CHAPTER ONE

1. Fundamentals of Database Systems

Learning Objectives: This chapter provides an overview of database management system which
includes concepts related to data, database, database system and database management system. After
completing this chapter, you should be familiar with the following concepts:
 Database, database systems
 Data handling approaches
 Roles in database design and development
 Type of database
 Database management system
 ANSI/SPARK data model
 Database architecture: 1-tier, 2-tier, 3-tier, and multi-tier architecture
1.1. Database Systems
What is a database?
In common dialect, the term database refers to a collection of data that is managed by a DBMS. A
database is a collection of data, typically describing the activities of one or more related
organizations. A database is a well-organized collection of data that are related in a meaningful
way, which can be accessed in different logical orders. Database is a collection of tables. The main
purpose of database is to operate large amount of information by storing, retrieving and managing.
What is database systems?
Database systems are designed to manage large data set in an organization. Database systems are
systems in which the interpretation and storage of information. The data management involves both
definition and the manipulation of the data which ranges from simple representation of the data to
considerations of structures for the storage of information. The database is embodied in specialized
software called a database management system(DBMS). Therefore, the database course is about:
 How to organize data
 Supporting multiple users
 Efficient and effective data retrieval
 Secured and reliable storage of data
 Maintaining consistent data
 Making information useful for decision making

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Compiled by Worku M.
 Database

User

User

User

Figure 1-1: Simplified database view

1.2. Data Handling Approaches
How to organize and handle data? How the organizations are handle their data?
Data management passes through the different levels of development along with the development in
technology and services. The three major data handling method or approaches are: Manual Data
Handling, Traditional Data Handling File Based and Database Data Handling Approach.
1.2.1. Manual Data Handling Approach
What is the advantage and pitfall of manual data handling technique?
In the manual approach, data storage and retrieval follow the primitive and traditional way of
information handling where cards and paper are used for the purpose.
 Files for as many event and objects as the organization are used to store information.
 Each of the files containing various kinds of information is labelled and stored in one or more
cabinets.
 The cabinets could be kept in safe places for security purpose based on the sensitivity of the
information contained in it.
 Insertion and retrieval is done by searching first for the right cabinet then for the right the file
then the information. One could have an indexing system to facilitate access to the data.
Limitations of the Manual Data Handling Approach
 Prone to error
 Difficult to update, retrieve, integrate
 You have the data but it is difficult to compile the information
 Limited to small size information
 Cross referencing is difficult

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 Figure 1-2: Cabinet manual data handling approach.
1.2.2. Traditional File Based Data Handling Approach
Do you think that file based data handling is better than manual approach? Why?
After the introduction of computer for data processing to the business community, the need to use
the device for data storage and processing increase. There were, and still are, several computer
applications with file based processing used for the purpose of data handling. Even though the
approach evolved over time, the basic structure is still similar if not identical.
 File based systems were an early attempt to computerize the manual filing system.
 This approach is the decentralized computerized data handling method.
 A collection of application programs performs services for the end-users. In such systems, every
application program that provides service to end users define and manage its own data.
 Such systems have number of programs for each of the different applications in the
organization.
 Since every application defines and manages its own data, the system is subjected to serious
data duplication problem.
 File, in traditional file based approach, is a collection of records which contains logically related
data.

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 Sales Sales Application Program Sales Files
File Handling
Data Entry and Routines
Reports
File Definition

Contracts Contracts Files

Contracts Application Program
File Handling
Data Entry and Routines
Reports
File Definition

Sales Files: Property-for-Rent (Property Number, Street, Area, City, Post Code,
Property Type, Number of Rooms, Monthly Rent, Owner Number).
Owner (Owner Number, First Name, Last Name, Address, Telephone Number).
Renter (Renter Number, First Name, Last Name, Address, Telephone Number,
Preferred Type, Maximum Rent).
Contracts Files: Lease (Lease Number, Property Number, Renter Number,
Monthly Rent, Payment Method, Deposit, Paid, Rent Start Date, Rent Finish Date,
Duration).
Property-for-Rent (Property Number, Street, Area, City, Post Code, Monthly Rent).
Renter (Renter Number, First Name, Last Name, Address, Telephone Number).

