Gabriel & Espiritu Salaysay at Saysay Manuscript (Unedited)

Chapter 10
The Declaration of Philippine Independence
An independent state is one with traditionally known four elements: people, territory,
government and sovereignty. There is no problem for the element people for the Filipinos are
the people, territory is clearly defined as our archipelago, government is presumed to be the
government established at Biak-na-bato with which Aguinaldo claimed his presidency from,
but sovereignty, well, that is something contentious about. Our independence, however, was
proclaimed under unique circumstances. On June 12, 1898, at around 4:00 to 5:00 in the
afternoon, the flag which glistened with golden thread was waved at the music of Julian
Felipe. There was no diplomat to recognize the declaration for it would be tantamount to
recognizing the independence of the Philippines under diplomatic practices. Nevertheless,
independence which we aspired was unilaterally declared, though other countries did not
extend any recognition.

Preliminary Activity
The following is our national anthem. Underline the verbs.

Lupang Hinirang

Bayang magiliw, perlas ng silanganan

Alab ng puso sa dibdib mo‟y buhay
Lupang hinirang, duyan ka ng magiting
Sa manlulupig di ka pasisiil

Sa dagat at bundok, sa simoy at

Sa langit mong bughaw
May dilag kang tula at awit sa paglayang minamahal
Ang kislap ng watawat mo‟y tagumpay na nagniningning

Ang bituin at araw nyang kailan pa ma‟y di magdidilim

Lupa ng araw, ng luwalhati‟t pagsinta, buhay ay langit sa piling mo
Aming ligaya nang pag may mangaapi
Ang mamatay ng dahil sayo.

Process Questions

 What tenses were the verbs?

 Why do you think Rafael Palma, the lyricist of the anthem did not write the
song in past tense?
 In the phrase “May dilag kang tula at awit sa paglayang minamahal” why did
Palma say “paglaya?”
 What does the “buhay ay langit sa piling mo” mean?

This anthem is actually not a victory song. Julian Felipe wrote the melody in 2/4 time
signature which is a march, practically meant as a song while marching and Palma wrote the

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lyrics in realization that this will be sung for the first time when the flag will also be unfurled
for this first time in June 12, 1896, not Manila but in Kawit. Why not in Manila which is the
capital of Philippines? This is because the Spaniards are still in the capital, while the
Americans are in Manila Bay. The last phrase “ang mamatay ng dahil sayo” is significant
because they have declared independence without them fighting for it yet. They would still
have to fight for it by August 1896.

Historical Context of the Document

With the pursuing army of Gov. Gen. Primo de Rivera, Emilio Aguinaldo and what
was left of his men and officials after fleeing from Maragondon by May 1897, they made
their final refuge, holed up at Biak-na-bato by June 1897. De Rivera stopped pursuing them
because of the terrain and because it was the onset of the rainy season. It was at this time
when de Rivera sued for surrender. The lull in fighting, however, gave Aguinaldo the chance
to re-organize and create a semblance of a true republican government. Thus Felix Ferrer and
Isabelo Artacho copied the Cuban constitution and took it as the constitution of the Biak-na-
bato Republic. But instead of waging the last battle to the bitter end, Aguinaldo gave in to de
Rivera‟s offer of a truce. On the table was ₱800,000; ₱400,000 at the moment of departure
from Biak-na-bato and the balance in two installments, in exchange for Aguinaldo and his
men‟s exile to Hong Kong. On December 27, 1897, Aguinaldo and his men left for Hong
Kong carrying with them ₱400,000 (Agoncillo and Guerrero 1977:209).

