content and freeze–thaw durability fac-
Since no study is available for other fractions of RAP except for tor. Based upon the literature, it may be beneficial to include RAP-C
RAP-C, the same need to be conducted conserving the impact of in a proportion of less than 50% (Table 5) for the pavements desig-
RAP-F and RAP-T on chloride penetration. nated to be constructed at areas having chances of freeze–thaw
conditions. However, for other fractions of RAP, the same cannot
7.3. Freeze and thaw be stated owing to lack of abundant literature. Also, the suitability
of air-entraining agents to enhance the freeze–thaw resistance of
Concrete resistance to freezing and thawing is an important RAP mixes needs to be evaluated.
parameter that determines its ability to withstand the expansion Af t ¼ 2:27 x ð%RAP C Þ þ 104:07 ð3Þ
of water under thermal cycling in extreme conditions [38]. Similar
to the chloride penetration, the freeze–thaw durability in concrete
is a function of the pore structure. Opposite to the chloride perme- Af t ¼ 2:54 x ð%RAP C Þ2 þ 24:51 x ð%RAP C Þ
ability, where improved performance is related to low porosity and þ 32:17 ð4Þ
pore connectivity, good freeze–thaw durability requires pores of
Where, Af-t is the average freeze–thaw durability factor after
appropriate size and connectivity to allow the pore water to
300 cycles and %RAP-C is percentage RAP coarse aggregate content.
expand as it freezes without exerting excessive pressure [38]. Very
few studies have been carried out on the suitability of RAP for areas
susceptible to freezing and thawing conditions. Berry et al. [78] 7.4. Carbonation
reported a decrease in the freeze–thaw durability with an increase
in the RAP content. Brand and Roesler [33] demonstrated that When carbon dioxide (CO2) present in the air, penetrates the
increasing the RAP-C content could decrease the freeze-thawing concrete matrix, it could react with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2)
durability factor at a linear rate (Equation (3)) with R2 value of and forms calcium sulphates that could lower the strength proper-
0.87. Excellent freeze–thaw durability factor was reported for the ties, serviceability, and aesthetic of the concrete structures. Only a
mix containing only 20% fractionated RAP-C aggregates; however, few studies on the carbonation effect on RAP inclusive concrete
for the mix containing 35% and 50% fractionated RAP-C, the mixes are available to date [10,13,75]. Debbarma et al. [10] found
freeze–thaw durability factor reduced considerably but was still that there was no carbonation when RAP-C was added in RCCP
within the acceptable limits of 60 after 300 freeze–thaw cycles mixes. Similar observations were noted in concrete mixes contain-
[33]. In another study by Thomas et al. [38], freeze–thaw durability ing RAP-F aggregates [10,75]. The incorporation of 100% RAP-T
factor of about 70–96 after 300 cycles was reported when natural aggregates also showed no signs of carbonation [10]. All these
coarse was replaced by RAP-C in proportions of 25–50%. In fact, a studies investigated the carbonation effect of RAP concrete mixes
polynomial relationship (Equation (4)) with R2 value of 0.89 was by spraying a solution of phenolphthalein and diluted ethyl alcohol
on the freshly broken concrete specimens, which is an indirect
approach. Therefore, more studies need to be carried out investi-
Table 4 gating the effect of carbonation on RAP-concrete.
Summary of literature review on Chloride Penetration Rating of RAP inclusive
concrete mixes.
7.5. pH value, electrical conductivity, and leaching characteristics
References Berry et al. Brand and Roesler Thomas et al.
[78] [33] [38] For a durable concrete, the pH value should not be lower than 9
Type of RAP Hardy Creek Fractionated RAP- Air-dried [114]. pH value lower than 9 could initiate cracks, and corrosion of
RAP C RAP steel members, etc. in concrete pavements [13,114]. Incorporation
Control Mix – Very low to low Low
of RAP aggregates was found to have no effect or could even
20% RAP-C – Low –
25% RAP-C – – Low increase the pH value of concrete mixes in a few studies (Table 6).
30% RAP-C – – low In a study by Singh et al. [13], the pH value was reported to
35% RAP-C – Very low Low increase from 12.66 to 12.71 and further to 12.79 when NA was
40% RAP-C – – Low
replaced by dirty and washed 100% RAP-C. In fact, the pH value
45% RAP-C – – Low
50% RAP-C – Very low to low Low was noted to further increase to 12.85 on the incorporation of
50% RAP-C + 100RAP-F Moderate – – 100% surface-treated RAP-C aggregates [5]. In another study by
25% RAP-C + 50% RAP-F Moderate – – Singh et al. [75], the effect of RAP-F on concrete mixes was assessed
wherein a decrease in pH value of ~ 0.3, 1.3, 3.3, and 3.8% w.r.t.
Table 6
Summary of literature review on pH value and electrical conductivity of RAP concrete mixes.
Mix pH value Electrical Conductivity