Figure 1-3: Traditional file-based data handling approach.

Limitations of the Traditional File Based approach: As business application become more
complex demanding more flexible and reliable data handling methods, the shortcomings of the file
based system became evident. These shortcomings include, but not limited to:
 Separation or Isolation of Data: Available information in one application may not be known.
 Limited data sharing
 Lengthy development and maintenance time
 Duplication or redundancy of data
 Data dependency on the application
 Incompatible file formats between different applications and programs creating inconsistency.
 Fixed query processing which is defined during application development.
The limitations for the traditional file based data handling approach arise from two basic reasons.
1. Definition of the data is embedded in the application program which makes it difficult to modify
the database definition easily.
2. No control over the access and manipulation of the data beyond that imposed by the application
programs. The most significant problem experienced by the traditional file based approach of
data handling is the “update anomalies”. There are three types of update anomalies:
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A. Modification Anomalies: a problem experienced when one or more data value is modified on
one application program but not on others containing the same data set.
B. Deletion Anomalies: a problem encountered where one record set is deleted from one
application but remain untouched in other application programs.
C. Insertion Anomalies: a problem encountered where one cannot decide whether the data to be
inserted is valid and consistent with other similar data set.
1.2.3. Database Data Handling Approach
What is database data handling? Compare data handling approach?
Identify organizations that use database data handling method in Ethiopia?
Following a famous paper written by Ted Codd in 1970, database systems changed significantly.
Codd proposed that database systems should present the user with a view of data organized as tables
called relations. The database approach emphasizes the integration and sharing of data throughout
the organization. Therefore, in Database Data Handling Approach:
 Database is just a computerized record keeping system or a kind of electronic filing cabinet.
 Database is a repository for collection of computerized data files.
 Database is a shared collection of logically related data designed to meet the information needs
of an organization.
 Database is a collection of logically related data where these logically related data comprise
entities, attributes, relationships, and business rules of an organization's information.
 Database also contains a description of the data which called as “Metadata” or “Data
Dictionary” or “Systems Catalogue” or “Data about Data”.
 Since a database contains information about the data (metadata), it is called a self-descriptive
collection on integrated records.
 The purpose of a database is to store information and to allow users to retrieve and update that
information on demand.
 Database is deigned once and used simultaneously by many users.
 Unlike the traditional file based approach in database approach there is program data
independence. That is the separation of the data definition from the application. Thus, the
application is not affected by changes made in the data structure and file organization.
 Each database application will perform the combination of: Creating database, Reading,
Updating and Deleting data.
Benefits of the database approach:
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 Data can be shared: two or more users can access and use same data instead of storing data in
redundant manner for each user.
 Improved accessibility of data: by using structured query languages, the users can easily access
data without programming experience.
 Redundancy can be reduced: isolated data is integrated in database to decrease the redundant
data stored at different applications.
 Quality data can be maintained: the different integrity constraints in the database approach
will maintain the quality leading to better decision making
 Inconsistency can be avoided: controlled data redundancy will avoid inconsistency of the data
in the database to some extent.
 Transaction support can be provided: basic demands of any transaction support systems are
implanted in a full-scale DBMS.
 Integrity can be maintained: data at different applications will be integrated together with
additional constraints to facilitate shared data resource.
 Security majors can be enforced: the shared data can be secured by having different levels of
clearance and other data security mechanisms.
 Improved decision support: the database will provide information useful for decision making.
 Standards can be enforced: the different ways of using and dealing with data by different unite
of an organization can be balanced and standardized by using database approach.
 Compactness: since it is an electronic data handling method, the data is stored compactly (no
voluminous papers).
 Speed: data storage and retrieval are fast as it will be using the modern fast computer systems.
 Less labor: unlike the other data handling methods, data maintenance will not demand much
resource.
 Centralized information control: since relevant data in the organization will be stored at one
repository, it can be controlled and managed at the central level.

