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Ancient History:
Pre – History
Indus Valley
Civilisation
Vedic Period
PEP – 2020
HISTORY LECTURE 1
ATYAB ALI ZAIDI
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Ancient Timeline
 Stone Ages: 5 lakh - 1000 BC
 Indus Valley Civilisation: 2500 - 1750 BC
 Vedic culture: 1500 - 600 BC
 Jainism and Buddhism: 6th – 5th C BC
 Mahajanapadas before Mauryas: 6th – 4th BC
 Mauryan: 4th – 2nd C BC
 Post Mauryan History: 2nd – 3rd C AD
 Gupta Period: 4th – 6th AD
 Harshvardhan: 7th C AD
 Sangam Literature
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Modern Histography:
 Histography is the writing of History or the
study of the written Histories. Several type
of interpretations of the History were
written:
 Official History: It portrayed ancient Indian history in
bad light. The main reason was to create a mental
impression that British culture and civilization is much
superior and it has the natural right to rule India.
According to them, Indian history was dark history,
backward, superstitious, idol worshippers, snake
charmers, uncivilized, Indians didn’t know how to
rule themselves, were always ruled by the outsiders,
women was always suppressed etc.
 Independent European Writers: They wrote Indian
history with curiosity and appreciated the rich and
colourful culture.
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 Indian Scholars: They started writing in the latter

half of the 19th century. Secular Nationalists
glorified the ancient History and praised the
Indian culture. They wanted Indians to be proud
of their cultural richness and not to feel inferior.
Communal Nationalists over glorified the history,
hiding even the shortcomings.
 Marxist Historians: They wrote history as class
struggles in different phases-
 Ancient period – Masters Vs Slaves
 Medieval period – feudal lords Vs peasants
 Modern period – capitalists Vs workers
 Subaltern Writers: They did not write history
focusing on kings and kingdoms, but their focus
was peasants, workers, artisans, regional
kingdoms and smaller areas.
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 Archaeological Sources:
 Ruins of the buildings and cities: It is studied through excavations.
 Excavations can be horizontal and vertical.
 Horizontal excavation: It shows the proper areal extent of a
civilization in a particular time.
 Vertical Excavation: It is helpful in showing different timelines.
 Note: Vertical excavation is more prevalent in India because it is
less costly. Also since most of the land is in private hands people
don’t allow the digging.
 Potteries: They tell about the local culture and technique.
 Graveyard/ Burial Grounds: It tells about the faith of
contemporary civilization.
 Coins/Seals: Extent of empire, trade pattern and trade relations,
symbols and language, prosperity and economy.
 Buildings: It tells about the living standard and culture. It also tells
about science and tech and archaeological expertise of
people.
 Tools and weapons: these again tell about the economy and
wars. Also the extent of those wars.
 Fossils
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 Literary Sources:
 Based on Literary sources, history is divided into
three phases:
 Pre-history – a period for which no written records
are available. Eg. Stone age.
 Proto-history – a period for which written records
are available but they have not yet deciphered.
Eg. Indus valley Civilisation.
 History – a period for which not only written
records are available but such texts have been
deciphered as well. This age starts from 6th C BC
onwards.
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 Stone Age
 In the context of Indian sub continent, Stone age is
divided into following ages:
 Paleolithic Age: 5lakh – 10,000 BC
 Mesolithic Age: 10000 BC – 4000 BC
 Neolithic Age: 7000 – 1000 BC
 Chalcolithic Age (Copper age): 2500 – 750 BC
 (NOTE: the time line of these ages is overlapping
because the ages started at different places at
different times.)
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Paleolithic Age:
Sites:
 Sohan Valley/ Soan Valley – Punjab (Pakistan)
 Narmada Valley
 Krishna Valley
 Chotanagpur plateau
 Bori Valley in Maharashtra has the earliest evidence of human
existence in Indian Sub-continent.