But while de Rivera announced the end of the revolution by January 1898, and while
the guns of the revolutionists had been silenced even if some of the revolutionists did not
surrender, everything was not so quiet in the world scene. The US warship Maine was
attacked and sunk off Havana, Cuba by the Spaniards. The world was awaiting a showdown
between the US and Spain. Where they will fight was never near their own backyard but in
the Philippines, the farthest colony of Spain and far from the shores of the US. On May 1,
1898, the flotilla of Commodore George Dewey entered Manila Bay and decimated Admiral
Patricio Montojo‟s fleet. Aguinaldo arrived in the Philippines aboard McCulloch on May 19
and assumed the presidency under the Biak-na-bato constitution (Agoncillo and Guerrero
1977:220). This could be reckoned as revolution part 2. As Aguinaldo assumed command of
the government he left behind, he also consolidated the command of the troops he left during
his exile, those who stayed loyal to him and those who may have harbored a grudge. On this
note, he needed to have a personal, political assistant and the name suggested by Felipe
Agoncillo while he was still in Hong Kong stood out, Apolinario Mabini. Though infirmed as
a paralytic, his knowledge of law convinced Aguinaldo as the right man for the job when he
spoke and he was taken by Aguinaldo as adviser. On June 3, Aguinaldo asked Mabini to write
a decree declaring June 12, 1898 as the proclamation of independence which Mabini objected
for there would have been more important preparations for a government to confront the still
functioning Spanish colonial government than a proclamation of indeendence. Nevertheless,
Aguinaldo had his wish. The flag which was sewn by Ma. Marcela Agoncillo, Lorenza
Agoncillo and Delfina Herboza way back from Hong Kong would be unfurled. He
commissioned Julian Felipe to compose the music of the anthem which he wrote in 2/4 time
signature, a march entitled Marcha Nacional Felipinas (originally titled, Marcha Nacional
Magdalo) and Rafael Palma wrote the lyrics, while Ambrocio Rianzares Bautista penned the
declaration of independence. Come June 12, the pompous occasion in front the men donned
in radillo, the band which played the anthem and the flag which was unfurled marked the
proclamation of independence, not in Manila for the Spaniards were still there but in Kawit,
hometown of the president as no guns had been fired the second time as yet to oust the
colonizer while, ominously, the flag of the US was flying in the warship anchored in Manila
Bay (Agoncillo 1977:229-230). On that same day, the Declaration of Philippine Independence
which Bautista wrote was read amid the crowd that cheered for the freedom that they had
longed for.

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About the Author

Ambrocio Rianzares Bautista was born on December 17, 1830 in Biñan, Laguna to
Gregorio Enriquez Bautista Silvestra Altamira. They were believed to be a distant relative of
Rizal. He studied law at the University of Santo Tomas and graduated in 1865. When Rizal
returned to the Philippines in 1892 and founded La Liga Filipina, he was elected an officer of
the organization and also became member of Cuerpo Compromisarios, an organization of
middle class men. His underground participation in the reform movement was to solicit funds
for the La Solidaridad. When the revolution broke out 1896, he was one of those arrested and
tortured at Fort Santiago at which time he defended himself in court and won his release. He
went into hiding at Malabon and with de Rivera‟s granting of amnesty in December 1897 as
the Truce of Biak-na-bato took effect, Bautista availed of the amnesty and was appointed
member of the Consultative Committee created by Gov. Gen. Basilio Agustin. With the
resumption of the revolution upon the return of Aguinaldo in 1898, Bautista became one of
the advisers on war affairs to the president. And lawyer as he was, he authored the declaration
of Philippine Independence.

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Reading 8.1

Declaration of Philippine Independence1

In the town of Cavite-Viejo, Province of Cavite, this 12th day of June 1898:

BEFORE ME, Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, War Counsellor and Special Delegate
designated to proclaim and solemnize this Declaration of Independence by the Dictatorial
Government of the Philippines, pursuant to, and by virtue of, a Decree issued by the
Egregious Dictator Don Emilio Aguinaldo y Famy,

The undersigned assemblage of military chiefs and others of the army who could not
attend, as well as the representatives of the various towns,

Taking into account the fact that the people of this country are already tired of
bearing the ominous joke of Spanish domination,

Because of arbitrary arrests and abuses of the Civil Guards who cause deaths in
connivance with and even under the express orders of their superior officers who at times
would order the shooting of those placed under arrest under the pretext that they attempted to
escape in violation of known Rules and Regulations, which abuses were left unpunished, and
because of unjust deportations of illustrious Filipinos, especially those decreed by General
Blanco at the instigation of the Archbishop and the friars interested in keeping them in
ignorance for egoistic and selfish ends, which deportations were carried out through processes
more execrable than those of the Inquisition which every civilized nation repudiates as a trial
without hearing.

1
Lifted from the proclamation ”Declaration of Philippine Independence” Documents of the 1898
Declaration of Philippine Independence, Malolos Constitution and the First Philippine Republic,
Manila: National Historical Institute, 1997, pp. 18-23.