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 Sales Sales Application
Program
Data Entry and
Reports

DBMS
Contracts Contracts Application
Program
Data Entry and Property, Owner, Renter DATABASE
Reports and Lease details
Plus File Definitions

Property-for-Rent (Property Number, Street, Area, City, Post Code, Property

Type, Number of Rooms, Monthly Rent, Owner Number).
Owner (Owner Number, First Name, Last Name, Address, Telephone Number).
Renter (Renter Number, First Name, Last Name, Address, Telephone Number,
Preferred Type, Maximum Rent).
Lease (Lease Number, Property Number, Renter Number, Monthly Rent, Payment
Method, Deposit, Paid, Rent Start Date, Rent Finish Date, Duration).

Figure 1-4: Database data handling approach.

Limitations and risk of Database data handling Approach
 Introduction of new professional and specialized personnel.
 Complexity in designing and managing data
 High cost and risk during conversion from the old to the new system
 High cost incurred to develop and maintain
 Complex backup and recovery services from the user’s perspective
 Reduced performance due to centralization
 High impact on the system when failure occur
1.3. Roles of Database Design and Development
Assume you are DBA, DBD, and DA in the organization, so what are you roles as DBA, DBD,
and DA in the organization?
As people are one of the components in DBMS environment, there are group of roles played by
different stakeholders of the designing and operation of a database system.

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 1.3.1. Data Administrator (DA)
Data administrator is responsible on management of data resources. Involves in database planning,
development, maintenance of standards policies and procedures at the conceptual and logical design
phases.
1.3.2. Database Administrator (DBA)
DBA is a person having central control over data and programs accessing that data. The DBA is a
manager whose responsibilities are focused on management of technical aspects of the database
system. Database Administrators Tasks or Responsibilities:
 Responsible for determining and acquiring hardware and software resources
 Responsible to oversee, control and manage the database resources
 Authorizing access to the database (database security and authorization)
 Coordinating and monitoring the use of the database
 Accountable for problems like poor security, poor performance of the system
 Involves in all steps of database development
 Database design
 Ensuring availability
 Ensuring data integrity
 Backup and recovery
 Performance monitoring and tuning
1.3.3. DataBase Designer (DBD)
What is the difference between conceptual, logical, and physical database designer?
Database designer can be conceptual database designer, logical database designer and physical
database designer. Database design process integrates relevant data in such a manner that it can be
processed through a mechanism for recording the facts. The database design is a complex process.
The degree of complexity increases if there are many-to-many relationships among individual
components. In general, the database designer is responsible for:
 Identifying the data to be stored in the database.
 Choosing appropriate structure to represent and store the data.
 Should understand the user requirement and should choose how the user views the database.
 Involve on the design phase before the implementation of the database system.
1. Conceptual Database Designer
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  Identifies data (entity, attributes and relationship) relevant to the organization
 Identifies constraints on each data
 Understand data and business rules in the organization
 Sees the database independent of any data model at conceptual level and consider one specific
data model at logical design phase.
2. Logical Database Designer
Logical database designer is concerned with identifying the data, the relationships between the data,
and the constraints on the data that is to be stored in the database. The logical database designer is
responsible for mapping the logical data model into a set of tables and integrity constraints, selecting
specific storage structure, and designing security measures required on the data. The logical database
designer must have thorough understanding of the organizations data and its business rule. Business
rules are at the foundation of every information system as they drive and offer guidelines for
managing and conducting all activities within an organization.
3. Physical Database Designer
The physical database designer takes the logical data model and decides the way in which it can be
physically implemented. Take logical design specification as input and decide how it should be
physically realized. Map the logical data model on the specified DBMS with respect to tables and
integrity constraints (DBMS dependent designing). Select specific storage structure and access path
to the database and design security measures required on the database.
1.3.4. End-Users
Who is a database end-user?
End users are basically those people whose jobs require access to the database for querying,
updating and generating reports. The database primarily exists for their use. There are several
categories of end users these are as follows:
1. Casual End Users: These are the users who occasionally access the database but they require
different information each time. They use a sophisticated database query language basically to
specify their request and are typically middle or level managers or other occasional browsers.
2. Naive or parametric end users: These are the users who basically make up a sizeable portion
of database end users. These users need to learn very little about the facilities provided by the
DBMS they basically have to understand the users’ interfaces of the standard transaction
designed and implemented for their use. The following tasks are basically performed by Naive
end users:

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  The person who is working in the bank will basically tell us the account balance and post-
withdrawal and deposits.
 Reservation clerks for airlines, railway, hotels, and car rental companies basically check
availability for a given request and make the reservation.
 Clerks who are working at receiving end for shipping companies enter the package identifies
via barcodes and descriptive information through buttons to update a central database of
received and in transit packages.
3. Sophisticated end users: These users basically include engineers, scientist, business analytics
and others who thoroughly familiarize themselves with the facilities of the DBMS in order to
implement their application to meet their complex requirement. These users try to learn most of
the DBMS facilities in order to achieve their complex requirements.
4. Standalone users: These are those users whose job is basically to maintain personal databases
by using a ready-made program package that provides easy to use menu-based or graphics-based
interfaces, an example is the user of a tax package that basically stores a variety of personal
financial data of tax purposes. These users become very proficient in using a specific software
package.
1.4. Applications of Database System
Where is the application of database system? Why database is needed?
These are some of the applications of the database.
 Banking  Finance  Schools
 Airlines  Sales  Industries
 University  Pay Roll System  Telecommunications
 Railway  Manufacturing  Human Resources etc.
1.5. ANSI/SPARK Architecture
Who is standardize database? What are the three level of ANSI/SPARK architecture?
The distinction between the logical and physical representation of data were recognized in 1978
when ANSI/SPARK (American National Standard Institute/ Standards Planning and Requirements
Committee) proposed a generalized framework for database systems. This framework provided a
three-level architecture, three levels of abstraction at which the database could be viewed. The
ANSI/SPARC architecture also known as the three-schema architecture. The goal of the three-
schema architecture is to separate the user applications from the physical database. In this
architecture, schemas can be defined at the following three levels:
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1. The internal level or physical level has an internal schema, which describes the physical
storage structure of the database. The internal schema uses a physical data model and describes
the complete details of data storage and access paths for the database. It provides the internal
view of the actual physical storage of data & describes complex low-level data structure in detail.
2. The conceptual level or logical level has a conceptual schema, which describes the structure
of the whole database for a community of users. The conceptual schema hides the details of
physical storage structures and concentrates on describing entities, data types, relationships, user
operations, and constraints.
3. The external level or view level includes a number of external schemas or user views. Each
external schema describes the part of the database that a particular user group is interested in and
hides the rest of the database from that user group.
Database Instances: Database change over time as information is inserted and deleted. The
collection of information stored in the database at a particular moment is called an instance of the
database.
Database Schema: The overall design of the database is called the database schema. A schema is
a collection of named objects. Schemas provide a logical classification of objects in the database. A
schema can contain tables, views, triggers, functions, packages, and other database objects.
The three-level ANSI architecture has separates the users’ external level, the database’s conceptual
level, and the internal storage level for designing a database. The DBMS must transform a request
specified on an external schema into a request against the conceptual schema, and then into a request
on the internal schema for processing over the stored database. The processes of transforming
requests and results between levels are called mappings. These mappings may be time-consuming,
so some DBMSs especially those that are meant to support small databases do not support external
views.

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 Figure 1-5: The ANSI/SPARC or three-level architecture.

One group of users may be interested in knowing the courses offered by the university. One group
of users may be interested in knowing the faculty information. The information is stored in separate
files and separate applications programs are written.
1.6. Database Architecture
Discuss the difference between 1-tier, 2-tier, 3-tier and multi-tier database architectures?
Which is the most appropriate database architecture for commercial bank of Ethiopia and
Ethiopian Airline? Why?
Database architecture uses programming languages to design a particular type of software for
businesses or organizations. Database architecture focuses on the design, development,

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implementation and maintenance of computer programs that store and organize information for
businesses, agencies and institutions. A database architect develops and implements software to
meet the needs of users. The design of a DBMS depends on its architecture. It can be centralized or
decentralized or hierarchical. The architecture of a DBMS can be seen as either single tier or multi-
tier. The tiers are classified as follows:
1.6.1. 1-Tier Architecture
One-tier architecture involves putting all of the required components for a software application or
technology on a single server or platform.