Tools:
 Hand Axes
 Borers
 Chops
 Pebbles
 Flakes
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Life Style:
 Food Habits: People were hunters and gatherers.
They were omnivorous i.e. both vegetarian and
non-vegetarian.
 Clothing: Used to wear leaves and hides of
animals.
 Housing: Caves – hence preferred hilly areas as
they provided security and natural caves;
thatched huts (The information is gained by
Bimbetka cave paintings.)
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Mesolithic Age: (10,000 – 4000 BC)

Sites:
 Adamgarh – Madhya Pradesh
 Bagore – Rajasthan
 Bhimbetka – Madhya Pradesh
Tools:
 Blades which were sharp on both edges
 Crescent
 Arrow
 (Note: the size of the tools became smaller. They
required more skill and precision to make.)
Life Style:
 Life style was similar to Paleolithic man except one
major change – domestication of animals started.
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Neolithic Age: (7000 – 1000 BC)

Sites:
 Chirand – Bihar (Only bone tools were found)
 Burzahom and Guftral – Kashmir
 Bhimbetka – M.P.
 Belan Valley – UP
 Mehrgarh – Balochistan (First agricultural evidence is found)
 Maski and Brahmagiri – Karnataka (Both Neolithic and
chalcolithic tools are found)
Tools:
 Antelope horns – Kashmir
 Oval shaped – Southern India
 Polished Stone – Bihar
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Life Style:
 Man became a food producer. First evidence of
agriculture is found at Mehrgarh (Wheat and
Barley; 7000 – 6000 BC), Belan Valley (Rice; 6000
BC)
 Clothing: Animal skin, leaves, bark.
 Housing: Thatched houses made of mud were
made.
 People started living in bigger groups because of
agriculture. Pottery making started with the help
of a wheel.
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Chalcolithic Age (2500 – 700 BC)

Sites:
 Ahar Culture ( Ahar, Gilund in Rajasthan)
 Jorwe Culture ( Inamgaon, Daimabad in Maharashtra)
 Malwa Culture ( Navdatoli, Eran, Kayatha in Madhya
Pradesh)
Tools:
 Largely made of stone and copper
 Hand Axes, sickles , borers made of copper
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Life Style:
 A developed village life started.
 Food: A variety of crops were grown – wheat, barley,
rice, pulses, oil seeds, dates, pea and water melon.
 Domestication of Animals: Cattle and pigs were
domesticated.
 Clothing: Cotton was used in later period.
 Pottery: Ochre Coloured Pottery and Black and Red
Pottery was used. (OCP And BRP)
 Burials: they buried the dead bodies with the personal
belongings of the person. This shows that they must have
believed in life after death. In western India, bodies were
buried in North – South Direction and in Southern India,
they were buried in East – West Direction.
 Housing: Mud and Mud brick houses were found.
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Indus Valley Civilisation ( 2500 – 1750

BC)
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Indus Valley Civilisation ( 2500 – 1750 BC)

Discovery:
Till 19th century, the Indus Valley Civilisation was unknown and it
was believed that Vedic people were the oldest inhabitants
of India.
 In 1850, during the construction work of railways, some
artifacts were found which were very old. It was an exciting
discovery and an excavation was planned. But later, due to
WW-I the excavation as planned had to be postponed.
 In 1921, Harappa was excavated under the leadership of Sir
John Marshal and D. R. Sahni. Harappa is situated on the
bank of River Ravi in Punjab (Pakistan).
 In 1922, Mohenjodaro was excavated in Larkana district of
Sindh (Pakistan) under the supervision of R. D. Bannerjee.
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Important Sites – Findings – Interpretations

Mohenjodaro: Largest site to be excavated/ on river

Indus
Important findings:
 Great Bath: A great Bath i.e. a large bath tub was found in
the city. Its dimensions are 11.88*7.01*2.43 m. it is completely
made up of burnt bricks of standard size. It is believed that it
might have been used for some ritual or holy bath.
 Great Granary: A large granary is found, showing surplus
food production. It also shows that there was a proper civic
administration, storage facilities, and trade and commerce.
 Dancing Girl: A bronze statue of Dancing girl was found.
Apart from wearing necklace and bangles, it is naked. It
shows that dance was practiced. It also shows the artistic
and metallurgical capability of the civilization.
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Largest Number of Seals:

 Seals were made of steatite (hard clay) and were probably used as
currency (although barter system prevailed) or as mark of authority for
trade.
 Round, Square or Cylindrical shape
 The Harappan script, gods and animals are also depicted on seals giving
detailed information about their practices, beliefs and life in general.
Script: It is a pictographic script. It was written from right to left in one line
and then left to right in other and so on. This type of script is called
‘Boustrophedon’. It has not been deciphered so far but around 400
unique symbols have been identified.
Assembly Hall: A large assembly hall was found at the citadel.
Pashupati Seal: A seal depicting a human image, or Proto Shiva (Pashupati)
was found. The image is surrounded by tiger, elephant, Rhino and a
buffalo. It has two deer at his feet.
Cotton: Evidence of Cotton fabric was found in fossilized form.
Large Building: A large building (probably a palace or the Governor’s house)
has been excavated at the citadel. However, it is not clear whether the
Harappan people were governed by a king or a committee of citizens.
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Harappa: (River Ravi)

