Chapter 1 - Introduction To Database System

Fundamentals of Database System
Chapter One
Introduction to Database system
1.1 Database - Definition and Usage
Database systems are designed to manage large data set in an organization. The data
management involves both definition and the manipulation of the data which ranges from simple
representation of the data to considerations of structures for the storage of information. The data
management also consider the provision of mechanisms for the manipulation of information.
Today, Databases are essential to every business. They are used to maintain internal records, to
present data to customers and clients on the World-Wide-Web, and to support many other
commercial processes. Databases are likewise found at the core of many modern organizations.
The power of databases comes from a body of knowledge and technology that has developed
over several decades and is embodied in specialized software called a database management
system, or DBMS. A DBMS is a powerful tool for creating and managing large amounts of data
efficiently and allowing it to persist over long periods of time, safely. These systems are among
the most complex types of software available.
Thus, for our question: What is a database? In essence a database is nothing more than a
collection of shared information that exists over a long period of time, often many years. In
common dialect, the term database refers to a collection of data that is managed by a DBMS.
Thus the DB course is about:
How to organize data
Supporting multiple users
Efficient and effective data retrieval
Secured and reliable storage of data
Maintaining consistent data
Making information useful for decision making
1.2 Data Management Approaches

Data management passes through the different levels of development along with the
development in technology and services. These levels could best be described by categorizing
the levels into three levels of development. Even though there is an advantage and a problem
overcome at each new level, all methods of data handling are in use to some extent. The major
three levels are;
1. Manual Approach
2. Traditional File Based Approach
3. Database Approach
AASTU Compiled by Chere L. (M.Tech) Page 1

There are two major reason to study the alternative data management approaches
Understanding the problem in those system or approaches, prevents us from repeating
similar problem.
If you want convert these approaches to a database system, understanding how these
system work will be extremely useful.
1) Manual Approach
In the manual approach, data storage and retrieval follows the primitive and traditional way of
information handling where cards and paper are used for the purpose. The data storage and
retrieval will be performed using human labour.
• Files for as many event and objects as the organization has are used to store information.
• Each of the files containing various kinds of information is labelled and stored in one ore
more cabinets.
• The cabinets could be kept in safe places for security purpose based on the sensitivity of
the information contained in it.
• Insertion and retrieval is done by searching first for the right cabinet then for the right the
file then the information.
• One could have an indexing system to facilitate access to the data
Limitations of the Manual approach

• Prone to error
• Difficult to update, retrieve, integrate
• You have the data but it is difficult to compile the information
• Limited to small size information
• Cross referencing is difficult
An alternative approach of data handling is a computerized way of dealing with the information.
The computerized approach could also be either decentralized or centralized base on where the
data resides in the system.
2) Traditional File Based Approach

After the introduction of Computer for data processing to the business community, the need to
use the device for data storage and processing increase. There were, and still are, several
computer applications with file based processing used for the purpose of data handling. Even
though the approach evolved over time, the basic structure is still similar if not identical.
The term File-Based approach refers to the situation where data is stored in one or more separate
computer files. Typically for example, the details of customers may be stored in one file, orders

in another etc. Computer programs to perform the various tasks required by the business process
data that is stored in computer files. Each program, or sometimes a related set of programs, are
called computer applications.
For example, all of the programs associated with processing customer’s orders are referred to as
the order processing application. The file-based approach might have application programs that
deal with purchase orders, invoices, sales and marketing, suppliers, customers, employees, and
so on. We can imagine that some of these different programs might use the same data. If the data
is kept in different files, there could be problems when an item of data needs updating, as it will
need to be updated in all the relevant files; if this is not done, the data will be inconsistent, and
this could lead to errors. The problem could be made even worse if different items of data are
changed in different departments, so that the invoice application uses a different address from the
sales mailing list program for the same customer.
The following diagram shows how different applications will each have their own copy of the
files they need in order to carry out the activities for which they are responsible.
For example, one user, the grade reporting office, may keep a file on students and their grades.
Programs to print a transcript and to enter new grades into the file are implemented as part of the
application. A second user, the accounting office, may keep track of students fees and their
payments. Although both are interested in the data about students, each user maintains separate
files and programs to manipulate the files because each requires some data not available from the
other users files.
Summary
• File based systems were an early attempt to computerize the manual filing system.
• This approach is the decentralized computerized data handling method.

• A collection of application programs that perform services for the end-users. In such
systems, every application program that provides service to end users define and manage
its own data
• Such systems have number of programs for each of the different applications in the
organization.
• Since every application defines and manages its own data, the system is subjected to
serious data duplication problem.
• File, in traditional file based approach, is a collection of records which contains logically
related data.
Limitations of the Traditional File Based approach

As business application become more complex demanding more flexible and reliable data
handling methods, the shortcomings of the file based system became evident. These
shortcomings include, but not limited to:
1) Separation and isolation of data:- When data is isolated in separate files, it is more difficult
for us to access data that should be available. Available information in one application may not
be known. The application programmer is required to synchronize the processing of two or more
files manually to ensure the correct data is extracted.