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Had resolved to start a revolution in August 1896 in order to regain the independence
and sovereignty of which the people had been deprived by Spain through Governor Miguel
Lopez de Legazpi who, (continuing the course followed by his predecessor Ferdinand
Magellan who landed on the shores of Cebu and occupied said Island by means of a Pact of
Friendship with Chief Tupas, although he was killed in battle that took place in said shores to
which battle he was provoked by Chief Kalipulako of Mactan who suspected his evil
designs.) landed on the Island of Bohol by entering also into a Blood Compact with its Chief
Sikatuna, with the purpose of later taking by force the Island of Cebu, and because his
successor Tupad did not allow him to occupy it, he went to Manila, the capital, winning
likewise the friendship of its Chiefs Soliman and Lakandula, later taking possession of the
city and the whole Archipelago in the name of Spain by virtue of an order of King Phillip II,
and with these historical precedents and because an international law the prescription
established by law to legalize the vicious acquisition of private property is not recognized, the
legitimacy of such revolution cannot be put in doubt which was calmed but not completely
stifled by the pacification proposed by Don Pedro A. Paterno with Don Emilio Aguinaldo as
President of the Republic established in Biak-na-Bato and accepted by Governor-General Don
Fernando Primo de Rivera under terms, both written and oral, among them being a general
amnesty for all deported and convicted persons; that by reason of the non-fulfilment of some
of the terms, after the destruction of the Spanish Squadron by the North American Navy, and
bombardment of the plaza of Cavite, Don Emilio Aguinaldo returned in order to initiate a new
revolution and no sooner had he given the order to rise on the 31st of last month when several
towns anticipating the revolution, rose in revolt on the 28th, such that a Spanish continguent of
178 men, between Imus and Cavite-Viejo under the command of a major of the Marine
Infantry capitulated, the revolutionary movement spreading like wild fire to other towns of
Cavite and the other provinces of Bataan, Pampanga, Batangas, Bulacan, Laguna, and
Morong, some of them with seaports and such was the success of the victory of our arms,
truly marvelous an without equal in the history of colonial revolutions that in the first
mentioned province only the Detachments in Naic and Indang remained to surrender; in the
second, all Detachments had been wiped out; in the third, the resistance of the Spanish forces
was localized in the town of San Fernando where the greater part of them are concentrated,
the remainder in Macabebe, Sexmoan, and Guagua; in the fourth; in the town of Lipa; in the
fifth, in the capital and in Calumpit; and in the last two remaining provinces, only in their
respective capitals, and the city of Manila will soon be besieged by our forces as well as the
provinces of Nueva Ecija, Tarlac, Pangasinan, La Union, Zambales, and some others in the
Visayas where the revolution at the time of the pacification and others even before, so that the
independence of our country and the revindication of our sovereignty is assured,

And having as witness to the rectitude of our intentions the Supreme Judge of the
Universe, and under the protection of the Powerful and Humanitarian Nation, the United
States of America, we do hereby proclaim and declare solemnly in the name and by authority
of the people of these Philippine Islands,

That they are and have the right to be free and independent; that they have ceased to
have any allegiance to the Crown of Spain; that all political ties between them are should be
completely severed and annulled; and that, like other free and independent States, that enjoy
full power to make war and Peace, conclude commercial treaties, enter into alliances, regulate
commerce, and do all other acts and things which an Independent State has a right to do,

And imbued with firm confidence in Divine Providence, we hereby mutually bind
ourselves to this Declaration with our lives, our fortunes, and with our most sacred
possession, our Honor.

We recognize, approve, and ratify, with all the orders emanating from the same, the
Dictatorship established by Don Emilio Aguinaldo whom we reverse as the Supreme Head of

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this Nation, which today begins to have a life of its own, in the conviction that he has been the
instrument chosen by God, in spite of his humble origin, to effectuate the redemption of this
unfortunate country as foretold by Dr. Don Jose Rizal in his magnificent verses which he
composed in his prison cell prior to his execution, liberating it from the Yoke of Spanish
domination,

