SQL Commands:

SQL commands are instructions used to communicate with the database to perform specific
task that work with data. SQL commands can be used not only for searching the database
but also to perform various other functions like, for example, you can create tables, add data
to tables, or modify data, drop the table, set permissions for users. SQL commands are
grouped into four major categories depending on their functionality:
 Data Definition Language (DDL) - These SQL commands are used for creating,
modifying, and dropping the structure of database objects. The commands are
CREATE, ALTER, DROP, RENAME, and TRUNCATE.
 Data Manipulation Language (DML) - These SQL commands are used for storing,
retrieving, modifying, and deleting data. These commands are SELECT, INSERT,
UPDATE, and DELETE.
 Transaction Control Language (TCL) - These SQL commands are used for
managing changes affecting the data. These commands are COMMIT, ROLLBACK,
and SAVEPOINT.
 Data Control Language (DCL) - These SQL commands are used for providing
security to database objects. These commands are GRANT and REVOKE.

SQL SELECT Statement

The most commonly used SQL command is SELECT statement. The SQL SELECT
statement is used to query or retrieve data from a table in the database. A query may retrieve
information from specified columns or from all of the columns in the table. To create a
simple SQL SELECT Statement, you must specify the column(s) name and the table name.
The whole query is called SQL SELECT Statement.
Syntax of SQL SELECT Statement:

SELECT  column_list FROM table-name 
[WHERE Clause]
[GROUP BY clause]
[HAVING clause]
[ORDER BY clause];
 table-name is the name of the table from which the information is retrieved.
 column_list includes one or more columns from which data is retrieved.
 The code within the brackets is optional.
database table student_details;
id first_name last_name age subject games
100 Rahul Sharma 10 Science Cricket

101 Anjali Bhagwat 12 Maths Football

102 Stephen Fleming 09 Science Cricket

103 Shekar Gowda 18 Maths Badminton

104 Priya Chandra 15 Economics Chess

NOTE: These database tables are used here for better explanation of SQL commands. In
reality, the tables can have different columns and different data.
For example, consider the table student_details. To select the first name of all the students
the query would be like:
SELECT first_name FROM student_details;
NOTE: The commands are not case sensitive. The above SELECT statement can also be
written as "select first_name from students_details;"
You can also retrieve data from more than one column. For example, to select first name
and last name of all the students.
SELECT first_name, last_name FROM student_details;
You can also use clauses like WHERE, GROUP BY, HAVING, ORDER BY with SELECT
statement. We will discuss these commands in coming chapters.
NOTE: In a SQL SELECT statement only SELECT and FROM statements are mandatory.
Other clauses like WHERE, ORDER BY, GROUP BY, HAVING are optional.
How to use expressions in SQL SELECT Statement?

Expressions combine many arithmetic operators, they can be used in SELECT, WHERE and
ORDER BY Clauses of the SQL SELECT Statement.
Here we will explain how to use expressions in the SQL SELECT Statement. About using
expressions in WHERE and ORDER BY clause, they will be explained in their respective
sections.
The operators are evaluated in a specific order of precedence, when more than one
arithmetic operator is used in an expression. The order of evaluation is: parentheses,
division, multiplication, addition, and subtraction. The evaluation is performed from the left
to the right of the expression.
For example: If we want to display the first and last name of an employee combined
together, the SQL Select Statement would be like
SELECT first_name || ' ' || last_name FROM employee;
Output:
first_name || ' ' || last_name
---------------------------------
Rahul Sharma
Anjali Bhagwat
Stephen Fleming
Shekar Gowda
Priya Chandra
You can also provide aliases as below.
SELECT first_name || ' ' || last_name AS emp_name FROM employee;
Output:
emp_name
-------------
Rahul Sharma
Anjali Bhagwat
Stephen Fleming
Shekar Gowda
Priya Chandra

SQL Alias
SQL Aliases are defined for columns and tables. Basically aliases is created to make the
column selected more readable.
For Example: To select the first name of all the students, the query would be like:
Aliases for columns:

SELECT first_name AS Name FROM student_details;

or
SELECT first_name Name FROM student_details;
In the above query, the column first_name is given a alias as 'name'. So when the result is
displayed the column name appears as 'Name' instead of 'first_name'.
Output:
Name
-------------
Rahul Sharma
Anjali Bhagwat
 Stephen Fleming
Shekar Gowda
Priya Chandra
Aliases for tables:

SELECT s.first_name FROM student_details s;  

