UNIT II

ELECTROMAGNETIC RELAYS
Operating principles of relays - the Universal relay – Torque equation –
R-X diagram – Electromagnetic Relays – Over current, Directional,
Distance, Differential, Negative sequence and Under frequency relays.

2.1 Classification of protective relays

Based on technology used for their construction
 Electromagnetic relay
 Static relay
 Numerical relay
Based on technology used for their time of operation
 Instantaneous relays
 Time delay relays
 High speed relays
 Ultra high speed relays
Based on their function
 Over current relays
 Under/Over voltage relays
 Impedance relays
 Under/over frequency relays
 Directional relays
Based on relays as comparators
 Single input comparator
 Dual input comparator
 Multi input comparator

1
2.2 Electromagnetic relays
Electromechanical relays operate by mechanical forces generated on moving
parts due electromagnetic or electrothermic forces created by the input quantities.
The mechanical force results in physical movement of the moving part which closes
the contacts of the relay for its operation. The operation of the contact arrangement
is used for relaying the operated condition to the desired circuit in order to achieve
the required function. Most electromechanical relays use either electromagnetic
attraction or electromagnetic induction principle for their operation.
2.2.1 Electromagnetic attraction relays
Electromagnetic attraction relays operate by virtue of an armature being
attracted to the poles of an electromagnet or a plunger being drawn into a
solenoid. Such relays may be actuated by d.c. or a.c. quantities. These relays
are non directional and also termed as magnitude relays.
Types

 Attracted armature type relay

 Solenoid type relay
 Balanced beam type relay
2.2.1.1 Attracted armature type relay

Fig 2.1 Attracted armature type relay

It consists of a laminated electromagnet M carrying a coil C and a pivoted
laminated armature. The armature is balanced by a counterweight and carries a pair
of spring contact fingers at its free end. Under normal operating conditions, the
current through the relay coil C is such that counterweight holds the armature in the
position shown.

. However, when a short circuit occurs, the current through the relay coil
increases sufficiently and the relay armature is attracted upwards. The contacts on
the relay armature bridge a pair of stationary contacts attached to the relay frame.
This completes the trip circuit which results in the opening of the circuit breaker and,
therefore, in the disconnection of the faulty circuit. The minimum current at which
the relay armature is attracted to close the trip circuit is called pickup current.

2
2.2.1.2 Solenoid type relay

Fig 2.2 Solenoid type relay

It consists of a solenoid and movable iron plunger arranged as shown in fig

2.2. Under normal operating conditions, the current through the relay coil C is such
that it holds the plunger by gravity or spring in the position shown. However, on the
occurrence of a fault, the current through the relay coil becomes more than the
pickup value, causing the plunger to be attracted to the solenoid. The upward
movement of the plunger closes the trip circuit, thus opening the circuit breaker and
disconnecting the faulty circuit.
2.2.1.3 Balanced beam type relay

Fig 2.3 Balanced beam type relay

It consists of an iron armature fastened to a balance beam. Under normal
operating conditions, the current through the relay coil is such that the beam is held
in the horizontal position by the spring. However, when a fault occurs, the current
through the relay coil becomes greater than the pickup value and the beam is
attracted to close the trip circuit. This causes the opening of the circuit breaker to
isolate the faulty circuit.
2.2.2 Electromagnetic induction relays
Electromagnetic induction relays operate on the principle of induction
motor and are widely used for protective relaying purposes involving a.c.
quantities. They are not used with d.c. quantities owing to the principle of operation.
An induction relay essentially consists of a pivoted aluminium disc placed in two
alternating magnetic fields of the same frequency but displaced in time and space.
The torque produced in the disc by the insertion of one of the magnet fields with
currents induced in the disc by other.

3
 To understand the production of torque in an induction relay, refer to the
elementary arrangement shown in Figure. 2.4

Fig 2.4 Production of torque in an induction relay

Two a.c. fluxes  2 and 1 differing in phase by an angle α induce emf’s in the
disc and cause the circulation of eddy currents i2 and i1 respectively. These currents
lag behind their respective fluxes by 90o.
Where the two a.c. fluxes and induced currents are shown separately for
clarity. The current i 1 (produced by flux 1 ) reacts with flux  2 and develops force F2
and current i2 (produced by flux  2 ) reacts with flux 1 and develops force F1.
1  1 max sin  t
 2   2 max sin  t   

where 1 and  2 are the instantaneous values of fluxes and  2 leads 1 by an

angle α.
Assuming that the paths in which the rotor currents flow have negligible self-
inductance, the rotor currents will be in phase with their voltages.
d1
i1  
d
1 sin  t 
dt dt max
i1  1 max cos  t
d 2
i2  
d
 2 sin  t   
dt dt max
i2   2 max cos  t   
F1  1 i2
F2   2 i1
Net Force
F  F2  F1
  2 i1  1 i2
  2 max sin  t   1 max cos  t  1 max sin  t  2 max cos  t   
 1 max  2 max sin  t    cos  t  sin  t cos  t   
 1 max  2 max sin 
F  1 2 sin 

