Potential Use of Waste Tire Rubber As Aggregate in Cement Concrete A Comprehensive Review

Construction and Building Materials 225 (2019) 1183–1201
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat
Review
Potential use of waste tire rubber as aggregate in cement concrete – A

comprehensive review
Yang Li, Shuai Zhang, Ruijun Wang ⇑, Faning Dang
State Key Laboratory of Eco-hydraulics in Northwest Arid Region of China, Xi’an University of Technology, Xi’an, Shaanxi 710048, China
h i g h l i g h t s
Recycling waste tires can protect environment and achieve sustainable development.
The properties of CRC are systemically discussed and compared with those of NAC.
The microstructure of CRC is summarized.
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The utilisation and reuse of waste tire rubber in concrete can reduce the consumption of raw materials,
Received 13 November 2018 which leads to economic efficiency and sustainable development of the construction industry. In this
Received in revised form 31 May 2019 review, we conclude the major achievement of crumb rubber concrete (CRC) in nearly 5 years, discuss
Accepted 19 July 2019
and analyse its fresh concrete properties, mechanical properties, durability and other properties. Results
show that utilising the hydrophobic nature of rubber particles and appropriate admixture can increase
slump and improve the workability of concrete. Concrete incorporating crumb rubber (CR) particles
Keywords:
decreases the fresh density, and it decreases linearly with the increase in the CR content. The mechanical
Crumb rubber
Concrete
properties of concrete generally decrease as the CR content incorporated increases. However, the compres-
Mechanical property sive and flexural strength of CRC, which is slightly above that of natural aggregate concrete (NAC), is limited
Durability to fine CR size that replaces sand and optimum CR replacement level (CR content from 0% to 10% increases
Microstructure the compressive strength by 2%, and the flexural strength is increased by 7%–21% in mixes with 10%–20%
CR). CRC has higher water absorption and permeability than NAC. Nevertheless, small amounts of rubber
replacement level (2.5%–7.5% CR) and mixing different rubber particle sizes can reduce the water absorp-
tion of concrete. CRC exhibits high freeze–thaw resistance, electrical resistance, abrasion resistance and
resistance to sulfuric and sulfate attack when incorporating proper CR content at concrete mixes. The depth
of chloride-ion penetration of CRC decreases with low CR content (up to 27.3% of reduction for CR content of
5%) but increases when the CR content exceeds 20%. A clear advantage of CRC is favourable thermal and
acoustic insulation. The mechanical properties and durability of CRC can be improved by adding treated
CR particles, fibres and supplementary cementing materials. Further research is needed to improve the
weak bonding in the interfacial transition zone between CR aggregates and cement paste, thereby increas-
ing the mechanical properties and durability of CRC. Discussions in this paper can provide new knowledge
and information on the applications of green and sustainable CRC.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1184
2. Classification and composition of rubber particles in CRC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1184
3. Properties of concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1184
3.1. Fresh concrete properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1184
3.1.1. Workability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1184
⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: wrj7163@xaut.edu.cn (R. Wang), dangfn@mail.xaut.edu.cn (F. Dang).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.07.198
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1184 Y. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 225 (2019) 1183–1201
3.1.2. Fresh density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1185

3.2. Mechanical properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1186
3.2.1. Compressive strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1186
3.2.2. Flexural strength. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1188
3.2.3. Splitting tensile strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1188
3.2.4. Modulus of elasticity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1188
3.3. Durability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191
3.3.1. Freeze–thaw resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191
3.3.2. Water absorption and permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191
3.3.3. Drying shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191
3.3.4. Abrasion resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1191
3.3.5. Chloride ion penetration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1193
3.3.6. Acid and sulfate resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1194
3.3.7. Carbonation resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195
3.4. Electrical resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195
3.5. Thermal conductivity and resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195
3.6. Sound absorption and insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1196
4. Discussions and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1197
5. Scope for further research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1199
Declaration of Competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1200
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1200
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1200
1. Introduction tire rubber in concrete between 2015 and 2019. The classification
and composition of rubber particles and the fresh concrete,
A large number of tires are thrown away or buried throughout mechanical, durability and other-related properties of CRC are
the world, which seriously threatens the environment. Disposal of summarised in this paper. Furthermore, this paper presents a
waste tire rubber has turned into a crucial environmental issue review that delves into the micro-morphology of concrete incorpo-
worldwide. Waste tires are discarded in different ways, such as rating CR particles as studied by SEM to explain the effect of CR on
burning [1] and landfilling [2], or they are used as mulch in sports concrete properties. Moreover, research results are analysed and
ground and binder modifier in asphalt [3]. Stockpiled tires cause discussed.
health, environmental and economic risks through air, water and
soil pollution [2]. One of the research directions in recent years is
2. Classification and composition of rubber particles in CRC
the use of waste tires in technologies to produce concrete, which
is the most used material in construction and consumes a large
Mechanical and chemical processes have been developed to
amount of natural resources. Conceivable solutions to utilise dis-
obtain an optimal rubber particle size applied to the construction
posed tire rubbers are to incorporate them into concrete as a
industry [14]. CR particles are generated from waste tires using
replacement for cement and natural aggregates. Using waste tire
two different technologies, namely, mechanical grinding at ambi-
rubber particles as aggregates in cement concrete is a resource-
ent temperature and cryogenic grinding at a temperature below
conserving and environment-friendly approach.
the glass transition temperature [15]. Different grinding tech-
Crumb rubber (CR) in concrete has low stiffness [4] and good
niques can yield varying sizes of CR particles, and the most fre-
flexibility [5], and the properties of CR concrete (CRC) are influ-
quently used size is between 2 and 4 mm [16]. At present, waste
enced by particle size [6], cleanliness [7], content [8], shape [9]
tire rubber particles can be ground to a particle size of
and quality of surface finish of CR [10]. The properties of fresh
100–150 lm through new technology [17].
and hardened concrete incorporating CR particles have been inves-
In most of the research performed, four broad categories of dis-
tigated in several previous studies [11–13]. However, a detailed
carded tire rubbers, namely, ash/powder, chip, granular and fibre
classification and composition of CR were not provided in these
rubbers, are usually considered (Table 1). The general composition
reviews, and some of the important properties of concrete, includ-
and chemical elements of CR from waste tires are listed in Tables 2
ing its abrasion resistance, thermal conductivity and resistance and
and 3, and images of different tire rubber aggregate sizes are pre-
acid and sulfate resistance, were not considered in the reviews
sented in Fig. 1. The CR particles from waste tires are sieved, seg-
reported in the literature [12,13]. For instance, the review by Tho-
regated and used to partially replace fine aggregates [4] or coarse
mas and Gupta [11] did not cover reports on the splitting tensile
aggregates [8] in mortar [38] and concrete [23]. In certain cases,
strength of CRC. Additionally, none of the previous reviews pro-
tire granules are ground and sieved to powder or ash, which can
vided any information about the microstructure of CRC; in recent
partially replace cement [3,18]. Rubber fibres are also used as
studies, significant efforts have been made to explain the beha-
partial replacement for mineral aggregates [9,30].
viour of concrete containing CR through scanning electron micro-
scopy (SEM) observations. However, the existing reviews only
cover research before 2014, whilst more than 80 reports on con- 3. Properties of concrete
crete incorporating CR particles were published between 2015
and 2019. Therefore, an up-to-date comprehensive review that 3.1. Fresh concrete properties
covers concrete incorporating CR is necessary to understand the
behaviour of this important construction material. 3.1.1. Workability
Although considerable research has been conducted, many are The workability of concrete is usually evaluated by measuring
still controversial. This study aims to provide an all- slump. As presented in Table 4, the slump of CRC is lower than
encompassing review of the existing reports on the use of waste that of natural aggregate concrete (NAC), and it decreases with
Y. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 225 (2019) 1183–1201 1185
Table 1
Classification of the rubber particles used in previous studies.
Name Rubber size Replaced material Reference