In the above query, alias 's' is defined for the table student_details and the column
first_name is selected from the table.
Aliases is more useful when
 There are more than one tables involved in a query,
 Functions are used in the query,
 The column names are big or not readable,
 More than one columns are combined together

SQL WHERE Clause

The WHERE Clause is used when you want to retrieve specific information from a table
excluding other irrelevant data. For example, when you want to see the information about
students in class 10th only then you do need the information about the students in other
class. Retrieving information about all the students would increase the processing time for
the query.
So SQL offers a feature called WHERE clause, which we can use to restrict the data that is
retrieved. The condition you provide in the WHERE clause filters the rows retrieved from
the table and gives you only those rows which you expected to see. WHERE clause can be
used along with SELECT, DELETE, UPDATE statements.
Syntax of SQL WHERE Clause:

WHERE {column or expression} comparison-operator value

Syntax for a WHERE clause with Select statement is:

SELECT column_list FROM table-name 
WHERE condition;
 column or expression - Is the column of a table or a expression
 comparison-operator - operators like = < > etc.
 value - Any user value or a column name for comparison
For Example: To find the name of a student with id 100, the query would be like:
SELECT first_name, last_name FROM student_details  
WHERE id = 100;
Comparison Operators and Logical Operators are used in WHERE Clause. These operators
are discussed in the next chapter.
NOTE: Aliases defined for the columns in the SELECT statement cannot be used in the
WHERE clause to set conditions. Only aliases created for tables can be used to reference the
columns in the table.
How to use expressions in the WHERE Clause?

Expressions can also be used in the WHERE clause of the SELECT statement.
For example: Lets consider the employee table. If you want to display employee name,
current salary, and a 20% increase in the salary for only those products where the percentage
increase in salary is greater than 30000, the SELECT statement can be written as shown
below
SELECT name, salary, salary*1.2 AS new_salary FROM employee  
WHERE salary*1.2 > 30000;
Output:
name salary new_salary

----------- ---------- ----------------

Hrithik 35000 37000

Harsha 35000 37000

Priya 30000 360000

NOTE: Aliases defined in the SELECT Statement can be used in WHERE Clause.

SQL Operators
There are two type of Operators, namely Comparison Operators and Logical Operators.
These operators are used mainly in the WHERE clause, HAVING clause to filter the data to
be selected.
Comparison Operators:

Comparison operators are used to compare the column data with specific values in a
condition.
Comparison Operators are also used along with the SELECT statement to filter data based
on specific conditions.
The below table describes each comparison operator.
Comparison
Description
Operators

= equal to

<>, != is not equal to

< less than

> greater than

greater than or equal

>=
to

<= less than or equal to

Logical Operators:

There are three Logical Operators namely AND, OR and NOT.

Logical operators are discussed in detail in the next section.

SQL Logical Operators

There are three Logical Operators namely, AND, OR, and NOT. These operators compare
two conditions at a time to determine whether a row can be selected for the output. When
retrieving data using a SELECT statement, you can use logical operators in the WHERE
clause, which allows you to combine more than one condition.
SQL Comparison Keywords
There are other comparison keywords available in sql which are used to enhance the search
capabilities of a sql query. They are "IN", "BETWEEN...AND", "IS NULL", "LIKE".
Comparision
Description
Operators

column value is similar to specified

LIKE
character(s).

column value is equal to any one of

IN
a specified set of values.

column value is between two

BETWEEN...AND values, including the end values
specified in the range.

IS NULL column value does not exist.

SQL LIKE Operator

The LIKE operator is used to list all rows in a table whose column values match a specified
pattern. It is useful when you want to search rows to match a specific pattern, or when you
do not know the entire value. For this purpose we use a wildcard character '%'.
For example: To select all the students whose name begins with 'S'
SELECT first_name, last_name  
FROM student_details 
WHERE first_name LIKE 'S%';
The output would be similar to:
first_name last_name

------------- -------------

Stephen Fleming

Shekar Gowda

The above select statement searches for all the rows where the first letter of the column
first_name is 'S' and rest of the letters in the name can be any character.
There is another wildcard character you can use with LIKE operator. It is the underscore
character, ' _ ' . In a search string, the underscore signifies a single character.
For example: to display all the names with 'a' second character,
SELECT first_name, last_name  
FROM student_details 
WHERE first_name LIKE '_a%'; 
The output would be similar to:
first_name last_name