4
Important points
 The greater the phase angle α between the fluxes, the greater is the net force
applied to the disc. Obviously, the maximum force will be produced when the
two fluxes are 90° out of phase.
 The net force is the same at every instant. This fact does not depend upon the
assumptions made in arriving at equation.
 The direction of net force and hence the direction of motion of the disc
depends upon which flux is leading.
Types
 Shaded-pole structure
 Watt-hour-meter or double winding structure
 Induction cup structure
2.2.2.1 Shaded-pole structure

Fig 2.5 Shaded pole structure

It consists of a pivoted aluminium disc free to rotate in the air-gap of an

electromagnet. One half of each pole of the magnet is surrounded by a copper band
known as shading ring.
The alternating flux  S in the shaded portion of the poles will, owing to the
reaction of the current induced in the ring; lag behind the flux  u in the unshaded
portion by an angle α. These two a.c. fluxes differing in phase will produce the
necessary torque to rotate the disc. As proved earlier, the driving torque T is given
by
T  su sin 
Assuming the fluxes  S and  u to be proportional to the current I in the relay
coil,
T  I 2 sin 
This shows that driving torque is proportional to the square of current in the
relay coil.

5
2.2.2.2 Watt-hour-meter structure

Fig 2.6 Watt-hour-meter or double winding structure

It consists of a pivoted aluminum disc arranged to rotate freely between the
poles of two electromagnets. The upper electromagnet carries two windings primary
and the secondary. The primary winding carries the relay current I1 while the
secondary winding is connected to the winding of the lower magnet. The primary
current induces e.m.f. in the secondary and so circulates a current I2 in it. The flux  2
induced in the lower magnet by the current in the secondary winding of the upper
magnet will lag behind 1 by an angle α. The two fluxes 1 and  2 differing in phase
by α will produce a driving torque on the disc proportional to 1  2 sin α.
The operation can be controlled by opening or closing the secondary winding
circuit. If this circuit is opened, no flux can be set by the lower magnet however
greater the value of current in the primary winding may be and consequently no
torque will be produced. Therefore, the relay can be made inoperative by opening its
secondary winding circuit.
2.2.2.3 Induction cup structure

Fig 2.7 Induction cup structure

6
 It most closely resembles an induction motor, except that the rotor iron is
stationary, only the rotor conductor portion being free to rotate. The moving element
is a hollow cylindrical rotor which turns on its axis. The rotating field is produced by
two pairs of coils wound on four poles as shown in fig 2.7.
The rotating field induces currents in the cup to provide the necessary driving
torque. If 1 and  2 represent the fluxes produced by the respective pairs of poles,
then torque produced is proportional to 1  2 sin α where α is the phase difference
between the two fluxes.
A control spring and the back stop for closing of the contacts carried on an
arm are attached to the spindle of the cup to prevent the continuous rotation.
Induction cup structures are more efficient torque producers than either the shaded-
pole or the watt-hour meter structures. Therefore, this type of relay has very high
speed and may have an operating time less then 0·1 second.

2.3 Important terms

It is desirable to define and explain some important terms much used in
connection with relays.
2.3.1 Pick-up current
It is the minimum current in the relay coil at which the relay starts to operate.
So long as the current in the relay is less than the pick-up value, the relay does not
operate and the breaker controlled by it remains in the closed position. However,
when the relay coil current is equal to or greater than the pickup value, the relay
operates to energize the trip coil which opens the circuit breaker.
2.3.2 Current setting
It is often desirable to adjust the pick-up current to any required value. This is
known as current setting and is usually achieved by the use of tappings on the relay
operating coil. The taps are brought out to a plug bridge as shown in Fig 2.8.

Fig 2.8 Plug Bridge

The plug bridge permits to alter the number of turns on the relay coil. This
changes the torque on the disc and hence the time of operation of the relay. The
values assigned to each tap are expressed in terms of percentage full-load rating of

7
C.T. with which the relay is associated and represents the value above which the
disc commences to rotate and finally closes the trip circuit.
Pick-up current = Rated secondary current of C.T. × Current setting
For example, suppose that an overcurrent relay having current setting of 125% is
connected to a supply circuit through a current transformer of 400/5. The rated
secondary current of C.T. is 5 amperes. Therefore, the pick-up value will be 25%
more than 5 A i.e. 5 × 1·25 = 6·25 A. It means that with above current setting, the
relay will actually operate for a relay coil current equal to or greater than 6·25 A.
The current plug settings usually range from 50% to 200% in steps of 25% for
overcurrent relays and 10% to 70% in steps of 10% for earth leakage relays. The
desired current setting is obtained by inserting a plug between the jaws of a bridge
type socket at the tap value required.
2.3.3 Plug-setting multiplier (P.S.M.)
It is the ratio of fault current in relay coil to the pick-up current

` For example, suppose that a relay is connected to a 400/5 current transformer

and set at 150%. With a primary fault current of 2400 A, the plug-setting multiplier
can be calculated as under:

2.3.4 Time-setting multiplier

A relay is generally provided with control to adjust the time of operation. This
adjustment is known as time-setting multiplier. The time-setting dial is calibrated from
0 to 1 in steps of 0.05 sec (see Fig 2.9).