Basically, a one-tier architecture keeps all of the elements of an application, including the interface,
Middleware and back-end data, in one place. Developers see these types of systems as the simplest
and most direct way.
1.6.2. 2-Tier Architecture
The two-tier is based on Client Server architecture. The two-tier architecture is like client server
application. The direct communication takes place between client and server. There is no
intermediate between client and server.

Advantages of 2-tier Architecture: The two-tier architecture is a good approach for moderate
number of clients and 2-tier architecture is the simplest to implement.
Drawbacks of 2-tier Architecture: Software maintenance can be difficult because PC clients
contain a mixture of presentation, validation, and business logic code. Also, the performance of two-
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tier architecture can be poor when a large number of clients submit requests because the database
server may be overwhelmed.
1.6.3. 3-Tier Architecture
A 3-tier architecture separates its tiers from each other based on the complexity of the users and
how they use the data present in the database. It is the most widely used architecture to design a
DBMS.

This architecture has different usages with different applications. It can be used in web applications
and distributed applications. The strength in particular is when using this architecture over
distributed systems.
 Database (Data) Tier: At this tier, the database resides along with its query processing languages.
We also have the relations that define the data and their constraints at this level.
 Application (Middle) Tier: At this tier reside the application server and the programs that access
the database. For a user, this application tier presents an abstracted view of the database. End-users
are unaware of any existence of the database beyond the application. At the other end, the database
tier is not aware of any other user beyond the application tier. Hence, the application layer sits in
the middle and acts as a mediator between the end-user and the database.
 User (Presentation) Tier: End-users operate on this tier and they know nothing about any
existence of the database beyond this layer. At this layer, multiple views of the database can be

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 provided by the application. All views are generated by applications that reside in the application
tier.
Thea 3-tier architecture provides greater application scalability, lower maintenance, and increased
reuse of components.
1.6.4. N-Tier Architecture
N-tier architecture would involve dividing an application into three different tiers. These would be
the: logic tier, the presentation tier, and the data tier.

It is the physical separation of the different parts of the application as opposed to the usually
conceptual or logical separation of the elements in the model-view-controller (MVC) framework.
Another difference from the MVC framework is that n-tier layers are connected linearly, meaning
all communication must go through the middle layer, which is the logic tier. In MVC, there is no
actual middle layer because the interaction is triangular; the control layer has access to both the
view and model layers and the model also accesses the view; the controller also creates a model
based on the requirements and pushes this to the view. However, they are not mutually exclusive,
as the MVC framework can be used in conjunction with the n-tier architecture, with the n-tier being
the overall architecture used and MVC used as the framework for the presentation tier.
1.7. Types of Database Systems
The DMBS can be classified according to the number of users, the database site locations.
1. On the basis of the number of users: Single-user DBMS and Multi-user DBMS
2. On the basis of the site location: Centralized DBMS, Distributed DBMS, Parallel DBMS and
Client/Server DBMS

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 1.7.1. Centralized Database System
What is the drawback of centralized database system?
The centralized database system consists of a single processor together with its associated data
storage devices and other peripherals. It is physically confined to a single location. The management
of the system and its data are controlled centrally form central site. A DBMS is centralized if the
data is stored at a single computer site. A centralized DBMS can support multiple users, but the
DBMS and the database themselves reside totally at a single computer site.

Figure 1-6: Centralized database system.