Erdem and Blankson [94] Singh et al. [13] Singh et al. [75] Singh et al. [29] Erdem and Blankson [94]
Control Mix 12.361, 12.432 12.66 – – 5.191, 6.012
100% RAP-C 12.37 – – – 4.87
100% dirty RAP-C – 12.71 – – –
100% washed RAP-C – 12.79 – – –
25% surface treated RAP-C – 12.70 – – –
100% surface treated RAP- C – 12.85 – – –
25% RAP-F – – 12.63 – –
50% RAP-F – – 12.50 – –
75% RAP-F – – 12.24 – –
100% RAP-F – – 12.17 – –
75% RAP-F 5SF – – – 12.31 –
75% RAP-F 10SF – – – 12.33 –
75% RAP-F 15FA – – – 12.30 –
75% RAP-F 30FA – – – 12.28 –
75% RAP-F 5BG – – – 12.32 –
75% RAP-F 10BG – – – 12.33 –
75% RAP-F 15FA + 5SF – – – 12.32 –
75% RAP-F 15FA + 10SF – – – 12.36 –
Note: 1Natural aggregates Source 1; 2Natural aggregate Source 2.
control mix was observed when NA-F was replaced by 25, 50, 75, sinchung [83] found that the RAP-F inclusive mortar mixes
and 100% RAP-F. Erdem and Blankson [94] also found a marginal could undergo more shrinkage as compared to the mix con-
increment or negligible effect in the pH value when 100% RAP-T taining natural aggregates at initial days of drying. Based on
aggregates were added. In fact, even the electrical conductivity their study, the maximum rate of shrinkage/day in the mortar
was noted to be reduced when 100% RAP-T aggregates were added mixes was found when NA-F was replaced by 75% of RAP-F
in the concrete mixture (Table 6). Erdem and Blankson [94] also fractions [83]. Brand and Roesler [33] again investigated the
investigated the influence of 100% RAP-T aggregates on leaching effect on restrained shrinkage to validate the combined effect
measurement of concrete mixes. In their study, the leaching shake of drying shrinkage and creep for fractionated RAP-C inclusive
test was used and the concentration of elements was determined concrete mixes. Unlike the drying shrinkage results, the
using the ELIT pH/Ion Analyser Software. From Table 7, it can be restrained shrinkage was noted to decrease by about 20% when
seen that the leached components in all concrete mixes were 50% of fractionated RAP-C was incorporated in the concrete
mainly Chloride (Cl), Cadmium (Cd), Nitrate (NO3), Ammonium mix. Khodair and Raza [92] noted that the incorporation of
(NH4) and Sodium (Na), respectively. It was observed that the lea- RAP-T aggregates in a proportion of 15%, 30%, and 50% could
ched components from 100RAP-T mix were almost similar or lower increase the total unrestrained shrinkage of the SCC mixes by
in proportion to that of the control mixes. Only metals like Cl and about 8.4%, 16%, and 23.1%. Whilst replacing portland cement
NO3 were noted to leach out in higher concentration as compared by 75% FA was found to be effective in reducing the unre-
to control mixes owing to the slightly higher pH value of 100 RAP-T strained shrinkage followed by 75% slag, 37.5% FA and 37.5%
mix than control mix, and as result, increased the solubility of slag particles. In another study by Ibrahim et al. [90], incorpo-
these organics from the 100% RAP-T mix. This indicates that the rating 25 and 50% RAP-C aggregates in SCC mixes containing
leaching behavior, pH value and electrical conductivity of RAP con- 60% FA was noted to reduce the unrestrained shrinkage strain
crete mixes were almost similar to concrete containing natural by 13% and 6%. In fact, replacing portland cement by 70% slag
aggregates; however, more studies need to be carried out in detail was found to reduce the shrinkage strain by 42% [90]. Based
to come to a strong conclusion. on the available literature, it could be seen that no constant
trend was observed in the shrinkage behavior of RAP inclusive
7.6. Shrinkage concrete mixes.
Brand and Roesler [33] investigated the effect of RAP on the