2) Duplication of data:- When employing the decentralized file-based approach, the
uncontrolled duplication of data is occurred. Uncontrolled duplication of data is undesirable
because duplication is wasteful (money and time cost) and can lead to loss of data integrity
3) Data dependence on the application:- Using file-based system, the physical structure and
storage of the data files and records are defined in the application program code. This
characteristic is known as program-data dependence. Making changes to an existing data
structure are rather difficult and will lead to a modification of program. Such maintenance
activities are time-consuming and subject to error.
4) Incompatible file formats or data structures (e.g. “C” and COBOL):- The structures of the
file are dependent on the application programming language. However file structure provided in
one programming language such as direct file, indexed-sequential file which is available in
COBOL programming, may be different from the structure generated by other programming
language such as C. The direct incompatibility makes them difficult to process jointly.
5) Fixed queries / proliferation of application programs:- File-based systems are very
dependent upon the application programmer. Any required queries or reports have to be written
by the application programmer. Normally, a fixed format query or report can only be entertained
and no facility for ad-hoc queries if offered. Generally file based approach support fixed query
processing which is defined during application development
6) Update anomalies:- The most significant problem experienced by the traditional file based
approach of data handling is the “update anomalies”. We have three types of update anomalies;
1. Modification Anomalies: a problem experienced when one ore more data value is
modified on one application program but not on others containing the same data set.
2. Deletion Anomalies: a problem encountered where one record set is deleted from one
application but remain untouched in other application programs.
3. Insertion Anomalies: a problem experienced whenever there is new data item to be
recorded, and the recording is not made in all the applications. And when same data item
is inserted at different applications, there could be errors in encoding which makes the
new data item to be considered as a totally different object.
7) Limited data sharing:- Every application maintains its own data.
8) Less security measure:- Difficulty of protecting data from unauthorized access and providing
different level of access privilege.
The limitations for the traditional file based data handling approach arise from two basic reasons.
i. Definition of the data is embedded in the application program which makes it difficult to
modify the database definition easily.
ii. No control over the access and manipulation of the data beyond that imposed by the
application programs.

The Shared File Approach
One approach to solving the problem of each application having its own set of files is to share
files between different applications. This will alleviate the problem of inconsistent data between
different applications, and is illustrated in the diagram below.
The introduction of shared files solves the problem of inconsistent data across different versions
of the same file held by different departments, but other problems may emerge, including:
• When each department had its own version of a file for processing, each department
could ensure that the structure of the file suited their specific application. If departments
have to share files, the file structure that suits one department might not suit another, for
example, data might need to be sorted in a different sequence for different applications
(for instance, customer details could be stored in alphabetical order, or numerical order,
or ascending or descending order of customer number).
• Some applications may require access to more data than others, for instance a credit
control application will need access to customer credit limit information, whereas an
delivery note printing application will only need access to customer name and address
details. The file will still need to contain the additional information to support the
application that requires it.
• If the structure of the data file needs to be changed in some way (for example, to reflect a
change in currency), this alteration will need to be reflected in all application programs
that use that data file. This problem is known as physical data dependence, and will be
examined in more detail later in the unit.
• While a data file is being processed by one application, the file will not be available for
other applications or for ad hoc queries. This is because, if more than one application is
allowed to alter data in a file at one time, serious problems can arise in ensuring that the
updates made by each application do not clash with one another. This issue of ensuring
consistent, concurrent updating of information is an extremely important one, and is dealt
with in detail for database systems in the unit on concurrency control. File-Based systems
avoid these problems by not allowing more than one application to access a file at one
time.

3) Database Approach
A database is a collection of information that is organized so that it can easily be accessed,
managed, and updated. The database approach emphasizes the integration and sharing of data
throughout the organization. Thus in Database Approach logically related collection of data are
stored in database.
Database is just a computerized record keeping system or a kind of electronic filing cabinet. It
can viewed as a repository for collection of computerized data files.
Database is a shared collection of logically related data designed to meet the information needs
of an organization. Since it is a shared corporate resource, the database is integrated with
minimum amount of or no duplication. These logically related data comprises entities, attributes,
relationships, and business rules of an organization's information. In addition to containing data
required by an organization, database also contains a description of the data which called as
“Metadata” or “Data Dictionary” or “Systems Catalogue” or “Data about Data”. Since a database
contains information about the data (metadata), it is called a self descriptive collection on
integrated records.
The purpose of a database is to store information and to allow users to retrieve and update that
information on demand. Database is designed once and used simultaneously by many users.
Unlike the traditional file based approach in database approach there is program data
independence. That is the separation of the data definition from the application. Thus the
application is not affected by changes made in the data structure and file organization. Each
database application will perform the combination of: Creating database, Reading, Updating and
Deleting data.
Characteristics of the Database Approach

With the database approach, a single repository of data is maintained that is defined once and is
then accesses by various users. The main characteristics of the database approach are as follows:
Self describing nature of the database system
Insulation between programs and data and data abstraction
Support of multiple views of the data
Sharing of data and multi-user transaction processing.
(a) Self-Describing Nature of a Database System

A fundamental characteristic of the database approach is that the database system contains not
only the database itself, but a complete definition or description of the database structure and
constraints. The definition is stored in the DBMS catalog which contains information such as the
structure of each file, the type and storage format of each data item, and various constraints on
the data. The information stored in the catalog is called metadata, and it describes the structure
of the primary database. The catalog is used by the DBMS software and also by database users
who need information about the database structure.

