Chapter 1

Prehistoric period
 Prehistory: The time period in the past when there was no paper or the written word
and hence no books or written accounts of events. Information about such an age is
obtained from excavations which reveal paintings, pottery, habitat, etc.
 Drawings and paintings were the oldest form of artistic expression practised by
humans. Reasons for such drawings: Either to decorate their homes or/and to keep a
journal of events in their lives.
 Lower and Middle Palaeolithic Periods have not shown any evidence of artworks so
far. The Upper Palaeolithic Age shows a lot of artistic activities.
 Earliest paintings in India are from the Upper Palaeolithic Age.
 The first discovery of rock paintings in the world was made in India by archaeologist
Archibald Carlleyle in 1867 – 68 (in Sohagighat, Mirzapur District, Uttar Pradesh).
 Rock paintings have been found in the walls of caves at Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Karnataka, some in the Kumaon Hills of
Uttarakhand.
 Paintings at the rock shelters at Lakhudiyar on the banks of the Suyal River
(Uttarakhand) –

1. 3 categories of paintings: man, animal and geometric patterns in black, white and red
ochre.
2. Humans in stick-like forms, a long-snouted animal, a fox, a multiple-legged lizard,
wavy lines, groups of dots and rectangle-filled geometric designs, hand-linked
dancing humans.

 Paintings in Kupgallu (Telangana), Piklihal and Tekkalkota (both in Karnataka)

1. Mostly in white and red ochre.

2. Subjects are bulls, sambhars, elephants, sheep, gazelles, goats, horses, stylised
humans and tridents.

 Paintings in the Vindhya ranges at Madhya Pradesh extending into Uttar Pradesh –

1. About 500 rock shelters at Bhimbetka in the Vindhya Hills at Madhya Pradesh.
2. Images of hunting, dancing, music, elephant and horse riders, honey collection,
animal fighting, decoration of bodies, household scenes, etc.
3. Bhimbetka drawings can be categorised into 7 Periods.
a. Period I: Upper Palaeolithic
b. Period II: Mesolithic
c. Period III: Chalcolithic

 Two major sites of prehistoric rock/cave paintings in India: Bhimbetka Caves and
Jogimara Caves (Amarnath, Madhya Pradesh)

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Bhimbetka Paintings
 Continuous occupation of these caves from 100000 BC to 1000 AD.
 Discovered by archaeologist V S Wakankar in 1957 – 58.
 One of the oldest paintings in India and the world.

 Period I (Upper Palaeolithic)

1. Linear representations of animals like bison, tigers, elephants, rhinos and boars;
stick-like human figures.
2. Paintings in green and dark red. Green paintings are of dancers and red ones are of
hunters

 Period II (Mesolithic)

1. The largest number of paintings in this period.

2. More themes but paintings reduce in size.
3. Mostly hunting scenes – people hunting in groups with barbed spears, arrows and
bows, and pointed sticks. Also, show traps and snares to catch animals.
4. Hunters wear simple clothes; some men are shown with headdresses and masks.
Women have been shown both clothed and in the nude.
5. Animals seen – elephants, bisons, bears, tigers, deer, antelopes, leopards, panthers,
rhinos, frogs, lizards, fish, squirrels and birds.
6. Children are seen playing and jumping. Some scenes depict family life.

 Period III (Chalcolithic)

1. Paintings indicate an association of these cave-dwellers with the agricultural

communities settled at Malwa.
2. Cross-hatched squares, lattices, pottery and metal tools are depicted.
3. Colours used in Bhimbetka paintings – white, yellow, orange, red ochre, purple,
brown, green and black. Most common colours – white and red.
4. Red obtained from haematite (geru); green from chalcedony; white probably from
limestone.
5. Brushes were made from plant fibre.
6. In some places, there are many layers of paintings, sometimes 20.
7. Paintings can be seen in caves that were used as dwelling places and also in caves
that had some other purpose, perhaps religious.
8. The colours of the paintings have remained intact thousands of years perhaps due to
the chemical reaction of the oxide present on the rock surface.

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Chapter 2
Introduction
 Indus Valley art emerged during the second half of the third millennium BCE (i.e. from
2500 BC onwards).
 Forms of art: seals, pottery, sculpture, gold jewellery, terracotta figures, etc.
 The two major sites of this civilisation, Harappa and Mohenjodaro showcase excellent
town planning as well, like houses, planned streets, public baths, drainage systems,
storage facilities, etc.
 Harappa and Mohenjodaro are in Pakistan.
 Major sites in India are: Rakhigarhi (Haryana), Ropar (Punjab), Kalibangan and Balathal
(Rajasthan), Lothal and Dholavira (Gujarat).

Stone statues
 Two male statues in stone – the Bearded Man (priest-king) and a torso in red
sandstone.

1. Appears to be of a priest
2. A shawl is draped over the left shoulder
3. Slightly elongated eyes as if in half-meditation
4. Well-formed nose, with a moustache, short beard and whiskers
5. Wearing an armlet and probable other jewellery.

Bronze casting
 The bronze statues found in Harappa were made by the technique called Lost Wax
technique.
 This technique is used in some parts of the country even today showing continuity of
traditions.
 This technique was popular in almost all the sites.
 First, wax figures were made and then covered with clay. The clay as allowed to dry
and then the figure was heated to melt the wax. This wax was drained out through a
hole in the clay. After that, the hollow clay was filled with the metal of choice. After
cooling the metal, the clay was removed revealing the desired metal figurine.
 Both animal and human figures were made this way.
 Examples of bronze figures: Dancing Girl, Buffalo with uplifted head.

Dancing Girl - 4-inch bronze figure

1. Long hair tied in a bun

2. Left-arm covered with bangles
3. Cowrie shell necklace around the neck
4. Right hand on the hip and the left hand in a traditional Indian dancing gesture
5. Large eyes and a flat nose
6. Found from Mohenjodaro.

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Terracotta
 Terracotta images were also created but they were less refined as compared to the
stone statues.
 Most important terracotta images are those of the mother goddess.
 Male figures are also found with similar features and positioning in all the figures
indicating perhaps the image of a god.
 Terracotta toys have also been found (wheels, whistles, rattles, gamesmen, discs,
birds and animals).

Seals
 Thousands of seals have been discovered.
 They were mostly made of steatite (a kind of soft stone).
 Some seals were also made using chert, agate, copper, terracotta, faience, gold and
ivory.
 Standard Harappan seals were square plaques with 2X2 dimension.
 Purpose of the seals: chiefly commercial.
 Some seals were carried in the form of amulets, perhaps as identity cards.
 Every seal has a picture of an animal and some writings in a pictographic script
(which is not yet deciphered).
 Animals represented include tigers, bulls, elephants, goats, bison, etc.
 Pashupati Seal: A seal with a figure seated cross-legged in the centre with animals
around; an elephant and a tiger to the right of the figure and a rhino and a buffalo to
its left.
 Copper tablets, square or rectangular in shape have been found which were used as
amulets.

Pottery
 A lot of pottery has been excavated.
 Plain and painted pottery are found – plain is more common.
 Plain pottery: generally made of red clay, with or without a fine red or grey slip.
 Black painted pottery: has a fine coating of red slip with painted geometric and
animal designs.
 Perforated pottery was also found, perhaps to use as a sieve.
 Pottery of various sizes has been excavated.

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Beads and ornaments
 A variety of ornaments have been found which were used by both men and women.
 Made from precious metals, gemstones, bone and baked clay.
 Ornaments worn by men and women: fillets, necklaces, finger-rings, armlets.
 Ornaments worn by women: earrings, girdles, anklets.
 Well-crafted ornaments have been found including necklaces of gold and semi-
precious stones, copper bracelets and beads, head ornaments and earrings made of
gold, steatite and gemstone beads, faience pendants and buttons.
 Cemetery found in Farmana (Haryana) – where dead bodies were buried with
ornaments.
 Bead factories at Lothal and Chanhudaro.
 Beads made from cornelian, amethyst, lapis lazuli, quartz, crystal, jasper, turquoise,
steatite, etc. Metals were also used like gold, bronze and copper. Beads were also
made from shells and terracotta.
 Beads were of various shapes disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped, and
segmented.

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Chapter 3
Introduction
 Religions of the Shramana tradition, i.e., Jainism and Buddhism emerged around the
6th century BCE.
 The Mauryas had established themselves as a great power in the 4th century BCE
and by the 3rd century, they had large parts of India under their control.
 At this time there were many modes of religious practices including the worship of
Yakshas and mother-goddesses. Nevertheless, Buddhism became the most popular.
 After the Harappan civilization, monumental stone sculpture and architecture appears
only in the Mauryan period.
 There were pillars, sculptures, rock-cut architecture, buildings like stupas, viharas
and chaityas that served many purposes. They are exquisite in aesthetic quality and
brilliant in their design and execution.

Mauryan Pillars and Sculptures

Pillars & Sculptures
 Erection of pillars was common in the Achamenian Empire (Persian Empire) also.
While there were commonalities like the use of polished stones, motifs like lotus,
there are also differences. While the Achamenian pillars were constructed in pieces,
the Mauryan pillars were rock-cut, displaying the superior skill of the carver.
 Stone pillars can be seen all over the Mauryan Empire. These had proclamations
inscribed on them and were used to spread the message of the Buddha by Emperor
Ashoka.
 The top portion of the pillar is called capital and it typically has animal figures like
bull, lion, elephant, etc. These capital figures are carved standing on a square or
circular abacus. The abacuses are on the base which could be a stylised inverted
lotus.
 Example of pillars with capital figures: Sarnath, Basarah-Bakhira, Rampurva, Sankisa
and Lauriya-Nandangarh.
 The Lion Capital at Sarnath is the most famous example.
 Monumental figures of Yakshas and Yakshinis have been found in various parts of
India thus showing the popularity of Yaksha worship.

Rock-cut architecture
 Ashoka also patronised rock-cut architecture.
 Rock-cut elephant at Dhauli, Odisha – shows modelling in round with linear rhythm.
It also has an Ashokan edict.
 Lomus Rishi Cave – Rock-cut cave at Barabar Hills near Gaya. The cave entrance
is decorated with a semicircle chaitya arch. An elephant is carved in high relief on the
chaitya. The interior hall of the cave is rectangular; it also has a circular chamber at
the back. Ashoka patronised this cave for the Ajivika sect.

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Stupas, chaityas and viharas
 Stupas and viharas were constructed as part of the Buddhist and Jaina monastic
tradition but most of the constructions belong to Buddhism.
 Some Brahmanical gods were also represented in the sculptures here.
 Stupas were constructed over the relics of the Buddha at Rajagriha, Kapilavastu,
Vaishali, Ramagrama, Allakappa, Pava, Vethadipa, Pippalvina and Kushinagar.
 Stupas consist of a cylindrical drum with a circular anda and a harmika and
a chhatra on the top. Sometimes there were circumambulatory pathways and
gateways. In many cases, additions were added in later centuries.

1. Anda: hemispherical mound symbolic of the mound of dirt used to cover Buddha’s
remains (in many stupas actual relics were used).
2. Harmika: square railing on top of the mound.
3. Chhatra: central pillar supporting a triple umbrella form.

 Stupa at Bairat, Rajasthan – 3rd century BCE; grand stupa with a circular mound and
a circumambulatory path.
 Many stupas were built and not all of them with royal patronage. Patrons included lay
devotees, gahapatis, guilds and kings.
 Not many mention the names of the artisans. But artisans’ categories like stone
carvers, goldsmiths, stone-polishers, carpenters, etc. are mentioned.
 Stupa at Sanchi – most famous and one of the earliest examples.
 Chaityas were basically prayer halls and most of them were with stupas. Generally,
the hall was rectangular and it had a semi-circular rear end. They had horse-shoe
shaped windows. They also had pillars separating the hall from the two aisles.
 Viharas were the residences of the monks.