------------- -------------

Rahul Sharma

NOTE:Each underscore act as a placeholder for only one character. So you can use more
than one underscore. Eg: ' __i% '-this has two underscores towards the left, 'S__j%' - this
has two underscores between character 'S' and 'i'.
SQL BETWEEN ... AND Operator

The operator BETWEEN and AND, are used to compare data for a range of values.
For Example: to find the names of the students between age 10 to 15 years, the query
would be like,
SELECT first_name, last_name, age  
FROM student_details 
WHERE age BETWEEN 10 AND 15;
The output would be similar to:
first_name last_name age

------------- ------------- ------

Rahul Sharma 10

Anajali Bhagwat 12

Shekar Gowda 15

SQL IN Operator:

The IN operator is used when you want to compare a column with more than one value. It is
similar to an OR condition.
For example: If you want to find the names of students who are studying either Maths or
Science, the query would be like,
SELECT first_name, last_name, subject  
FROM student_details 
WHERE subject IN ('Maths', 'Science'); 
The output would be similar to:
first_name last_name subject

---------
------------- -------------
-

Anajali Bhagwat Maths

Shekar Gowda Maths

Rahul Sharma Science

Stephen Fleming Science

You can include more subjects in the list like ('maths','science','history')

NOTE:The data used to compare is case sensitive.
SQL IS NULL Operator

A column value is NULL if it does not exist. The IS NULL operator is used to display all
the rows for columns that do not have a value.
For Example: If you want to find the names of students who do not participate in any
games, the query would be as given below
SELECT first_name, last_name  
FROM student_details 
WHERE games IS NULL 
There would be no output as we have every student participate in a game in the table
student_details, else the names of the students who do not participate in any games would be
displayed.

SQL ORDER BY
The ORDER BY clause is used in a SELECT statement to sort results either in ascending or
descending order. Oracle sorts query results in ascending order by default.
Syntax for using SQL ORDER BY clause to sort data is:

SELECT column-list  
FROM table_name [WHERE condition] 
[ORDER BY column1 [, column2, .. columnN] [DESC]];
database table "employee";
id name dept age salary location

100 Ramesh Electrical 24 25000 Bangalore

101 Hrithik Electronics 28 35000 Bangalore

102 Harsha Aeronautics 28 35000 Mysore

103 Soumya Electronics 22 20000 Bangalore

104 Priya InfoTech 25 30000 Mangalore

For Example: If you want to sort the employee table by salary of the employee, the sql
query would be.
SELECT name, salary FROM employee ORDER BY salary;
The output would be like
name salary

---------- ----------

Soumya 20000

Ramesh 25000

Priya 30000

Hrithik 35000

Harsha 35000

The query first sorts the result according to name and then displays it.
You can also use more than one column in the ORDER BY clause.
If you want to sort the employee table by the name and salary, the query would be like,
SELECT name, salary FROM employee ORDER BY name, salary;
The output would be like:
name salary

------------- -------------
Soumya 20000

Ramesh 25000

Priya 30000

Harsha 35000

Hrithik 35000

NOTE:The columns specified in ORDER BY clause should be one of the columns selected
in the SELECT column list.
You can represent the columns in the ORDER BY clause by specifying the position of a
column in the SELECT list, instead of writing the column name.
The above query can also be written as given below,
SELECT name, salary FROM employee ORDER BY 1, 2;
By default, the ORDER BY Clause sorts data in ascending order. If you want to sort the
data in descending order, you must explicitly specify it as shown below.
SELECT name, salary  
FROM employee 
ORDER BY name, salary DESC; 
The above query sorts only the column 'salary' in descending order and the column 'name'
by ascending order.
If you want to select both name and salary in descending order, the query would be as given
below.
SELECT name, salary  
FROM employee 
ORDER BY name DESC, salary DESC; 
How to use expressions in the ORDER BY Clause?

Expressions in the ORDER BY clause of a SELECT statement.

For example: If you want to display employee name, current salary, and a 20% increase in
the salary for only those employees for whom the percentage increase in salary is greater
than 30000 and in descending order of the increased price, the SELECT statement can be
written as shown below
SELECT name, salary, salary*1.2 AS new_salary  
FROM employee 
WHERE salary*1.2 > 30000  
ORDER BY new_salary DESC; 
The output for the above query is as follows.
name salary new_salary

---------- ---------- -------------

Hrithik 35000 37000

Harsha 35000 37000

Priya 30000 36000

NOTE:Aliases defined in the SELECT Statement can be used in ORDER BY Clause.