Fig 2.9 Time setting dial

8
 These figures are multipliers to be used to convert the time derived from
time/P.S.M. curve into the actual operating time. Thus if the time setting is 0·1 and
the time obtained from the time/P.S.M. curve is 3 seconds, then actual relay
operating time = 3 × 0·1 = 0·3 second.
For instance, in an induction relay, the time of operation is controlled by
adjusting the amount of travel of the disc from its reset position to its pickup position.
This is achieved by the adjustment of the position of a movable backstop which
controls the travel of the disc and thereby varies the time in which the relay will close
its contacts for given values of fault current. A so-called “time dial” with an evenly
divided scale provides this adjustment. The actual time of operation is calculated by
multiplying the time setting multiplier with the time obtained from time/P.S.M. curve
of the relay.
2.3.5 Time/P.S.M. Curve
Fig.2.10 shows the curve between time of operation and plug setting multiplier
of a typical relay. The horizontal scale is marked in terms of plug-setting multiplier
and represents the number of times the relay current is in excess of the current
setting. The vertical scale is marked in terms of the time required for relay operation.
If the P.S.M. is 10, then the time of operation (from the curve) is 3 seconds. The
actual time of operation is obtained by multiplying this time by the time-setting
multiplier.

Fig 2.10 Time/P.S.M. Curve

It is evident from Fig 2.10 that for lower values of overcurrent, time of
operation varies inversely with the current but as the current approaches 20 times
full-load value, the operating time of relay tends to become constant. This feature is
necessary in order to ensure discrimination on very heavy fault currents flowing
through sound feeders.

9
2.3.6 Calculation of Relay Operating Time
In order to calculate the actual relay operating time, the following things must
be known :
(a) Time/P.S.M. curve
(b) Current setting
(c) Time setting
(d) Fault current
(e) Current transformer ratio
The procedure for calculating the actual relay operating time is as follows:
(i) Convert the fault current into the relay coil current by using the current transformer
ratio.
(ii) Express the relay current as a multiple of current setting i.e. calculate the P.S.M.
(iii) From the Time/P.S.M. curve of the relay, read off the time of operation for the
calculated P.S.M.
(iv) Determine the actual time of operation by multiplying the above time of the relay
by timesetting multiplier in use.
Example 2.1
Determine the time of operation of a 5-ampere, 3-second overcurrent
relay having a current setting of 125% and a time setting multiplier of 0·6
connected to supply circuit through a 400/5 current transformer when
the circuit carries a fault current of 4000 A.

2.4 Functional Relay Types

Most of the relays in service on power system today operate on the principle
of electromagnetic attraction or electromagnetic induction. Regardless of the
principle involved, relays are generally classified according to the function they are
called upon to perform in the protection of electric power circuits. For example, a
relay which recognizes overcurrent in a circuit (i.e. current greater than that which
can be tolerated) and initiates corrective measures would be termed as an
overcurrent relay irrespective of the relay design. Similarly an overvoltage relay is
one which recognizes overvoltage in a circuit and initiates the corrective measures.
(i) Induction type overcurrent relays
(ii) Induction type reverse power relays
(iii) Distance relays
(iv) Differential relays
(v) Translay scheme

10
2.5 Induction Type Overcurrent Relay (non-directional)
This type of relay works on the induction principle and initiates corrective
measures when current in the circuit exceeds the predetermined value. The
actuating source is a current in the circuit supplied to the relay from a current
transformer. These relays are used on a.c. circuits only and can operate for fault
current flow in either direction.
Constructional details

Fig 2.11 Typical non directional induction type overcurrent relay

Fig 2.11 shows the important constructional details of a typical nondirectional
induction type overcurrent relay. It consists of a metallic (aluminium) disc which is
free to rotate in between the poles of two electromagnets. The upper electromagnet
has a primary and a secondary winding. The primary is connected to the secondary
of a C.T. in the line to be protected and is tapped at intervals. The tappings are
connected to a plug-setting bridge by which the number of active turns on the relay
operating coil can be varied, thereby giving the desired current setting.
The secondary winding is energized by induction from primary and is
connected in series with the winding on the lower magnet. The controlling torque is
provided by a spiral spring. The spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which
bridges two fixed contacts (connected to trip circuit) when the disc rotates through a
pre-set angle. This angle can be adjusted to any value between 0o and 360o. By

11
adjusting this angle, the travel of the moving contact can be adjusted and hence the
relay can be given any desired time setting.
Operation
The fluxes produced by the primary and secondary windings are separated in
phase and space and a rotational toque is set up on the aluminium disc. This torque
is opposed the restraining torque provided by the spring. Under normal operating
conditions, restraining torque is greater than driving torque produced by the relay coil
current and hence the aluminium disc remains stationary. However, when the current
in the protected circuit exceeds the preset value, the driving torque becomes greater
than the restraining torque. Consequently the disc rotates and the moving contact
bridges the fixed contacts when the disc has rotated through a preset angle. The trip
circuit operates the circuit breaker and the faulty section is isolated.