A general purpose database application is not written for a specific database application, so it
must refer to the catalog to know the structure of the files in a specific database, such as the type
and format of data it will access. The DBMS software must work equally well with any number of
database applications.
In traditional file processing, the data definition is part of the application programs themselves,
hence they are constrained to work with only a specific database (i.e. a banking database, or a
university database). For example, an application written in C++ may have a struct or class
declaration. File processing software can access only specific databases; DBMS software can
access diverse databases by extracting the database definitions from the catalog, and using these
definitions.
Example: In the example database, the catalog will store the definitions of all files shown. The
database designer prior to creating the actual database specifies the definitions. Whenever a
request is made to access for example the name of a student record, the DBMS software refers to
the catalog to determine the structure of the student file and the position and size of the name
data item within a student record. In traditional file processing, the size and file structure are
coded within the application that accesses the data item.
(b) Insulation between Programs and Data, and Data Abstraction

In traditional file processing, the structure of the data files is embedded in the application
programs so any changes to the structure of a file may require changing all programs that access
the file. For example, a file access program may be written so that it can only access student
records with the exact structure specified by the starting position and length. If we add another
piece of data to the student record, such as BirthDate, the program must then be changed.
By contrast, DBMS access programs in most cases do not require such changes. The structure of
data files is stored in the catalog separately from the access programs. This is called program-
data independence. So that on previous example, in a DBMS environment, we just need to
change the description of a student record in the catalog to reflect the inclusion of the new data
item BirthDate, and no programs need to be changed. The next time a program refers to the
catalog, the new structure of Student records will be accessed and used.
In some types of database systems, such as Object Oriented database systems users can define
operations on data as part of the database. An operation is specified in two parts. The interface of
an operation includes the operation name and the data types of its arguments. The
implementation of the operation is specified separately and can be changed without affecting the
interface.
User application programs can operate on the data by invoking the operations through their
names and arguments regardless of how the operations are implemented. This can be called
program-operation independence.
This is called data abstraction. A DBMS provides users with the conceptual representation of
data that does not include details of how the data is stored or how the operations are

implemented. A data model is a type of data abstraction that is used to provide the conceptual
representation.
Example: The internal implementation of a file may be defined by its record length (the number
of characters in each record), and each data item may be specified by its starting byte within a
record and its length in bytes. But a typical database user is not concerned with the location of
each data item within a record or its length. The DBMS hides details of the file storage
organization from the user.
(c) Support of Multiple Views of the Data

A database typically has many users, each of whom may require a different perspective or view
of the database. A view may be a subset of the database, or it may contain virtual data that is
derived from the database files, but not explicitly stored. (Give examples of these types of data).
Users generally do not need to know if the data is stored or derived.
(d) Sharing of Data and Multi-User Transaction Processing

A multi-user DBMS must allow multiple users to access the database at the same time. This is
important if data for multiple applications is to be integrated (brought together) and maintained
in a single database.
The DBMS must include concurrency control software to ensure that several users trying to
update the same data do so in a controlled manor. For example, when several reservation clerks
try to assign a seat on a flight, the DBMS should ensure that each seat can be accesses by only
one clerk.
An important concept in database applications is a transaction which an execution program or
process that includes one or more database accesses, such as reading or updating of database
records. Each transaction is supposed to execute a logically correct database access if executed in
its entirety without interference from other transactions. The isolation property ensures that each
transaction appears to execute in isolation from other transactions, even though hundreds of
transactions may be executing concurrently.
Benefits of the database approach

Data can be shared: two or more users can access and use the same data instead of
storing data in redundant manner for each user. i.e. Database belongs to the entire
organization and can be shared by all authorized users.
Integrity can be maintained: data at different applications will be integrated together with
additional constraints to facilitate shared data resource. Database integrity provides the
validity and consistency of stored data. Integrity is usually expressed in terms of
constraints, which are consistency rules that the database is not permitted to violate.
Improved data accessibility and responsiveness: By having an integration in the database
approach, data accessing can be crossed departmental boundaries. This feature provides

more functionality and better services to the users. So that by using structured query
languages, the users can easily access data without programming experience.
Control of data redundancy: isolated data is integrated in database to decrease the
redundant data stored at different applications. Although the database approach does not
eliminate redundancy entirely, it controls the amount of redundancy inherent in the
database.
Inconsistency can be avoided: by eliminating or controlling data redundancy, the
database approach reduces the risk of inconsistencies occurring of the data in the
database to some extent. It will avoid inconsistency and ensures all copies of the data are
kept consistent.
Security majors can be enforced: the shared data can be secured by having different
levels of clearance and other data security mechanisms. Database approach provides a
protection of the data from the unauthorized users. It may take the term of user names
and passwords to identify user type and their access right in the operation including
retrieval, insertion, updating and deletion
Standards can be enforced: The integration of the database enforces the necessary
standards including data formats, naming conventions, documentation standards, update
procedures and access rules. Therefore the different ways of using and dealing with data
by different unite of an organization can be balanced and standardized by using database
approach.
Improved backing and recovery services:- Modern database management system
provides facilities to minimize the amount of processing that can be lost following a
failure by using the transaction approach.
Improved maintenance:- Database approach provides a data independence. As a change
of data structure in the database will be affect the application program, it simplifies
database application maintenance.
Physical data dependence is resolved; this means that the underlying structure of a data
file can be changed without the application programs needing amendment. This is
achieved by a hierarchy of levels of data specification. Each such specification of data in
a database system is called a schema. The different levels of schema provided in database
systems are described and further details of what is included within each specific schema
are discussed later on.
Transaction support can be provided: basic demands of any transaction support systems
are implanted in a full scale DBMS.
Quality data can be maintained to Improved decision support: the different integrity
constraints in the database approach will maintain the quality of data leading to better and
improved decision making.