And in punishment for the impunity with which the Government sanctioned the
commission of abuses by its officials, and for the unjust execution of Rizal and others who
were sacrificed in order to please the insatiable friars in their hydropical thirst for vengeance
against and extermination of all those who oppose their Machiavellian ends, trampling upon
the Penal Code of these Islands, and of those suspected persons arrested by the Chiefs of
Detachments at the instigation of the friars, without any form nor semblance of trial and
without any spiritual aid of our sacred Religion; and likewise, and for the same ends, eminent
Filipino priests, Doctor Jon Jose Burgos, Don Mariano Gomez, and Don Jacinto Zamora were
hanged whose innocent blood was shed due to the intrigues of these so-called Religious
corporations which made the authorities to believe that military uprising at the fort of San
Felipe in Cavite on the night of January 21, 1872 was instigated by those Filipino martyrs,
thereby impeding the execution of the decree-sentence issued by the Council of State in the
appeal in the administrative case interposed by the secular clergy against the Royal Orders
that directed that the parishes under them within the jurisdiction of this Bishopric be turned
over to the Recollects in exchange for those controlled by them in Mindanao which were to
be transferred to the Jesuits, thus revoking them completely and ordering the return of those
parishes, all of which proceedings are on file with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to which
they are sent last month of last year for the issuance of the proper Royal Degree which, in
turn, caused the growth of the tree of liberty in our dear land that grew more and more
through the iniquitous measures of oppression, until the last drop from our chalice of
suffering having been drained, the first spark of revolution broke out in Caloocan, spread out
to Santa Mesa and continued its course to the adjoining regions of the province where the
unequalled heroism of its inhabitants fought a one-sided battle against superior forced of
General Blanco and General Polavieja for a period of three months, without proper arms nor
ammunitions, except bolos, pointed bamboos, and arrows.

Moreover, we confer upon our famous Dictator Don Emilio Aguinaldo all the powers
necessary to enable him to discharge the duties of Government, including the prerogatives of
granting pardon and amnesty,

And lastly, it was resolved unanimously that this Nation, already free and
independent as of this day, must use the same flag which up to now is being used, whose
design and colors are found described in the attached drawing, the white triangle signifying
the distinctive emblem of the famous Society of the “Katipunan” which by means of its blood
compact inspired the masses to rise in revolution; the three stars, signifying the three principal
Islands of this Archipelago – Luzon, Mindanao, and Panay where this revolutionary
movement started; the sun representing the gigantic steps made by the sons of the country
along the path of Progress and Civilization; the eight rays, signifying the eight provinces---
Manila, Cavite, Bulacan, Pampanga, Nueva Ecija, Bataan, Laguna, and Batangas--- which
declared themselves in a state of war as soon as the first revolt was initiated; and the colors of
Blue, Red, and White, commemorating the flag of the United States of North America, as a
manifestation of our profound gratitude towards this Great Nation for its disinterested
protection which it lent us and continues lending us.

And holding up this flag of ours, I present it to the gentlemen here assembled --- Don
Segundo Arellano, Don Tiburcio del Rosario, Sergio Matias, Don Agapito Zialcita, Don
Flaviano Alonzo, Don Mariano Legazpi, Don Jose Turiano Santiago y Acosta, Don Aurelio
Tolentino, Don Felix Ferrer, Don Felipe Buencamino, Don Fernando Canon Faustino, (Hijo),

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Don Anastacio Pinzun, Don Timoteo Bernabe, Don Flaviano Rodriguez, Don Gavino (?)
Masancay, Don Narciso Mayuga, Don Gregorio Villa, Don Luis Perez Tagle, Don Canuto
Celestino, Don Marcos Jocson, Don Martin de los Reyes, Don Ciriaco Bausa, Don Manuel
Santos, Don Mariano Mariano Toribio, Don Gabriel Reyes, Don Hugo Lim, Don Emiliano
Lim, Don Fausto Tinorio (?), Don Rosendo Simon, Don Leon Tanjanque (?), Don Gregorio
Bonifacio, Don Manuel Salafranca, Don Simon Villareal, Don Calixto Lara, Don
Buenaventura Toribio, Don Zacarias Fajardo, Don Florencio Manalo, Don Roman Gana, Don
Marcelino Gomez, Don Valentin Polintan, Don Felix Polintan, Don Evaristo Dimalanta, Don
Gregorio Alvarez, Don Sabas de Guzman, Don Esteban Francisco, Don Guido Yaptinchay,
Don Mariano Rianzares Baustista, Don Francisco, Arambulo, Don Antonio Gonzalez, Don
Juan Arevalo, Don Ramon Delfino, Don Honorio Tiongco, Don Francisco del Rosario, Don
Epifanio Marcelo Basa, Don Jose Medina, Don Epifanio Crisia (?), Don Pastor Lopez de
Leon, Don Mariano de los Santos, Don Santiago Garcia, Don Claudio Tria Tirona, Don
Estanislao Tria Tirona, Don Daniel Tria Tirona, Don Andres Tria Tirona, Don Carlos Tria
Tirona, Don Sulpicio P Antony, Don Epitacio Asuncion, Don Catalino Ramon, Don Juan
Bordador, Don Jose del Rosario, Don Proceso Pulido, Don Jose Maria del Rosario, Don
Ramon Magcamco (?), Don Antonio Calingo, Don Pedro Mendiola, Don Estanislao Galinco,
Don Numeriano Castillo, Don Federico Tomacruz, Don Teodoro Yatco, Don Ladislao Diwa
(?).