drying shrinkage behavior of concrete mixes wherein no sig- 7.7. Performance against chloride and sulphate attack
nificant difference was observed. Contrary, Abraham and Ran-
Concrete structures constructed in the vicinity of marine envi-
ronments are often deteriorated by sulphate and chloride ions
Table 7 [115]. Similar performance has been seen for the structures lying
Leached components in RAP concrete mixes [94]. above sulphate rich foundation/subgrade [109]. Incorporations of
Mix Control Mix1 Control Mix2 100% RAP-T mix any fractions of RAP have been identified to reduce the resistance
Chloride (Cl) 0.0255 0.0265 0.0634
of concrete mixes against the harmful effect of sulphate and chlo-
Cadmium (Cd) 0.00045 0.00102 0.00061 ride ions. Studies conducted by Singh et al. [109] demonstrated
Nitrate(NO3) 3.48450 3.83360 4.16770 that inclusions of RAP-C could reduce the performance in terms
Ammonium (NH4) 2.02200 2.14880 1.88400 of loss in mass and strength by about 30 and 44%, whereas, incor-
Sodium (Na) 82.4195 81.3634 80.7211
porating RAP-F aggregates reduced by the performance by approx-
Note: 1Natural aggregates Source 1; 2Natural aggregate Source 2. imately 60 and 70% when compared to the control mixes. On the
other hand, the inclusions of any fraction of RAP-T is not recom- On the other hand, filling the gaps by natural fine (passing
mended owing to its higher susceptibility towards chloride and 600 lm sieve) could enhance the RAP concrete strength by approx-
sulphate ions attacks. The reason for the reduction in the perfor- imately 13–35% [14]. Few studies attempted to increase the
mance against chloride and sulphate attack is due to higher poros- strength properties of RAP concrete by reducing the water-
ity and interconnected voids in RAP concrete mixes [14,109]. These cement ratio and observed an improvement of about 5 to 33% by
interconnected voids allowed the easy ingress of harmful into the decreasing the water-cement ratio by about 20% [32,39]. Singh
concrete matrix which reacted with calcium hydroxide and caused et al. [97] increased the cement content for lean concrete mix con-
deterioration of the concrete structure [109]. Inclusions of SCMs taining 75% RAP-C and observed that the strength increases lin-
such as silica fume, fly ash, and bagasse ash has been reported to early from 8 MPa to 12 MPa when cement was increased from
improve this resistance towards chloride and sulphate attack by 175 to 300 kg/m3. In a similar attempt, Brand et al. [76] used fibers
filling the remaining empty pores with the extra C-S-H gel formed in a mix containing 45% RAP-C and reported an insignificant effect
on account of reaction between the calcium hydroxide and reactive on compressive, flexural and modulus values. In an another
silica from SCMs [109]. Based upon the literature [10,14,109], attempt, Brand and Roesler [98], oxidized the asphalt film by virtue
inclusions of RAP could induce porosity within the ITZ and of different chemicals: nitric acid (HNO3), sulfuric acid (H2SO4),
microstructure of concrete matrix which would allow easy pene- hydrochloric acid (HCl), hydrofluoric acid (HF), phosphoric acid
tration of aggressive ions and subsequent degradation of the struc- (H3PO4), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), chromium trioxide (CrO3),
ture. However, 25–50% RAP-C proportions seem to be safe for hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), potassium permanganate (KmnO4),
structures constructed in an aggressive environment. However, chromic acid and observed that aggregates which were oxidized
for RAP-F and RAP-T more studies need to be conducted, although with 1 N HNO3, 1 N HCl, 1 N H2SO4, 1 N HF, 1 N NaOH, 1 N