2.6 Induction type directional power relay

This type of relay operates when power in the circuit flows in a specific
direction. Unlike a non directional overcurrent relay, a directional power relay is so
designed that it obtains its operating torque by the interaction of magnetic fields
derived from both voltage and current source of the circuit it protects. Thus this type
of relay is essentially a wattmeter and the direction of the torque setup in the relay
depends upon the direction of the current relative to the voltage with which it is
associated.

(i) (ii)
Fig 2.12 Induction type directional power relay
Constructional details
Fig 2.12 shows the essential parts of a typical induction type directional power
relay. It consists of an aluminum disc which is free to rotate in between the poles of
two electromagnets. The upper electromagnet carries a winding (called potential coil)
on the central limb which is connected through a potential transformer (P.T.) to the

12
circuit voltage source. The lower electromagnet has a separate winding (called
current coil) connected to the secondary of C.T. in the line to be protected.
The current coil is provided with a number of tappings connected to the plug
setting bridge (not shown for clarity). This permits to have any desired current
setting. The restraining torque is provided by a spiral spring.
The spindle of the disc carries a moving contact which bridges two fixed
contacts when the disc has rotated through a pre-set angle. By adjusting this angle,
the travel of the moving disc can be adjusted and hence any desired time-setting can
be given to the relay.
Operation
The flux 1 due to current in the potential coil will be nearly 90º lagging behind
the applied voltage V. The flux  2 due to current coil will be nearly in phase with the
operating current I [See vector diagram in Fig. 2.12 (ii)]. The interaction of fluxes 1
and  2 with the eddy currents induced in the disc produces a driving torque given by

:
It is clear that the direction of driving torque on the disc depends upon the
direction of power flow in the circuit to which the relay is associated. When the power
in the circuit flows in the normal direction, the driving torque and the restraining
torque (due to spring) help each other to turn away the moving contact from the fixed
contacts. Consequently, the relay remains inoperative.
However, the reversal of current in the circuit reverses the direction of driving
torque on the disc. When the reversed driving torque is large enough, the disc
rotates in the reverse direction and the moving contact closes the trip circuit. This
causes the operation of the circuit breaker which disconnects the faulty section.
2.7 Induction type directional over current relay
The directional power relay is unsuitable for use as a directional protective
relay under short-circuit conditions. When a short circuit occurs, the system voltage
falls to a low value and there may be insufficient torque developed in the relay to
cause its operation. This difficulty is overcome in the directional over current relay
which is designed to be almost independent of system voltage and power factor.
It consists of two relay elements mounted on a common case viz. directional
element and non-directional element.
Directional element
It is essentially a directional power relay which operates when power flows in
a specific direction. The potential coil of this element is connected through a potential
transformer (P.T.) to the system voltage. The current coil of the element is energized
through a C.T. by the circuit current.

13
 This winding is carried over the upper magnet of the non-directional element.
The trip contacts (1 and 1’) of the directional element are connected in series with
the secondary circuit of the over current element. Therefore, the latter element
cannot start to operate until its secondary circuit is completed. In other words, the
directional element must operate first (i.e. contacts 1 and 1’ should close) in order to
operate the over current element.

Fig 2.13 Induction type directional over current relay

Non-directional element
It is an over current element similar in all respects to a non directional over
current relay. The spindle of the disc of this element carries a moving contact which
closes the fixed contacts (trip circuit contacts) after the operation of directional
element. It may be noted that plug-setting bridge is also provided in the relay for

14
current setting but has been omitted in the figure for clarity and simplicity. The
tappings are provided on the upper magnet of over current element and are
connected to the bridge.
Operation
Under normal operating conditions, power flows in the normal direction in the
circuit protected by the relay. Therefore, directional power relay (upper element)
does not operate, thereby keeping the over current element (lower element)
unenergized. However, when a short circuit occurs, there is a tendency for the
current or power to flow in the reverse direction. Should this happen, the disc of the
upper element rotates to bridge the fixed contacts 1 and 1’. This completes the
circuit for over current element. The disc of this element rotates and the moving
contact attached to it closes the trip circuit. This operates the circuit breaker which
isolates the faulty section. The two relay elements are so arranged that final tripping
of the current controlled by them is not made till the following conditions are satisfied
 Current flows in a direction such as to operate the directional element.
 Current in the reverse direction exceeds the pre-set value.
 Excessive current persists for a period corresponding to the time setting of over
current element.
Characteristics