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  Both chaityas and viharas were made out of wood, and later were also stone-cut.

Depiction of the Buddha

 In the early periods, Buddha is represented through symbols like footprints, lotus
thrones, chakras, stupas, etc.
 Later on, stories were portrayed on the railings and torans of the stupas. These were
mainly the Jataka tales.
 The chief events from Buddha’s life which are narrated in the arts are birth,
renunciation, enlightenment, first sermon (dharmachakrapravartana) and
mahaparinirvana (death).
 The Jataka stories that find frequent depiction are Chhadanta Jataka, Sibi Jataka,
Ruru Jataka, Vessantara Jataka, Vidur Jataka and Shama Jataka.

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Chapter 4
Introduction
 After the decline of the Mauryan Empire in the second century BC, various rulers
controlled the regions which were once under the Mauryas, like the Shungas,
Kanvas, Kushanas and Guptas in the north and central India; and the Satavahanas,
Abhiras, Ikshvakus and Vakatakas in the south and western India.
 This period also saw the emergence of Brahmanical sects like the Shaivas and the
Vaishnavas.
 Chief examples of fine sculpture are found at Bharhut and Vidisha (Madhya
Pradesh); Mathura (Uttar Pradesh); Bodhgaya (Bihar); Jaggayyapeta (Andhra
Pradesh); Bhaja and Pavani (Maharashtra); and Khandagiri and Udaigiri (Odisha).

Bharhut

 Sculptures are tall like the Yakshas and Yakshinis of the Mauryan era.
 The illusion of three-dimensionality is present.
 Narratives or stories are represented pictorially.
 Space is utilised to the maximum extent.
 Initially, the carvings were shown with flat images, i.e., projection of hands and feet
were not possible, but later on, they emerged with deep carvings and a much-
naturalised representation of human and animal forms.
 One important sculpture at Bharhut: Queen Mayadevi (the Buddha’s mother)
dreaming of an elephant descending towards her womb.
 Jataka tales are also seen.
 A common characteristic of all the male images after the first and second centuries is
the knotted headgear.

Mathura, Sarnath and Gandhara Schools

 Gandhara (in modern Pakistan), Mathura and Sarnath emerged as important art
production centres from the first century AD onwards.
 Buddha gets a human form in Mathura and Gandhara. Previously he was
represented via symbols.
 Gandhara art form influenced Indo-Greek elements such as Bactria and Parthia
traditions besides the local Gandhara tradition.

o The Buddha images here have Hellenistic features.

o The Buddha here is more muscular.
o The sculptures are heavily polished with rich carvings.
o The hair is curly and the lobes of the ears are elongated.
o The garments are generally flowing in nature.

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 o The sculptures were initially made of stone and later on stucco was also
used.
 The Mathura art tradition became so strong that it spread to other parts of
northern India.
o Best example: Stupa sculpture at Sanghol, Punjab.
o The Buddha images in the Mathura school are modelled on the earlier
Yaksha images.
o Mathura art form also has some images of the Shaiva and Vaishnava faiths
but images of the Buddha are numerous.
o There is less symbolism here as compared to the Gandhara School.
o The sculptures are generally made of red sandstone.
o The garments are clearly visible and they usually cover the left shoulder.
Multiple folds are shown.
o The halo around the deity is profusely decorated.
o In the 2nd century, the images get fleshier and their rotundity increase.
o In the 3rd century, the fleshiness is reduced. Movement is shown by
increasing the distance between the legs and bending of the body. There is
more softness in the surface.
o But in the late 4th century, this trend is reversed and the flesh becomes
tightened.
o In the 5th and 6th centuries, the drapery is integrated into the mass.

 Sarnath and Kosambi also emerged as important centres of art besides the

traditional centre Mathura.
o The Buddha images in Sarnath have transparent drapery covering both
shoulders.
o The halo around the Buddha is hardly decorated.

Early temples
 Apart from Stupas, Brahmanical temples also started getting built.
 Temples were decorated with the images of gods and also representations of the
Purana myths.
 Every temple had a principle image of a god.
 There were 3 kinds of shrines of the temples:

o Sandhara type: without pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory path)

o Nirandhara type: with pradakshinapatha
o Sarvatobhadra: which can be accessed from all sides
 Important temple sites from this period: Deogarh (UP); Eran, Udaygiri,
Nachna-Kuthara (near Vidisha in MP). These are simple structures with a
veranda, a hall and the shrine at the back.

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Buddhist Monuments of South India
 The Vengi region in Andhra Pradesh has many stupas, in Jaggayyapeta, Amaravati,
Nagarjunakonda, Bhattiprolu, Goli, etc.
 Amaravati School of Art

o Developed during the Satavahana period.

o This is fully indigenous in nature and had profound influence on art in Sri
Lanka and south-east Asia since products from here were taken to those
places.
o Had many sculptures and has a Mahachaitya. The sculptures are preserved
in Chennai Museum, National Museum at Delhi, Amaravati Site Museum and
the British Museum at London.
o Amaravati Stupa has a pradakshinapatha and a vedica (fence) with many
sculptures on it. The torana (gateway) has disappeared.
o Unique feature of this stupa: the dome is covered with relief stupa sculptural
slabs.
o Events from Buddha’s life and Jataka tales are depicted.
o It was first built in the first century AD and later centuries developed or
enhanced.
o Initial phase does not show Buddha images but they are seen from the later
stages (like the stupa at Sanchi).
o The sculptures have intense emotions. The figures are slender and show a lot
of movement. The bodies are shown with 3 bents (tribhanga).
o The structures are more complex than at Sanchi and are more animated.
o There is a lot of attention paid to the forms’ clarity.
 The sculptures of Goli and Nagarjunakonda in the 3rd century are reduced in
animation but still very three-dimensional.
 Independent Buddha images at: Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda and Guntapalle.
Guntappale: Rock-cut cave site near Elluru.
 Other rock-cut stupas found at: Anakapalle (near Vishakhapatnam); and
Sannati (largest in Karnataka).
 Apart from Buddha images, images of Boddhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara,
Vajrapani, Padmapani, Amitabha and Maitreya Buddha are also seen.

Cave Tradition in Western India

 Caves dating from the 2nd century BC have been excavated.

 Three architectural types:

o Apsidal vault-roof chaitya halls – Ajanta, Bhaja, Pitalkhora

o Apsidal vault-roof pillarless halls – Thana-Nadsur

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 o Flat-roofed quadrangular hall with a circular chamber at the back – Kondivite
in Mumbai

 The front of the chaitya hall has an imposing semi-circular chaitya arch with an open
front having a wooden facade.
 The caves at Kondivite have no chaitya arch.
 An example of the apsidal vault-roof kind: Ajanta Cave No. 9. This chaitya has a
rectangular hall with a stone-screen wall as façade. Similar kinds are found at
Nashik, Bedsa, Kanheri and Karla.
 After the first century BC, many caves are of the first architectural type.
 Junnar has the highest number of cave excavations – more than 200.
 Kanheri in Mumbai has 108 excavated caves.
 Most important sites: Ajanta, Pitalkhora, Ellora, Nashik, Karla, Bhaja, Junnar and
Kanheri.
 Earlier it was believed that these caves belonged to the orthodox Theravada sect of
Buddhism. But the discovery of the Konkan Maurya inscription which mentions Saka
era 322 (corresponding to 400 AD) proves that cave activity in western Deccan was a
continuing process.
 Some of these sites have been converted into modern Hindu shrines and are used to
this day by the local people.
 Rock-cut caves are found not only in Maharashtra but also in:

o Karnataka – mainly in Badami and Aihole patronised by the Chalukyas.

o Andhra Pradesh – Vijayawada area.
o Tamil Nadu – Mahabalipuram patronised by Pallavas.
 Post 6th century art depended more on political patronage as opposed to the
collective public patronage of the earlier periods.

Karla Caves
 Located at Karla, Lonavala in Maharashtra.
 Biggest rock-cut chaitya hall was excavated in Karla.
 This cave has an open courtyard with 2 pillars, a stone-screen wall to protect from
rain, a veranda, a stone-screen wall as façade, an apsidal vault-roof chaitya hall with
pillars and a stupa at the rear.
 Chaitya hall is carved with human and animal figures.

Viharas
 Viharas have been excavated at all cave sites.
 Vihara plan: a veranda, a hall and cells around the walls of the hall.
 Important viharas – Ajanta cave No.12; Nashik Cave Nos. 3, 10 and 17; Bedsa cave
No.11.
 Early vihara caves are carved with interior decorative motifs like chaitya arches and
vedica designs over the cell doors.
 The vihara caves at Nashik have front pillars carved with ghata-base and ghata-
capital with human figures.

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  A popular such cave was found at Junnar and was popularly called Ganeshlini since
an image of Ganesha belonging to a later era was installed in it. It became a chaitya-
vihara when a stupa was added to the back of this vihara.

Ajanta
 Most famous cave site. Located in Aurangabad district, Maharashtra.
 There are 29 caves in Ajanta.
 4 chaitya caves:

o Cave nos. 10 and 9 belonging to 1st and 2nd centuries BC.

o Cave nos. 19 and 26 belonging to the 5th century AD.
 There are large chaitya-viharas also.
 Decorated with sculptures and paintings.
 The only remaining example of 1st century BC and 5th century AD paintings.
 Cave nos. 19 and 26:
o Elaborately carved.
o Façade decorated with the images of Buddha and Boddhisattva.
o Apsidal vault-roof variety. Cave no. 26 – very big, interior hall carved with
Buddha images; biggest image being Mahaparinibbana image.
 Ajanta shrine images are big in size.
 Chief patrons at Ajanta:
o Varahadeva, a minister of the Vakataka king Harishena – cave no. 16
o Upendragupta, local king and a feudatory of the Vakataka king – cave nos. 17
– 20.
o Buddhabhadra – cave no. 26
o Mathuradasa – cave no. 4
 Paintings indicate many typological variations. Outward projections are seen
from the 5th century onwards. Lines are well-defined and rhythmic. The
figures are heavy much like the sculptures found in this region. The colours
are limited.
 The paintings show various skin colours like brown, yellowish brown,
greenish, yellow ochre, etc. indicating a multi-coloured populace.
 The themes of the paintings are events from the Buddha’s life, Jatakas and
Avadanas.
 Padmapani and Vajrapani images are very common in the Ajanta caves.
Some paintings cover the entire wall of the caves. Example: Simhala
Avadana, Vidhurpundita Jataka and Mahajanaka Jataka.
 In many paintings, events are grouped geographically. Famous example of
painting from cave no.1 – Padmapani Boddhisattva.

Ellora
 Important cave site in Aurangabad. Located 100 km from Ajanta.