50% could be used if SCM’s are utilized. H2O2, 1 M MAH, chromic acid (1 M H2SO4 with 10% CrO3 by weight,
or 1 N HNO3 with 10% CrO3 by weight), and 0.5 M KMnO4 and uti-
lized along with silica-fume (10%) for mortar fabrication showed
7.8. Efforts in enhancing the properties of RAP concrete
17% higher strength. This finding depicts that stiffened asphalt film
would show better affinity with cement paste than poor bonding
The studies on RAP have identified the asphalt film around the
between soft asphalt film and mortar. Similar findings were drawn
aggregates as the main hindrance in sustainable utilization of the
by the study carried out by Singh et al. [30] wherein RAP source
same for concrete mixes. This film provides interference in direct
from new pavement had lesser strength properties than the mix
contact between aggregates and the cementitious matrix, and the
containing stiffened RAP aggregates. Singh et al. [13] observed that
bond that forms between asphalt and mortar is generally poorer
the stiffened asphalt film could also facilitates its removal if
in nature i.e. larger and porous ITZ [116] which eventually
mechanical stresses are created over RAP surface which would
degrades the quality of concrete. The porous ITZ of RAP concrete
open windows for direct interaction between cement paste and
was positively identified with the help of Scanning Electron Micro-
clean aggregate surface. For this, the authors fed 25 kg RAP aggre-
scope (SEM) images (see Fig. 14 a,b,c). Like conventional concrete
gates in a mixer having 15 no. of steel balls (for abrasion) and
mixes, few attempts have been made to enhance the strength
allowed the assembly to rotated for about 15–20 min. Due to abra-
properties of RAP concrete by utilizing different supplementary
sion and attrition phenomenon, a reduction in asphalt content and
cementitious mineral admixtures such a silica fume, fly ash etc.,
agglomerated particles of about > 50% and >70%, respectively, was
however, the strength properties were minimally affected
reported. The beneficiated aggregates when utilized for concrete
[30,32,117]. For example, the percentage improvement in strength
fabrication showed 9.7% higher compressive, 8.5% flexural and
properties has been reported to be approximately 2–5% only, and
12.2% higher split tensile strength than their counterparts in as-
this variation in the strength of RAP concrete is nearly insignificant.
received state. Study conducted by same authors revealed that
This is due to the fact that asphalt cohesion failure is mainly asso-
the bonding between clean aggregates surface (treated by abrasion
ciated with RAP concrete [3,31,85] and inclusions of mineral
& attrition method) and cement paste could further be strength-
admixture could alter only the microstructure but not the failure
ened by incorporating various SCM’s.
mode, although, mineral admixtures have been observed to
The above attempts are initial efforts only for increasing the
enhance the durability performance significantly [86]. Shi et al.
strength properties of RAP-concrete. More attempts needed to be
[3] demonstrated that the inclusions of intermediate-sized RAP
employed. Also, field applicability and suitability of Abrasion &
aggregates containing lesser asphalt content could increase its
Attrition method should be evaluated.
suitability for PCC mixes as compared to gap-graded aggregates.
Fig. 14. (a) SEM image of dirty RAP-C concrete [13] (b) SEM image of RAP-C concrete [10] (c) SEM image of RAP-F concrete [10]
8. Conclusions 4. Modulus of elasticity could decrease with an increase in the RAP