Fig 2.14 Operating characteristics of directional over current relay

Where
V = Relay voltage through PT
I = Relay coil current through CT
θ = Angle between V and I
The system current is generally lagging the voltage but with suitable
connection the relay current is made to lead the voltage by an angle θ.
Current leads voltage V by an angle θ.
ΦV = Flux produced by voltage V
The flux ΦV lags voltage by an angle Φ
ΦI = Flux produced by current I

15
The torque is proportional to the fluxes Φ V, ΦI and sine of the angle between the two
fluxes
T  V  I sin V  I 
T  V  I sin    
Now V  V and  I  I
T  KVI sin    
K  Cons tan t
Maximum torque occurs when sin     is 1 and the torque is zero when
sin     0
This will be satisfied when the relay current I phasor lies along the Φ V phasor
or in antiphase with ΦV. The corresponding line is called zero torque line. Te line is at
right angles to the maximum torque condition line.
Thus the directional element operates, provided that the current phasor lies
within ±90° of the maximum torque line. If it is displaced more than 90°, then the
element will restrain.
Maximum torque angle
The angle by which the current supplied to the relay leads the voltage
supplied to the relay so as to obtain the maximum torque is called maximum torque
angle.
2.8 Universal torque equation
Most of the protection relays consist of some arrangement of electromagnets
with armature or induction disc, which carry contacts. The relays also carry the
closing or opening of contacts control devices like trip coils of circuit breaker. The
electromagnets have current, voltage or both the types of windings. Currents through
windings produce magnetic fluxes and torque is developed by the interaction
between the fluxes of same windings or between the fluxes of both the windings.
In general the torque produced by current winding is proportional to square of
the current and torque produced by voltage winding is proportional to square of the
voltage and torque produced by both the windings is product of voltage and current.
Mathematically we can write

The control springs are used as restraining elements. If all the elements are
present in a relay then total torque produced by all the cases can be expressed by a
general equation as

16
 This equation is called universal torque equation, the term K 4 can be a
restraining torque due to springs or gravity.
By assigning positive and negative signs to certain constants and let other
constants to be zero and sometimes by adding similar other terms, the operating
characteristics equation of all the types of protective relays can be obtained from
universal equation.
2.9 Distance or impedance relays
The operation of the relays discussed so far depended upon the magnitude of
current or power in the protected circuit. However, there is another group of relays in
which the operation is governed by the ratio of applied voltage to current in the
protected circuit. Such relays are called distance or impedance relays. In an
impedance relay, the torque produced by a current element is opposed by the torque
produced by a voltage element. The relay will operate when the ratio V/I is less than
a predetermined value.
As the ratio of V/I affects the performance of these relays, the relays are also
called as. Depending on the ratio of V and I, there are three types of distance relays.
(i) Impedance relay which is based on measurement of impedance Z
(ii) Reactance relay which is based on measurement of reactance X
(iii) Admittance or Mho relay which is based on measurement of component of
admittance Y.
In short, a distance relay is one whose performance is based on the
measurement of impedance, reactance or admittance of line between the location of
relay and the point where fault occurs.
2.9.1 Impedance relay
The impedance relay works corresponding to the ratio of voltage V and
current I of the circuit to be protected. There are two elements of the relay, the
one produces a torque proportional to current and other produces a torque
proportional to voltage. The torque produced by the current is balanced against
torque produced by voltage element. The current element produces operating
torque is called positive torque and voltage element produces restraining
torque is called negative torque. So this relay is called voltage restrained over
current relay.

Fig 2.15 Basic operation of Impedance relay

The current element is energized by current through CT while voltage element
is energized by voltage through PT. The section AB of the line is protected zone.

17
Under normal conditions, the ratio of voltage V and current I is denoted as Z L which
is impedance of line. The relay is inoperative under this condition.
When the fault occurs in the protected zone, then the voltage drop across
while current increases. Thus the ratio V/I reduce drastically. This is the impedance
of line between the points at which relay is connected and the point F at which fault
occurs. So when the impedance reduces than its predetermined values, it trips and
makes the circuit breaker open.
Torque Equation
The positive torque produced by control element is directly proportional to I 2
and negative torque produced by voltage element is directly proportional to V 2.
The control spring effect produces a constant torque of –K3.
The torque equation becomes,

Where K1, K2 are constants. At the balance point when the relay is on the
verge of operating, the net toque is zero and hence

The spring effect is neglected as its effect dominant at low currents which
generally do not occur. So K3=0.

Operating Characteristics

Fig 2.16 Operating Characteristics

18
 For a particular fault position, the ratio V/I is constant. If fault is nearer to
relay, this ratio will be low and as fault position moves away from the relay the ratio
becomes higher and higher. So it can be installed to operate for the section to be
protected and once installed and adjusted for a particular section, it is inoperative
beyond the section.
The effect of spring is dominated for lower values of current, the
characteristics shows at a notable bends at lower currents. The impedance Z which
is predetermined set value is given by

R – X Diagram
The operating characteristics of impedance can be easily represented by R-X
diagram. The fig 2.17 shown in a plane having X axis as resistance (R) and Y axis as
reactance (X). The impedance Z can be expressed as,

Fig 2.17 Characteristics on R-X diagram

The numerical values of ratio V and I determine the length of the radius vector
Z and the phase angle  between V and I determine the exact position of the vector
Z.If I is in phase with V than Z vector lies along R axis. If I lags vector V than X is
negative while if I leads vector V than X is positive. The operation of relay is
independent of phase angle  and hence the operating characteristic is a circle with
radius equal to magnitude of Z which is predetermined value.