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  It has 32 Buddhist, Jain and Brahmanical caves.
 It is a unique historical site in India as it has monasteries associated with the three
religions from the 5th to the 11th century AD.
 Buddhist caves:

o 12 in number.
o Images belong to Vajrayana Buddhism like Tara, Akshobhya, Mahamayuri,
Avalokiteshvara, Maitreya, etc.
o Are big in size and are of single, double and triple storeys.
o Triple storeyed cave is found only at Ellora.
o Have massive pillars.
o All caves were plastered and painted but nothing is visible today.
o The sculptures are monumental.
o The shrine Buddha images are big generally guarded by the images of
Padmapani and Vajrapani.
 Jain caves:
o Are more ornate than the Buddhist caves.
o The decorative forms are heavily protruded.
o Belong to 9th century AD and onwards.
 Brahmanical caves:
o Numbered 13 – 28.
o Cave no. 14 is the only double storey cave here.
o Have images of Shiva and Vishnu and their different forms.
o Prominent Shaivite themes: Andhakasurvadha, Ravana shaking Mt. Kailas
and Kalyanasundara.
o Prominent Vaishnavite theme: avatars of Vishnu.
 Ellora caves have been carved by various artisan guilds that came from
Vidarbha, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. Most diverse site in India.
 Cave no. 16 – also called Kailashleni. Here, a rock-cut temple is carved out of
a single rock.

Elephanta Caves
 Located in Elephanta Island in Mumbai Harbour.
 Originally a Buddhist site, later dominated by Shaivism.
 Contemporary with Ellora caves.
 Sculptures are slender in body images with stark light and dark effects.

Cave Tradition in Eastern India

 Mainly located in the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.
 Main sites in AP – Guntapalle in Elluru.

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  Unique because structural stupas, viharas and caves are excavated in one place.
 Guntapalle Chaitya Cave – circular hall with a stupa and a chaitya arch at the
entrance.
 Most of them date back to the 2nd century BC.
 Most of the caves are vihara type.
 The biggest rock-cut stupas in India are found at Anakapalli near Vishakhapatnam.
Carved during the 4th – 5th centuries AD.
 Earliest examples in Odisha – Udaigiri-Khandagiri caves near Bhubaneswar.
 Scattered caves with inscriptions of Kharavela kings. As per the inscriptions, the
caves were intended for Jaina monks.

Seated Buddha, Katra Mound, Mathura

 Period: 2nd century AD.

 Buddha with two Boddhisattva attendants. Buddha is seated in Padmasana (cross-
folded legs).
 Right hand is in Abhayamudra raised above the shoulder level and left hand is on the
left thigh.
 Ushanisha (hair knot) is vertically raised. S
 culptures of this period from Mathura have light volume and a fleshy body.
 The sanghati (dress) covers only the left shoulder.
 Buddha is seated on a lion throne. He has a large halo which is decorated with
geometric motifs. His face is rounded having fleshy cheeks.
 The attendants are identified as the Boddhisattvas Padmapani (holding a lotus) and
Vajrapani (holding a thunderbolt).
 Two flying figures diagonally above the halo.
 This image is important for an understanding of the Buddha image development in
the later periods.
Buddha Head, Taxila
 Period: 2nd century AD, Kushana Period.
 Taxila in Gandhara region, now in Pakistan.
 The sculpture has Greco-Roman elements. Buddha’s head has Hellenistic elements.
 Thick curly hair with sharp and linear strokes over the head. Big forehead plane,
protruding eyeballs, half-closed eyes.
 Face and cheeks are not rotund unlike the images found in other parts of the country.
 Elongated ears and earlobes; Surface is smooth and the outlines are quite sharp.
 Expressive image; shows a remarkably calm expression.
 Gandhara images of this period showcase heaviness. This style assimilates
influences from Parthian, Bactrian and Acamenian traditions with the local style.
Seated Buddha, Sarnath
 Period: 5th century AD. Fine example of the Sarnath School.

15
  Made from Chunar sandstone.
 Buddha is seated in Padmasana.
 Image represents dhammachackrapravartana which is evident from the figures in the
panel below the throne. The panel has a chakra in the centre and a deer on each
side. Buddha’s hands are also shown in dhammachackrapravartana mudra placed
below the chest.
 Body is slender and slightly elongated. The outlines are delicate and rhythmic.
 The robe clings to the body. Face is round although the cheeks are less rounded as
compared to the earlier images from the Kushana period. Lower lip is protruding.
Eyes are half-closed.
 Ushanisha has circular curled hairs.
 The back of the throne is richly decorated with carvings of creepers and flowers. The
halo is plain.
Lion Capital

 One of the finest examples of Mauryan sculpture.

 Located at Sarnath, near Varanasi. Commissioned by Emperor Ashoka.
 Built-in 250 BCE.
 Made of polished sandstone. The surface is heavily polished.
 Currently, the pillar is in its original place but the capital is on display at the Sarnath
Museum.
 It was commissioned to commemorate the first sermon of the Buddha or the
Dharmachakrapravartana at Sarnath.
 Originally, the capital had five components:

o The shaft (now broken into many parts)

o A lotus base bell
o A drum on the base bell with 4 animals proceeding clockwise (abacus)
o Figures of 4 lions
o The crowning part, a large wheel (this is also broken and displayed at the
museum)

 The capital was adopted as the National Emblem of India after independence without

the crowning wheel and the lotus base.
 The four lions are seated back-to-back on a circular abacus. The figures of the lions
are grand and evoke magnificence. They are realistic images and the lions are
portrayed as if they are holding their breath. The curly manes of the lions are
voluminous. The muscles of the feet are shown stretched indicating the weight of the
bodies.
 The abacus has four wheels (chakra) with 24 spokes in all four directions. This is part
of the Indian National Flag now.
 The wheel represents Dharmachakra in Buddhism (the wheel of dhamma/dharma).
Between every wheel, there are animals carved. They are a bull, a horse, an
elephant and a lion. The animals appear as if they are in motion. The abacus is
supported by the inverted lotus capital.

16
Sanchi Stupa
 Sanchi Stupa is a UNESCO world heritage site since 1989. Sanchi is in Madhya
Pradesh.
 There are many small stupas here with three mains ones – stupa 1, stupa 2 and
stupa 3. Stupa 1 is also called the Great Stupa at Sanchi. It is the most prominent
and the oldest and is believed to have the Buddha’s relics.
 It was built by Ashoka in the 3rd century BCE.
 Originally, it was smaller than its present dimensions. It was expanded in later
periods.
 The original structure was made out of bricks. Later on, it was covered with
stone, vedica, and the torana (gateway).
 There are four gateways to the stupa with the southern one being built first. The
others were later added. The gateways are adorned with beautiful sculptures and
carvings. Each torana consists of two vertical pillars and three horizontal bars on top.
The bars contain exquisite carvings on front and back. They contain images
of shalbhanjikas – lady holding the branch of a tree. Stories from the Jataka tales are
carved here.
 The structure has a lower and upper pradakshinapatha or circumambulatory path.
The upper pradakshinapatha is unique to this stupa.
 On the southern side of the stupa, the Ashokan Lion Capital pillar is found with
inscriptions on it.
 The hemispherical dome of the stupa is called the anda. It contains the relics of the
Buddha.
 The harmika is a square railing on top of the dome/mound.
 The chhatra is an umbrella on top of the harmika. There is a sandstone pillar in the
site on which Ashoka’s Schism Edict is inscribed.
 The original brick dome was expanded into double its size during the reign of the
Shunga dynasty with stone slabs covering the original dome.

17
Chapter 5
 After Ajanta, very few sites with paintings have survived.
 In many places, sculptures were also plastered and painted.
Badami

 Example of later mural tradition.

 Badami was the capital of the western Chalukyan dynasty.
 This dynasty ruled the area from 543 CE to 598 CE.
 Chalukya king Mangalesha patronised the excavation of the Badami caves.
 Mangalesha was the younger son of Pulakesi I and the brother of Kirtivarman I.
 Cave No. 4 is also known as the Vishnu Cave because of the dedication of the image
of Vishnu. The date 578 – 579 CE is mentioned here. Thus, we get the period during
which the cave was carved and also the Vaishnava leanings of the patron.
 Paintings depict palace scenes. A painting shows Kirtivarman seated in the palace
and watching a dance scene with his wife and feudatories.
 The paintings are an extension of the mural painting tradition from Ajanta to Badami
in south India.
 The faces of the king and queen are reminiscent of the modelling seen in Ajanta, with
their eye-sockets large, eyes half-closed and protruding lips.
 These artists of the 6th century CE were able to create volume by contouring
different parts of the face to create protruding structures of the face itself.

Murals under the Pallava, Pandava and Chola Kings

 The Pallavas succeeded the Chalukyas further south in Tamil Nadu.

o They were great patrons of the arts.

18
 o Mahendravarma I (7th century) built many temples in Panamalai,
Mandagapattu and Kanchipuram.
o An inscription at Mandagapattu mentions the king Mahendravarman I with
several titles such as Vichitrachitta (curious-minded), Chaityakari (temple-
builder) and Chitrakar Puli (tiger among artists) – showing his interest in
artistic activities.
o Paintings at the temple at Kanchipuram were patronised by the Pallava king
Rajasimha.
o Painting of Somaskanda here – only traces remain – large, round face.
o There is increased ornamentation in this period as compared to the previous.
But, the depiction of the torso is much the same although a bit elongated.
 Pandyas also patronised art.
o Examples: Thirumalapuram caves and Jaina caves at Sittanavasal.
o Paintings are seen on the ceilings of the shrine, in verandas and on the
brackets.
o Dancing figures of celestial nymphs are seen.
o Contours are in vermillion red and the bodies are painted yellow. Dancers
have expressions on their faces and show supple limbs. Their eyes are
elongated and sometimes protrude off the face. This is a distinctive feature
seen in many later paintings in the Deccan and South India.
 The Cholas ruled over the region from 9th to the 13th century CE.
o The Cholas were at the height of their power in the 11th century CE and this
is when their masterpieces appear.
o Temples built during the reign of Rajaraja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola
– Brihadeswara Temple at Thanjavur, at Gangaikonda Cholapuram, at
Darasuram.
o Chola paintings are seen in Narthamalai. Most important paintings are seen in
the Brihadeswara Temple.
o Two layers of paint were seen. The upper layer was executed during the
Nayaka period (16th century). The Chola paintings (original layer) depict
narrations and various forms of Lord Shiva, Shiva in Kailash, Shiva as
Nataraja, as Tripurantaka. Also there is a portrait of Rajaraja, his mentor
Kuruvar, etc.
The Cholas, Pandyas and the Cheras were the three dynasties that heralded the Sangam
Age, which was a time of a cultural renaissance that forever changed the economic, social
and religious structure of South India. To know more in detail what were those changes click
on the linked article.

Vijayanagara Murals

 After the Chola decline, the Vijayanagara Dynasty brought the region from Hampi to
Trichy under its control.
 Hampi was the capital.
 Paintings at Thiruparankundram, near Trichy (14th century), represent the early
phase of the Vijayanagara style.
 Virupaksha Temple at Hampi

19
 o Paintings on the ceilings of the Mandapa.
o Depicting events from dynastic history and also from the Mahabharata and
the Ramayana.
o Examples of paintings: portraying Vidyaranya, Bukkaraya Harsha’s spiritual
teacher carried in a palanquin in a procession; incarnations of Vishnu.
o Faces and figures are shown in profile. Large frontal eyes, narrow waists.
 Lepakshi in Andhra Pradesh – paintings on the walls of the Shiva Temple.
 Features of Vijayanagara paintings:
o Lines are still but fluid.
o Faces are in profile.
o Figures and objects are shown two-dimensionally.
o These features were adopted by later artists such as those of the Nayaka
Period.

Nayaka Paintings

 Extension of the Vijayanagara styles.