Increased productivity:- The database approach provides all the low-level file-handling
routines. The provision of these functions allows the programmer to concentrate more on
the specific functionality required by the users. The fourth-generation environment
provided by the database can simplify the database application development.
Compactness: since it is an electronic data handling method, the data is stored compactly
(no voluminous papers).
Speed: data storage and retrieval is fast as it will be using the modern fast computer
systems.
Less labour: unlike the other data handling methods, data maintenance will not demand
much resource.
Centralized information control: since relevant data in the organization will be stored at
one repository, it can be controlled and managed at the central level.
Increased concurrency:- Database can manage concurrent data access effectively. It
ensures no interference between users that would not result any loss of information nor
loss of integrity.
Balance of conflicting requirements:- By having a structural design in the database, the
conflicts between users or departments can be resolved. Decisions will be based on the
base use of resources for the organization as a whole rather that for an individual entity.
More information from the same amount of data:- With the integration of the operated
data in the database approach, it may be possible to derive additional information for the
same data.

Limitations and risk of Database Approach
In split of a large number of advantages can be found in the database approach, it is not without
any challenge. The following disadvantages can be found including:
Complexity in designing and managing data:- Database management system is an
extremely complex piece of software. All parties must be familiar with its functionality
and take full advantage of it. The changes introduced by the adoption of a database
system must be properly managed to ensure that they help advance the company’s
objectives. Given the fact that database systems hold crucial company data that are
accessed from multiple sources, security issues must be assessed constantly. Therefore,
training for the administrators, designers and users is required.
Size:- The database management system consumes a substantial amount of main memory
as well as a large number amount of disk space in order to make it run efficiently.
Cost of DBMS:- A multi-user database management system require sophisticated
hardware and software and highly skilled personnel. Therefore it may need higher cost to
be incurred to develop and maintain the system. Even after the installation, there is a high
recurrent annual maintenance cost on the software. As a general the cost of maintaining
the hardware, software, and personnel required to operate and manage a database
system can be substantial. Training, licensing, and regulation compliance costs are often
overlooked when database systems are implemented.
Risk and Cost of conversion:- When moving from a file-base system to a database
system, the company is required to have additional expenses on hardware acquisition and
training cost.
Reduced Performance (due to centralization and data independency):- As the database
approach is to cater for many applications rather than exclusively for a particular one,
some applications may not run as fast as before.
Higher impact of a failure:- The database approach increases the vulnerability of the
system due to the centralization. As all users and applications reply on the database
availability, the failure of any component can bring operations to a halt and affect the
services to the customer seriously. This shows that high impact on the system when
failure occurs to the central system.
Vendor Dependence:- Given the heavy investment in technology and personnel training,
companies might be reluctant to change database vendors.
Frequent Upgrade/Replacement Cycles:- DBMS vendors frequently upgrade their

products by adding new functionality. Such new features often come bundled in new
upgrade versions of the software. Some of these versions require hardware upgrades. Not
only do the upgrades themselves cost money, but it also costs money to train database
users and administrators to properly use and manage the new features.
Complex backup and recovery services from the users perspective

1.3 Database Management System (DBMS)
Database Management System (DBMS) is a general-purpose Software packages (a collection of
programs) used for providing EFFICIENT, CONVENIENT and SAFE MULTI-USER (many
people/programs accessing same database, or even same data, simultaneously) storage of and
access to MASSIVE amounts of PERSISTENT (data outlives programs that operate on it) data.
A DBMS also provides a systematic method for define/create, construct, manipulate, maintain,
storing, retrieving data in a database and share databases among various users and applications. It
also provides the service of controlling data access, enforcing data integrity, managing
concurrency control, and recovery. Having this in mind, a full scale DBMS performs several
important functions that guarantee the integrity and consistency of the data in the database. Most
of those functions are transparent to end users, and most can be achieved only through the use
of a DBMS. This includes:
Data dictionary management:- The DBMS stores definitions of the data elements and
their relationships (metadata) in a data dictionary. So that it define and specify the data
types, structures and constraints for the data to be stored in the database. In turn, all
programs that access the data in the database work through the DBMS. The DBMS uses
the data dictionary to look up the required data component structures and relationships.
Additionally, any changes made in a database structure are automatically recorded in the
data dictionary. In other words, the DBMS provides data abstraction, and it removes
structural and data dependence from the system.
Data storage management:- DBMS handles Construction of database, the process of
storing the data itself on some storage medium. The DBMS creates and manages the
complex structures required for data storage. A modern DBMS provides storage not only
for the data, but also for related data entry forms or screen definitions, report definitions,
data validation rules, procedural code, structures to handle video and picture formats, and
so on. Data storage management is also important for database performance tuning.
Performance tuning relates to the activities that make the database perform more
efficiently in terms of storage and access speed. Although the user sees the database as a
single data storage unit, the DBMS actually stores the data files may even be stored on
different storage media. Therefore, the DBMS doesn’t have to wait for one disk request to
finish before the next one starts. In other words, the DBMS can fulfill database requests
concurrently.
Data transformation and presentation (Manipulating):- includes such functions as
querying the database to retrieve specific data, updating the database to reflect changes in
the mini world, and generating reports from the data.
Security management:- DBMS support the implementation of access and authorization
service to database administrator and users. Also provide protection services which
includes system protection against software/hardware malfunction and security protection
against unauthorized/malicious access.