Ash/powder 63 lm–0.63 mm Cement [18]
Length larger than 75 lm can pass #200 sieve [3]
20 mesh Fine aggregate [19]
Passed No. #30 sieves (0.6 mm) [20]
70% from size (mesh 40) [21]
100–600 lm [22]
Chip 40% from 5 mm size and 60% from 10 mm size Coarse aggregate [23]
50% from 4 to 10 mm and 50% from 10 to 20 mm [24]
Granular 1–6 mm Coarse aggregate [25]
1–8 mm [8]
30% from size (1–4 mm) [21]
Granule size 2/4 and 4/6 Fine aggregate [26]
<4.75 mm [27]
40% of 1–3 mm and 20% of 3–5 mm size [28]
35% from 1 to 3 mm and 25% from 2 to 4 mm [29]
Fibre #1.2 mm Fine aggregate [9]
2–5 mm in width, up to 20 mm in length [30,31]
2–4 mm wide and up to 22 mm long [32]
Table 2
General composition of CR from waste tires.
Reference Rubber polymers (%) Carbon black (%) Sulphur (%) Ash content (%) Acetone extract (%) Water, mineral, textile material etc. (%)
Sodupe-Ortega et al. [33] 38.30 31.30 3.23 5.43 7.30 14.44
Liu and Zhang [34] 44.60 30.70 0.50 4.20 16.90 3.10
Muñoz-Sánchez et al. [35] 40–55 30–38 5 3–7 10–20 –
Raffoul et al. [10] 40–55 20–25 – – – –
Table 3
Chemical elements of waste tire rubber.
Reference C (%) O (%) Zn (%) S (%) Si (%) Mg (%) Al (%) Na (%) H (%) Ga (%)
Bisht and Ramana [36] 87.5 9.24 1.77 1.07 0.2 0.14 0.08 – – –
Gupta et al. [30] 87.51 9.23 1.76 1.08 0.2 0.14 0.08 – – –
Angelin et al. [9] 91.5 3.3 3.5 1.2 – – – 0.2 0.2 0.1
increasing CR content. CR particles possess a rougher surface and found that concrete with CR (20% fine aggregate by volume) cut
higher coefficient of friction than particles of natural aggregate, to 3 mm, ground to 0.5 mm and ground to 0.3 mm exhibits
which results in an increase in flow resistance [39]. Thin impuri- decreased slump values of 16.8%, 23.2% and 25.2%, respectively,
ties, such as rubber dust and fluff, on the outside of rubber particles compared with concrete without CR. SEM images for different sizes
decrease free water in fresh concrete, thereby reducing flow capac- of CR particles are shown in Fig. 2. In these images, some dents and
ity [19,24]. Moustafa and ElGawady [41] determined that increas- jagged areas on small CR particles are evident, and the surface of
ing the CR content from 5% to 30% to replace sand by volume rubber cut to 3 mm is much smoother than that of rubber ground
decreases slump by 33%–83% compared with the use of high- to 0.5 and 0.3 mm. Ismail et al. [22] observed that CRC (30% CR
strength (HS) concrete without CR aggregates. replacement sand by volume) with 0.6–1.1 mm- and 0.1–
However, some scholars have found that the addition of CR 0.6 mm-sized CR presents decreased slump flow diameters of
increases concrete slump. CR does not absorb water, unlike river 0.6% and 3.5%, respectively, relative to NAC.
sand; hence, the workability of concrete increases with the CR con-
tent [40]. Mendis et al. [29] found that using an appropriate admix- 3.1.2. Fresh density
ture can significantly improve the workability of the CRC mix The fresh density of CRC is listed in Table 4. The density of con-
despite the proportion of CR being considerably high. As reported crete decreases when CR is incorporated into concrete and
by Sodupe-Ortega et al. [33], when increasing the CR replacement decreases linearly with the increase in the amount of CR. The den-
level from 10% to 40%, the average slump values of automated sity of CRC is lower than that of NAC due to two reasons: (1) the
manufacturing of rubberised long hollow blocks and bricks specific gravity of CR aggregates is lower than that of natural
increase from 119% to 476% relative to mixing 0% CR. aggregates [5,50]; and (2) CR particles have a tendency to repel
The effect of CR size on concrete slump is listed in Table 4. Fine water and attract air on the rough surface of rubber, thereby
CR size leads to small slump values of CRC. Waste tires are sheared increasing the percentage of CR to increase the air content. The
and ground into fine CR particles, which are rougher than large CR. porosity generated by air bubbles is lower than the unit weight
Fine CR particles also present a high surface area and water of water [47,51].
absorbability [49]. Large CR particles need high energy to over- The fresh density of CRC is usually measured by bulk density
come their internal friction and flow with ease [42]. Su et al. [49] [5,24], and some scholars have used unit weight to describe it
Fig. 1. Various sizes of scrap tire particles in CRC (See above-mentioned references for further information.).
[42,43]. In Table 4, when 5%–30% CR particles are used to replace Different parameters have been investigated to improve
sand by volume, the fresh density of HS concrete decreases by mechanical properties. These parameters include the CR content
2%–6% compared with that of concrete without CR [41]. Replacing in concrete, particle size of CR and replaced material (cement, fine
2.5%–20% by weight of river sand with CR decreases the bulk den- aggregate and coarse aggregate). Treated CR particles (NaOH
sity of HS concrete by 0%–9.6% compared with that of control mix [25,54,55], H2SO4 [35], Ca(OH)2 [35], CH3COOH [35], KMnO4 [56],
with 0% CR [5]. Using 10%–60% CR to replace sand by volume silane coupling agent (SCA) [19], acetone [52], methanol [52], etha-
decreases the unit weight of fresh cementitious mixtures by nol [52] treatment and limestone powder (LP) [57], cement [58],
3.1%–10.7% compared with that of mixtures without CR [42]. silica fume (SF) [58], styrene butadiene copolymer [38] pre-
CRC specimens with larger CR particles are denser than speci- coated), fibres [24,43,45,59] and supplementary cementing materi-
mens with finer CR [26]. Su et al. [49] showed that CR particles als (ground-granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) [22], metakaolin
with different sizes result in varying reductions in concrete’s fresh (MK) [22], SF [22,55,57], glass powder (GP) [41], sand powder (SP)
density. The reduction in the fresh density of concrete with CR [41], nano silica (NS) [27], natural zeolite [25]) can also be added to
aggregates cut to 3 mm is the smallest. CR aggregates ground to mixtures; partial oxidation [60] can be performed to improve
0.5 and 0.3 mm exhibit a slightly higher level of reduction, which mechanical properties (Table 5). However, the addition of steel
is in agreement with the original density values of CR aggregates. fibres to rubberised concrete will not cause any significant
improvement regarding compressive strength and modulus of
3.2. Mechanical properties elasticity, but it will improve splitting tensile strength and flexural
strength [44,61].
A number of experimental studies reported that adding CR to
concrete mixtures reduces its compressive strength, flexural
strength, splitting tensile strength and modulus of elasticity in 3.2.1. Compressive strength
most cases (Table 4). This phenomenon is mostly attributed to Almost all previous studies have indicated that compressive
the following factors. (1) Unlike hard cement slurry, soft rubber strength generally decreases with increasing CR content. When
particles are prone to deformation under load, which results in the CR content is excessive, poor adhesion and agglomeration of
microcrack development in concrete [24]. Cracks will develop CR are evident on the fracture surface, leading to weak ITZ [20].
rapidly at the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between CR aggre- Mohammed and Adamu [28] found that the substitution of 20%
gates and cement paste at continuous loading, which results in fail- and 30% fine aggregates with CR decreases compressive strength
ure of CRC [51]. (2) The poor chemical interaction between the by 16.3% and 23.2%, respectively, relative to NAC. Field emission
different phases of smooth CR particles and cement matrix leads scanning electron microscope (FESEM) images (Fig. 3) suggest that
to poor adhesion at the ITZ [52]. On the contrary, cement paste per- increasing the CR replacement rate also increases the voids in
meates through traditional rigid aggregates and even produces a hardened concrete and the thickness of the ITZ. Fernández-Ruiz
chemical reaction that leads to good bonds [53]. (3) Concrete con- et al. [18] studied concrete incorporating CR powder as partial
taining CR aggregates causes numerous air voids and reduces cement replacement. Using 2.5% and 5% CR powder to replace
mechanical properties [31,51]. cement decreases compressive strength by 28% and 38.2%,
Table 4
Fresh and mechanical properties of CRC.
Properties Rubber size/type Replacement Rubber Concrete type Results Reference