 17th and 18th centuries.
 Seen in Thiruparankundram, Srirangam and Tiruvarur.
 Nayaka paintings showcase episodes of Mahabharata, Ramayana and Krishna
Leela.
 In Thiruparankundram, paintings from two periods are observed – 14th and 17th
centuries.
 The 14th-century paintings show scenes from the life of Mahavira.
 In Tiruvarur, there is a panel describing the story of Muchukunda.
 Sri Krishna Temple at Chengam, Arcot – 60 panels narrating the Ramayana. (Late
phase of the Nayaka period).
 Male figures are shown with slim waists but less heavy abdomens.
 Painting of Nataraja at Thiruvalanjuli – good example of Nayaka art.

Kerala Murals (16th – 18th centuries)

 The distinct style was developed but a lot of the features of the Nayaka and
Vijayanagara styles were adopted.
 The artists took ideas from the contemporary traditions of Kathakali and Kalam
Ezhuthu.
 Vibrant and luminous colours, human figures have shown 3-dimensionally.
 Paintings on the walls of the shrines, on cloister walls of temples, also in palaces.
 The theme of the paintings – from locally popular episodes of Hindu mythology, local
versions of the Mahabharata and Ramayana through oral traditions.
 More than 60 sites with mural paintings

20
 o Three palaces: Dutch Palace (Kochi), Krishnapuram palace (Kayamkulam),
Padmanabhapuram palace (Travancore, now in Kanyakumari, Tamil Nadu).
o Pundareekapuram Krishna temple
o Panayannarkavu (temple), Thirukodithanam
o Sri Rama temple, Triprayar
o Vadakkunnathan temple, Thrissur

Traditional forms of murals

 Pithoro in parts of Rajasthan and Gujarat.

 Mithila paintings, Mithila region, Bihar
 Warli paintings, Maharashtra

21
Chapter 6
Basic Form of the Hindu Temple

 The basic elements that comprise a Hindu Temple are given below:
 Garbhagriha: Literally means womb-house. It is a cave-like sanctum which houses
the main icon of the temple. In earlier times, it was a small cubicle with one entrance.
In later periods, it grew into a larger chamber.
 Mandapa: The entrance to the temple. It could be a portico or a collonaded hall
where worshippers stand.
 Shikhara/Vimana: Noticed from the 5th century CE. It is a mountain-like spire on top.
In north India, it is called Shikhara and is curving in shape. In the south, it is like a
pyramidal tower and is called Vimana.

Amalaka: Stone-like disc seen at the top of

the temple. Mostly in north Indian temples.

 Kalasha: It is the topmost part of the

temple. Mainly seen in north Indian styles.
 Antarala: It is a vestibule between the
Garbhagriha and the Mandapa.
 Jagati: This is common in north Indian
temples and is a raised platform where
devotees can sit and pray.
 Vahana: It is the vehicle of the main deity
which along with the standard pillar or
Dhvaj which are placed axialy

Types of Indian Temple Architecture/Styles

Basically, there are 3 kinds of temple architecture:

1. Nagara Style
2. Dravida Style
3. Vesara Style

22
The Nagara or North Indian temple style

Became popular in northern India.

 Entire temple is generally built on a stone platform with steps leading to it.
 No grand boundary walls or gateways (unlike the Dravida style).
 Earlier temples had one shikhara whereas latter temples had many.
 The garbhagriha is located directly beneath the tallest shikhara.

Subdivisions of Nagara Style

 Based on Style:-

 Rekha-prasada/Latina:
 Simple shikhara with square base and whose walls
slope inwards to a point on top.
 Most common.
 In later periods, latina type became more complex with
several towers clustered together.
 The tallest tower was at the centre and the garbhagriha
was directly beneath it.

23
  Phamsana:
 Roofs composed of many slabs that gently rise to a single point over the
building’s centre.
 Roofs do not curve inwards like the latina type, but they slope upwards on a
straight incline.
 Phamsana structures are generally broader and shorter than latina ones.
 In many temples, the latina type is used to house the garbhagriha whereas
the mandapa has a Phamsana style of architecture.

 Valabhi:
 Rectangular buildings with a roof that rises into a vaulted chamber.
 Also called wagon-vaulted buildings.

Nagara Style in Various Regions:

Central India

 Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan.

 Made of sandstone.
 Oldest surviving structural temples from the Gupta period are in MP. They are small
shrines with four pillars to support a small mandapa. The mandapas are basically
small porch-like structures before the garbhagriha which are also rather small.
Examples: temple at Udaigiri – part of a larger Hindu complex of cave shrines
(outskirts of Vidisha); temple at Sanchi (which was a Buddhist site).
 This shows how similar architectural developments were incorporated in both
religions.

Dashavatara Vishnu Temple, Deogarh, UP

Classic example - late Gupta period temple architecture.

 Patrons are unknown.

 From the architecture and imagery, it is known
that the temple was built in early 6th century CE.
 Panchayatana Style of architecture.

o Main shrine is built on a rectangular plinth

with four subsidiary shrines that are
smaller and at the 4 corners.
o Hence, there are a total of five shrines
and hence the name, Panchayatana.
 This temple has a rekha-prasada type of
shikhara.
 It is a west-facing temple. Most are north/east facing.

24
  Has a grand doorway with figures of Ganga and Yamuna on the left and right
side respectively.
 Depicts Vishnu in various forms. 3 main Vishnu reliefs on the temple walls:
Sheshashayana on the south; Nara-Narayan on the east; and
Gajendramoksha on the west.
 Since it was assumed that the subsidiary shrines had avatars of Vishnu in
them, the temple was mistaken to be Dashavatara temple.

Khajuraho Temples (MP)

 Built in the 10th century CE.
 It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 Patronised by Chandela Kings.
 All temples made of sandstone.
 From the temple at Deogarh (built about 400 years before Khajuraho temples), the
development of the Nagara architectural style is visible here.
 These temples are known for their extensive erotic sculptures. Mostly Hindu, though
some Jain temples are also present.
 There are also temples dedicated to Yoginis which form part of Tantric worship
indicating the rise and spread of tantric cult after the 7th century. E.g. Chausanth
Yogini temple.
 Important temples in Khajuraho:  Kandariya Mahadeo (dedicated to Lord Shiva) and
Lakshmana temple.
 Lakshmana temple

Grandest of the Khajuraho

temples.

o Dedicated to Vishnu.
o Built by the Chandela
King Dhanga in 954
CE.
o Structure is placed on
a high platform that is
accessed by stairs.
o Has small temples in
four corners.
o Has high shikharas, amalak and kalash. Also has projecting balconies and
verandas.

West India

 Gujarat, Rajasthan and western MP.

 Sandstone is most common, grey to black basalt is also seen in some 10 – 12th
century temples.
 Also seen is soft white marble in 10 – 12th century Jain Temples at Mount Abu and a
15th century temple at Ranakpur.

25
  Samlaji in Gujarat is an important art historical site. Many sculptures made of grey
schist are found here.

 Sun Temple, Modhera, Gujarat

Built by Raja Bhimdev I of the Solanki

dynasty in 1026 CE.

o Temple complex features a huge

rectangular stepped tank known
as the ‘Surya Kund’ in the front.
This is a noticeable feature from
earlier times – proximity of a
sacred water body. By the early
11th century, this was a common
feature of many temples.
o The Surya Kund is a 100 sq.m
pond – one of the grandest of its
kind in the country. 108 miniature
shrines are carved in between the
steps inside the tank.
o A large ornamental torana (gateway) leads to the sabha mandapa or
assembly hall that is open on all sides.
o Lavish carving and sculpture work is present.
o The central shrine walls are plain. The temple is east-facing and every year at
the time of equinoxes, the sun shines directly onto the central shrine.

East India

 North-East, Odisha and Bengal.

 Each region produced a distinct type of architecture.

 Terracotta was the main medium in Bengal and north-east until the 7th century.

 Assam

o There is evidence of Gupta influence from a sculpted door frame dating to the
6th century CE from DaParvatia near Tezpur; and sculptures from Rangagora
Tea Estate near Tinsukia.
o The Gupta influence is seen till the 10th century.

26
 o By 12th to 14th centuries, a distinct Ahom style developed in the region
around Guwahati. This style evolved from the mixing of the style brought to
the area by the Tais of Upper Burma with the Pala style of Bengal. Example:
Kamakhya Temple – a Shakti Peeth dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya built in
17th century.

 Bengal
o Regions: West Bengal, Bangladesh, Bihar
o Style between the 9th and 11th centuries – Pala Style. The Palas were
patrons of Buddhist monastic styles. The temples in this region showcased
the local Vanga style.
o Style of temple architecture from the middle of the 11th century to the middle
of the 13th centuries – Sena style.
o Siddheswara Mahadeva temple in Barakar in Burdwan District – 9th century;
tall curving Shikhara crowned by a large amalaka – early Pala style.
o Many temples were located at Telkupi in Purulia District – 9th to 12th century
but were submerged due to dam construction. These temples showed all the
Nagara sub-styles prevalent in the north.

 Some temples survive.

 Made of black to grey basalt.
 Had chlorite stone pillars and arched niches.
 They influenced early Bengal Sultanate buildings at Gaur and Pandua.
 Local vernacular building traditions also influenced the temples. Most
noticeable of these influences was the curving or sloping side of the
bamboo roof of a Bengali hut.
 This feature was adopted in Mughal buildings and is known as
the Bangla Roof.
 From the Mughal period onwards, several terracotta brick temples
were built which had elements from the earlier Pala style, from the
local bamboo hut styles, and arches and domes from Islamic
architecture.
 Eg. Terracotta Temple, Vishnupur (17th century)

27
 Odisha

 Three orders of architectural features:

 Rekhapida (Rekha Deula): Tall straight building (looking like a
shikhara) covering the garbhagriha.
 Pidhadeul: It is the mandapa, a square building where worshippers
are present and also where dancing takes place.
 Khakra (Khakra Deula): Rectangular building with a truncated
pyramid-shaped roof. Temples of Shakti are usually in this type.
 Location: Ancient Kalinga – that includes modern Puri District including
Bhubaneswar (ancient Tribhuvanesvara, Puri and Konark).
 Odisha temples are a distinct sub-style of the Nagara style called Kalinga
Style.
 Shikhara is called Deul and is almost vertical and suddenly curves sharply
inwards at the top.
 In front of the deul, there is the mandapa, called jagamohana in Odisha.
 The exterior of the temples is richly carved while the interiors are plain.
 Temples generally have boundary walls.
 Konark Sun Temple

Sun temple built around 1240.


Its shikhara
which was said
to be 70m high
fell in the 19th
century.
 The
jagamohana
(mandapa) has
survived. This is the largest enclosed space in Hindu architecture
although it is not accessible any more.

 The temple is set on a high base. There are detailed carvings. There
are 12 pairs of gigantic wheels sculpted with spokes and hubs
representing the chariot wheels of the sun god. The whole temple
resembles a processional chariot.
 On the southern wall, there is a huge sculpture of Surya or sun god
made of greenstone. It is believed that there were 3 more such
images in different directions made out of different stones. The fourth
wall had the doorway from which the sun rays would enter the
garbhagriha.