content; however, the enhanced toughness could be expected
A review of the recent studies in the fields of application of from these mixes indicating its ability to sustain loading even
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) in cement concrete mixes after the failure of the structure.
was carried out in the present study. Utilization of RAP in cement 5. Incorporation of RAP may result in a more porous and weaker
concrete mixes has several economic and environmental benefits ITZ as compared to the ITZ of conventional concrete mixes,
such as a reduction in consumption of natural aggregates and which, in turn, would increase the porosity and water absorp-
transportation costs, elimination of RAP disposal landfills, and tion characteristics of concrete. Subsequently, the performance
reduction in the carbon footprints. Though the presence of asphalt of these mixes in aggressive environments could be expected to
film and agglomerated particles in RAP are mainly associated in be lower than the normal structures; RAP-C up to 50% appears
reducing the overall concrete properties, it could still be used for to be safe for structures susceptible to sulphate and chloride
pavement applications since the minimum flexural strength attack. Agglomerated particles in RAP could also induce higher
benchmarks could be met. It was observed that RAP coarse (RAP- porosity and water absorption values, but, at elevated temper-
C) was found to be more favorable than RAP fine (RAP-F) for uti- atures, reduction in the above-mentioned properties could be
lization in cement concrete mixes. Despite negative effects on expected owing to the melting of asphalt.
mechanical performance, some studies reported enhancement in 6. In terms of abrasion resistance, RAP-C aggregates have better
the durability properties owing to the softening of asphalt at potential than RAP-F aggregates; however, RAP-F up to 50%
higher temperatures. Bonding between RAP and cement mortar could also exhibit good tolerance against abrasion to wear
could be improved by surface treatment (chemically/mechani- and tear caused by vehicle tires.
cally), including intermediate size aggregates, or by incorporating 7. Incorporation of RAP resulted in a detrimental effect on the
higher specific surface area and higher silica content SCMs. Based durability properties such as permeability, chloride ion pene-
on 117 published papers, the review revealed the followings: tration, and freeze–thaw durability. However, RAP-C up to
50% exhibited an insignificant effect. No carbonation was
1. The mechanical performance of RAP aggregates could be similar observed in RAP concrete specimens. The leaching behavior,
or even better than natural aggregates except for the water pH, and electrical conductivity of RAP concrete were almost
absorption and specific gravity values; RAP would exhibit lower similar to concrete containing natural aggregates. On the other
water absorption and specific gravity due to the presence of 6– hand, an inconsistent trend in the shrinkage behavior of RAP
10 mm hydrophobic asphalt coating. However, the extraction concrete was noted.
technique may affect these properties: uncontrolled milling 8. Surface treatment (chemically/mechanically) of RAP aggregates
may allow the intermixing of aggregates and increases the is one of the ways to improve the bonding potential between
mechanical properties. The finer RAP fraction (RAP-F) has been RAP and cement mortar. Unlike conventional concrete, the use
observed to be relatively gap-graded and mostly missing of SCM may not enhance the strength performance due to the
1.18 mm fines, but, uncontrolled milling could yield with rela- association of asphalt-cohesion failure in RAP-concrete;
tively well-graded fines. enhanced durability may be expected. Other approaches such
2. An unclear trend on the workability of fresh concrete mixes was as using intermediate size RAP aggregates with lesser asphalt
observed with the incorporation of RAP. Sphericity of aggre- content, filling the gaps of RAP-F by natural fines, or increasing
gates and hydrophobicity of asphalt film could improve the the cement content could increase the suitability of RAP for
workability, whereas, presence of agglomerated particles and cement concrete mixes.
higher water absorption characteristics of RAP (obtained
9. Future scope
through uncontrolled milling) may result in higher water
demand. It was also observed that RAP-C aggregates would
The review of the available literature on RAP inclusive concrete
have a lesser negative effect on the workability as compared
mixes showed promising results for further investigations.
to RAP-F. Nevertheless, it would not be a big concern from the
Although the inclusions of RAP aggregates have been found to
point of segregation and bleeding; however, gap-graded RAP-F
deteriorate the structural as well as the functional performance
needs to be filled with natural fines to avoid such irregularities.
of the concrete, coarse RAP, in a proportion of 50%, maybe given
The incorporation of RAP would not much affect the bulk den-
more preference than fine RAP or total RAP for the productions
sity of fresh concrete mixes.
of sustainable concrete mixes. Based on the review conducted,
3. Reduction in compressive, flexural, and split tensile strength
the following gaps were observed in the available literature, which
could be expected with the incorporation of RAP aggregates;
when bridged, may lead to the effective utilization of all the frac-
however, the reduction rate may be lesser in case of the flexural
tions of RAP for concrete structures:
stiffness and thus, indicates its suitability for paving applica-
tions rather than structural applications. RAP-C up to 50% were
1. Effective Characterization: Since mechanical characteristics of
reported to exhibit sufficient compressive and flexural strength
aggregates may significantly affect the performance of concrete
required for paving applications. Also, few studies promote the
structures, further studies are required towards the effective
use of RAP-F up to 50%; however, many reject the concept of