pattern replacement
ratio
Workability (slump 0–6 mm (granular), 5–20 mm Fine and 30–60% by Concrete ;13–56% Alsaif et al. [39]
values) (chip) coarse volume
aggregate
0–4 mm (granular), 4–20 mm Fine and 20–60% by Concrete pavement ;16.6–37.5% Alsaif et al. [24]
(chip) coarse volume
aggregate
1–4 mm (granular) Fine aggregate 10–40% by Rubber long hollow "119–476% Sodupe-Ortega
volume blocks and bricks et al. [33]
0.075–4.75 mm (powder and Fine aggregate 5–25% by Concrete "4.2–43.8% Murugan and
granular) volume Natarajan [40]
Fresh density 8–14, 14–30, and 30 mesh Fine aggregate 5–30% by HS concrete Density: ;2–6% Moustafa and
(granular and powder) volume ElGawady [41]
60% of 0.8–4 mm (granular) Fine aggregate 2.5–20% by HS concrete Bulk density: ;0–9.6% Thomas and
and 40% powder weight Gupta [5]
0.2–4 mm (granular) Fine aggregate 10–60% by Mortar Unit weight: ;3.1–10.7% Ramdani et al.
volume [42]
0–6 mm (granular), 5–20 mm Fine and 30–60% by Concrete Unit weight: ;9.4–22.3% Alsaif et al. [43]
(chip) coarse volume
aggregate
Compressive 0.075–4.75 mm (powder and Fine aggregate 5–30% by Self-consolidating ;11.8–57.9% Ismail and
strength (28- granular) volume rubberized concrete Hassan [44]
day) 1.18–2.36 mm (granular) Fine aggregate 10% by Concrete tactile "2.2% da Silva et al.
volume paving blocks [45]
63 lm–0.63 mm (ash/powder) Cement 2.5–10% by Concrete ;28%–38.2% (5% rubber), Fernández-Ruiz
weight ;37.1% (10% rubber) [18]
40% from 5 mm size and 60% Coarse 5–20% by Concrete ;14.3–53.6% (conventional Mishra and
from 10 mm size (chip) aggregate weight CRC); ;10.8–48.5% (SCRC) Panda [23]
Flexural strength 1.18–2.36 mm (granular) Fine aggregate 10–50% by Concrete tactile ;18–32% da Silva et al.
(28-day) volume paving blocks [45]
0.075–4.75 mm (powder and Fine aggregate 5–25% by Concrete "7–21% (5–15% CR), "9.3% Murugan and
granular) volume (20% CR), ;9.3% (25% CR) Natarajan [40]
63 lm–0.63 mm (ash/powder) Cement 2.5–10% by Concrete ;23.3% (2.5% GTR), ;20% (5% Fernández-Ruiz
weight GTR), ;20% (10% GTR) [18]
1–6 mm (granular) Coarse 10–15% by Concrete ;9–19% Jokar et al. [25]
aggregate weight
Splitting tensile 150 lm–4.75 mm (powder Fine aggregate 5–15% by SCRC ;1.6–14.3% Hesami et al.
strength (28- and granular) volume [46]
day) 0.075–4.75 mm (powder and Fine aggregate 5–40% by Self-consolidating ;16.5–31% Ismail and
granular) volume rubberized concrete Hassan. [47]
Modulus of 0.075–4.75 mm (granular) Fine aggregate 5–25% by Concrete ;2.44–31.74% Murugan and
elasticity (28- volume Natarajan [40]
day) 1.18–2.36 mm (granular) Fine aggregate 10–50% by Concrete ;4.8–51.5% Youssf et al. [48]
volume
a
Rate of change = [(CRC) (NAC)/NAC ] 100%.
b
Increase: ", Decrease: ;.
respectively, compared with that of NAC [18]. Mishra and Panda reasons for the insignificant effect of CR or the increase in the
[23] identified that compressive strength decreases as the amount mechanical properties of mixture are as follows. (1) The influence
of replacement coarse aggregates of CR increases at all ages in con- of CR size on compressive strength is critical. On the one hand, fine
ventional CRC and self-compacting rubberised concrete (SCRC). CR aggregates have lesser voids than coarse aggregates [22,51]. On
Kashani et al. [58] observed that SF-coated CR aggregate reduces the other hand, fine CR particles may limit the negative effects of
this gap significantly, and the colour of hydrated cement is dark differential strains of rubber–cement paste and reduce the volume
at the ITZ. SF increases the pozzolanic reaction in concrete and pro- of the weak interface between particles and matrix [22]. In a
duces considerable levels of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H) gels. research conducted by Gonen [51], they replaced 0.5% sand and
EDS data suggest that the calcium-to-silicon (Ca/Si) ratios of gravel by weight with CR; their results revealed that compressive
untreated and SF-coated CR are 4.9 and 3.8, respectively. Low strength reduces 8.3% of tile paving stones given a CR size of
Ca/Si ratios indicate high C-S-H gel formation. Therefore, 2 mm, but it reduces compressive strength by only 3.6% given a
SF-coated CR particles can improve the bond at the ITZ and the CR size of 1 mm. (2) When the CR replacing value is at the optimal
compressive strength of CRC [58]. level, the CR aggregates are uniformly distributed in concrete,
However, as shown in Table 4, concrete incorporating CR parti- thereby increasing the compressive strength of concrete [45]. Such
cles may not always exert a negative effect on compressive a phenomenon may also be due to the improvement of aggregate
strength. Some studies have found that incorporating CR does gradation in concrete [13]. Shen et al. [45] found an increase of
not produce significant changes on the compressive strength of 8.5% in compressive strength at 7 days and 2.2% at 28 days for con-
concrete [22,50,51]. Other researchers have reported that CR crete tactile paving blocks with 10% CR compared with that with-
increases concrete strength [13,45]. Overall, the two possible out CR.
Fig. 2. SEM images for different sizes of CR particles: (a) cutting to 3 mm; (b) grinding to 0.5 mm; (c) grinding to 0.3 mm [49].
3.2.2. Flexural strength mixes with 10% and 20% CR contents, respectively, compared with
The influences of the size, replacement pattern, ratio and type of NAC.
CR on the flexural strength of CRC are presented in Table 4. When
10% CR is replaced for sand, flexural strength decreases by 18% rela-
3.2.3. Splitting tensile strength
tive to NAC, and the decrease is more significant with 50% of replace-
Incorporating CR to replace coarse [23] and fine [46,47] aggre-
ment level and reaches approximately 32% [45]. Using 2.5%–10%
gates also decreases the tensile strength of concrete. Distinct CR
rubber powder to replace cement decreases flexural strength by
substitution rates corresponding to varying splitting tensile
23.3%–20% in comparison with NAC [18]. When 10% and 15% coarse
strength values by different authors are depicted in Table 4. The
aggregates are substituted with CR, flexural strength decreases by
splitting tensile strength of CRC decreases as the CR content
9% and 19%, respectively, in comparison with NAC [25]. The influ-
increases. However, shearing rubber to a suitable size allows it to
ence of the shape of CR aggregates (spheroids and fibres) on mechan-
bridge the tensile cracks of CRC [48].
ical resistance has been studied. Concrete containing fibre rubber
Splitting tensile strength can be improved by adding other com-
aggregate presents low strength loss [9]. SEM images (Fig. 4) depict
ponents to CRC and modifying the surface of CR aggregates. As
that incorporating fibre rubber particles into concrete presents a rel-
shown in Table 5, Mohammed and Adamu [28] reported that the
atively stronger bond at the ITZ than that when incorporating spher-
28 day splitting tensile strength of CRC (30% CR content) mixtures
oid rubber particles. Greater propagation of microcracks, weaker ITZ
with 1% and 2% NS increases by 21.4% and 18.75%, respectively,
and additional voids are also observed, as shown in Fig. 4(a).
compared with that without NS. NS enhances the bond between
Although incorporating CR reduces concrete strength, the ratio of
the hardened cement paste and aggregates [28]. Elchalakani [4]
flexural strength to compressive one (Rf-c) remains greater than that
determined that the maximum reductions in splitting tensile
of NAC, as shown in Fig. 5. The Rf-c value corresponding to concrete
strength are 80.62% and 60% for normal-strength and HS concrete
containing 10%, 20% and 30% CR increases by 2.95%, 4.23% and
with 40% CR content, respectively. The outcomes are attributed to
1.48%, respectively, compared with that of NAC. Therefore, under
the fact that SF enhances ITZ bonding in HS concrete.
the same compressive strength, CRC presents better flexural tough-
ness than NAC [62]. Elastic rubber particles present high ductility
and toughness and can absorb and dissipate the impact energy; 3.2.4. Modulus of elasticity
hence, the initiation and propagation of cracks are delayed in con- Concrete is a heterogeneous material, and the elastic modulus
crete [48,56]. of rubber greatly differs from that of concrete components [63].
The improvement of flexural strength is only limited to a rela- The stiffness of CR particles leads to rubber itself having a low
tively small CR content [40]. For instance, Jokar et al. [25] observed elastic modulus, thereby reducing the overall elastic modulus
that replacing 5% CR in concrete increases flexural strength by 25% of concrete [48]. Moreover, the poor bonding between CR aggre-
compared with NAC. Mohammed and Adamu [28] determined that gate and cement paste causes the rapid development of cracks
the flexural strength for 28 days increases by 39.3% and 9.3% for under loading. In this case, the elastic modulus of CRC is lower
Table 5
Effect of adding other ingredients and treating CR particles on some mechanical properties of CRC.
Enhancement Rubber size/type Replacement Rubber Compressive strength Flexural strength change rate Tensile strength Modulus of elasticity Reference
treatments pattern replacement change rate (28-day) (28-day) change rate (28-day) change rate (28-day)
ratio
Polypropylene fibre 150 lm–4.75 mm (powder and Fine 5–15% by "7.5–21.9% "23.8–26.9% (5–10% CR), "18.3–21.2% "8.8–4.1% Hesami et al.
(0.1%) granular) aggregate volume "21.1% (15%CR) [45]
Polyester Fibre 0.2–1.2 mm (powder and Fine 7.5%–22.5% ;18.4–13.9% (7.5–15% CR), ;13.8–15% (7.5–15% CR), ;6.6–40.8% ;6.2–6.5% (7.5–15% Gurunandan
(0.5%) granular) aggregate by mass ;33.8% (22.5% CR) ;9.1% (22.5% CR) CR), ;1.9% (22.5% CR) et al. [59]
Steel fibres 0.075–4.75 mm (powder and Fine 5–15% by "1.3–1.4% (5–10% CR), "22.4–19.3% (5–10% CR), "22.8–19.5% (5–10% "1.5–5.3% Ismail and
granular) aggregate volume "0.4% (15% CR) "16.8% (15% CR) CR), "19.2% (15% CR) Hassan [43]
Manufactured steel 0–4 mm (powder and Fine and 20–60% by "1.7–10% "23–115% – No obvious effect Alsaif et al. [24]
fibres granular), 4–20 mm (chip) coarse volume
Y. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 225 (2019) 1183–1201