1.8.2. Distributed Database System
What is distributed database?
Assume Wolkite University uses centralized database to manage student information what are
the problems to the University database?
A distributed database is a collection of multiple logically interrelated database distributed over a
Computer Network. A distributed database management system is a software system that manages
a distributed database while making the distribution transparent to the user. In distributed database
system, data is distributed across a variety of different databases. These are managed by a variety of
different DBMS software’s running on a variety of different computing machines supported by a
variety of different operating systems. These machines are distributed geographically and connected
together by a variety of communication networks.
In distributed database system, the data might be distributed on different computers in such a way
that data for one portion is stored in one computer and the data for another portion is stored in
another. Each machine can have data and applications of its own. However, the users on one
computer can access to data stored in several other computers. Therefore, each machine will act as
a server for some users and a client for others.

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 Figure 1-7: Distributed database system.
Advantages of Distributed Database
Disadvantages of Distributed Database
 Distributed query processing.
 Technical problem of connecting dissimilar
 Improved the performance.
machine.
 Improved scalability
 Software cost and complexity.
 Security
 Difficulty in data integrity control.
 Replication transparency.
 Processing overhead.
 Distributed database recovery.
 Communication network failures.
 Replicated Data management
 Recovery from failure is more complex.
 Network transparency.
 Increased Reliability and Availability.
 Management of distributed data with different level of transparency.
 It provides greater efficiency and better performance.
1.7.2. Parallel Database System
Parallel database systems architecture consists of a multiple CPUs and data storage disks in parallel.
Hence, they improve processing and input/output speeds. Parallel database systems are used in the
applications that have to query extremely large databases or that have to process an extremely large
number of transactions per second. Several different architectures can be used for parallel database
systems, which are as follows:
 Shared Memory: All the processors share a common memory.
 Shared data storage disk: All the processors share a common set of disks. Shared disk
systems are sometimes called clusters.
 Independent Resources: The processors share neither a common memory nor common disk.
 Hierarchical: This model is a hybrid of the preceding three architectures.
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 1.7.3. Client-Server Database System
What is the difference between centralized and client-server database?
Client/Server architecture of database system has two logical components namely client and server.
Clients are generally personal computer or workstations whereas server is large workstations. The
applications and tools of DBMS run on one or more client platforms, while the DBMS software
reside on the sever. The server computer is called backend and the client's computer is called
frontend. These server and client computers are connected via a computer network. The applications
and tools act as clients of the DBMS, making requests for its services.

Figure 1-8: Client/server database system.

1.8. Database Management System (DBMS)
What is DBMS? What are the function and advantage of DBMS?
Discuss the component and function of DBMS? What is the difference between DBMS and
RDBMS? What is the difference between data and program independence?
DBMS is a collection of programs that enables users to create and maintain a database. The DBMS
is a general-purpose software system that facilitates the processes of defining, constructing,
manipulating, and sharing databases among various users and applications. The primary purpose of
a DBMS is to provide a systematic method of creating, updating, storing, and retrieving the data
stored in a database.
DBMS is a Software package used for providing efficient, convenient and safe multi-user (many
people/programs accessing same database, or even same data, simultaneously) storage of and access
to massive amounts of persistent (data outlives programs that operate on it) data. DBMS also
provides the service of controlling data access, enforcing data integrity, managing concurrency

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control, and recovery. The main objectives of database management system are data availability,
data integrity, data security, and data independence.
1.8.1. Functions of DBMS
 Data Definition: The DBMS provides functions to define the structure of the data in the
application. These include defining and modifying the record structure, the type and size of fields
and the various constraints to be satisfied by the data in each field.
 Data Manipulation: Once the data structure is defined, data needs to be inserted, modified or
deleted.
 Data Security and Integrity: The DBMS contains modules which handle the security and
integrity of data in the application. Support the implementation of access and authorization
service to database administrator and users.
 Concurrency control: Access and update on the database by different users simultaneously
should be implemented correctly which is handled by DBMS.
 Data Dictionary Maintenance: DBMS maintains the data dictionary which contains the data
definition of the application.
 Performance: DBMS optimizes the performance of the queries.
 Data storage, retrieval and update in the database
 A user accessible catalogue.
 Transaction support: ALL or NONE transaction, which minimize data inconsistency.
 Recovery: a mechanism for recovering the database after a failure must be available.
 Support for Data Communication: should provide the facility to integrate with data transfer
software or data communication managers.
 Utility services: sets of utility service facilities like: Importing data, Statistical analysis support,
Index reorganization and Garbage collection.
1.8.2. Components and Interfaces of Database Management System
Taking a DBMS as a system, one can describe it with respect to it environment or other systems
interacting with the DBMS. A database management system involves five major components: data,
hardware, software, procedure, and users. These components and the interface between the
components are shown in Figure 1.9.