Important Findings:
 12 granaries, kept in two rows. (6 in each row)
 To the South of the Granaries lay working floors
consisting of rows of circular brick platforms. These
were meant for Thrashing grains as wheat and Barley
was found in the crevices of the floor. Two roomed
barraks were also found which probably
accommodated the labourers.
Different types of Burial Practices were performed:
 Direct Burial i.e. body was directly buried in the ground
 Urn Burial i.e. Body was first cremated and then the
ashes were buried in the urn
 Coffin Burial
 Second largest number of seals were found from
Harappa after Mohenjodaro.
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Kalibangan : River Ghaggar (Rajasthan)

Important Findings:
 Pre-Harappan and Harappan culture
 Evidence of ploughed land is found. Wooden
ploughs were used, hence the ploughs have not
survived.
 Evidence of Fire Altars
 Citadel is made of mud bricks. In all other sides,
the citadel has been made of Burnt bricks.
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Lothal: River Bhogwa

Important Findings:
 Dockyard (made of burnt bricks) was used for
shipping.
 Persian seals have been found showing the
evidence of Trade.
 Evidence of Rice Husk (This is the only place in IVC
where evidence of rice is found.)
 Evidence of double burial i.e. in one grave- MF
(most common), MM, and FF. The reason why this
was done is unknown.
 Evidence of fire Altars
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Chanhu Daro: River Indus (Sindh)

 It is believed that it was the industrial town of the
IVC.
 Factories of bangles and beads have been
found.
Dholavira:
 The citadel of Dholavira is built of stone and is a
monumental work and most impressive among
the Harappan citadels discovered so far.
 It has a similar bath like Mohenjodaro, but smaller
in size.
Other important sites of Indus Valley Civilisation are:
 Ropar, Kot diji, Alamgir pur, Sokhtagindor etc.
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Life Style:
Food: Both animal husbandry and farming was practiced.
 Wheat and Barley were the most important crops.
Other crops that were grown were – Rai, peas, seas
mum, mustard and rice (found only at Lothal.)
 Wooden ploughs were used.

Industrial Crafts:
Potteries: Red, black and plain pottery was made. The
background of the pottery used to be red and black
colour was used to make the figures over it. Some of
the specimens can be seen in the following figure.
Terracotta figurines: Terracotta(baked clay) figurines of
animals and humans have been discovered. Toys for
children have also been found.
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 Metallic Objects: IVC is also called bronze age

because of the use of Bronze. Bronze is an alloy of
Copper and tin. Other metals that were used were –
Silver, Gold and lead. Harappans were the first to use
silver.
 Mostly weapons, tools and jewelry items were made
of metal. Harappan people are believed to be peace
loving because of the negligible amount of weapons
found.
 Iron was not known to the Harappan people. It was
only known after 1000 BC.
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 Seals and Sealings:

 As mentioned earlier, the seals are believed to have
been used as currency or as a mark of authority. IVC
seals have been found in Mesopotamia showing
close trade relations between the two civilizations.
The seals have a motif of an animal and something
written over it in pictographic script. More than 400
unique symbols have been identified so far but the
language hasn’t been deciphered yet.
 These seals are helpful in understanding the
biodiversity of the place as well by the different kind
of animals made on them.
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Religion:
 Terracotta figurines of ‘Mother
Goddess’ have been discovered,
showing the faith of people in
fertility.
 A figure of bearded priest is also
found.
 Fire altars are found but there is no
evidence of a temple like structure.
 Pashupati or Proto – Shiva figure is
found on one of the seal.
 Large number of emulets are found.
Perhaps they believed in ghosts.
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 Town Planning:
 Town planning is the most remarkable feature of the
Harappan cities. They were all designed in a grid
pattern or chess board pattern. Modern cities are
being built on this pattern. Eg. Chandigarh, Brasilia
etc.
 Most of the towns are divided into two parts:
 Citadel or the upper part: it was fortified by burnt
bricks. The exception to this are Kalibangan ( mud
bricks) and Chanhudaro ( No citadel). Probably
houses of important people and government
offices were built on it.
 Lower Part: It was meant for common people.
 Houses were made of burnt bricks (used first time in
history by IVC people. Before that only mud bricks
were used.). Many houses have 2 stories showing
economic differentiation.
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 The doors and ventilators are opened on the