aggregate
Added GGBS, MK, 100–600 lm (powder) Fine 30% by "7.6% (GGBS); "13.6% (SF); "1.9% (GGBS); "5.6% (SF); "5.2% (GGBS); "12.1% "1.1% (GGBS); "4% (SF); Ismail et al.
SF aggregate volume "20.2% (MK) "13.1% (MK) (SF); "19% (MK) "5.7% (MK) [22]
Added GP and SP 0.2–4 mm (powder and Fine 10–20% by "7.3–5% (GP); "3.9–1.3% 10% CR: "0.43% (GP); "0.21% "0% (GP); "0% (SP) ;14.5–14.7% (GP) Ramdani et al.
granular) aggregate volume (SP) (SP) [41]
Added NS 40% of 0.595 mm (powder) and Fine 10–30% by "25–23.8% (10–20% CR), "6.5–8.3% (10–20% CR), "2.7% "10–15.2% "27.6–11.8% (10–20% Mohammed
60% of 1–5 mm (granular) aggregate volume "10% (30% CR) (30% CR) CR), "33.3% (30% CR) and Adamu
[27]
Acrylonitrile- 0.6 mm (powder) Fine 40% by "48.1% – – – Chen et al. [18]
butadiene aggregate volume
rubber
NaOH treated 0.075–4.75 mm (powder and Fine 20% by "29.6% "4.3% – ;0.6% Mohammadi
granular) aggregate volume et al. [54]
0.5 h NaOH treated 1.18 and 2.36 mm (granular) Fine 20% by ;2.5% (NaOH); "10.6% – ; 7.4% (NaOH); " 25.9% – Youssf et al.
+ 5% SF aggregate volume (NaOH + SF) (NaOH + SF) [55]
NaOH treated + 5% 1–6 mm (granular) Coarse 5–15% by "34.4–67% ;4.9% (5% CR), "4.2–3.4% (10– "15.6% (5% CR), "12– "10.8–27.1% Jokar et al. [25]
zeolite aggregate weight 15% CR) 18.6% (10–15% CR)
H2SO4, Ca(OH)2, 0.6–2.5 mm (powder and Fine 10% by "25% (H2SO4); "31.3% (Ca "34.7% (H2SO4); "26.6% (Ca – – Muñoz-
CH3COOH granular) aggregate volume (OH)2); "8.3% (CH3COOH) (OH)2); "12.2% (CH3COOH) Sánchezez et al.
treated [35]
KMnO4 treated 40 mesh (powder) Fine 2–6% by "19.4 (2% CR), "48.7 (4% – – – He et al. [56]
aggregate weight CR), "34.5 (6% CR)
SCA treated 30 mesh (0.6 mm) (powder) Fine 5–30% by "5.8–24.6% "5.7–21.4% – – Li et al. [20]
aggregate volume
Acetone, Methanol, 0.074–1.18 mm (powder) Fine 10% "30% (Acetone); "21% – – – Rivas- Vázquez
Ethanol treated aggregate (Methanol); "7% (Ethanol) [52]
Cement, SF coated 2.36–4.45 mm (granular) Fine 10% by "42% (Cement); "49% (SF) – – – Kashani et al.
aggregate weight [58]
LP pre-coated + SF <4.75 mm (granular) Fine 5–15% by "20.6–26.7% (5–10% CR), "22–35.1% – – Onuaguluchi
aggregate volume "20% (15% CR) [57]
Styrene butadiene 0.6–4 mm (powder and Fine 30% by "8.1% – "28.2% "11.3% Pham et al. [38]
copolymer granular) aggregate volume
coated
Partial oxidation 300–600 mm (powder) – 5% by weight "50% – – – Chen et al. [60]
a
Rate of change = [(Modified CRC) (Unmodified CRC)/Unmodified CRC ] 100%.
b
Increase: ", Decrease: ;.
1189
Fig. 3. FESEM images for CRC mixtures [28].
Fig. 4. SEM images comparing spheroid (a) and fibre (b) waste tire rubber [9].
than that of NAC [44]. Table 4 depicts the variation in the elastic to NAC [40]. The elastic modulus of concrete decreases by 4.8%–
modulus of CRC with the CR replacement ratio. The elastic mod- 51.5% using 10%–50% CR replacement level [48]. Some of the
ulus decreases with an increase in the CR replacement ratio. results of previously presented investigations are summarised
Increasing CR contents from 5% to 25% of fine aggregate volume in Tables 4 and 5 to yield insight into the influences of CR par-
reduces the elastic modulus of concrete by 2.44%–31.74% relative ticles on the elastic modulus.
morphology of foam concrete with CR is shown in Fig. 10. The