SQL GROUP Functions

Group functions are built-in SQL functions that operate on groups of rows and return one
value for the entire group. These functions are: COUNT, MAX, MIN, AVG, SUM,
DISTINCT
SQL COUNT (): This function returns the number of rows in the table that satisfies the
condition specified in the WHERE condition. If the WHERE condition is not specified, then
the query returns the total number of rows in the table.
For Example: If you want the number of employees in a particular department, the query
would be:
SELECT COUNT (*) FROM employee 
WHERE dept = 'Electronics'; 
The output would be '2' rows.
If you want the total number of employees in all the department, the query would take the
form:
SELECT COUNT (*) FROM employee;
The output would be '5' rows.
SQL DISTINCT(): This function is used to select the distinct rows.
For Example: If you want to select all distinct department names from employee table, the
query would be:
SELECT DISTINCT dept FROM employee;
To get the count of employees with unique name, the query would be:
SELECT COUNT (DISTINCT name) FROM employee;

SQL MAX(): This function is used to get the maximum value from a column.
To get the maximum salary drawn by an employee, the query would be:
SELECT MAX (salary) FROM employee;

SQL MIN(): This function is used to get the minimum value from a column.
To get the minimum salary drawn by an employee, he query would be:
SELECT MIN (salary) FROM employee;

SQL AVG(): This function is used to get the average value of a numeric column.
To get the average salary, the query would be
SELECT AVG (salary) FROM employee;

SQL SUM(): This function is used to get the sum of a numeric column

To get the total salary given out to the employees,
SELECT SUM (salary) FROM employee;

SQL GROUP BY Clause

The SQL GROUP BY Clause is used along with the group functions to retrieve data
grouped according to one or more columns.
For Example: If you want to know the total amount of salary spent on each department, the
query would be:
SELECT dept, SUM (salary) 
FROM employee 
GROUP BY dept; 
The output would be like:

dept salary
---------------- --------------
Electrical 25000
Electronics 55000
Aeronautics 35000
InfoTech 30000
NOTE: The group by clause should contain all the columns in the select list expect those
used along with the group functions.
SELECT location, dept, SUM (salary) 
FROM employee 
GROUP BY location, dept;
The output would be like:

location dept salary

------------- --------------- -----------
Bangalore Electrical 25000
Bangalore Electronics 55000
Mysore Aeronautics 35000
Mangalore InfoTech 30000

SQL HAVING Clause

Having clause is used to filter data based on the group functions. This is similar to WHERE
condition but is used with group functions. Group functions cannot be used in WHERE
Clause but can be used in HAVING clause.
For Example: If you want to select the department that has total salary paid for its
employees more than 25000, the sql query would be like;
SELECT dept, SUM (salary) 
FROM employee 
GROUP BY dept 
HAVING SUM (salary) > 25000 
 The output would be like:

dept salary
------------- -------------
Electronics 55000
Aeronautics 35000
InfoTech 30000
When WHERE, GROUP BY and HAVING clauses are used together in a SELECT
statement, the WHERE clause is processed first, then the rows that are returned after the
WHERE clause is executed are grouped based on the GROUP BY clause. Finally, any
conditions on the group functions in the HAVING clause are applied to the grouped rows
before the final output is displayed.

SQL INSERT Statement

The INSERT Statement is used to add new rows of data to a table.
We can insert data to a table in two ways,
1) Inserting the data directly to a table.
Syntax for SQL INSERT is:

INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME  

[ (col1, col2, col3,...colN)] 
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...valueN); 
 col1, col2,...colN -- the names of the columns in the table into which you want to
insert data.
While inserting a row, if you are adding value for all the columns of the table you need not
specify the column(s) name in the sql query. But you need to make sure the order of the
values is in the same order as the columns in the table. The sql insert query will be as
follows
INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME  
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...valueN); 
For Example: If you want to insert a row to the employee table, the query would be like,
INSERT INTO employee (id, name, dept, age, salary location) VALUES (105, 'Srinath',
'Aeronautics', 27, 33000);
NOTE:When adding a row, only the characters or date values should be enclosed with
single quotes.
If you are inserting data to all the columns, the column names can be omitted. The above
insert statement can also be written as,
INSERT INTO employee  
VALUES (105, 'Srinath', 'Aeronautics', 27, 33000);
Inserting data to a table through a select statement.
Syntax for SQL INSERT is:

INSERT INTO table_name  

[(column1, column2, ... columnN)] 
SELECT column1, column2, ...columnN 
FROM table_name [WHERE condition]; 
For Example: To insert a row into the employee table from a temporary table, the sql insert
query would be like,
INSERT INTO employee (id, name, dept, age, salary location) SELECT emp_id,
emp_name, dept, age, salary, location 
FROM temp_employee;
If you are inserting data to all the columns, the above insert statement can also be written as,
INSERT INTO employee  
SELECT * FROM temp_employee; 
NOTE:We have assumed the temp_employee table has columns emp_id, emp_name, dept,
age, salary, location in the above given order and the same datatype.
IMPORTANT NOTE:
1) When adding a new row, you should ensure the datatype of the value and the column
matches
2) You follow the integrity constraints, if any, defined for the table.