opposite side of the road. It is believed that people
were conscious about privacy.
 Streets were made straight and perpendicular to
each other. It helped people to reach their
destination easily as in modern cities. It also helped
in self cleaning of the roads by winds.
 Drainage is a unique feature of IVC. It was fully
covered and ran throughout the city. Drainage
had regular covered manholes for cleaning and
there were pits on the roadside to dump the waste,
giving a clean look to the city.
 Ancient name of IVC was ‘MELUHA’ as written in
Mesopotamian records.
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Extent of IVC
 Suktagendor – Balochistan (western most point)
 Alamgirpur, near Merut – U.P. (Eastern most point)
 Mandi – Jammu and Kashmir (Northern most point)
 Daimabad – Maharashtra (Southern Most point)
Decline:
 The complete civilization suddenly declined and
disappeared around 1700 BC.
 Spread of an epidemic: An epidemic can be a cause of
large number of deaths. But an epidemic covering such a
vast area is unlikely.
 Migration due to natural calamity: Natural calamity like
flood is also attributed to the decline of IVC. However,
even if there was such a calamity, then also the complete
civilization would not have migrated.
 Attack of the Aryans: Early Aryans were nomads and had
weapon superiority. But historically there is a gap of 200
years between the decline of IVC and advent of Aryans.
Also there are no signs of any struggle or war.
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Vedic Civilisation

Vedic period is broadly divided into

 Early Vedic (1500 – 1000 BC)
 Later Vedic (1000 – 600 BC)

Rig Veda is the most important source to know

about the early Vedic Period and early Aryans. It
is considered the purest form of Hindu Literature.
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Facts about Rig – Veda:

 The term ‘Veda’ is derived from ‘Vid’ which means

‘to know’.
 Oldest book of any kind in India.
 It was composed during 1500 – 1000 BC in the Punjab
region. As a book it was compiled much later.
 Since Aryans didn’t know how to write, it was
preserved for centuries using an oral tradition.
 In Rig Veda, there are 10 Mandals (chapters), 1028
Suktas (Hymns) and 10465 Shlokas (verses)
 The Mandals from 2nd to 8th are older. While 1st and
10th mandals are the latest. The term ‘Shudra’, is
mentioned for the first time in the 10th mandal.
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 The book is written in Vedic Sanskrit. It is the earliest

form of Sanskrit, perhaps without Grammar.
 Gods and Goddesses are praised in the book. Modern
Hindus believe that it is a revealed book.
 Aryans: the word ‘Aryan’ literally means pure or noble.
The name was given to the linguistic group and not a
race. It is believed that they originally came from
Eurasia (Central Asia) and settled in Punjab region.
Hence rives Indus has been mentioned several times in
Rig veda.
 Indus was the most important river for them. Also, river
Saraswati has been praised the most. It is referred as
Naditama (mother river).
 They were aware of Himalayas but not of Deserts and
Seas. In Rig Veda, the word ‘Samudra’ meant a
collection of water.
 In Since early Aryans did not come far East or South,
They were not aware of Narmada. Ganga is
mentioned only once, since it was not socially
important, it was not a holy river then. Yamuna, since it
was close to Punjab has been mentioned thrice.
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Occupation of Rig Vedic Society:

 Early Aryans were pastoral nomads. Domestication
of Animals was the most important activity.
 They knew farming, but it was not very developed.
Only one crop is mentioned in Rig Veda, Yava i.e.
Barley.
 Gau (Cow) is mentioned several times showing the
importance of Cow and cattle. Cow was the most
important property. The wars were not fought for
land but for cattle.
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 Some important terms mentioned in Rig Veda related

to cow:
 Gavisti: Search/conflict for the cow.
 Godhuli: Evening time when cows used to return to
their shed – measurement of time.
 Dudhitra: Milker of the cow.
 Gavyanti: Distance travelled by cow in a day –
measurement of distance.
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 Political Organisation:
 Early Aryans were grouped into tribes based on the
cattle. Collectively the tribe was called Jana. And the
leader of it was called a ‘Rajana’.


Territory Leader

Jana Rajana

Vis Vispati
Gram (War between grams Gramni
was called Sangram)
Kul Kulpati

 The post of the Rajana was not hereditary and Gramanis

played a major role in making him a Rajan.
 The Rajana was assisted by ‘Senapati’ ( the head of the
army) and ‘Purohit’ (The chief advisor of the king).
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The Rajana was also assisted by some Tribal

Assemblies –
 Vidhati – Oldest assembly, Both men and women
were a part of it.
 Sabha – An assembly of Brahmans, both men and
women
 Samiti – Assembly of Villagers, Only men.