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 1.8.2.1. Hardware
The hardware can range from a single personal computer, to a single mainframe, to a network of
computers. The particular hardware depends on the requirements of the organization and the DBMS
used. Some DBMSs run only on particular operating systems, while others run on a wide variety of
operating systems. A DBMS requires a minimum amount of main memory and disk space to run,
but this minimum configuration may not necessarily give acceptable performance.
1.8.2.2. Software
The software includes the DBMS software, application programs together with the operating
systems including the network software if the DBMS is being used over a network. Those
components like the DBMS software, application programs, operating systems, network software,
and other relevant software.
1.8.2.3. Data
There are two types of data in a database approach that is Operational and Metadata. The structure
of the data in the database is called the schema, which is composed of the Entities, Attributes, and
relationship between entities. The data in the database is well organized (structured), related and
accessible in different orders without great difficulty. The data in the database is persistent,
integrated, structured, and shared.
 Integrated Data: A data can be considered to be a unification of several distinct data files and
when any redundancy among those files is eliminated, the data are said to be integrated data.
 Shared Data: A database contains data that can be shared by different users for different
application simultaneously.
 Persistent Data: Persistent data are one, which cannot be removed from the database as a side
effect of some other process. Persistent data have a life span that is not limited to single
execution of the programs that use them.
1.8.2.4. Procedure
Procedure is the rules and regulations on how to design and use a database. It includes procedures
like how to log on to the DBMS, how to use facilities, how to start and stop transaction, how to make
backup, how to treat hardware and software failure, how to change the structure of the database.
1.8.2.5. People
Here people refers to the people who manages the database, database administrator, people who
design the application program, database designer and the people who interacts with the database,
database users. In general, peoples interacting with database are database administrator, database
designer, database manager, and database end-users.

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 1.8.2.6. Data Dictionary
A data dictionary, also known as a “system catalog,” is a centralized store of information about the
database. It contains information about the tables, the fields the tables contain, data types, primary
keys, indexes, the joins which have been established between those tables, referential integrity,
cascades update, cascade delete, etc. This information stored in the data dictionary is called the
“Metadata.” Thus a data dictionary can be considered as a file that stores Metadata. The data
dictionary can be integrated within the DBMS or separate.
Metadata: The information (data) about the data in a database is called Metadata. The Metadata are
available for query and manipulation, just as other data in the database.
1.8.2.7. Functional Components of Database System Structure
The functional components of database system structure are:
Storage manager: Storage manager is responsible for storing, retrieving, and updating data in the
database. Storage manager components are:
Authorization and Integrity Manager: Checks the integrity constraints and authority of users to
access data.
Transaction Manager: It ensures that the database remains in a consistent state despite system
failures. The transaction manager manages the execution of database manipulation requests. The
transaction manager function is to ensure that concurrent access to data does not result in conflict.
File Manager: File manager manages the allocation of space on disk storage. Files are used to store
collections of similar data. A file management system manages independent files, helping to enter
and retrieve information records. File manager establishes and maintains the list of structure and
indexes defined in the internal schema. The file manager can: Create a file, Delete a file, Update the
record in the file, and Retrieve a record from a file.
Buffer: The area into which a block from the file is read is termed a buffer. The management of
buffers has the objective of maximizing the performance or the utilization of the secondary storage
systems, while at the same time keeping the demand on CPU resources tolerably low. The use of
two or more buffers for a file allows the transfer of data to be overlapped with the processing of
data.
Buffer Manager: Buffer manager is responsible for fetching data from disk storage into main
memory. Programs call on the buffer manager when they need a block from disk. The requesting
program is given the address of the block in main memory, if it is already present in the buffer. If
the block is not in the buffer, the buffer manager allocates space in the buffer for the block, replacing
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some other block, if required, to make space for new block. Once space is allocated in the buffer,
the buffer manager reads in the block from the disk to the buffer, and passes the address of the block
in main memory to the requester.
Indexes/ Indices: Indices provide fast access to data items that hold particular values. An index is a
list of numerical values which gives the order of the records when they are sorted on a particular
field or column of the table.