The Hills
 Region: hills of Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal and Kashmir

28
  Style: Ancient Gandhara style (because of the proximity of Kashmir to that region)
with Gupta and post-Gupta traditions from Sarnath, Mathura, Gujarat and Bengal.
 We can see both Buddhist and Hindu traditions in the hills.
 Its local tradition: wooden buildings with pitched roofs.
 Many temples showcase the garbhagriha and shikhara of the Latina type, and the
mandapa in wooden architecture.
 Sometimes a pagoda shape is seen to the temples.
 Karkota Period, Kashmir – Most significant in terms of architecture.
 Temple at Pandrethan –

o 8th and 9th centuries; the temple built on a plinth in the middle of a water
tank.
o Possibly Hindu temple dedicated to Lord Shiva.
o Wooden building. A peaked roof that slants slowly outwards (due to the
snowy conditions)
o Moderately ornamented – a row of elephants at the base and a decorated
doorway.
 Sculptures at Chamba (Himachal Pradesh) –
o Local traditions mixed with the post-Gupta style. g.: Images of
Mahishasuramardini and Narasimha at Laksna-Devi Mandir.
o Styles: Post-Gupta and Kashmiri metal sculpture traditions. Images’ yellow
colour is possibly an alloy of zinc and copper which were popular in Kashmir.
o Inscription in the Laksna-Devi Mandir states that it was built during the reign
of Meruvarman in the 7th century.
 Temples of Kumaon: classic examples of Nagara of this region – temples at
Jageshwar (near Almora) and Champavat (near Pithoragarh), both in
Uttarakhand.

Dravidian Style of Architecture – South Indian Style

The features of the Dravidian Style of Architecture are mentioned below:


 The temple is enclosed within a compound wall.
 Gopuram: The entrance gateway in the centre of the front wall.
 Vimana: The shape of the main temple tower. It is a stepped pyramid that rises up
geometrically (unlike the Nagara style Shikhara that is curving).
 In the Dravida style, shikhara is the word used for the crowning element at the top of
the temple (which is shaped like a stupika or octagonal cupola).

29
  At the entrance to the garbhagriha, there would be sculptures of
fierce dvarapalas guarding the temple.
 Generally, there is a temple tank within the compound.
 Subsidiary shrines could be found wither within the main tower or beside the main
tower.
 In many temples, the garbhagriha is located in the smallest tower. It is also the
oldest. With the passage of time and the rise of the population of the temple-town,
additional boundary walls were added. The newest structure would mostly have the
tallest gopuram.
 Example in the Sriranganathar Temple at Srirangam, Tiruchirappally, there are 7
concentric rectangular enclosure walls each having gopurams. The tower at the
centre has the garbhagriha.
 Famous temple towns of Tamil Nadu: Kanchipuram, Thanjavur (Tanjore), Madurai
and Kumbakonam.
 In the 8th to 12th centuries – temples were not confined to being religious centres but
became administrative centres as well with large swathes of land.

Dravidian Architecture – Subdivisions of Dravida Style

1. Kuta or Caturasra: square-shaped
2. Shala or Ayatasra: rectangular-shaped
3. Gaja-prishta or vrittayata or elephant-backed: elliptical
4. Vritta: circular
5. Ashtasra: octagonal

Pallava Architecture
 The Pallava dynasty was ruling in the Andhra region from the 2nd century AD
onwards. They then moved southwards to Tamil Nadu.
 They built many monuments and temples during the 6th to the 8th centuries.
 Although they were mostly Shaivite, some Vaishnava monuments are also seen.
Their architecture was also influenced by the Buddhist heritage of the Deccan.
 Their early buildings were rock-cut whereas the later were structural.
 The early buildings were built during the reign of Mahendravarman I, a contemporary
of the Chalukya king Pulakeshin II of Karnataka.
 His son Narasimhavarman I, also known as Mamalla, was a great patron of the arts.
Most buildings in Mahabalipuram (also called Mamallapuram in his honour) are
attributed to him.
 In Mahabalipuram, there are exquisite monolithic rathas and mandapas. The five
rathas are known as Panchapandava Rathas.

Dravidian Temple Architecture – Shore Temple – Mahabalipuram

Built during the reign of Pallava king Narasimhavarman II, also known as Rajasimha (700 –
728 AD).

30
  It has three shrines – one Shiva
shrine facing east, one Shiva shrine
facing west, a middle shrine to
Vishnu in Anantashayana pose. The
presence of three main shrines is
unique.
 It is probable that the shrines were
not all built at the same time but were
added later.
 There is evidence of a water
reservoir and a gopuram.
 There are sculptures of Nandi the
bull (Shiva’s mount) along the walls of the temple. There are several carvings as well.

Dravidian Temple Architecture – Brihadiswara Temple – Tanjore

 Shiva temple, aka Rajarajeswara Temple.
 Completed around 1009 AD.
 Built by Rajaraja Chola.
 It is the largest and tallest of all Indian
temples. This Chola temple is bigger
than any of the previous Pallava,
Chalukya or Pandya structures.
 More than 100 temples of the Chola
Period are preserved. A lot of temples
were constructed during the Chola
period.
 Its pyramidal multi-storied vimana is
almost 70 metres high.
 There is a monolithic shikhara atop the vimana.
 The shikhara is a dome-shaped octagonal stupika. It has two large elaborately
sculptured gopuras. On the shikhara, there are large Nandi images.
 The kalasha on top of the shikhara is 3m and 8cm tall.
 There are hundreds of stucco figures on the vimana. Many might have been added
later on in the Maratha period.
 The main deity of Shiva is portrayed as a huge lingam set in a double-storied
sanctum.
 The surrounding walls of the sanctum are adorned with painted murals and
sculptures of mythological stories.

Architecture in the Deccan

 A hybridised style mixing elements from both Nagara and Dravida styles emerge as a
distinct style during the middle of the 7th century in regions like Karnataka.
 This is referred to as Vesara in some ancient texts.
 Some of the temples are either completely nagara or dravida. Not all temples in the
Deccan are in vesara style.

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  Kailashnath Temple, Ellora

Completely in Dravida style.

o Main deity is Lord Shiva.

o There is also a Nandi
shrine.
o Vimana rises 30 m.
o This temple was carved out
of a portion of a hill.
o The temple is grand and
imposing.
o Built during the Rashtrakuta
phase at Ellora.

Chalukya Architecture
 Western Chalukya kingdom was established by Pulakesin I when he took control of
the land around Badami in 543 AD.
 Early western Chalukyas ruled the region till around the mid-8th century.
 Early activities are rock-cut caves while structural temples were built later on.
 Ravana Phadi cave at Aihole

o Important structure at this site: Nataraja

o This image is surrounded on the right by four large saptamatrikas and on the
left by three large ones.
o The figures have slim, graceful bodies. They have long oval faces. They wear
short pleated dhotis and tall cylindrical crowns.
 Distinct feature of Chalukya architecture: mixing and incorporation of several
styles.
 Temples at Pattadakkal, Karnataka
o Pattadakkal is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
o There are 10 temples. Four are in Dravida style, four are in Nagara style, one
(Papanatha Temple) is a fusion of both and one is a Jain temple.
o Jain Narayana temple – built by Rashtrakutas in the 9th century.
o Virupaksha Temple – built by the chief queen of Chalukya king Vikramaditya
II (733 – 44), Loka Mahadevi. Best example of Dravida style.

 Durga Temple, Aihole

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 o Apsidal shrine resembling a Buddhist Chaitya hall.
o Surrounded by a veranda.
o Shikhara is like a nagara one.

 The Lad Khan temple at Aihole

Located south of the Durga

temple. Built in the 5th century.

Inspired by the wooden-

o
roofed temples of the hills,
but is made out of stone.
o Built in the Panchayatana
style.
o So named because a
person named Lad Khan had used it as his residence for some time.

Hoysalas Temple Architecture

 Hoysalas grew into prominence in South India after the Chola and the Pandya power
declined.
 Centred at Mysore.
 Chief temples are at Belur, Somnathapuram and Halebid.
 These temples have a plan called the stellate plan. This is because the plan which
emerged from being a straightforward square to a complex one with many projecting
angles began to resemble a star.
 The star-like ground plan is a distinct feature of Hoysala architecture.
 Style is Vesara.
 Made of soapstone which is relatively soft. This enabled artists to carve intricate details
like jewellery.

 Hoysaleshvara Temple, Halebid
 Made of dark schist stone in 1150.

o Dedicated to Nataraja
(Shiva).
o It is a double building
with a large hall for the
mandapa.
o A Nandi pavilion is in
front of each building.
o The temple’s tower fell
a long time back. The

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 structure of the temple is evident from the detailed miniature ones at the
temple’s entrance.
o Very intricate and detailed carvings.

Vijayanagara Architecture
 City of Vijayanagara (City of victory) founded in 1336.
 Visited by international travellers like Niccolo di Conti, Domingo Paes, Duarte
Barbosa, Abd, al-Razzaq, etc. who have given vivid accounts of the place.
 Synthesizes the Dravida style with Islamic styles of the neighbouring sultanates.
 The sculpture tries to recreate the Chola tradition but the foreign influence is also
seen.

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Facts about Buddhist Architecture in India
Brief facts about Buddhist architecture are highlighted below:

Buddhist architecture

 Along with Hindu art and architecture, Buddhist temple building and artwork also
went on along with other religions.
 Ellora has Buddhist, Jain and Hindu monuments.
 Bodh Gaya (or Bodhgaya)

o Most important Buddhist site because Prince Siddhartha achieved

enlightenment here to become Gautama Buddha.
o The Bodhi Tree is important.
o The Mahabodhi Temple at Bodhgaya:
o

 The first shrine situated at the base of the Bodhi tree was probably
built by Emperor Ashoka.
 The vedika around the shrine is post-Mauryan built during 100 BC.
 Many sculptures in the niches in the temple belong to the Pala Period
(8th century CE).
 The temple itself was constructed during the colonial period.
 It is a 7th-century design. It is neither nagara or Dravida in style.
 Nalanda University
 It was a monastic university.
 It is a Mahavihara since it is a complex of many monasteries.
 Only a small portion of the place has been studied as most of it lies
buried under present civilisation and impossible to excavate.
 The records of the Chinese traveller Xuan Zang (Hsuan-Tsang) gives
a huge amount of information about Nalanda.
 As per the records, the foundation of the learning centre was laid
down by Kumaragupta I, the Gupta king in the 5th century CE. Later
kings added to the original centre.
 Evidence for all three Buddhist doctrines of Theravada, Mahayana
and Vajrayana taught here.
 Monks came from China, Tibet and Central Asia in the north; and from
Sri Lanka, Burma, Thailand, and other countries in Southeast Asia.
 Nalanda was a centre for art production and Buddhist sculptures and
manuscripts were taken from here by monks to their countries. So, art
in Nalanda had a profound impact on art in all the Buddhist countries.
 The Nalanda School of sculpture was influenced by Buddhist Gupta
art of Sarnath, the local Bihar tradition and Central India. This
synthesis emerged during the 9th century.
 Features of Nalanda School of sculpture:
 Sculptures have an ordered appearance with little effect of crowding.

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  They are depicted in three-dimensional forms.
 Delicate ornamentations.
 Back slabs of the sculptures are detailed.
 Nalanda bronzes: dating from the 7th and 8th centuries to the 12th
century; outnumber the metal images from entire eastern India.
 Initially depict Mahayana Buddhist deities like standing Buddhas,
bodhisattvas like Manjusri Kumara, Naga-Nagarjuna and
Avalokiteshvara seated on a lotus.
 In the late 11th and 12th centuries, Nalanda became an important
tantric centre. Then, Vajrayana deities dominated such Vajrasharada
(a form of Saraswati), Avalokiteshvara, Khasarpana, etc.
 Many Brahmanical images have also been found at Nalanda. Many
such images are still worshipped at nearby villages.
 Buddhist sites: Sirpur in Chhattisgarh (550 – 800 CE); Lalitagiri, Vajragiri and
Ratnagiri in Odisha.
 Nagapattinam in Tamil Nadu was also a Buddhist centre until
the Chola Period. A reason could be that it was a port-town and there were
trade activities with Sri Lanka which was and continues to be predominantly
Buddhist.