The rajan collected ‘gifts’ known as ‘Bali’ from his

people. These were voluntary and were a
precursor of the taxes. There was no separate
office for tax collection or administration of justice.
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Religion and Faith:

 They believed in One God as evident from Rig Veda –
Eva Eka Dvitya ( He is one and not two)
 Also they believed in a formless God – Na Pratima Asti (
He has no image).
 Overall 33 other Gods and Godesses are mentioned in
Rig Veda.
 None of these Gods have been mentioned as supreme
to each other. However, Indira has been mentioned
most number of times in Rig Veda followed by Agni
and Varuna.
 There is no sign of a temple like structure but a ritual
called ‘Yajna’ is mentioned where sacrifices were
made near the fire altars.
 Sixteen priestly classes are mentioned in Rig Veda.
Brahmans, Hotras, Udgatras etc. In later Vedic period,
as the number of Yajnas and sacrifices increased, the
other 15 classes were sidelined and Brahmans
dominated as only a Brahman could supervise a Yajna.
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Some important Yajnas are:

 Raj Suya Yajna: It was held during coronation of a king
and to commemorate the coronation every year.
 Ashwamedha Yajna: It was done to show the strength
of the king. A horse was taken to mark the king’s
territory. Any other king either surrendered and let the
horse go or blocked the way of the horse and fought
with the king doing Ashwamedha Yajna.
 Once the horse completes its successful journey, the
horse was sacrificed and then the Chief queen had to
lie with the horse for one day.
 Vajpayee Yajna: It was done to gain Strength (Divine
Power) for the king. A chariot race used to take place
where the royal chariot was made to win against his
kinsmen.
 In Each yajna, hundreds of cattle were sacrificed.
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Name Power

Indra Rain + Destroyer of Forts. Weapon –

Thunder bolt.
Agni God of fire. An intermediary between
man and supreme one God.
Varuna God of water/Cosmos and God of Rita
(moral Order)
Soma God of Plants – An intoxicating drink
named after him.
Prithvi Goddess of Earth

Usha Godess of morning/Dawn

Aditi Mother Goddess

Vishnu Sun God

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Society:
 It was an egalitarian society as the concept of any private
property was limited.
 The concept of Varna System is mentioned only in the 10 th
Mandal, showing that it originated in later part of Rig Vedic
Society. More importantly, the Varna system was occupation
based and not hereditary.
 Initially the society was divided into two major parts – Aryans
and non- Aryans. Mentioned as ‘Sur’ and ‘Asur’ or ‘Arya’
Varna and ‘Das’ Varna. Aryans are defined as white skinned,
tall and righteous. And Asur have been defined as Dark and
Evil (Probably the indigenous people).
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Position of Women:
 The position of women, relatively, was much better
in this period than the later periods.
 She had political rights in the form of Vidhati and
Sabha.
 They were allowed to read the Vedic hymns. Many
female seers have also composed the Rig Vedic
Hymns like Lopamudra, Sukanya, Apala etc.
 There is no evidence of Sati or child marriage. Also
there are evidences of widow remarriage.
 Niyoga – In the absence of a child, a widow was
allowed to live with her brother in law.
 Polygamy was practiced. There is evidence of both
polygyny ( A man having multiple wives ) and
polyandry ( A women having multiple husbands)
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Later Vedic Period (1000 – 600 BC)

Source to understand Later Vedic Period:
 Archeological
 Literary

 Archaeological Sources:
 Sites:
 Atranjikheda
 Hastinapur All found in Western UP
 Ahichatra
 Noh/Nuh – Haryana
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 Pottery – Painted Gray ware (PGW) are found at

almost all sites in Western UP.

 Grains – Barley, Wheat and Rice evidences are found.

Rice (vrihi) suddenly gained a lot of importance.
 Tools: At around 1000 BC, the discovery of a new
metal, revolutionalised the complete Vedic Society
and enabled them to lead a settled life. This new
metal was IRON. Now, weapons and agricultural tools
were made of IRON which was much stronger than
copper.
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Literary Sources:
Since the Vedic Society has expanded, it reached upper
Gangetic basin from Indus Valley. All the later Vedic texts
were composed in Upper Gangatic Basin only.
 Yajurveda:
 This was the second Veda to be composed after the Rig
Veda. It consists of rituals of sacrifices and yajna.
 It is broadly divided into two parts – ‘Sweta’ Yajurveda and
‘Shyam’ Yajurveda.
 Shweta Yajurveda is in Poetic form while Shyama Yajurveda
is in prose form.
 (Note: Rig Veda was composed completely in poetic form.)
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Samaveda:
 Samveda consists of musical hymns which could be
sung. Most of the hymns were taken from Rig Veda
itself.
 Samveda can also be considered as the oldest text
on music.