Who solemnly swear to recognize and defend it unto the last drop of their blood.

In witness thereof, I certify that this Act of Declaration of Independence was signed
by me and by all those here assembled including the only stranger who attended those
proceedings, a citizen of the U.S.A., Mr. L.M. Johnson, a Colonel of Artillery.

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Postscript
The declaration of independence may have been a little presumptuous for the battle to
liberate the Philippines had not been fought and won. After June 12, the Filipino troops
marched towards Manila and encircled Intramuros with a flag that they were waving and a
battle song that they could march with as they would take on their offensives. But by late
June, American forces started to land on the shores of Manila Bay and more reinforcements
came by August on expeditionary mission. But Aguinaldo made a humongous miscalculation.
He thought that the American army which came would help him extricate the hold out
Spaniards, on the contrary, he was asked to move away from the wall in order for the
Americans to assume their positions. Unfortunately, Aguinaldo ordered his men to yield their
positions. Then on August 10, 1898, Comm. Dewey fired his guns from the sea, aiming at
Intramuros but shells simply landed on the shore hitting no one. The theatrical Mock Battle
had begun. The make-believe offensive of the Americans against the Spaniards who were
fictitiously trying to hold their ground was simply a show to let the whole world know that the
Americans are a superpower while the Spaniards wanted to show the world that they fought to
preserve their honor. Well, in fact, everything was choreographed in order to give the
Spaniards a graceful exit. No building was destroyed (anyway the Americans would have to
rebuild it had they destroyed any of it), no one was hurt though, only the pride of the
humiliated Filipinos who willingly gave up their positions and became an audience to the two
dramatizing players. The day ended up with the Spaniards surrendering to the Americans as
the American flag was hoisted inside Intramuros. Since Aguinaldo and his men had no place
in the capital, they went to Malolos, Bulacan, not too far to waste time to reorganize and not
too near that they could be within reach to be captured by the Americans. In Malolos (not in
the capital) they drafted a constitution, now known as the Malolos Constitution, in order to
show the world that we are a constitutional government to back up our declaration that we are

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already independent and we have a government of our own. But this constitution would
hardly be implemented since the Filipino-American War would begin and the Filipino
government would not last long.

It would definitely be doubtful that the revolutionists celebrated June 12 as the

proclamation of independence a year after 1898, for the men who took part in the festivities of
June 12 the previous year were on the run, trying to evade capture from the pursuing
American troops after a theatrical, make-believe battle in which the Spaniards surrendered to
the Americans and not to the Filipinos. Doubtful still that the Filipinos celebrated June 12 in
1900 for the Philippines had been ceded to the United States as President William Mckinley
had announced his Benevolent Assimilation policy and the Philippines had become a colony
of the US. Doubtful, moreover, that the Filipinos celebrated June 12 thereafter for the
Americans imposed anti-nationalistic laws where celebration or clamor for independence and
display of flags would be met with the penalty of death. What was clear was that the
Americans granted our independence on July 4, 1946 under the Tydings McDuffie Law, a
year late since the Philippines was still reeling from the ravages of World War II. Thus June
12 as the proclamation of independence was forgotten since it was celebrated in 1898. Four
presidents thereafter, Manuel Roxas, Elpidio Quirino, Ramon Magsaysay and Carlos Garcia,
July 4 was reckoned as our independence day. How come we celebrate it today on June 12?