19
 At any value of Z less than the radius of the circle, the relay operates. Hence
the entire portion inside the circle is positive torque region (operating region) while
the portion exterior to the circle is negative torque region (non operative region).
2.9.2 Reactance relay
In this relay the operating torque is obtained by current while the
restraining torque is obtained due to current voltage directional relay. The over
current element develops positive torque and directional unit produces negative
torque. The directional is so designed that the maximum torque angle is 90°.
Construction

Fig 2.18 Schematic arrangement of reactance relay

The structure of reactance relay is induction cup type relay. It is a four pole
structure. It has operating coil, polarizing coil and restraining coil. The current I flows
from pole 1 through iron core stacking to lower pole 3. The winding on pole 4 is fed
from voltage V. The operating torque is produced by interaction of fluxes produced
by poles 1, 2 and 3. While the restraining torque is developed due to interaction of
fluxes produced by poles 1, 3 and 4.Hence the operating torque is proportional to
square of the current and restraining torque is proportional to product of V and I. the
desired maximum torque angle is obtained with the help of RC circuit.
Torque Equation

20
 Fig 2.19 Impedance triangle of reactance relay

R – X Diagram

Fig 2.20 Characteristics on R-X diagram

The operating characteristic of this relay is a straight line parallel to R axis.

The entire impedance vector has their tips lying on the straight line representing
constant reactance. The resistance component of the impedance has no effect on
the operation of the relay. It responds only to the reactance component of the
impedance.
21
2.9.3 MHO relay or Admittance relay
The mho relay is made inherently directional by adding a voltage winding
called polarizing winding. This relay works on the measurement of
admittance Y . This relay is called angle impedance relay.

Construction

Fig 2.21 Schematic arrangement of Admittance relay

This relay uses an induction cup type structure. It has an operating coil,
polarizing coil and restraining coil. In this relay the operating torque is obtained by V
and I element while the restraining torque is obtained by a voltage element. Thus an
admittance relay is voltage restrained directional relay.
The operating torque is produced by interaction of the fluxes due to the
windings carried by poles 1, 2 and 3.While the restraining torque is produced by the
interaction of the fluxes due to the windings carried by the poles 1, 3 and 4. Thus the
restraining torque is proportional to the square of the voltage (V 2) while the operating
torque is proportional to the product of voltage and current (VI).The torque angle is
adjusted using series tuning circuit.
Torque Equation

22
R – X Diagram

Fig 2.22 Characteristics on R-X diagram

Consider two lines AB and AC with mho relay located at the point A. The relay
will operate for the faults occurring in the section AB only and not for the faults
occurring in the section AC. This shows that this relay is inherently directional
without any additional directional unit required. The angle  can be adjusted to be
45°, 60° and 75° and so on. This angle is maximum torque angle. The settings of 45°
is used for high voltage(33 or 11KV) distribution lines, the settings of 60° is used for
66 kV or 132 kV lines while setting of 75° is used for 275 kV and 400 kV lines.

2.10 Classification of distance relays

Definite distance relays
These can be of impedance type, reactance type or mho type. This operates
instantaneously for the faults upto certain predetermined distance from the relay.
Distance time relays
These can be also of impedance type, reactance type or mho type. In these
relays the time of operation is proportional to the distance of the fault from the point
where the relay is installed. The fault nearer to the relay operates it faster than for
the faults farther away from the relay.

23
2.10.1 Definite distance type impedance relay

Fig 2.23 Definite distance type impedance relay

It consists of a pivoted beam F and two electromagnets energized
respectively by a current and voltage transformer in the circuit. The armatures of the
two electromagnets are mechanically coupled to the beam on the opposite sides of
the fulcrum. The beam provided with a bridging piece for the trio contacts. The relays
is so designed that the torques produced by the two electromagnets are in the
opposite direction.
Operation
Under normal operating conditions, the pull due to the voltage element is
greater than that of the current element. Therefore, the relay contacts remaining
open. When a fault occurs in the protected zone, the applied voltage to the relay
decreases whereas the current increases. The ratio of voltage to current falls below
the pre determined value. Therefore the pull current element will exceed that due to
the voltage element and this causes the beam tilt in a direction to close the trip
contacts.
The pull of the current is proportional to I 2 and that of voltage elements to V2.
The relay operate when

The value of constants k1 and k2 depends upon the ampere turns of the two
electromagnets. By providing tappings on the coils, the setting value of the relay can
be changed.