Figure 1-9: Database management system components and interfaces.

1.9. Data Models and Conceptual Models

What is the difference between data model and conceptual model?
What is the difference between logical data independence and physical data independence?
A data model a collection of concepts that can be used to describe the structure of a database
provides the necessary means to achieve this abstraction. High-level or conceptual data models
provide concepts that are close to the way many users perceive data, whereas low-level or physical
data models provide concepts that describe the details of how data is stored on the computer storage

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media, typically magnetic disks. We can regard the object data model as an example of a new
family of higher-level implementation data models that are closer to conceptual data models.
1.10. Database Languages (DDL, DML, DCL, SDL)
Data Definition Language (DDL), is used by the DBA and by database designers to define both
schemas. This subset of SQL supports the creation, deletion, and modification of definitions for
tables and views.
Data Manipulation Language (DML): Typical manipulations include retrieval, insertion, deletion,
and modification of the data. This subset of SQL allows users to pose queries and to insert, delete,
and modify rows.
 Procedural DML: Procedural DMLs require a user to specify what Data are needed and how
to get those data. e.g., PL/SQL.
 Non-Procedural DML: Non-procedural DMLs require a user to specify what data are needed
without specifying how to get those data. e.g., SQL
Data Control Languages (DCL) are used to control a database including administering privileges
and saving of data. DCL commands are used to grant, and revoke privileges.
Transaction Control Language(TCL) commands are used to manage transactions in the database.
It is the component of SQL statement that allows to commit and rollback data from the database.
Query is a statement requesting the retrieval of information.
Summary
The main objective of database management system is to store and manipulate the data in an efficient
manner. A database is an organized collection of related data. All the data will not give useful
information. Only processed data gives useful information, which helps an organization to take
important decisions. Before DBMS, computer file processing systems were used to store,
manipulate, and retrieve large files of data. Computer file processing systems have limitations such
as data duplications, limited data sharing, and no program data independence. In order to overcome
these limitations database approach was developed. The responsibilities of Database administrator,
ANSI/SPARK, two-tier, three-tier architecture were analyzed in this chapter. Types of database on
the bases of user and on the bases of site location are introduced in this chapter. The main advantages
of DBMS approach are program-data independence, improved data sharing, and minimal data
redundancy. In this chapter we have seen the evolution of DBMS and broad introduction to DBMS.
Finally, database languages like DDL, DML, DCL, SDL, VDL, and DQL are introduced in this
chapter.
Review Questions
1. What is Database? Give an example.
2. What are the steps to design a good database?

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3. Define the following terms: data independent, program independent, DBMS, database system,
data dictionary, user view, database administrator, end user, query, persistent object, meta-data,
data model, conceptual model and transaction.
4. Discuss the difference between google search engine and database search engine?
5. Discuss the main characteristics of the database approach and how it differs from traditional file
systems.
6. What are the responsibilities of the DBA and the database designers?
7. What are the different types of database end users? Discuss the main activities of each.
8. Discuss the capabilities that should be provided by a DBMS.
9. Mention various types of databases?
10. Discuss the differences between database systems and information retrieval systems.
11. What are the drawbacks of file processing system?
12. Mention three situations where it is not desirable to use DBMS?
13. Define the concept of database schema? Describe the types of schemas that exist in a database
complying with the three levels ANSI/SPARC architecture?
14. What is meant by Physical and Logical data independence?
15. Define Data Model and mention the various categories of Data Model?

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