It happened during the time of Diosdado Macapagal. The practice among newly
elected presidents after the war was to dispense of their very first diplomatic obligation and
that was to go the US for a state visit. This was crucial at that time for the president since the
Philippines was always short of cash and the $620 million outlay under the Rehabilitation Act
(Agoncillo 1977: 495) which the US enacted in 1946 and which the US Congress
appropriated in installment to be given every other president would ameliorate our cash-
strapped economy. But the US Congress rejected the bill appropriating the $73 million war
damages to the Philippines and called the money as handouts. Pres. Macapagal fired back. In
his statement in the Manila Chronicle:

President Macapagal… branded as “false and unfair to the Filipino people”

a U.S. solon‟s charge that the $73-million war damage claims were “handouts to the
Philippines.”

At his regular press conference, the President said “We are not beggars.”

He also announced he had deferred his decision on proposals to scrap or

postpone his state visit to the United States (De Leon 1962:1).

In retribution, Macapagal changed the celebration of Independence Day from July 4

which coincides with the celebration of American independence back to June 12. Thus, on
June 12, 1962, Filipinos celebrated Philippine Independence on that date after 64 years it was
totally forgotten. But we have to be technically clear on certain points. The independence of
the Philippines really happened on July 4, 1946 as the US granted our independence under the
General Treaty of Friendship. This declaration was recognized by other countries which later
accorded us de jure recognition under diplomatic practices. This is our independence day
while June 12, 1898 was the declaration or proclamation of Philippine independence.

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Reinforcement Activity

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 Identifying the intentions of the signatories in the document for the declaration of
independence

a) Make an outline of the declaration.

b) Use your outline as your categories on the first column of the following table.
From these categories pick out the key words or phrases that would signify the
intention of the signatories.

Categories Key words in the document Intention of the signatories

(From your outline)

 Appreciation of the circumstances surrounding the declaration of Philippine

independence

Complete the matrix.

Questions Answers
When was it signed?
Where was it signed?
Did Apolinario Mabini and Emilio
Aguinaldo‟s names appear on the names
who affixed their signatures?

a) If this was the declaration of independence why do you think was it signed in
Kawit, Cavite and not in Manila (Intramuros) where the capital of the
Philippines was?
b) Why, do you think, Mabini‟s signature was not in the document?
c) Why, do you think, Aguinaldo‟s signature was not also there?

Relevance
Technically the Philippines was not yet free from the Spaniards when this document
was written and signed. The fighting that would commence the second phase of the
revolution, this time under the command of President Emilio Aguinaldo, had not begun. Their
guns were still silent but the festivities of June 12, 1898 was evident in Kawit, Cavite on the
Declaration of Independence though the Americans under the command of Commodore
George Dewey who were victorious in their skirmish with the Spanish navy on May 1, 1898
were lingering and on the look-out in Manila Bay. But this document is relevant on these
points:

 It tells of the thirst of the Filipinos to be free.

 It is a testament of the aspiration for freedom and the reasons behind their desire to be
free.

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 Though we were presumptuous of the declaration of independence, at least we

declared it though no country recognized it that time
 The document purposely provided the meanings of the symbols and details of our flag

Challenge
The revolutionists went a long way, suffered a great deal, through their blood and
tears to gain our independence. What values should you and should we have in order to give
importance to their desire for freedom.

Now that you know what the lyrics of our national anthem and the context with which
it was first conceived mean, will you laugh when it is sung or take for granted the supposed
solemn and fervent singing as it was intended, especially when the phrase “ang mamatay ng
dahil sayo” is sung? Can you now discern what that phrase means to the men who will march
later to Manila and literally die to fight to claim the independence that they aspire? Picture
yourself as a member of the contingent. What would “ang mamatay ng dahil sayo” mean for
tomorrow you will really fight to die and leave your family behind?

References
Agoncillo, Teodoro A. and Guerrero, Milagros C. (1977) History of the Filipino People.
Quezon City: R.P. Garcia Publishing Co.

De Leon, Francisco (1962) “Mac Brands U.S. „Unfair‟: Declares: „We are not beggars‟ The
Manila Chronicle. May 12.

National Historical Institute (1997) “Declaration of Independence,” Documents of the 1898

Declaration of Philippine Independence, The Malolos Constitution and the First
Philippine Republic, Manila: National Historical Institute.

Gabriel & Espiritu

Salaysay at Saysay Manuscript (Unedited)

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