SQL UPDATE Statement

The UPDATE Statement is used to modify the existing rows in a table.
 The Syntax for SQL UPDATE Command is:

UPDATE table_name  
SET column_name1 = value1, 
column_name2 = value2, ... 
[WHERE condition] 
 table_name - the table name which has to be updated.
 column_name1, column_name2.. - the columns that gets changed.
 value1, value2... - are the new values.
NOTE:In the Update statement, WHERE clause identifies the rows that get affected. If you
do not include the WHERE clause, column values for all the rows get affected.
For Example: To update the location of an employee, the sql update query would be like,
UPDATE employee  
SET location ='Mysore' 
WHERE id = 101; 
To change the salaries of all the employees, the query would be,
UPDATE employee  
SET salary = salary + (salary * 0.2); 

SQL Delete Statement

The DELETE Statement is used to delete rows from a table.
The Syntax of a SQL DELETE statement is:
DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE condition];
 table_name -- the table name which has to be updated.
NOTE:The WHERE clause in the sql delete command is optional and it identifies the rows
in the column that gets deleted. If you do not include the WHERE clause all the rows in the
table is deleted, so be careful while writing a DELETE query without WHERE clause.
For Example: To delete an employee with id 100 from the employee table, the sql delete
query would be like,
DELETE FROM employee WHERE id = 100;
To delete all the rows from the employee table, the query would be like,
DELETE FROM employee;
SQL TRUNCATE Statement
The SQL TRUNCATE command is used to delete all the rows from the table and free the
space containing the table.
Syntax to TRUNCATE a table:

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

For Example: To delete all the rows from employee table, the query would be like,
TRUNCATE TABLE employee;
Difference between DELETE and TRUNCATE Statements:
DELETE Statement: This command deletes only the rows from the table based on the
condition given in the where clause or deletes all the rows from the table if no condition is
specified. But it does not free the space containing the table.
TRUNCATE statement: This command is used to delete all the rows from the table and
free the space containing the table.
SQL DROP Statement:
The SQL DROP command is used to remove an object from the database. If you drop a
table, all the rows in the table is deleted and the table structure is removed from the
database. Once a table is dropped we cannot get it back, so be careful while using RENAME
command. When a table is dropped all the references to the table will not be valid.
Syntax to drop a sql table structure:
DROP TABLE table_name;
For Example: To drop the table employee, the query would be like
DROP TABLE employee;
Difference between DROP and TRUNCATE Statement:
If a table is dropped, all the relationships with other tables will no longer be valid, the
integrity constraints will be dropped, grant or access privileges on the table will also be
dropped, if want use the table again it has to be recreated with the integrity constraints,
access privileges and the relationships with other tables should be established again. But, if
a table is truncated, the table structure remains the same, therefore any of the above
problems will not exist.

SQL CREATE TABLE Statement

The CREATE TABLE Statement is used to create tables to store data. Integrity Constraints
like primary key, unique key, foreign key can be defined for the columns while creating the
table. The integrity constraints can be defined at column level or table level. The
implementation and the syntax of the CREATE Statements differs for different RDBMS.
 The Syntax for the CREATE TABLE Statement is:

CREATE TABLE table_name  

(column_name1 datatype, 
column_name2 datatype, 
... column_nameN datatype 
);
 table_name - is the name of the table.
 column_name1, column_name2.... - is the name of the columns
 datatype - is the datatype for the column like char, date, number etc.
For Example: If you want to create the employee table, the statement would be like,
CREATE TABLE employee  
( id number(5), 
name char(20), 
dept char(10), 
age number(2), 
salary number(10), 
location char(10) 
);
In Oracle database, the datatype for an integer column is represented as "number". In Sybase
it is represented as "int".
Oracle provides another way of creating a table.
CREATE TABLE temp_employee  
SELECT * FROM employee 
In the above statement, temp_employee table is created with the same number of columns
and datatype as employee table.