Multi-user access control (Sharing:- allows multiple users and programs to access the
database concurrently. To provide data integrity and data consistency, the DBMS uses
sophisticated algorithms to ensure that multiple users can access the database concurrently
without compromising the integrity of the database.
Backup and recovery management:- The DBMS provides backup and data recovery to
ensure data safety and integrity. Current DBMS systems provide special utilities that allow
the DBA to perform routine and special backup and restore procedures. Recovery
Management deals with the recovery of the database after a failure, such as bad sector in
the disk or power failure. Such capability is critical to preserving the database’s integrity.
Data integrity management:- Integrity Services rules about data and the change that took
place on the data, correctness and consistency of stored data, and quality of data based on
business constraints. The DBMS promotes and enforces integrity rules, thus minimizing
data redundancy and maximizing data consistency. The data relationships stored in the data
dictionary are used to enforce data integrity. Ensuring data integrity is especially important
in transaction-oriented database systems.
Database access language:- The DBMS provides data access through a query language. A
query language is a nonprocedural language, one that lets the user specify what must be
done without having to specify how it is to be done. Structured Query Language (SQL) is
one of the data access standard supported by the majority of DBMS vendors.
Application program interface management:- DBMS provides application programming
interfaces to procedural languages such as COBOL, C, Java, Visual Basic.NET, and C#.
Utility services: The DBMS provides administrative utilities used by the DBA and the
database designer to create, implement, monitor, and maintain the database. These utilities
include like importing data, statistical analysis support, index reorganization, garbage
collection
Database Communication Interfaces:- Current-generation DBMSs accept end-user
requests via multiple, different network environments. For example, the DBMS might
provide access to the database via the Internet through the use of Web browsers such as
Mozilla Firefox or Microsoft Internet Explorer. In this environment, communications can
be accomplished in several ways. End users can generate answers to queries by filling in
screen forms through their preferred Web browser. The DBMS can automatically publish
predefined reports on a Website. The DBMS can connect to third-party systems to
distribute information via e-mail or other productivity applications.
Concurrency Control Services: access and update on the database by different users
simultaneously should be implemented correctly.
Services to promote data independency between the data and the application
Databases can be implemented by general purpose DMBSs, or special purpose custom software
can be written to create and maintain a database.
Database System =====> Database and DBMS software together.

Components of DBMS Environment
As discussed above, DBMS is software package used to design, manage, and maintain databases.
Each DBMS should have facilities to define the database, manipulate the content of the database
and control the database. These facilities will help the designer, the user as well as the database
administrator to discharge their responsibility in designing, using and managing the database. So
that DBMS provides the following facilities and referred as components of a DBMS.
DBMS Engine
The engine is the central component of a DBMS. This component provides access to the
database and coordinates all of the functional elements of the DBMS. An important source of
data for the DBMS engine, and the database system as a whole, is known as metadata. Metadata
means data about data. Metadata is contained in a part of the DBMS called the data dictionary
(described below), and is a key source of information to guide the processes of the DBMS
engine. The DBMS engine receives logical requests for data (and metadata) from human users
and from applications, determines the secondary storage location (i.e. the disk address of the
requested data), and issues physical input/output requests to the computer operating system. The
data requested is fetched from physical storage into computer main memory; it is contained
therein special data structures provided by the DBMS. Whilst the data remains in memory, it is
managed by the DBMS engine. Additional data structures are created by the database system
itself, or by users of the system, in order to provide rapid access to data being processed by the
system. These data structures include indexes to speed up access to the data, buffer areas into
which particular types of data are retrieved, lists of free space etc. The management of these
additional data structures is also carried out by the DBMS engine.

User Interface Subsystem
The interface subsystem provides facilities for users and applications to access the various
components of the DBMS. Most DBMS products provide a range of languages and other
interfaces, since the system will be used both by programmers (or other technical persons) and
by users with little or no programming experience. Some of the typical interfaces to a DBMS are
the following:
1. Data Definition Language (DDL):

Language used to define each data element required by the organization. It used by the
DBA and database designers to specify the conceptual schema of a database. In many
DBMSs, it also used to define internal and external schemas (views).
In some DBMSs, separate storage definition language (SDL) and view definition
language (VDL) are used to define internal and external schemas.
DDL allows DBA or user to describe and name entitles, attributes and relationships
required for the application. Specification notation for defining the database schema
Generally it is a commands for setting up schema or the intension of database. These
commands are used to setup a database, create, delete and alter table with the facility
of handling constraints. Also used to define, modify or remove database structures
such as records, tables, files, and views
2. Data Manipulation Language (DML):

Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized by appropriate data model.
Is a core command used by end-users and programmers to store, retrieve, and access the
data in the database.
Used to specify database retrievals and updates.
Since the required data or Query by the user will be extracted using this type of
language, it is also called "Query Language"
DML commands (data sublanguage) can be embedded in a general-purpose
programming language (host language), such as COBOL, C or an Assembly Language.
Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can be applied directly (query language).
There are two type of DML, namely procedural DML (user specifies what data is
required and how to get the data) and non procedural DML (user specifies what data is
required but not how it is to be retrieved). SQL is the most widely used non-procedural
language query language
3. Data Dictionary:
Due to the fact that a database is a self describing system, this tool, Data Dictionary, is
used to store and organize information about the data stored in the database.

4. Data Control Language:
Database is shared resource that demands control of data access and usage. The database
administrator should have the facility to control the overall operation of the system.
Data Control Languages are commands that will help the Database Administrator to
control access to the database. It allows a Database administrator to have overall control
of the system, often including the administration of security, so that access to both the
data and processes of the database system can be controlled.
It used to define the security on the data in the database. The commands include grant or
revoke privileges to access the database or particular object within the database and to
store or remove database transactions
5. A graphical user interface:

Provide a visual means of browsing or querying the data, including a range of different
display options, such as bar charts, pie charts etc. One particular example of such a
system is Query-by-Example, in which the system displays a skeleton table (or tables),
and users pose requests by suitable entry in the table.
A forms user interface in which a screen-oriented form is presented to the user who
responds by filling in blanks in the form. Such forms based systems are a popular means
of providing a visual front-end both to developers and to users of a database system.
Typically developers use the Forms-based system in "developer mode”, where they
design the forms or screens that will make up an application, and attach fragments of
code which will be triggered by the actions of users as they use the forms-based user
interface.
User-friendly interfaces:
o Menu-based, popular for browsing on the web
o Forms-based, designed for native users
o Graphics-based (Point and Click, Drag and Drop etc.)
o Natural language: requests in written English
o Speech as Input (?) and Output
o Setting system parameters
o Changing schemas or access path
o Creating accounts, granting authorizations
o Parametric interfaces (e.g., bank tellers) using function keys.
o Combinations of the above
A natural language user interface that allows users to present requests in free form
English statements.

A DBMS procedural programming language, often based on standard third-generation
programming languages such as C and COBOL which allows programmers to develop
sophisticated applications.
4th Generation Languages, such as Smalltalk, JavaScript, etc. permit applications to be
developed relatively quickly compared to the procedural languages mentioned above.
Fourth Generation Language (4GL)
o Query Languages
o Forms Generators
o Report Generators
o Graphics Generator
o Application Generator
6. Database System Utilities:- Used to perform certain functions such as:

Loading data stored in files into a database. Includes data conversion tools.
Backing up the database periodically on tape.
Reorganizing database file structures.
Report generation utilities.
Performance monitoring utilities.
Other functions, such as sorting, user monitoring, data compression, etc.
Data Dictionary Subsystem

The data dictionary subsystem is used to store data about many aspects of how the DBMS works. The
data contained in the Dictionary subsystem varies from DBMS to DBMS, but in all systems it is a key
component of the database. Typical data to be contained in the Dictionary includes: definitions of the
users of the system and the access rights they have, usage standards, details of the data structures used to
contain data in the DBMS, design decisions, application program descriptions, descriptions of business
rules that are stored and enforced within the DBMS, definitions of the additional data structures used to
improve systems performance.
It is important to understand that because of the importance and sensitive nature of the data contained in
the Dictionary subsystem, most users will have none or little direct access to this information. However
the Database Administrator will need to have regular access to much of the dictionary system, and
should have a detailed knowledge of the way in which the Dictionary is organized.
Active data dictionary is accessed by DBMS software and users/DBA.
Passive data dictionary is accessed by users/DBA only.

Performance Management Subsystem
The performance management subsystem provides facilities to optimize (or at least improve) DBMS
performance. This is necessary because the large and complex software in a DBMS requires attention to
ensure it performs efficiently, i.e. it allows retrieval and changes to data to be made without requiring
users to wait for significant periods of time for the DBMS to carry out the requested action.
Two important functions of the Performance management subsystem are:
Query optimization: Structuring SQL queries (or other forms of user queries) to minimize
response times
DBMS reorganization: Maintaining statistics on database usage and taking (or recommending)
actions such as database reorganization, creating indexes, and so on to improve DBMS
performance
Data Integrity Management Subsystem

The data integrity management subsystem provides facilities for managing the integrity of data in the
database and the integrity of metadata in the Dictionary. This subsystem is concerned with ensuring that
data is, as far as software can ensure, correct and consistent. There are three important functions:
Intra-record integrity: Enforcing constraints on data item values and types within each record in
the database.
Referential integrity: Enforcing the validity of references between records in the database.
Concurrency control: Assuring the validity of database updates when multiple users access the
database.
Backup and Recovery Subsystem

The backup and recovery subsystem provides facilities for logging transactions and database changes,
periodically making backup copies of the database, and recovering the database in the event of some
type of failure. (backup and recovery will explained in greater detail in a advanced database). A good
DBMS will provide comprehensive and flexible mechanisms for backing up and restoring copies of
data, and it will be up to the Database Administrator, in consultation with users of the system, to decide
precisely how these features should be used.
Application Development Subsystem

The application development sub-system is for programmers to develop complete database applications.
It includes CASE tools (software to enable the modeling of applications), as well as facilities such as
screen generators (for automatically creating the screens of an application given details about the data to
be input and/or output) and report generators.