characterization of RAP. These studies may take into considera-
RAP-F owing to its gap-graded nature and higher asphalt con-
tion the variations in the RAP sampling, adhered asphalt prop-
tent. As far as combined RAP mixes are concerned, many studies
erties, parental composition of RAP, parent aggregates
depicted its lesser potential for utilization in concrete mixes.
considered, and the method of RAP extraction as well.
The relationship model (fr = 0.652f0.58
ck ) developed in the present
2. Fresh-State Concrete Properties: The published studies demon-
study between the flexural strength (fr) and compressive
strated an unclear trend on the effect of inclusions of RAP on
strength (fck) of RAP concrete mixes was noted to overpredict
the workability and air content of fresh mixes (both PCC and
the flexural strength relative to the ACI 318 model (fr = 0.62
p RCCP). Therefore, further studies, considering various aspects
fck) for predicting flexural strength from its corresponding
of RAP (such as shape parameters, adhered asphalt characteris-
compressive strength at 28 days.
tics, agglomerated particles, water absorption of aggregates,
milling, and processing techniques, etc.), are required to have a [3] X. Shi, A. Mukhopadhyay, K.-W. Liu, Mix design formulation and evaluation of
portland cement concrete paving mixtures containing reclaimed asphalt
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3. Hardened Concrete Properties: Almost all the studies provided a pavements in rural area,” Int. J. Sci. Technol. Manag., vol. 5, no. 8, pp. 260–267,
clear trend which shows that with the increase in the RAP per- 2016.
[5] S. Singh, G. D. R. N. Ransinchung, and P. Kumar, ‘‘Feasibility study of RAP
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worked out considering all the above-mentioned properties Ordinary Portland Cement Admixed with Wollastonite and Microsilica, J.
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the asphalt coating as a governing parameter since the soft [9] X. Shi, A. Mukhopadhyay, D. Zollinger, Long-Term Performance Evaluation of
Concrete Pavements Containing Recycled Concrete Aggregate in Oklahoma,
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4. Durability Properties: Very few studies have investigated the roller compacted concrete pavement containing different fractions of
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reclaimed asphalt pavement aggregates containing waste from Sugarcane
5. Mineral Admixtures: Although asphalt-cohesion failure is mostly Mill for production of concrete mixes,” J. Clean. Prod., vol. 174, pp. 42–52,
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conducted for RAP inclusive concrete mixes. Mechanical, and Durability Properties of Roller Compacted Concrete
Pavement Containing Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement Aggregates,” Transp.
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for the lower performance of RAP-concrete mixes. If the asphalt continuously reinforced concrete pavement containing reclaimed asphalt
pavement using pavement ME models,” Int. J. Pavement Eng., vol. 0, no. 0, pp.
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ment methods could be developed. Preliminary studies con- output life cycle assessment of concrete pavement containing recycled
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statement to some extent. However, more economical benefici- of jointed plain concrete pavement made with portland cement concrete
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for asphalt mixtures with high RAP content,” Resour. Conserv. Recycl., vol. 83,
Solomon Debbarma: Methodology, Data curation, Writing - pp. 77–86, 2014.
[20] K.H. Yang, Y.B. Jung, M.S. Cho, S.H. Tae, Effect of Supplementary Cementitious
original draft. M. Selvam: Writing - original draft, Writing - review Materials on Reduction of CO2 Emissions From Concrete, Handb. Low Carbon
& editing. Surender Singh: Conceptualization, Methodology, Data Concr. 103 (2016) 89–110.
curation, Supervision, Writing - original draft, Writing - review & [21] C. Hanson, R. Noland, K. Cavale, Life-cycle greenhouse gas emissions of
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[22] M. Fakhri, E. Amoosoltani, M. Farhani, and A. Ahmadi, ‘‘Determining optimal
combination of RCCP mixture containing RAP and crumb rubber using hybrid
Declaration of competing interest
ANN-GA method considering energy absorbency approach,” pp. 1–15, 2017.
[23] S. Debbarma, G.D.R.N. Ransinchung, S. Singh, S. Debbarma, Suitability of
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan- various supplementary cementitious admixtures for RAP inclusive RCCP
mixes mixes, Int. J. Pavement Eng. (2019) 1–14.
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
[24] S. Debbarma, G. D. R. N. Ransinchung, and S. Singh, ‘‘Zinc Waste as a
to influence the work reported in this paper. Substitute for Portland Cement in Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavement
Mixes Containing RAP Aggregates,” J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2020. DOI: 10.161/
(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003278.
Acknowledgment [25] S. Debbarma, G. D. R. N. Ransinchung, and S. Singh, ‘‘Improving the Properties
of RAP-RCCP Mixes by Incorporating Supplementary Cementitious Mineral
The second and third authors would like to acknowledge the Admixtures as Part Addition of Portland Cement,” J. Mater. Civ. Eng., 2020.
DOI: 10.161/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0003283
financial support received from the Indian Institute of Technology [26] S. M. Abraham and G. D. R. N. Ransinchung, ‘‘Laboratory Research on
Madras, Chennai, India under the project nos. CE1920107N- Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement- Inclusive Cementitious Mixtures,” ACI Mater.
FIG008952 and CE/1920/656/NFSC/008952. J., vol. 117, no. 2.
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investigation on Dense Bituminous Macadam containing different fractions
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Construction and Building Materials: Solomon Debbarma, M. Selvam, Surender Singh