24
2.10.2 Time distance impedance relay

Fig 2.24 Time distance impedance relay

 It consists of a current driven induction element similar to the double winding
type induction over current relay. The spindle carrying the disc of this element
is connected by means of spiral spring coupling to a second spindle which
carries the bridging piece of the relay trip contacts. The bridge is normally
held in the open position by an armature held against the pole face of an
electromagnet excited by the voltage source of the circuit to be protected.
Operation
Under normal operating conditions, the pull of the armature is more than that
of the induction element and hence the trip contacts remain open. However on the
occurrence of a short circuit, the disc of the induction current element starts to rotate
at a speed depending upon the operating current.
As the rotation of the disc proceeds, the spiral spring coupling is wound up till
the tension of the spring is sufficient to pull the armature away from the pole face of
the voltage excited magnet.
Immediately this occurs, the spindle carrying the armature and bridging piece
moves rapidly in response to the tension of the spring and trip contacts are closed.
This opens the circuit breaker to isolate the faulty section.
The speed of rotation of disc is approximately proportional to the operating
current neglecting the effect of control spring. Also the time of operation of the relay
is directly proportional to the pull of the voltage excited magnet and hence to the line

25
voltage V at the point where the relay is connected. Therefore the time of operation
of relay would vary as V/I (as Z or distance).
2.11 Differential relays
Most of the relays relied on excess of current for their operation. Such relays
are less sensitive because they cannot make correct distinction between heavy load
conditions and minor fault conditions. In order to overcome this difficulty, differential
relays are used.
A differential relay is one that operates when the phasor difference of
two or more similar electrical quantities exceeds a pre-determined value.
Thus a current differential relay is one that compares the current entering a
section of the system with the current leaving the section. Under normal operating
conditions, the two currents are equal but as soon as a fault occurs, this condition no
longer applies. The difference between the incoming and outgoing currents is
arranged to flow through the operating coil of the relay. If this differential current is
equal to or greater than the pickup value, the relay will operate and open the circuit
breaker to isolate the faulty section.
There are two fundamental systems of differential or balanced protection.
 Current balance protection
 Voltage balance protection
2.11.1 Current balanced Differential Relay

Fig 2.25 Current balanced differential relay

A pair of identical current transformers is fitted on either end of the section to
be protected (alternator winding). The secondaries of CT’s are connected in series in
such a way that they carry the induced currents in the same direction. The operating
coil of the over current relay is connected across the CT secondary circuit.
Under normal operating condition, when there is no fault or there is an
external fault, the currents in the two CTs secondaries are equal and relay operating
coil. Therefore does not carry any current.

26
 Whenever there is an internal fault, currents in the secondaries of CTs are
different; the relay operating coil gets energized by the current equal to their
difference and trip circuit is completed to operate the circuit breaker.

Disadvantages
 The impedance of the pilot cables generally causes a slight difference
between the currents at the two ends of the section to be protected. If the
relay is very sensitive, then the small differential current flowing through the
relay may cause it to operate even under no fault conditions.
 Pilot cable capacitance causes incorrect operation of the relay when a large
through-current flows.
 Accurate matching of current transformers cannot be achieved due to pilot
circuit impedance.
2.11.2 Biased beam Relay
This is also called as percentage differential relay. It is designed to respond
the differential current in terms of its fractional relation to the current flowing through
the protected section.

Fig 2.26 Biased beam relay

It is essentially an over current balanced beam relay type with an additional

restraining coil. The restraining coil produces a bias force in the opposite direction to
the operating force.
Under normal operating conditions, the bias force due to restraining coil is
greater than the operating force. So the relay remains inoperative. When an internal
fault occurs, the operating force exceeds the biasing force. Consequently, the trip
contacts are closed to open the circuit breaker. The bias force can be adjusted by
varying the number of turns in the restraining coil.

27
Equivalent Circuit

Fig 2.27 Equivalent circuit

The differential current in the operating coil is proportional to i 2-i1 and the
i i
equivalent current in the restraining coil is proportional to 1 2 . Since the operating
2
coil is connected to the midpoint of the restraining coil. It is clear that greater the
current flowing through the restraining coil the higher value of current required in the
operating winding to trip the relay. Thus under heavy load, a greater differential
current through the relay operating coil is required for operation than under light load
conditions.
2.11.3 Voltage Balanced Differential Relay
In this scheme of protection, two similar current transformers are connected at
either end of the element to be protected (e.g. an alternator winding) by means of
pilot wires. The secondaries of current transformers are connected in series with a
relay in such a way that under normal conditions, their induced e.m.f.s’ are in
opposition.

Fig 2.28 Voltage Balanced Differential Relay

Under healthy conditions, equal currents (I1 = I2) flow in both primary
windings. Therefore, the secondary voltages of the two transformers are balanced
against each other and no current will flow through the relay operating coil. When a
fault occurs in the protected zone, the currents in the two primaries will differ from
one another (i.e. I1 ≠ I2) and their secondary voltages will no longer be in balance.

28
This voltage difference will cause a current to flow through the operating coil of the
relay which closes the trip circuit.