In most commercial situations there will in fact be a number of different database systems, operating
within a number of different computer environments. By computer environment we mean a set of
programs and data made available usually on a particular computer. One such set of database systems,
used in a number of medium to large companies, involves the establishment of 3 different computer
environments.
The first of these is the Development environment, where new applications are developed and new
applications, whether written within the company or bought in from outside, are tested. The
Development environment usually contains relatively little data, just enough in fact to adequately test
the logic of the applications being developed and tested. Security within the Development environment
is usually not an important issue, unless the actual logic of the applications being developed is, in its
own right, of a sensitive nature.
The second of the three environments is often called pre-production. Applications that have been tested
in the development environment will be moved into pre-production for volume testing, that is testing
with quantities of data that are typical of the application when it is in live operation.
The final environment is known as the production or live environment. Applications should only be
moved into this environment when they have been fully tested in Pre-production. Security is nearly
always a very important issue in the production environment, as the data being used reflects important
information in current use by the Organization.
Each of these separate environments will have at least one database system, and because of the widely
varying activities and security measures required in each environment, the volumes of data and degree
of administration required will itself vary considerably between environments, with the production
database (s) requiring by far the most support.
Given the need for the Database Administrator to migrate both programs and data between these
environments, an important tool in performing this process will be a set of utilities or programs for
migrating applications and their associated data both forwards and backwards between the environments
in use.
Security Management Subsystem

The security management subsystem provides facilities to protect and control access to the database and
data dictionary.

1.4 Components of Database System
Taking a DBMS as a system, one can describe it with respect to its environment or other systems
interacting with the DBMS. To design and use a database, there should be the interaction or integration
of Hardware, Software, Data, Procedure and People.
Hardware:
Hardware are components that one can touch and feel. These components are comprised of various types
of personal computers, mainframe or any server computers to be used in multi-user system, network
infrastructure, and other peripherals required in the system.
Software:
Software are collection of commands and programs used to manipulate the hardware to perform a
function. These include components like the DBMS software, application programs, operating systems,
network software, language software and other relevant software.
Data:
Since the goal of any database system is to have better control of the data and making data useful, Data
is the most important component to the user of the database. There are two categories of data in any
database system: that is Operational and Metadata. Operational data is the data actually stored in the
system to be used by the user. Metadata is the data that is used to store information about the database
itself. The structure of the data in the database is called the schema, which is composed of the Entities,
Properties of entities, and relationship between entities.
Procedure:
Procedure is the rules and regulations on how to design and use a database. It includes procedures like
how to log on to the DBMS, how to use facilities, how to start and stop transaction, how to make
backup, how to treat hardware and software failure, how to change the structure of the database.
People:
This component is composed of the people in the organization that are responsible or play a role in
designing, implementing, managing, administering and using the resources in the database. This
component includes group of people with high level of knowledge about the database and the design
technology to other with no knowledge of the system except using the data in the database. In general
database users are include the following people:
Database Administrator Database Designer
Application programmer and System End Users
analysts

Roles in Database Design and Use
As people are one of the components in DBMS environment, there are group of roles played by different
stakeholders of the designing and operation of a database system.
1. Database Administrator (DBA)
Responsible to oversee, control and manage the database resources (the database itself, the
DBMS and other related software)
Authorizing access to the database
Coordinating and monitoring the use of the database
Responsible for determining and acquiring hardware and software resources
Accountable for problems like poor security, poor performance of the system
Involves in all steps of database development
We can have further classifications of this role in big organizations having huge amount of data and user
requirement.
A. Data Administrator (DA): is responsible on management of data resources. Involved in
database planning, development, maintenance of standards, policies and procedures at the
conceptual and logical design phases.
B. Database Administrator (DBA): is a more technical role. Is responsible for the physical
realization of the database. Involves in physical design, implementation, security and
integrity control of the database.
2. Database Designer (DBD)

Identifies the data to be stored and choose the appropriate structures to represent and store the
data. Most of these functions are done before the database is implemented and populated with
the data.
Should understand the user requirement and should choose how the user views the database.
So that it is responsibility to communicate with all prospective users to understand their
requirements and come up with a design that meets these requirements.
Involve on the design phase before the implementation of the database system.
Database designers interact with all potential users and develop views of the database that
meet the data and processing requirements of these groups.
We have two distinctions of database designers, one involving in the logical and conceptual design and
another involving in physical design.

a. Logical and Conceptual DBD
Identifies data (entity, attributes and relationship) relevant to the organization
Identifies constraints on each data
Understand data and business rules in the organization
Sees the database independent of any data model at conceptual level and consider one
specific data model at logical design phase.
b. Physical DBD
Take logical design specification as input and decide how it should be physically
realized.
Map the logical data model on the specified DBMS with respect to tables and integrity
constraints. (DBMS dependent designing)
Select specific storage structure and access path to the database
Design security measures required on the database
3. Application Programmer and Systems Analyst