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Construction and Building Materials 259 (2020) 120417

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Construction and Building Materials

Can flexible pavements’ waste (RAP) be utilized in cement concrete

1. Introduction of reliable alternate aggregates in the form of recycled concrete

RAP is fractionated on No. 4 sieve (4.75 mm sieve) to separate

Fig. 5. Typical particle size distribution of RAP-F aggregates [13,34,78–80].

ing upon the RAP fraction, initial asphalt content, extraction

Aggregate property Trend with respect to the control References

5.2. Bulk density/unit-weight 5.4. Optimum moisture content

the studies highlighted the negative effect of all the fractions of

6.4. Relation between compressive and flexural strength

tionship between the compressive and flexural strength of con-

Modulus of Elasticity, Ec (MPa)

layer application (wearing course) [106]. Incorporations of RAP-C

Fig. 11. Failure mode in natural and RAP concrete [10].

Reference no. [75]: W = 0.3204 P + 1.8648

Water Absorption, W (%)

0.4 Alm = -0.0136 fck + 0.8383 7 R² = 0.72

Mix pH value Electrical Conductivity

Note: 1Natural aggregates Source 1; 2Natural aggregate Source 2.

Brand and Roesler [33] investigated the effect of RAP on the

8. Conclusions 4. Modulus of elasticity could decrease with an increase in the RAP

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