SEM images in 10(a) depict that CR particles are buried into con-
crete to block the capillary channels and reduce water absorption.
Nevertheless, beyond 3% CR content, the bond between CR aggre-
gate and cement paste is weak, and the permeability channels rise,
as shown in the SEM images in 10(b). Other scholars have found
the law of nonlinear change. Completely filling the voids and
achieving adequate densification are difficult due to the lack of
strict control in densification [45].
Permeability is the most effective internal factor in concrete
durability [30]. Table 6 presents that concrete containing CR
increases water permeability, which increases with the increase
in the CR content. Porosity and microcracks are important factors
that lead to high permeability. The poor bond between CR aggre-
gates and cement paste increases the porosity of concrete [35].
CR agglomeration in concrete results in weak bonding, which
NC: nature concrete; RCRC: recycled crumb rubber concrete.
increases microcracks [50]. Large CR aggregates or unreasonable
aggregate gradation can lead to weak filling capacity of concrete
Fig. 5. Ratio of flexural strength to compressive one (Rf-c) [62]. [49]. The relationship between the depth of water penetration
and CR replacement level in concrete is shown in Fig. 11, when
the inclusion of CR increases from 2.5% to 20%, water penetration
3.3. Durability depth increases by 0% to 225% compared with that using control
concrete.
3.3.1. Freeze–thaw resistance
Freeze–thaw damage of concrete is responsible for damage to 3.3.3. Drying shrinkage
structures and is the main reason for the aging of infrastructure The addition of CR particles increases the drying shrinkage of
[64]. Table 6 shows that concrete incorporating proper CR particles concrete, as shown in Table 6. The low stiffness and good flexibility
can increase freeze–thaw resistance and obtain environmental of rubber aggregates reduce the internal restraint and conse-
benefits [51,65]. Richardson et al. [64] observed that the relative quently increase the length change caused by shrinkage [4]. The
mass losses of NAC and CRC (CR graded up to < 0.5 mm) with 70 high porosity and diffusivity of CRC can also help improve the rate
freeze–thaw cycles are 0.6% and 0.07%, respectively. Fig. 6 displays of loss of capillary water and accelerate drying shrinkage [24]. The
the < 0.5 mm CR particles were irregular in shape and had a rough reasons for producing shrinkage cracking may be based on the ten-
surface when viewed at various magnification, which will entrap sile strength, ultimate tensile strain capacity and fracture capacity
air and create an air void system for improving the freeze–thaw of CRC [7]. Fig. 12 demonstrates that drying shrinkage increases
resistance of concrete. Baricevic et al. [70] determined that the with increasing CR content. The line chart also shows that the dry-
cumulative mass loss of sprayed concrete without recycled tire ing shrinkage of CRC specimens increases with time, and the curve
polymer fibres is four times that of sprayed concrete with recycled becomes steeper after 8 days.
tire polymer fibres after 56 freeze–thaw cycles. As shown in Figs. 7 Many scholars have studied the influence of adding other ingre-
and 8, after 200 freeze–thaw cycles, the mass loss of the control dients and treating CR on the drying shrinkage of CRC. Partial
mortar is the largest and deterioration is the most serious, but replacement of cement with high-volume fly ash (FA) in roller-
mortar specimens incorporating 30% of CR produce better freeze– compacted concrete pavement increases drying shrinkage. The
thaw resistance than other samples [65]. strength of cement paste is weakened because of the slow hydra-
When the CR content is<1%, concrete samples with small CR tion reaction of FA, which makes it slightly elastic and produces
size have better freeze–thaw resistance, whilst those exceeding numerous pores that lead to the increase in drying shrinkage.
1% obtain distinct results (Fig. 9). This outcome is due to the However, the addition of NS decreases the drying shrinkage due
increasing effective porosity, which improves the freeze–thaw to the high pozzolanic reaction of NS, which forms C-S-H that fills
resistance of concrete. Light rubber admixture increases the con- the pores [75]. The drying shrinkage is reduced after treatment
tent of entrained air and produces spare pore space, thereby damp- with NaOH solution. This reduction is due to the fact that the trea-
ening the internal strains caused by freeze–thaw cycles [26,71]. ted rubberised samples enhance the adhesion between CR particles
and cement paste, thereby increasing internal restraint. The low
3.3.2. Water absorption and permeability transport connection in NaOH-treated rubberised samples
The variations in water absorption of concrete with respect to decreases the loss of moisture content in CRC samples [66]. Adding
CR incorporation are provided in Table 6. Many studies have shown 0.5% polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibre to CRC reduces approximately
that the water absorption of concrete increases with the increase in 10.8% of length shrinkage compared with control samples [76].
CR particle replacement percentage [48,50]. Rubber granules of CRC specimens containing steel fibres present low drying shrink-
concrete can form effective open pores and capillaries that are age at the same CR substitution rate, as shown in Fig. 12.
easily filled with water; thus, CRC has higher water absorption val-
ues than NAC [26,68]. However, some scholars have found a grad- 3.3.4. Abrasion resistance
ual decreasing trend with the increase in the CR content, and it CRC exerts a positive effect on resistance against abrasion [53].
starts to increase gradually when the CR content exceeds a certain The abrasion resistance of HS concrete containing scrap tire rubber
value [5,72]. Specimens mixing different sizes of CR improve is shown in Fig. 13. It can be concluded from the bar chart that the
aggregate gradation, thereby increasing filling capability [66,73]. depth of abrasion decreases as the CR content increases. Other
The lower absorbency of CR aggregates relative to that of natural studies have reported similar results. As seen in Table 6, the abra-
aggregates reduces the effective area crossed by water [74]. Wang sion resistance of CRC is obvious when the CR content is between
et al. [72] observed that foam concrete presents good waterproof 30% and 50% [45]. The LP pre-treatment of CR and the addition of
property when the CR content is less than 3%. The microscopic SF to mixtures slightly improve the abrasion resistance of CRC.
1192
Table 6
Durability properties of CRC.

pattern replacement ratio
Freeze-thaw resistance 1 mm and 2 mm (granular) Fine and coarse 0.5–4% by weight Tile paving stones Change rate of weight loss: ;37–80% (2 mm size); ;33–86% Gonen [51]
aggregate (1 mm size)
0–4 mm (powder and granular) Fine aggregate 30% by volume Mortar The loss of weight and strengths decreased Pham et al. [65]
Water absorption and 0.6 mm (powder) Fine aggregate 4–5.5% by weight Concrete Water absorption: "12.57–68.06%; water penetration: "6.66– Bisht and
penetration 33.3% Ramana [50]
60% of 0.8–4 mm (granular) and 40% Fine aggregate 2.5–20% by HS concrete Water absorption: ;1.5–4.5% (2.5–7.5% CR), "-3–12.1% (10– Thomas and
powder weight 20% CR); Gupta [5]
water penetration: "0–225%