Atharva Veda:
 Atharvaveda is folk literature.
 It consists of charms, spells and magic to ward of evil
spirits and diseases.
 Ayurveda is also mentioned in Atharvaveda.
 Note: the previous three Vedas were written by
Aryans while Atharvaveda is written by non – Aryans.
So its contents also throw a light on the beliefs and
practices of non – Aryans.
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Brahmanas:
 Brahmanas are the commentary on Vedas. They
explain the complex verses of the Vedas. They are the
first complete literature in prose.
 The most famous Brahmana is the ‘Shatpat’ Brahmana
of the Yajurveda.
Aranyakas (jungle book/hermit book) were originally the
part of the Brahmans but later considered as a
separate part.
Upanishads: The literal meaning of ‘Upanishad’ is to sit
down near someone.
 Originally there were 108 books. It is historically
believed that they came out as a result of the
increasing grip of Brahmans on the society. They
discuss about the importance of rituals and sacrifices.
They deal with metaphysics i.e. relation between man
and God.
Some famous Upanishads:
 Brihadranayaka Upanishad (The oldest), Chandokya,
Jabala , Katha, Ken, Isa etc.
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 Brahmanas are regarded as the basis of the Hindu

philosophy along with the Rigveda. In Upanishads
Brahma(the creator) is the most important God.
 Note: ‘Sirr – I – Akbar’ is the collection of translation
of 50 upanishads done by ‘Dara Shikoh’, the eldest
son of Shah Jehan.
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Occupation:
 Initially it remained domestication of animals. Later
on with increased use of iron, farming became
common.
 Many crops were grown and ploughing was done
with the help of animals. Later Vedic text speak of
6/8/12 and even 24 oxen yoked to a plough.
Shatpath Brahmana talks about the ploughing
ritual.
 Animals were still important and capital punishment
was given for theft of animals.
 Use of rice increased. It is also recommended in
vedic rituals.
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Political Organisation:
 With the settlement of people, territorial
demarcations started. Territorial kingdoms called
Janapadas emerged. Jana – Tribe, Janapada –
Territory.
 War and conflicts for territory started.
 Rajan became more important now and use of
iron weapons made the wars more fierce. Rulers of
Magadha and Avanti had access to Iron, hence
they emerged as powerful nations.
 Tribal Assembly became weak. Vidhata
disappeared, Sabha and Samiti continued but lost
their previous power. Also, now they were open
only to males.
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Religion:
 The religious practices were similar to Early vedic
period with certain changes like:
 Agni and Indra lost their importance. Vishnu, Brahma
and Rudra became more famous.
 Rudra was the destroyer, which went to become
Lord Shiva in post Vedic times.
 Till this time, the trinity of Brahma, Vishnu and Mahesh
was not established.
 The rituals, rites, yajnas and sacrifices increased
manifold. As many as 16 Sanskars or rituals are
mentioned in the later Vedic Literature to be
followed from conception to cremation of every
individual.
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Some rituals:
 Garbhadharan (today known as godbharai :P ) – To
conceive a male baby after three months and to
save death during child births.
 Naamkaran – the naming of the child.
 Upanayana: One of the most famous ceremonies.
At the time of joining a school, a student had to
take a sacred thread. This was applicable only for
male of upper three Varnas – known as the Dwija
(Twice born) castes.
 Last Sanskar or the antim sanskar is the Anteshthi,
done after the death.
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Society:
 Society got stratified on the basis of caste.
 Brahmans and Kshatriyas became too powerful and
start legitimizing the role of each other.
According to Purushashutra all castes were born from
Brahma-
 Brahmans from the mouth
 Kshatriyas from the arms
 Vaishyas from the thighs
 And Shudras from the feet
 Position of women started deteriorating – she lost
political rights i.e. removed from Sabha.
 She was condemned in later vedic period literature –
three evils: Women, wine and gambling.
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The Aitareya Brahmana, a text of later Vedic period

defines the roles of different castes like:
 Brahmans – Seeker of livelihood, acceptor of gifts,
can be removed by the Prince.
 Vaishya – Meant to be beaten, tribute paying,
oppressed at will.
 Shudra – Servant of others, to be made to work at
will, to be beaten at will.
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