Disadvantages
 A multi-gap transformer construction is required to achieve the accurate
balance between current transformer pairs
 The system is suitable for protection of cables of relatively short lengths due
to the capacitance of pilot wires. On long cables, the charging current may be
sufficient to operate the relay even if a perfect balance of current transformers
is attained
Difficulties of differential protection
 Difference in pilot wire lengths
 CT ratio errors during short circuits
 Tap changing operation in transformers
 Saturation of CT magnetic circuits during short circuit conditions
 Magnetizing in rush current in transformers
2.12 Negative sequence relay
The negative relays are also called phase unbalance relays because
these relays provide protection against negative sequence component of
unbalanced currents existing due to unbalanced loads or phase-phase faults.
The unbalanced currents are dangerous from generators and motors point of view
as these currents can cause overheating. Negative sequence relays are generally
used to give protection to generators and motors against unbalanced currents.

Fig 2.29 Circuit diagram of negative sequence relay

29
 A negative sequence relay has a filter circuit which is operative only for negative
sequence components. Low order of over current also can cause dangerous situations
hence a negative sequence relay has low current settings. The earth relay provides
protection for phase to earth fault but not for phase to phase fault. A negative sequence
relay provides protection against phase to phase faults which are responsible to
produce negative sequence components.
Basically it consists of a resistance bridge network. The magnitudes of the
impedances of all the branches of the network are equal. The impedances Z 1 and Z3 are
purely resistive while the impedances Z2 and Z4 are the combinations of resistance and
reactance. The currents in the branches Z2 and Z4 lags by 60° from the currents in the
branches Z1 and Z3. The vertical branch B-D consists of inverse time characteristics
relay. The relay has negligible impedance.

Fig 2.30 Phasor diagram

The current IR gets divided into two equal parts I1 and I2. I2 lags I1 by 60°

Now I1 leads IR by 30° while I2 lags IR by 30°. Similarly the current IB gets divided two
equal parts I3 and I4. The current I3 lags I4 by 60°

30
The current I4 leads IB by 30° while I3 lags IB by 30°. The current entering the relay at
the junction point B is the vector sum of I1,I3 and IY

When the load is balances and no negative sequence currents exist

Fig 2.31 Phasor diagrams

Thus the current entering the relay at point B is zero. Similarly the resultant
current at junction D is also zero. Thus the relay is inoperative for a balanced
system.

Fig 2.32 Negative sequence currents

31
 Now consider that there is an unbalanced load on generator or motor due to
when negative sequence currents exist. The components I 1 and I3 are equal and
opposite of each other at the junction point B. Hence I 1 and I3 cancel each other.
Now the relay coil carries the current I Y and when this current is more than a
predetermined value, the relay trips closing the contacts of trip circuit which opens
the circuit breaker.

Fig 2.33 Zero Sequence currents

The zero sequence component secondary currents are shown in fig.2.33

The total current through the relay is . Thus under zero sequence
currents and total currents if twice the zero sequence current flows through the relay.
Hence the relay operates to open the circuit breaker.

Fig 2.34 Delta connection of CTs

To make the relay sensitive to only negative sequence currents by making it
inoperative under the influence of zero sequence currents is possible by connecting
the current transformers in delta. Under delta connection of CT, no sequence current
can flow in the network.

32
2.13 Under frequency relay
The frequency of the induced e.m.f is related to the speed of the synchronous
generators by the relation,
PN S
f 
120
If the load is reduced, the speed of the synchronous generator increases and
frequency increases. While if load increases, the speed decreases and the
frequency decreases. Hence frequency relays are required if frequency changes
from its normal value and are used in the generator protection and for load frequency
control.
The frequency relays can be electromagnetic or static relays. These can be
either under frequency or over frequency relays.

Fig 2.35 Frequency relay

It consists of two pairs of coils and a cup type rotor. It uses a Ferraris
measuring system. The frequency relays are connected to the secondary of voltage
transformer. The two pairs of coils are connected in parallel to supply voltage
through the impedances.
Now the impedances are the functions of frequency. At normal frequency, the
impedances are tuned balancing each other. Thus no torque is experienced by the
cup type rotor at normal rated frequency. If frequency increases then there is
unbalance in the impedances and torque is clockwise in nature is exerted on the
rotor. This operates the relay if frequency increases beyond the setting. This is over
frequency relay.
If frequency decreases then again there is unbalance in the impedances. But
now torque exerted on the rotor is anticlockwise. This operates the relay if frequency
decreases beyond the setting. This is under frequency relay. By varying the position
of sliding resistor the frequency setting can be adjusted. The pickup selectivity can
be controlled by adjusting the restraining spring.
The under frequency relay is a solid state device that functions to protect the
load in the event generator frequency decreases below preset limits. It actuates
when the frequency decreases to 46 Hz for 50 Hz operation. Upon actuation
33
contacts within the relay close to signal the communicator and open to de energize
the generator contactor, resulting in a display of the fault condition and removal of
the load from the generator.

34