Drying shrinkage 1.44–2.83 mm (granular) Fine aggregate 15 and 25% by Mortar Length change is higher than control samples without CR Si et al. [66]
volume
Mesh 5–10 (granular), mesh 30 (powder) Fine aggregate 10–40% by HS concrete Micro-strain: "0–26.3% Elchalakani [4]
weight
Abrasion resistance 1.18–2.36 mm (granular) Fine aggregate 10–50% by Concrete tactile paving Abrasion volume (mm3): "2.3% (10% CR), ;18% (50% CR) da Silva et al.
volume blocks [45]
60% of 0.8–4 mm (granular) and 40% Fine aggregate 2.5–20% by HS concrete Depth of abrasion (mm): ;7–32.4% Thomas and
powder weight Gupta [5]
Chloride ion Length larger than 75 lm can pass #200 Cement 5–25% by volume Mortar Charge passed/Coulomb (w/c = 0.51): ;27.3–72.7% (5–20% CR), Gheni et al. [3]
penetration sieve (ash/powder) "168% (25% CR)
30 mesh (0.6 mm) (powder) Fine aggregate 5–30% by volume Concrete Chloride diffusion coefficient (1014 m2/s): ;5.23% (5% CR), Li et al. [20]
"1.63–35.08%(10–30% CR);
;35.84–9.15% (5–15% treated CR), "2.83–16.34% (20–30%
treated CR)
Acid attack 0.6 mm (powder) Fine aggregate 4–5.5% by weight Concrete Change rate of weight loss: ;62.5–74.4%, Change rate of Bisht and
strength loss: ;11.8–29.4% Ramana [36]
60% of 0.8–4 mm (granular) and 40% Fine aggregate 2.5–20% by HS concrete Weight loss: 8.22% (0% CR), 6.39% (20% CR); strength loss: Thomas et al.
powder weight 71.8% (0% CR), 31.3% (20% CR) [67]
Sulfate attack 0.075–4.75 mm (powder and granular) Fine aggregate 10–40% Controlled low Weight loss: 5.7% (0% CR), 5.3–5.5% (10–30% CR), 4.3% (40% CR) Hunag et al. [68]
strength concrete
60% of 0.8–4 mm (granular) and 40% fine aggregate 2.5–20% by Concrete 28 and 91 days: weight increased (0–20% CR), 182 days: Thomas and
powder weight weight increased (0–12.5% CR), Gupta [69]
weight decreased (15–20% CR) strength loss (w/c = 0.4): 2.35%
(0% CR), 2.43–6.5%
(2.5–20% CR); (w/c = 0.5): 4.11% (0% CR), 4.45–40.58% (2.5–20%
CR)
Carbonation depth (90- Length larger than 75 lm can pass #200 Cement 5–25% by volume Mortar w/c = 0.51: "44–200% (5–25% RFP), "44% (20% RFP); w/c = 0.56: Gheni et al. [3]
day) sieve (ash/powder) ;7.7% (5% RFP),
;38–15% (10–25% RFP)
60% of 0.8–4 mm (granular) and 40% fine aggregate 2.5–20% by Concrete w/c = 0.4: ;0–9.5% (2.5–10% CR), ;4.8% (12.5%CR), "0–19% (15– Thomas and
powder weight 20% CR); w/c = 0.5: Gupta [69]
"3.3–13.3% (2.5–20% CR)
Fig. 8. Degradation of mortar specimens at freeze–thaw test end [65].
3.3.5. Chloride ion penetration

Fig. 6. Crumb rubber surface finish [64]. Variations in the depth of chloride ion penetration for CRC by
different researchers are shown in Table 6. The results suggest an
increasing trend in the depth of chloride ion penetration when
the CR content exceeds 20%. Nonetheless, the depth also decreases
The resistance of CR particles to the abrading cutter is increased for at low CR replacement ratio (5%–20%). In Fig. 14, with the prolon-
CRC with SF, thereby reducing the CR pull-off and mass loss of gation of exposure time and the increase in the CR content, the
CRC [57]. penetration depth of chloride ion increases, and the depth
Some studies have determined that CR can decrease the abra- exposing steel fibre-reinforced rubberised concrete at wet–dry
sion resistance of concrete due to the weak bonding between CR conditions is lower than that in fully saturated conditions [39].
aggregates and cement paste. Mohammed and Adamu [28] The incorporation of CR can easily generate many microcracks in
observed that abrasion resistance decreases significantly at 20% concrete due to the heterogeneous distribution and poor ITZ
and 30% replacement levels. Bisht and Ramana [50] demon- between CR particles and cement paste [20]. This phenomenon is
strated that the depth of wear increases by 1%–18% with the also possibly due to the high volume of permeable voids and sorp-
incorporation of 4%–5.5% CR by weight. CR particles easily rise tivity [39].
to the surface during vibration, which leads to uneven distribu- Gupta et al. [31] found that the chloride diffusion coefficients of
tion and causes weak bonding. Poor ITZ reduces the mechanical rubber powder concrete (rubber powder replaced sand by 20%)
properties of CRC and affects abrasion resistance [50]. The mix- and hybrid rubber concrete (rubber powder replaced sand by
ing and vibration technology of CRC must be improved. With 10% and rubber fibres replaced remaining sand by 25%) decrease
appropriate CR content, size, water–cement ratio (w/c ratio) by 24.5% and 21.81%, respectively, relative to NAC. The reduction
and pre-treated CR, adding other ingredients can further enhance in the depth of chloride ion penetration is due to impervious
the abrasion resistance of CRC. rubber particles that hinder the passage of chloride ions [1]. The
Fig. 7. Degradation of mortar specimens at 200th freeze–thaw cycles [65].

Fig. 11. Depth of water penetration [5].
Fig. 9. 28 Freezing-thawing cycles test results [51]. compressive strength of all specimens increases at 7 days of acid
attack. This result is attributed to a small amount of hard ettringite
in the early stage, which increases concrete strength [81]. After
barrier effect of rubber fibres and the filling effect of rubber pow-
28 days, the change law and causes are similar to the changes in
der can restrain the chloride ingress in cement matrix [31]. Zhu
weight at 90 and 180 days [36].
et al. [77] mentioned that CRC has higher resistance to chloride
Gupta et al. [31] observed that the compressive strength loss of
ion erosion than NAC, especially at temperatures below 20 °C.
hybrid rubber concrete (rubber powder and fibres) is lower than
Low w/c ratio also can increase the resistance to chloride ion pen-
that of rubber powder concrete with 180 days of immersion in
etration of CRC [78].
acid. Hydrochloric acid attack is less severe than sulfuric acid
attack. Rubber fibres can act like a stable barrier, which delays
3.3.6. Acid and sulfate resistance the ingress of acid [31]. The resistance against H2SO4 of CRC con-
Concrete is a type of heterogeneous material with poor liquid taining 15% CR and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) substituting
permeability resistance [79]. It is easily destroyed under acid ero- fine natural aggregate is higher than that of NAC, given that spec-
sion because alkaline cement hydration products react with hydro- imens with PET particles retain higher integrity and density than
gen ions [80]. Table 6 shows that CRC exhibits high acid resistance those without [82]. CRC presents maximum resistance to acid
[36,67]. The durability of CRC under H2SO4 attack is studied by and sulfate attack with combined dosage of 1% recycled plastic
testing changes in weight and compressive strength, as illustrated fibre and 15% SBR [79].
in Figs. 15 and 16. Fig. 15 shows that all the concrete specimens Sulfate attack on concrete is one of the most severe problems
with and without CR present minimal and consistent changes in that affect durability, and mass loss is the evaluating indicator to
weight when submerged in 3% H2SO4 solution at 7 and 28 days. test the sulfate resistance of CRC [68,69]. Some scholars have stud-
This result may be due to few short-term chemical reactions. How- ied the water absorption and compressive strength loss change
ever, at 90 and 180 days, NAC exhibits high weight loss, which under sulfate attack [69,83]. As shown in Table 6, this property is
decreases with the increase in CR substitution rate (Fig. 15). The mainly affected by CR size, replacement ratio and w/c ratio. Tho-
newly formed compounds increase the internal pressure of con- mas and Gupta [69] noted a gradual increase in weight at 28 and
crete and produce numerous cracks that lead to rusting–spalling 91 days of sulfate attack, and the weight increases with concrete
concrete and deterioration of structures [80]. The bridge effect of containing 0%–12.5% CR and decreases with concrete containing
rubber prevents the development of cracks; hence, CRC has better 15%–20% CR at 182 days. Fig. 17 depicts that compressive strength
resistance to acid attack than NAC [1]. Fig. 16 presents that the loss increases with increasing CR content, but the effect of strength
Fig. 10. SEM images of foamed concrete specimens mixed with crumb rubber [72].
Fig. 12. Dry shrinkage for all concrete mixes [24].
from entering concrete. When the w/c ratio is 0.5 (high w/c ratio),
the depth of carbonation gradually increases with the increase in
the amount of CR. Concrete with high w/c ratios may increase pore
sizes and accelerate carbonation.
3.4. Electrical resistivity
The measurement of electrical resistivity to evaluate the quality