Jain Architecture in India

Brief facts about Jain architecture with notable examples are highlighted below:

Jain architecture

o Jain temples are found all over India except in the hills.
o Oldest Jain pilgrimage sites are in Bihar.
o In the Deccan: Ellora and Aihole.
o In central India: Khajuraho, Deogarh, Chanderi and Gwalior.
o Karnataka has many Jain shrines.

 Statue of Gomateshwara: Granite statue of Lord Bahubali

commissioned by Camundaraya, the prime minister of the Ganga
kings; located at Shravanabelagola; 18m or 57 feet high; world’s
tallest monolithic free-standing structure.
 Gujarat and Rajasthan have a rich Jain heritage continuing to this day.
 Jain bronze images found from Akola (near Baroda) belong to the late
5th – late 7th century CE; made using the lost-wax process; the
images have been inlaid with silver and copper for embellishments.
 Jain bronze sculptures are also found from Chausa (Bihar), Hansi
(Haryana) and many places in Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
 Jain Temples at Mount Abu, Rajasthan
 Constructed by Vimal Shah.
 Also called Dilwara temples. Built between the 11th and 13th
centuries.

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  Every ceiling has unique patterns. Richly sculptured on white marble.
The exteriors are simple but the interiors are finely carved and
exquisitely decorated

37
Mahabalipuram
Historical Connection between China and Mahabalipuram:
During the rule of the Pallavas (600-900 AD), Mahabalipuram was one of the major ports in
South India and the main connecting point for trade with China. Many articles including
pottery have been found here and in the neighbouring areas showing close trade
relationships with the Chinese.

 A Pallava prince, whom the Chinese call Bodhidharma, is said to have travelled to
China from Kanchipuram via Mahabalipuram, as a messenger of Buddhism and
reached Guangzhou in 527 AD.
 He went on to become the 28th patriarch of Buddhism succeeding Prajnatara.
 The form of Buddhism that Bodhidharma taught in China came to be known as Chan
(corrupt form of Sanskrit word Dhyan) Buddhism.
 It reached Japan, Thailand, Indonesia and other parts of the Far East. As it spread, it
came to be known as Zen Buddhism.
 He also is said to have taught a silent form of martial arts to the monks at the Shaolin
temple.
The choice of the second India-China informal summit venue is said to be also due to the
current Chinese President who was earlier governor of Fujian, a province to the south-east
of China’s mainland and a region that had intense cultural exchanges with Tamil Nadu.

Archaeological Importance:
 Mamallapuram or Mahabalipuram in Tamil Nadu is a temple of art, created by the
Pallava rulers.
 It is a virtual treasure trove of sculpture and architecture. It is a shining example of
Dravidian culture and of the ancient civilization of the Tamils.
 Temple architecture which is a unique feature of Tamil culture was born in this place.
 There are 4 types of sculptures in India: Cave temples, Carved monoliths, Sculptured
scenes or Bas relief and Masonry temples. All these 4 types are found here.
Visit the linked article and read in detail about the Dravidian Style of Architecture.
The Imperial Pallavas ruled from the 6th century AD for about 400 years. Their capital city
was Kanchipuram and Mamallapuram was their seaport. The word ‘Pallava’ in Sanskrit
means ‘sprout’. As per mythology, Ashvatthama, son of Drona and a character in the epic
Mahabharatha, fathered a son through his liaison with a snake princess. The child was
named Pallava after the lotus ‘sprouts’ upon which he was laid at birth. As per mythology,
the dynasty which this Pallava founded became the Pallava dynasty.

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History of Mahabalipuram:
 The history of Mahabalipuram dates back to 2000 years.
 It was a flourishing seaport even at the beginning of the Christian era.
 There were references to it in the Greek work ‘Periplus of the Erythrean Sea’ of the
1st century AD and also by Ptolemy, the Greek geographer of the 2nd century AD.
 In ancient times even before the Pallavas came on the scene, the place was known
as Mallai or Kadalmallai.
 Vaishnava saint Bhoothath Alvar was born here.
 This was also a pilgrimage centre and Saint Thirumangai Alvar has rendered hymns
in praise of this place.
 Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese traveller of the 7th century AD mentions that this place was
the sea port of the Pallavas.
 It has also been referred in European literature of the 14 th century as the ‘Place of 7
Pagodas’ or the place of 7 temples.
 Many Indian colonists had travelled to South East Asia from this port town.
 After the Pallavas, Mahabalipuram had prospered under the Cholas and
the Vijayanagar Empire.
 Europe knew of it as early as the 13 th century when, following Marco polo’s visit, it
appeared in the Catalan Map of 1275. The first European to mention it directly did so
in 1582.
 The first English visitor was William Chambers in 1788.
 When the first British visitors went to Mahabalipuram in the 18 th century, they found
the monuments under the sand, a few completely so. It must have fallen into neglect
after the fall of the Vijayanagara Empire. One of the earnest antiquarians Colin
Mackenzie dug out some of the monuments from the sand and deputed assistants to
collect its traditions and coins. This way, Mahabalipuram became one of the classical
sites of Indian historical archaeology.
Mahabalipuram was essentially a victory memorial city. Narasimhavarman I of the Pallavas
defeated the Chalukyan King Pulakesin II in the battles of Manimangala and Pariyala in 642
AD, killed him and sacked his capital Badami or Vatapi. He took the title ‘Vatapikonda’
(Conqueror of Vatapi) and Mamalla (the Great Warrior). Earlier, this port town was called
Maamalai or ‘Great Hill’. He expanded the facilities of the port and changed its name to
Mamallapuram, or ‘City of Mamalla’.With the enormous fortune that he brought from his
conquest, he embellished the city of Mahabalipuram with several beautiful buildings and
monuments.
The monuments and the temples of Mamallapuram were designed by the Pallava rulers
during the 7th and 8th century AD. Mention should be made in this regard about
Mahendravarman I, his illustrious son Narasimhavarman I or Mamalla, Mahendravarman II,
Parameswaravarman and Narasimhavarman II alias Rajasimha. The majority of the
monuments belong to the times of Narasimhavarman I. The rest of the monuments belong to
the period of his successors Parameswaravarman and Rajasimha.

39
Important Monuments found here are:
1) Shore temple: Is a masonry temple complex constructed by Narasimhavaraman II also
called Rajasimha. In its courtyard can be found in a row, sculptures of nandis’. There are 3
temples in this complex:

 Kshatriyasimha Pallavesvara temple: It is dedicated to Siva and is the main temple

facing east and also the sea. It has a narrow and elongated Vimana and contains a
fluted Siva linga made of granite known as ‘Dhara Lingam’.
 Vishnu temple: It is called Narapathi Simha Pallava Vishnu shrine and contains the
figure of Seshasayi Vishnu (locally called Palligondaruliya Deva). While the image of
Vishnu and the base of its shrine are carved out of the bed rock, much of the Shore
temple is a masonry one, built out of quarried blocks of rock. Hence, the Shore
temple is considered to be partially rock hewn and partially constructed out of stone
blocks.
 Rajasimha Pallavesvara temple: This is a west facing Shiva temple and contains a
smaller spire.
The narrow pointed towers, the corridor or Prakaram (parikrama) for circumambulation all
around, the boundary walls like the ramparts of a fort, the beautiful lion and nandi sculptures
all along represent a temple structure complete in all respects. Rajasimha is believed to
have established the tradition of building structural stone temples in Tamil Nadu. Hence, the
Shore temple can be considered as a forerunner to the great temple architecture of Tamil
Nadu.

2) 5 Rathas: These are monoliths, i.e., free-standing temples cut out of the solid rock of a
hillock. These are popularly known as Rathas, the chariots or temple carts but without
wheels. They only housed the images of deities and no worship was done during those
days. These were carved out during the reign of Narasimhavarman I in the 7th century AD
and are regarded as the earliest monuments of their kind in India. These monoliths can be
placed subsequent to the cave temples. They are known as Pancha Pandava Rathas, after
the Pandava brothers and their common queen. However, their names are without any
historical basis whatsoever. These temples progressively become smaller from south to
north.
i) Draupadi Ratha: Is a temple dedicated to Goddess Durga. It is in the shape of a south
Indian hut and has a curvilinear roof. There are makara torana decorations all around
outside, with images of Durga. In the cell inside, there is the 4 armed standing Durga,
adored by two male devotees kneeling at her feet and four dwarf ganas flying overhead.
There are 2 dvarapalikas on either side of the entrance. In front is the majestic lion vehicle of
Durga.
ii) Arjuna Ratha: Is dedicated to Lord Shiva; the blocks at the top are octagonal in shape
and its roof pyramidal consisting of a series of diminishing storeys each having a row of
pavilions anticipating the later day Vimana; is almost a replica of the Dharmaraja ratha.
iii) Bhima Ratha: Is dedicated to Vishnu in repose; replicates a Buddhist chaitya; is devoid
of any figure carvings. Its roof is shaped like the hood of a country-wagon.
iv) Nakula-Sahadeva Ratha: Is dedicated to Indra, the rain god; is apsidal in shape with
ornamental features and is devoid of figure carvings. An elephant statue has been placed
next to it. The temple has an arched roof like the back of an elephant. This type of Vimana is
known by the name Gajaprashta.

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v) Dharmaraja Ratha: Is dedicated to Hari-Hara (Vishnu-Shiva) and Ardhanareeswara
(Siva-Parvati combine). The blocks at the top are octagonal in shape and its roof pyramidal
consisting of a series of diminishing storeys each having a row of pavilions anticipating the
later day Vimana.
An interesting feature to note about these Rathas is that the crown or stupi (pot-finial) that
has to remain on top of the temple tower has instead been placed on the ground. The
Rathas were executed as prototypes of South Indian temples and were not consecrated as
places of worship then. That is the reason these crowns, though carved completely, were
neither separated from the bedrocks nor were fixed on the towers. A temple which is to be
used as a place of worship is supposed to attain completeness and divinity, only after the
positioning of such crowns or stupis on the towers.
Learn about the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI), the premier institution in India for
archaeological research engaged in research and conservation, and protection and
preservation of ancient monuments and archaeological sites in the country.
3) Arjuna’s Penance or Descent of the Ganga–Its Interpretation:

 This 7th century AD masterpiece of sculpture carved by Maandhaatar is 25 metres in

length and 12 metres in height and is regarded as the world’s largest Bas Relief.
 Here Arjuna is seen as doing penance for obtaining the powerful Pasupatha Astra
(this powerful weapon in the possession of Siva is supposed to generate a
continuous stream of arrows once fired) from Lord Siva for the ensuing war with his
cousins, the Kauravas.
 Siva is shown with his trident, axe and the cobra twirled around his neck. His
foremost left hand is in the position of granting a boon to his devotee. Above him is
Chandra, the moon god and below him and on his sides are the dwarves.
 There are more than 150 beautiful, life-like figures in this monument and can be
termed as a virtual exhibition of sculptures.
 Apart from the gods and goddesses {Siva, Vishnu, Surya, Chandra, celestial
musicians like Kinnaras and Gandharvas, Bhuta ganas (dwarves)},there are sages
doing penance, hunters, ordinary human beings, serpents, wild animals like lion,
elephant and deer and domestic animals like cat and mouse.
 Right in the middle of the monument, dividing it vertically into 2 halves can be seen a
narrow fissure which is believed to stand for the holy river Ganga. Some scholars
believe that this monument may also represent the ‘Descent of the river Ganges’
from heaven to the earth. Archaeologists claim that once upon a time, water really
flowed in the cleft of the rock.
 Most of the living beings in the monument are seen facing the river and many appear
to be rushing towards it. This monument symbolizes the fact that there cannot be any
life in this planet without water.
 The 5 dwarves behind Siva stand for the 5 material elements- air, earth, space, fire
and water which are also the correlates of the five senses.
 The belly masked dwarf under the extended hand of Siva is Pasupatha weapon
personified, thus representing the boon itself that Siva grants to Arjuna.
 The carving of huge elephants on the relief is regarded as the finest elephant
sculptures in India. The largest elephant clearly exhibits bifurcated tusks, an attribute
characteristic of Airavata, the mount of God Indra.
 A cat is shown doing penance just like Arjuna, with hands raised surrounded by the
mice. This is a representation of the Panchatantra story.
 The relief also depicts the Badari hermitage scene organised around a Vishnu
temple.