System analyst determines the user requirement and how the user wants to view the database.
The application programmer implements these specifications as programs; code, test, debug,
document and maintain the application program.
Determines the interface on how to retrieve, insert, update and delete data in the database.
The application could use any high level programming language according to the availability, the
facility and the required service.
4. End Users
Workers, whose job requires accessing the database frequently for various purposes, there are different
group of users in this category.
i. Naïve Users:
Sizable proportion of users
Unaware of the DBMS
Only access the database based on their access level and demand
Use standard and pre-specified types of queries.

ii. Sophisticated Users
Are users familiar with the structure of the Database and facilities of the DBMS.
Have complex requirements
Have higher level queries
Are most of the time engineers, scientists, business analysts, etc
iii. Casual Users
Users who access the database occasionally.
Need different information from the database each time.
Use sophisticated database queries to satisfy their needs.
Are most of the time middle to high level managers.
These users can be again classified as “Actors on the Scene” and “Workers Behind the Scene”.
Actors on the Scene:
Data Administrator
Database Administrator
Database Designer
End Users
Workers behind the Scene

DBMS designers and implementers: who design and implement different DBMS
software.
Tool Developers: experts who develop software packages that facilitates database
system designing and use. Prototype, simulation, code generator developers could be an
example. Independent software vendors could also be categorized in this group.
Operators and Maintenance Personnel: system administrators who are responsible for
actually running and maintaining the hardware and software of the database system and
the information technology facilities.

1.5 Database Development Life Cycle
As it is one component in most information system development tasks, there are several steps in
designing a database system. Here more emphasis is given to the design phases of the system
development life cycle. The major steps in database design are;
1. Planning: that is identifying information gap in an organization and propose a database solution to
solve the problem.
2. Data analysis and requirements: that concentrates more on fact finding about the problem or the
opportunity. Feasibility analysis, requirement determination and structuring, and selection of best
design method are also performed at this phase.
i. Designer’s efforts are focused on
a) Information needs of Information users.
b) Information sources. Information constitution.
ii. Sources of information for the designer
a) Developing and gathering end user data views
b) Direct observation of the current system: existing and desired output
c) Interface with the systems design group
iii. The designer must identify the company’s business rules and analyze their impacts.
3. Define Problems and Constraints

How does the existing system function?
What input does the system require?
What documents does the system generate?
How is the system output used? By Whom?
What are the operational relationships among business units?
What are the limits and constraints imposed on the system?
4. Design: in database designing more emphasis is given to this phase. The phase is further divided into
three sub-phases.
a) Conceptual Design: concise description of the data, data type, relationship between data
and constraints on the data. There is no implementation or physical detail consideration.
Used to elicit and structure all information requirements

b) Logical Design: a higher level conceptual abstraction with selected specific data model to
implement the data structure. It is particular DBMS independent and with no other physical
considerations.
c) Physical Design: physical implementation of the upper level design of the database with
respect to internal storage and file structure of the database for the selected DBMS. To
develop all technology and organizational specification.
5. DBMS Selection
The selection of an appropriate DBMS to support the database application.
Undertaken at any time prior to logical design provided sufficient information is available
regarding system requirements.
Also design the user interface and the application programs using the selected DBMS
6. Prototyping: Building a working model of a database application.

Purpose
To identify features of a system that work well, or are inadequate
To suggest improvements or even new features
To clarify the users’ requirements
Prototype Development Method Stages

7. Implementation: the deployment and testing of the designed database for use.
8. Data conversion and loading
9. Testing
The process of executing the application programs with the intent of finding errors.
Use carefully planned test strategies and realistic data.
Testing cannot show the absence of faults; it can show only that software faults are
present.
Demonstrates that database and application programs appear to be working according to
requirements.
10. Operation and Support: administering and maintaining the operation of the database system and
providing support to users.
The process of monitoring and maintaining the system following installation.
Monitoring the performance of the system.
If performance falls, may require reorganization of the database.
Maintaining and upgrading the database application (when required).
Incorporating new requirements into the database application.

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Fundamentals of Database System

1.2 Data Management Approaches

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Limitations of the Manual approach

2) Traditional File Based Approach

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Limitations of the Traditional File Based approach

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Characteristics of the Database Approach

(a) Self-Describing Nature of a Database System

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(b) Insulation between Programs and Data, and Data Abstraction

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(c) Support of Multiple Views of the Data

(d) Sharing of Data and Multi-User Transaction Processing

Benefits of the database approach

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Frequent Upgrade/Replacement Cycles:- DBMS vendors frequently upgrade their

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1. Data Definition Language (DDL):

2. Data Manipulation Language (DML):

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5. A graphical user interface:

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6. Database System Utilities:- Used to perform certain functions such as:

Data Dictionary Subsystem

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Data Integrity Management Subsystem

Backup and Recovery Subsystem

Application Development Subsystem

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Security Management Subsystem

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2. Database Designer (DBD)

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3. Application Programmer and Systems Analyst

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Workers behind the Scene

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3. Define Problems and Constraints

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6. Prototyping: Building a working model of a database application.

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