and durability of concrete has been increasingly welcomed by
scholars in recent years. CRC exhibits better characteristic in elec-
trical resistance than NAC, given that rubber is a non-conductive
and non-absorbent material. Table 7 shows that the incorporation
of CR particles increases the electrical resistivity of concrete. This
finding may be related to the test results of absorption and perme-
Fig. 13. Abrasion resistance [5]. able void volume. When CR particles are incorporated into con-
crete to replace fine/coarse aggregates, the pathway for pore fluid
transfer is blocked, and the interfaces and boundaries that poten-
loss on concrete containing low CR content (2.5%–5%) is minimal. tially provide transport connections are reduced [66,86]. Bulk
The analytical results from Abaqus follow the pattern of the results and surface electrical resistivity are used to measure the electrical
obtained from laboratory experiments [83]. Other studies [68] resistivity of concrete. When 5%–20% rubber–fibre powder (RFP)
have confirmed the same trends, in which concrete with high CR replaces cement by volume, the surface and bulk resistivity
replacement percentage is considerably affected by sulfate attack. increase by 23%–122% and 20%–73%, respectively, relative to
NAC. When replacing 25% of cement, the surface and bulk resistiv-
ity decrease by 51% and 48%, respectively [3]. The reduction may
3.3.7. Carbonation resistance
be attributed to excessive CR contents that cause numerous honey-
Table 6 indicates that carbonation depth decreases by 38%–15%
comb structures and increase the volume of permeable pore voids
upon adding 10%–25% of RFP to mortar specimens with a w/c ratio
[3,87].
of 0.56. By contrast, when adding 5%–25% of RFP to specimens with
In Fig. 19, concrete incorporating 15%–25% CR particles presents
a w/c ratio of 0.51, the carbonation depth increases by 44%–200%.
42.6%–47.8% higher electrical resistivity than concrete with only
This phenomenon is due to the lack of compaction as a direct result
0.5% PVA fibre. This result is due to the reduced permeability and
of the relatively low workability of specimens with a w/c ratio of
transport property in CRC samples, in addition to impermeable
0.51. For both w/c ratios, adding RFP is much better than adding
rubber effects [76]. Electrical resistivity is enhanced by NaOH
sand (Fig. 18).
treatment or cement-coated CR particles [87].
Table 6 presents that the improved pore structure of rubber
powder concrete when the w/c ratio is reduced increases carbona-
tion resistance [69]. Thomas et al. [67,69] studied the carbonation 3.5. Thermal conductivity and resistance
depth of concrete with 0%–20% CR replacing natural fine aggre-
gates. The carbonation depth of CRC with low w/c ratio (w/c ratio Incorporating CR can improve the thermal insulation of building
is 0.4) firstly decreases with the increase in the amount of CR and enclosures, which can save energy and reduce CO2 emissions [16].
then increases. The fine and CR aggregates have almost the same According to the Table 7, the thermal conductivity of CRC is
size, and these closely packed CR particles may prevent CO2 gas reduced with the increase in the CR content. Kashani et al. [74]
Fig. 14. Chloride penetration depth for all concrete mixes assessed at the end of 90 and 150 days of chloride exposure in fully-saturated and wet-dry conditions [39].
Fig. 16. Change in compressive strength [36].

Fig. 15. Change in weight [36].
found that thermal conductivity reduces by 7.5%–15% when light- [32]. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy analysis by Luhar
weight cellular concrete (LCC) contains 10%–30% weight percent- et al. [32] suggests that FA based on rubberised geopolymer concrete
age CR of total solid mass compared with LCC without CR. has excellent thermal resistance. When the temperature exceeds
Incorporating additional CR increases porosity and air entrapment 600 °C, the polymerisation of unreacted crystalline material results
in concrete and increases air pockets with low thermal conductiv- in an increase in amorphous content; hence, the compressive
ity [14,74]. This hybrid recycled concrete aggregate–rubberised strength of geopolymer concrete is gained [32].
concrete (RARC) also has extremely low thermal conductivity,
which can as a non-structural thermal insulating material [84]. 3.6. Sound absorption and insulation
Fig. 20 shows that the thermal conductivity of the RARC specimen
is reduced by 36.8% relative to that of NAC. The sound absorption and insulation property of concrete
Elevated temperature has a negative effect on concrete, espe- improve with increasing CR content [88]. Concrete containing
cially on CRC [48]. Youssf et al. [48] noticed that increasing elevated 20% CR can effectively isolate low-frequency sounds, such as rail-
temperature exposure time from 12 h to 24 h has no significant way trains that pass through tunnels at high speed, heavy trucks,
effect on the compressive strength of both NAC and CRC (Fig. 21). tractors, helicopter and transformer substation [89]. The shape of
As seen in Table 7, the compressive strength loss of concrete CR aggregates also affects the acoustic behaviour of concrete.
increases with the increase of CR content at elevated temperature, Angelin et al.[9] found that the sound velocity of incorporating
however, it reduces 7.1% and 3.0%, respectively for concrete contain- fibre rubber particles into mortars is higher than that when incor-
ing 0% CR and 10% CR at 800 °C compared to the concrete at 600 °C porating spheroid rubber particles, considering that rubber fibres
Fig. 17. Difference in compressive strength (%) at 91 day of specimens subjected to sulfate attack [69].
RFP: rubber–fibre powder
Fig. 18. Accelerated carbonation depth of mortar mixtures with (a) w/c = 0.51, and (b) w/c = 0.56 [3].
present well-developed adhesiveness at the ITZ between CR aggre- the low specific gravity of CR particles results in the low
gates and cement paste. However, sound attenuation of mortars weight of CRC, thereby reducing the slump and worsening
with rubber fibre particles is higher than that with spheroid rubber the workability of CRC. Fine CR particles produce high fric-
particles for P- and S-waves except for containing 7.5% CR regard- tional resistance to the flowing movement of fresh concrete.
ing P-waves, as shown in Table 7. Replacing natural aggregates with CR slightly decreases the
Pre-treatment of CR particles can also improve sound absorp- fresh density of concrete, and the density decreases linearly
tion. Zhang and Poon [85] indicated that the noise reduction effect with the increase in the CR amount.
increases by 36.1%–138.7% when lightweight aggregate concrete (2) The substitution of natural fine–coarse aggregates or cement
with 25%–100% cement pre-coated CR at individual frequencies with CR will reduce mechanical properties (compressive,
range from 630 Hz to 3150 Hz, as shown in Table 7. In addition, flexural and splitting tensile strength and elastic modulus).
Medina et al. [15] noticed that the sound absorption coefficient This reduction increases with increasing CR content. How-
increases clearly when 80%–100% coarse aggregates are replaced ever, the compressive and flexural strength of CRC slightly
for steel and plastic fibres partially coated with CR. Therefore, above NAC is limited to fine CR size replacing sand and opti-
CRC can be made into sound-absorbing panels, which can be mum replacement level (below 15%) of CR. Concrete con-
installed in residential areas and industrial sites where the noise taining fibre rubber aggregate presents lower strength loss
level exceeds the maximum allowable value. CRC can also be used relative to other types of CR particles. Under the same com-
to construct walls for auditorium/interior design (but not for struc- pressive strength, CRC presents better flexural toughness
tural components) [90]. than NAC.
(3) The mechanical properties of CRC can be improved by add-
ing fibres and supplementary cementing materials, such as
4. Discussions and conclusions GGBS, MK, SF and NS, and using surface modification meth-
ods to enhance adhesion between CR aggregate and cement
(1) The hydrophobic nature of CR particles increases free water paste. Steel fibres do not greatly affect compressive strength
and decreases friction during concrete mixing, which can and elastic modulus, but they can improve splitting tensile
increase concrete slump and improve workability. However, strength and flexural strength.
1198
Table 7
Other properties of CRC.