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  The lion and deer are shown co-existing.
 Arjuna is shown seated as an ascetic in his earlier incarnation as Nara, representing
the human aspect.
 He is in the company of his friend Narayana or Vishnu, enshrined in the temple,
being the divine representation.
 There are worshippers depicted as standing in ankle-deep water, one raising his
arms overhead to worship the sun, while the other bowing towards the sacred river.
Close by are 2 bathers performing activities common to any river bank. One wrings
out a garment after bathing while the other fetches water in a pot. The one with the
pot points his 2 fingers at one of the headless figures.

o According to some scholars, the 2 headless figures maybe that of Agasthya,

the sage and Drona, the teacher, both born out of pots as per mythology.
o The headless figure with a yoga-patta, a band across his waist and legs is
believed to be King Narasimhavarman himself, who was the patron of the
relief.
o The 2 other headless figures facing him are believed to represent his father
Mahendravarman and grandfather Simha Vishnu.
o These figures are believed to be decapitated by the Chalukya forces, the
sworn enemies of the Pallavas [In 674 AD, thirty two years after the sack of
Vatapi (642 AD) by Narasimhavarman I, the Chalukyan king Vikramaditya I,
son of Pulakesin II, exacted revenge by invading and conquering the
Pallavas]
 Some scholars believe that this Great Bas Relief is a simultaneous double
narrative, depicting the stories of both Ajuna and Bhagiratha. As regards its
primary objective, its subject is none other than king Narasimhavarman
himself and the Arjuna or Bhagiratha like ascetic stands only as a paragon of
the victorious king Mamalla. Thus, it is actually a triple narrative, whose
purpose is to glorify the succession of kings of the Pallava dynasty.
 Here the descent to earth of the holy river Ganges is compared to the descent
of the Pallavas, from their mythical ancestor Lord Vishnu himself.
 Also, in another dimension the Bas Relief is believed to be an inspiration of
the Sanskrit literary masterpiece Kiratarjuniya by the great poet Bharavi. The
Great Penance Relief is regarded as a visual Kiratarjuniya which narrates the
story of Arjuna and Lord Shiva, who came in the guise of a Kirata, the hunter.
The intense penance that Arjuna did and how Lord Shiva blessed him and
granted him the mighty Pasupatha weapon form the story. The hero of the
work is Arjuna, who is believed to be the ascetic doing penance in the Great
Relief. That he is Arjuna is also indicated by the presence of the monkey
below the ascetic and the snake princess in the fissure. Arjuna’s flag has a
monkey in it and the naga (snake) princess is Ulupi, one of the queens of
Arjuna.

The names of the Pallava kings generally end with the word ‘Varman’. Varman literally
means ‘he that is protected by’. The headless figure of king Narasimhavarman is placed
under the temple of Lord Vishnu, right beneath Vishnu’s protective upraised palm, implying
that the entire succession of the Pallava kings was under the protection of none other than
Lord Vishnu, their mythical ancestor.

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  According to some scholars, the 2 headless figures facing king Narasimhavarman
are ‘doubles’, representing both the Pallava kings Mahendravarman and Simha
Vishnu and also sage Agasthya and Drona.
 Agasthya is represented here to show that Mamalla destroyed the city of Vatapi, just
as Agasthya destroyed the demon by the same name Vatapi.
 Drona, the father of Ashvatthama is given importance here as an illustrious ancestor
of the Pallavas

Some other monuments at Mahabalipuram include:

i. Krishna’s Butterball: Is a huge boulder that stands precariously on a rock and formed
due to weathering. It is named so after the prodigious fondness for butter of Lord Krishna.
ii. Pancha Pandava Cave
iii. Trimurthy Cave: Is dedicated to the Trimurtis- Brahma, Vishnu and Siva.
iv. Mahishamardhini Cave: Contains 3 cells in the cave and on the back wall of the central
cell is the representation of Somaskanda (ie, Lord Skanda sitting between his parents Siva
and Parvathi). The figure of Somaskanda is a Pallava speciality. At either end of this cave
are 2 large panels, one representing Mahishamardhini and the other Seshasayi Vishnu.
v. Tiger Cave: Is a rock-cut shrine of Goddess Durga belonging to the period of Rajasimha.
And nearby is found a Subramanya temple.
vi. Athiranachandha Cave: Is a cave temple dedicated to Siva and named after King
Athiranachanda, one of the surnames of king Rajasimha.

vii. Krishna Mandapam: Depicts in sculpture Krishna effortlessly lifting the Govardhana hill
to protect the people from the severe storm caused by Indra. This representation of the
Govardhana scene is regarded as the best in India.
viii. Varaha Mandapam: Is a 7th century cave temple of the period of king Narasimhavarman
and dedicated to the 3rd incarnation of Vishnu namely,Varaha. One of its panels contains a
beautiful sculpture of Trivikrama, the giant form which Vishnu assumed to subdue the demon
king Mahabali.
ix. Adi Varaha Mandapam: This cave temple was begun by Narasimhavarman and
completed by his grandson Parameswaravarman and hence named ‘Parameswara Maha
Varaha Vishnugriham’. In the sanctum made of mortar (and not stone) and brightly painted is
found the figure of Varaha, the boar, raising the mother earth from the ocean. It also
contains the royal portraits of Simhavishnu and Mahendravarman and therefore is
considered to be the royal family shrine (Chapel Royal).

x. Elephant Group: Includes images of adult elephants, 2 little ones, a monkey and a
partridge which some scholars believe is the depiction of a Jataka story related to the
Buddha.
xi. The Ganesha Ratha: Is a monolithic temple constructed during the reign of
Parameswaravarman in the latter half of the 7 th century AD. Its roof is designed like the hood
of a country wagon and has 9 vase shaped finials and can be considered as a precursor of
the temple towers, which developed later.

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xii. Vishnu temple: The lord is locally known as Sthalasayana Perumal who is shown carved
lying on the floor with one hand supporting his head and the other in the traditional gesture
of invitation. He is without his usual serpent couch and the conch and discus. His consort is
known by the name of Nila Mangai. The Lord here is said to have manifested for the sake of
his devotee sage Pundarika. This temple is one of the 108 places regarded as sacred by the
Vaishnavites and is an important centre of pilgrimage for them. This temple belongs to the
Vijayanagar period (14th century AD) and raised by king Parangusan.
xiii. Raya Gopuram: Is an unsuccessful attempt by the Vijayanagar rulers who came later at
erecting a tall gopuram, ie an entrance tower. Only its foundation is seen.

xiv. Lion Throne: Is the beautiful sculpture of a majestic lion whose back has been made flat
to serve as a seat and is believed to be the throne of the Pallavas. Some archaeologists
believe that this sculpture and the platform on which it stands must have been the site of a
Pallavan palace. Very close to the throne, right beneath the palace floor is the excavated
remains of a rock cut treasury crypt in which king Narasimhavarman is believed to have
stored the enormous fortune that he brought from the Chalukyan capital Vatapi after its
conquest.

xv. Old Light House: Is a cave temple dedicated to Siva and excavated by

Parameswaravarman. Its upper storey functioned as a lighthouse being the highest point of
the town. In its premises is also found a masonry Siva temple called Olakkanatha temple,
belonging to the period of Rajasimha.

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Chapter 7 - Bronze Sculptures
Introduction

 Apart from sculpturing in terracotta and stone, ancient Indian artists were masters in
bronze sculpting as well.
 The Lost Wax Technique or the ‘Cire-Perdu’ process has been known from the time
of the Indus Valley Civilization itself. This process is in use even today.
 Bronze is an alloy of basically copper and tin. Sometimes zinc was also added
although most of the component is copper.
 The alloy-making process of mixing metals was known to the ancient Indians.
 Bronze sculptures and statuettes of various icons of Hinduism, Buddhism and
Jainism have been found from various parts of India dating from the 2nd century CE
to the 16th century CE.
 Most of the images were used for religious and ritualistic purposes.
 The metal casting process was also used for making articles of daily use like utensils.

North India

 The statue of the Dancing Girl found from Mohenjo Daro is one of the finest
examples of Indus Valley art. It is a bronze statue showing remarkable achievements
of the artists of the Indus Valley. The figurine is about 4 inches tall. Datable to 2500
BC. It is said to be in the tribhanga It is one of the oldest bronze sculpture.
 Chariot at Daimabad: datable to 1500 BC.
 Images of Jain Teerthankaras

o Found in Chausa, Bihar belonging to the Kushana Period (2nd century CE).
o Images show the mastery of artists in modelling masculine human physique.
o A remarkable depiction of Adinath or Vrishabhanath (the first Teerthankara)
with long hair (generally the Teerthankaras are shown with short curly hair).
 Buddha images have been found in north India, particularly UP and Bihar.
o Standing Buddhas with the right hand in Abhaya Mudra.
o Gupta and pre-Gupta period.
o The Sanghati or the robe is wrapped over the shoulders and turn over the
right arm, while the other end of the robe covers the left arm.
o The clothes of the Buddha figures are thin.
o Youthful and proportionate figures.
o Bronze images from Dhanesar Khera, UP: Mathura style drapery which is a
series of dropping down curves.
o Buddha image at Sultanganj, Bihar: Sarnath style, less drapery.
o Bronze from Phophnar, Maharashtra: Vakataka images, contemporary to
Gupta period. Influenced by the 3rd century Amaravati style from Andhra

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 Pradesh. These images were portable and were carried by monks from place
to place for personal worship or installation at a vihara.
 Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir regions’ Buddhist and Hindu deities.
o Period: 8th, 9th and 10th centuries.
o Growth of different types of iconography of Vishnu images is seen.
o Worship of four-headed Vishnu: Chaturanana or Vaikuntha Vishnu.
 Nalanda School of Bronze (Buddhist)
o Emergence: 9th century CE. Pala period.
o In regions of Bengal and Bihar.
o Four-armed Avalokiteswara: Good example of a male figure in the tribhanga
pose.
o During the Vajrayana phase of Buddhism, the worship of the female form was
seen. Tara images were popular.

South India

 The bronze casting technique and the sculpting of bronze images reached its zenith in
the south during the medieval period.
 Pallavas:

o Best Pallava bronze: Icon of Shiva in Ardhaparyanka asana (one leg kept
dangling).
o Right hand in Achamana Mudra (indicating he is about to consume poison).
o Period: 8th century.
 Cholas:
o Chola bronze art is the most sought-after today in the world of art.
o Period: 10th – 12th century CE.
o Exquisite pieces of art developed during this period. This technique is still
practised in south India, particularly in Kumbakonam.
o Great patron of Chola bronze work: widowed queen Sembiyan Maha Devi (10th
century).
o World-famous image: Shiva as Nataraja. (discussed below)
o Wide range of Shiva iconography in the Tanjore region.
o Kalyanasundara Murti: 9th century; marriage is represented by 2 separate
statuettes; Shiva and Parvati’s marriage or panigrahana.
o Ardhanarisvara image: union of Shiva and Parvati is represented.
o There are independent images of Parvati also.