pattern replacement
ratio

Electrical Mesh #10 to #30 (granular Fine 15–25% by PVA fibre- "42.6–47.8% Wang
resistivity and powder) aggregate volume reinforced et al. [76]
rubber concrete
Length larger than 75 lm Cement 5–25% by Mortar Surface resistivity (w/c = 0.51): "23–122% (5–20% RFP), ;51% (25% RFP); bulk resistivity: "20–73% (5–20% Gheni
can pass #200 sieve (ash/ volume RFP), ;48% (25% RFP) et al. [3]
powder)
Thermal conductivity (W/mK) 0.9–2.5 mm No fine 10–30% by LCC ;7.5–15%
(granular) aggregate weight
Kashani et al. [74]
0.075– Fine aggregate 10% by RARC ;36.8% (10% CR Marie [84]
4.75 mm volume + 20% recycled
(powder concrete
and aggregate); ;20%
granular) (10% CR)
Thermal 1.18–2.36 mm (granular) Fine 10–50% by Concrete Compressive strength/MPa (25 °C): 64.4 (0% CR), 40.0 (20% CR), 21.6 (50% CR); (100 °C–12 h): 56.7 (0% CR), Youssf
resistance aggregate volume 31.4 (20% CR), 7.4 (50% CR); (100 °C–24 h): 53.2 (0% CR), 31.7 (20% CR), 8.7 (50% CR) et al. [48]
2–4 mm wide and up to Fine 10% by Concrete Compressive strength/MPa (NAC): 54 (room temp), 27.47 (600 °C), 29.58 (800 °C); (CRC): 47.33 (room Luhar
22 mm long (fibre) aggregate weight temp), 21.85 (600 °C), 22.52 (800 °C) et al. [32]
Sound #0.6 mm (spheroid) and Fine 7.5–30% by Mortar Sound velocity (m/s) (P-wave): ;9.29–28.33% (spheroid), ;6.18–24.72% (fibre); (S-wave) ;6.55–23.90% Angelin
absorption #1.2 mm (fibre) aggregate volume (spheroid), ;5.25–24.08% (fibre) Attenuation coefficient (dB/mm) (P-wave): "12.29–22.36% (spheroid), et al. [9]
and "6.17% (7.5% fibre) and "29.70–25.71% (15–30% fibre); (S-wave): "4.25% (7.5% spheroid) and "18.28–16.81%
insulation (15–30% spheroid), "16.47 (7.5% fibre) and "42.54–41.62% (15–30% fibre)
1.18 mm and 5 mm Fine 25–100% by Lightweight Noise reduction effect at 630 Hz–3150 Hz: "35.5% (25% CR), "20.6–109.7% (50–100% CR); "36.1–138.7% Zhang
(granular) aggregate volume aggregate (25–100% cement coating CR) and Poon
concrete [85]
(5) CRC presents higher water absorption values and permeabil-

ity than NAC, and both increase with the increase in the CR
content. The low absorbency of CR particles and mixing dif-
ferent CR particle sizes can reduce the water absorption of
concrete in case of minimal amounts of CR replacement
level.
(6) The low stiffness and good flexibility of CR aggregates
increase the drying shrinkage of concrete. The drying shrink-
age increases with the partial replacement of cement with
FA in CRC. By contrast, the addition of NS, fibre and NaOH-
treated CR decreases the drying shrinkage.
(7) CR aggregates incorporated into concrete produce a positive
effect on the resistance against abrasion. The depth of abra-
sion decreases as the CR content increases. By contrast, the
uneven distribution of CR aggregates can decrease the abra-
CO: plain concrete specimens; FCO: specimens with only 0.5% PVA-fibre; FR-15: 15% CR
sion resistance of concrete.
+0.5% PVA-fibre; FR-20: 20% CR +0.5% PVA-fibre; FR-25: 25% CR +0.5% PVA-fibre.
(8) CRC has higher resistance to chloride ion penetration than
Fig. 19. Test results of electrical resistivity [76]. NAC, especially at temperatures below 20 °C. The depth of
chloride ion penetration of CRC decreases with low CR con-
tent (up to 27.3% of reduction for CR content of 5%). Hybrid
rubber concrete (mixing rubber powder and fibres) presents
high resistance to chloride penetration. The use of low w/c
ratio in CRC facilitates high resistance to chloride
penetration.
(9) CRC shows better resistance to sulfuric and sulfate attack
than NAC, and the losses in weight and compressive strength
of CRC are less than those of NAC in acid and sulfate environ-
ments. Hydrochloric acid attack is less severe than sulfuric
acid attack in CRC. Concrete with 5% waste tire rubber pow-
der presents the best anti-sulfate corrosion, but concrete
with high CR replacement level is more sensitive to sulfate
aggression.
(10) Carbonation depth increases with the increase in CO2 expo-
sure duration for all selected w/c ratios and any CR replace-
ment level. For the same w/c ratios, adding CR is much better
than adding sand to improve carbonation resistance.
RCA: recycled concrete aggregate; RA: crumb rubber aggregate
(11) CRC exhibits better electrical resistivity than NAC, given that
Fig. 20. Thermal conductivity of some materials compared to that of mixtures with rubber is a non-conductive and non-absorbent material.
RCA, RA and RARC mixes [84]. Electrical resistivity of concrete increases with increasing
CR content, but too much added CR aggregate can reduce
the electrical resistivity. Electrical resistivity of concrete is
enhanced by adding PVA fibre, surface treatment or
cement-coated CR particles.
(12) Concrete incorporating CR can improve the thermal insula-
tion of building enclosures, which can save energy and
reduce CO2 emissions. However, CRC is unsuitable for
high-temperature applications. Elevated temperature expo-
sure time has little significant effect on the compressive
strength of CRC. The sound absorption and insulation prop-
erty of concrete improve with increasing CR aggregate
content.
5. Scope for further research
(1) Production of CRC should be further developed to prevent

low-density rubber particles from rising to concrete surface.
(2) Relationship among various properties of CRC, such as com-
Fig. 21. Effect of rubber content on concrete compressive strength at elevated
pressive, flexural and splitting tensile strengths, should be
temperature of 100 °C [48].
determined.
(3) Long-term behaviour of CRC with respect to durability and
(4) Concrete incorporating a moderate amount of CR aggregates mechanical properties should be further explored.
presents high freeze–thaw resistance capacity, and the resis- (4) Weak bonding in ITZ between rubber aggregates and cement
tance to freeze–thaw damage increases with increasing CR paste should be improved and the strengths of CRC should
content. The mass and compressive losses of CRC are less be increased. Enhancement methods may include a combi-
than those of NAC during freeze–thaw cycles. nation of physical and chemical treatments.
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Potential Use of Waste Tire Rubber As Aggregate in Cement Concrete A Comprehensive Review

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Construction and Building Materials 225 (2019) 1183–1201

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

Potential use of waste tire rubber as aggregate in cement concrete – A

3.1.2. Fresh density. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1185

Name Rubber size Replaced material Reference

Properties Rubber size/type Replacement Rubber Concrete type Results Reference

Y. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 225 (2019) 1183–1201

Fig. 3. FESEM images for CRC mixtures [28].

morphology of foam concrete with CR is shown in Fig. 10. The

Properties Rubber size/type Replacement Rubber Concrete type Results Reference

Y. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 225 (2019) 1183–1201

Fig. 8. Degradation of mortar specimens at freeze–thaw test end [65].

3.3.5. Chloride ion penetration

Fig. 7. Degradation of mortar specimens at 200th freeze–thaw cycles [65].

Fig. 11. Depth of water penetration [5].

Fig. 12. Dry shrinkage for all concrete mixes [24].

3.4. Electrical resistivity

The measurement of electrical resistivity to evaluate the quality

Fig. 16. Change in compressive strength [36].

RFP: rubber–fibre powder

Properties Rubber size/type Replacement Rubber Concrete type Results Reference

Y. Li et al. / Construction and Building Materials 225 (2019) 1183–1201

(5) CRC presents higher water absorption values and permeabil-

5. Scope for further research

(1) Production of CRC should be further developed to prevent

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