 Vijayanagara:
o Period: 16th century.
o Portrait sculpture is seen wherein artists tried to preserve the knowledge of the
royal patrons for the future generation.

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 o Tirupati: There is a life-size standing bronze sculpture of King Krishnadevaraya
with his 2 queens Tirumalamba and Chinnadevi.
o The physical body is shown as graceful and yet imposing.
o The king and his queens are in praying posture (Namaskara Mudra).
Nataraja (Chola bronze)

 Shiva’s dance is associated with

end of the cosmic world.
 Nataraja means ‘Lord of the
Dance’.
 Shiva is seen balancing on his right
leg. The foot of the right leg is
suppressing the apasmara (the
demon of forgetfulness or
ignorance).
 His left hand is in Bhujangatrasita
stance (depicting kicking away
tirobhava or illusion from the
devotee’s mind).
 Four arms are outstretched.
 Main right hand is in Abhayahasta.
 Upper right-hand holds the Damaru
(his favourite musical instrument –
a percussion instrument to keep
rhythm).
 Main left hand is in Dolahasta and
connects with the right hand’s
Abhayahasta.
 Upper left-hand carries a flame.
 Entire dancing figure is surrounded
by the jvala mala or the garland of
flames.
 Shiva’s locks fly on either side touching the jvala mala.
 Many variations of this model are found.

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Chapter 8
Introduction
 Islam came to India in the 7th and 8th centuries CE chiefly through Muslim traders,
merchants, holy men, and conquerors.
 The religion spread in India over a time period of 600 years.
 Muslims in Gujarat and Sind had begun construction work in the 8th century itself.
But it was only in the 13th century that building activity on a large scale began by the
Turkish State after the Turkish conquest of North India.
 Muslims absorbed many aspects of local architectural traditions and amalgamated
them into their own practices.
 Architecturally, a mix of many techniques, stylized shapes, and surface decorations
evolved through a continuous amalgamation of architectural elements from various
styles. Such architectural entities that showcased multiple styles are known as Indo-
Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.
 While the Hindus were allowed to portray God in their art and were allowed to
conceive manifestations of the divine in any form, the Muslims were forbidden
by their religion to replicate living forms on any surface. So, their religious art
and architecture mainly consisted of arabesque, calligraphy, and geometrical
patterns on plaster and stone.
 Types of architectural buildings: mosques for daily prayers, Jama Masjids, dargahs,
tombs, hammams, minars, gardens, sarais or caravansarais, madrasas, Kos minars,
etc.

Categories of Styles

1. Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate)

2. Provincial Style (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur)
3. Mughal Style (Delhi, Agra, and Lahore)
4. Deccani Style (Bijapur, Golconda)

Architectural Influences

 The architecture of Jaunpur and Bengal is distinct.

 Gujarat had more local influence than other styles. Example: toranas (gateways)
from local temple traditions, carvings of bell and chain motifs, lintels in mihrabs, and
carved panels depicting trees.
 Example of provincial style: Dargah of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej (in white
marble; 15th century).

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Decorative Forms

 Designing on plaster through incision or stucco.

 Designs were either left plain or filled with colours.
 Motifs of varieties of flowers (both Indian and foreign) were painted or carved.
 In the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries, tiles were used to surface the walls and domes.
Blue, green, yellow, and turquoise were the popular colours.
 In the wall panels, the surface decoration was done by the techniques of tessellation
(mosaic designs) and pietra dura (a decorative art that is an inlay technique of using
cut and fitted, highly polished coloured stones to create images).

Other decorative forms: arabesque, calligraphy, high and low relief carving, and
profuse use of jalis.

 The roof was generally a

mix of the central dome and other
smaller domes, chatris, and tiny
minarets.
 There was generally an
inverted lotus flower motif and a
metal or stone pinnacle atop the
central dome.

Construction materials
 The walls were quite thick and made of rubble masonry.
 They were then coated with chunam or limestone plaster or dressed stone.
 Stones used: sandstone, quartzite, buff, marble, etc.
 Polychrome tiles were also used.
 Bricks were used from the 17th century.

Forts

 Forts symbolise the seat of power of a ruler. Many large forts with embattlements
were built in the medieval times.
 When a fort was captured, it meant the ruler who owned the fort had to surrender.
 E.g.: Chittor, Gwalior, and Daulatabad
 Chittorgarh is the largest fort in Asia.
 Forts were constructed using great heights so that they were impregnable to enemy
forces. Inside there were places for offices and residences.
 Many complex features were added in the structure and design so as to make
breaching the walls of the forts challenging.
 Golconda Fort (Hyderabad) had concentric circles of outer walls. Daulatabad Fort
had staggered entrances so that even elephants could not be used to open the
gates.

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Minars

 Minar was a form of stambha or tower.

 Examples of medieval minars: Qutub Minar in Delhi, Chand Minar at Daulatabad
Fort.
 Everyday use of the minar: azaan (call to prayer).
 Qutub Minar

o 13th century
o Construction started by Qutub-ud-din Aibak (Delhi Sultanate ruler) and
completed by his successor Iltutmish.
o UNESCO World Heritage Site
o 234 feet high
o The tower is divided into five storeys
o The mix of polygonal and circular shapes
o Material: red and buff sandstone with some marble in the upper storeys
o Highly decorated balconies
o There are inscriptions intertwined with foliated designs
o It came to be associated with Khwaja Qutubuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki, a revered
saint of Delhi

 Chand Minar, Daulatabad

o 15th century
o 210 feet high
o The tapering tower has four storeys
o Work of architects from Delhi and Iran

Tombs

 Tombs are monumental structures over the graves of rulers and royalty.
 They were a common medieval feature in India.
 Examples: tombs of Ghyasuddin Tughlaq, Humayun, Akbar, Abdur Rahim Khan-i-
Khanan, Itmaduddaula.
 The idea behind the tomb according to Anthony Welch was “eternal paradise as a
reward for the true believer on the Day of Judgement.”
 Walls had Quranic verses. Tombs were generally placed within paradisiacal
elements like a garden or a water body or both (as in the Taj Mahal).

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Sarais

 Sarais was built on a simple rectangular or square plan around cities.

 They were meant to provide temporary accommodation to travellers, traders, pilgrims
 They were public spaces and a hub of cross-cultural interaction.
Structures for Common People

 Buildings such as those for domestic usage, temples, mosques, dargahs, khanqahs,
pavilions in the buildings and gardens, bazaars, commemorative gateways, etc.
 Here also, mixing of styles, techniques, and decorative patterns were seen. This was a
feature of the medieval period.

Jama Masjid

 Large mosques sprang up during the medieval times in India.

 Congregational prayers were held every Friday afternoon. A quorum of 40 Muslim
male adults was required for this to take place.
 At the time of the prayers, a khutba was read out in the name of the ruler along with
his laws for the realm.
 Generally, a city had one Jama Masjid and this place became the centre of the town
for religious, commercial, and political activities.
 Generally, Jama Masjids were large with open courtyards.
 They were surrounded on three sides by cloisters with the Qibla Liwan to the west.
The mihrab and the mimbar for the Imam were located here.
 The mihrab indicated the direction of the Kaaba in Mecca and so people faced the
mihrab while offering prayers.

Architecture in Mandu, Madhya Pradesh

 Mandu is located 60 miles from Indore in Madhya Pradesh.
 The city is at an elevation of 2000 feet overlooking the Malwa Plateau to the north
and the Narmada Valley to the south.
 It was constantly occupied by the Parmara Rajputs, Afghans and Mughals because
of its natural defence.
 It was the capital of the Ghauri Dynasty (1401 – 1561) founded by Hoshang Shah.
 Great example of the medieval provincial style of art and architecture.
 It has many official and residential pleasure palaces, mosques, artificial reservoirs,
pavilions, baolis, embattlements, etc.
 Most structures have arched pavilions, and are light and airy, so that they do not
retain heat.
 Local stone and marble were used.
 Great example of architectural adaptation to the environment.
 Royal Enclave: Set of romantic buildings built around 2 artificial lakes.
 Hindola Mahal

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 o Audience hall of the Sultan
o Resembles a railway viaduct bridge with its large buttresses to support the
walls
o Batter was used to give the impression of swinging (hindola) walls

 Jahaaz Mahal
o Two-storeyed ship-palace
o Built between 2 reservoirs
o Has open pavilions, balconies and a terrace
o Built by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khilji possibly for using as his harem
o Had a terrace swimming pool
 Rani Rupamati’s double pavilion
 Baz Bahadur’s palace
 Asharfi Mahal – a madrassa
 Hoshang Shah’s tomb
o Example of the robustness of Afghan structures
o Majestic structure with a beautiful dome
o Has marble jail work, courts, porticos and towers
o Also has lattice work, toranas and carved brackets
 Jama Masjid
o Has a grand gateway and a squat dome
o Building is faced with red sandstone
o Mihrab has a lotus bud fringe
o Qibla Liwan is supported on carved brackets

Taj Mahal
 Built by Mughal Emperor Shah Jahan in memory of his wife Mumtaz Mahal.
 Built from 1632 and took almost 20 years to complete.
 Built by 20000 specialised workers.
 It is a mausoleum.
 It has a simple plan and elevation.
 One of the most famous architectural marvels of India worldwide.
 The structure is breathtakingly symmetrical.
 Made of white marble brought from the Makrana Mines, Rajasthan.
 It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
 Its monumental gateway is made of red sandstone.
 The tomb is set in a Chahar Bagh, criss-crossed with paths and water courses, along
with pools and fountains.
 The tomb is on a floor terrace. On the four sides of the terrace, there are four tall
minarets which are 132 feet high each.

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  The main building has a drum and a dome with four cupolas.
 Towards the west of the structure is a mosque made of red sandstone.
 Towards the east is a similar structure to maintain the balance.
 Interior arrangements of the mausoleum: crypt below, vaulted, octagonal tomb
chamber above; there is a room at each angle which are all connected via corridors.
 Light comes into every corner of the building through perforated and carved jalis that
are set in the arched recesses of the interior.
 A double dome helps create a void that makes the ceiling as high as the façade.
 Four types of embellishments:

o Stone carvings in high and low relief on the walls

o Marble carving onto the jalis and volutes
o Creation of arabesques with pietra dura on walls and tombstones, and
geometric designs with tessellation
o Calligraphy – used in the inlay of jasper in white marble to write verses from
the Quran

Gol Gumbad

 Location: Bijapur, Karnataka.

 Mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah
(1626–1656), Adil Shahi Dynasty of
Bijapur (1489–1686).
 Built by Muhammad Adil Shah himself.
 Tomb is a complex consisting of a
gateway, a mosque, a Naqqar Khana,
and a sarai within a big-walled garden.
 The building is a huge square one with
a circular drum. Above the drum is a
majestic dome.
 Material: dark gray basalt with
decorated plasterwork.
 The whole building is over 200 feet
high.
 The tomb has a square chamber.
 The dome is the largest in the world with a diameter of 125 feet and an
uninterrupted floor space of 18337 square feet.
 Pendentives helped build the hemispherical masonry dome over the square base.
 The building has an impressive acoustic system with a whispering gallery where
sounds get magnified and echoed multiple times.
 At the four corners of the building there are seven-storeyed octagonal spires or
minarets.
 This structure is a mix of many styles including local, Timurid and Persian styles.

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