SQL ALTER TABLE Statement

The SQL ALTER TABLE command is used to modify the definition (structure) of a table
by modifying the definition of its columns. The ALTER command is used to perform the
following functions.
1) Add, drop, modify table columns 
2) Add and drop constraints 
3) Enable and Disable constraints 
 SQL Integrity Constraints
Integrity Constraints are used to apply business rules for the database tables.
The constraints available in SQL are Foreign Key, Not Null, Unique, Check.
Constraints can be defined in two ways 
1) The constraints can be specified immediately after the column definition. This is called
column-level definition. 
2) The constraints can be specified after all the columns are defined. This is called table-
level definition. 
1) SQL Primary key:

This constraint defines a column or combination of columns which uniquely identifies each
row in the table.
Syntax to define a Primary key at column level:
column name datatype [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] PRIMARY KEY
Syntax to define a Primary key at table level:
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name] PRIMARY KEY (column_name1,column_name2,..)
 column_name1, column_name2 are the names of the columns which define the
primary Key.
 The syntax within the bracket i.e. [CONSTRAINT constraint_name] is optional.
For Example: To create an employee table with Primary Key constraint, the query would
be like.
Primary Key at table level:
CREATE TABLE employee  
( id number(5) PRIMARY KEY, 
name char(20), 
dept char(10), 
age number(2), 
salary number(10), 
location char(10) 
);
or
CREATE TABLE employee
( id number(5) CONSTRAINT emp_id_pk PRIMARY KEY, 
name char(20),
dept char(10),
age number(2),
salary number(10),
location char(10)
);
Primary Key at table level:
CREATE TABLE employee  
( id number(5), 
name char(20),
dept char(10),
age number(2),
salary number(10),
location char(10),
CONSTRAINT emp_id_pk PRIMARY KEY (id)
);
2) SQL Foreign key or Referential Integrity :

This constraint identifies any column referencing the PRIMARY KEY in another table. It
establishes a relationship between two columns in the same table or between different
tables. For a column to be defined as a Foreign Key, it should be a defined as a Primary Key
in the table which it is referring. One or more columns can be defined as Foreign key.
Syntax to define a Foreign key at column level:
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name] REFERENCES Referenced_Table_name(column_name)
Syntax to define a Foreign key at table level:
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name] FOREIGN KEY(column_name) REFERENCES
referenced_table_name(column_name);
For Example:
1) Lets use the "product" table and "order_items". 

Foreign Key at column level:

CREATE TABLE product  
( product_id number(5) CONSTRAINT pd_id_pk PRIMARY KEY, 
product_name char(20),
supplier_name char(20),
unit_price number(10)
);
CREATE TABLE order_items
( order_id number(5) CONSTRAINT od_id_pk PRIMARY KEY,
product_id number(5) CONSTRAINT pd_id_fk REFERENCES, product(product_id),
product_name char(20),
supplier_name char(20),
unit_price number(10)
);
Foreign Key at table level:
CREATE TABLE order_items
( order_id number(5) ,
product_id number(5),
product_name char(20),
supplier_name char(20),
unit_price number(10)
CONSTRAINT od_id_pk PRIMARY KEY(order_id),
CONSTRAINT pd_id_fk FOREIGN KEY(product_id) REFERENCES product(product_id)
);
2) If the employee table has a 'mgr_id' i.e, manager id as a foreign key which references
primary key 'id' within the same table, the query would be like,
CREATE TABLE employee
( id number(5) PRIMARY KEY,
name char(20),
dept char(10),
age number(2),
mgr_id number(5) REFERENCES employee(id),
salary number(10),
location char(10) 
);
3) SQL Not Null Constraint :

This constraint ensures all rows in the table contain a definite value for the column which is
specified as not null. Which means a null value is not allowed.
Syntax to define a Not Null constraint:
[CONSTRAINT constraint name] NOT NULL
For Example: To create a employee table with Null value, the query would be like
CREATE TABLE employee
( id number(5),
name char(20) CONSTRAINT nm_nn NOT NULL,
dept char(10),
age number(2),
salary number(10),
location char(10) 
);
4) SQL Unique Key:

This constraint ensures that a column or a group of columns in each row have a distinct
value. A column(s) can have a null value but the values cannot be duplicated.
Syntax to define a Unique key at column level:
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name] UNIQUE
Syntax to define a Unique key at table level:
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name] UNIQUE(column_name)
For Example: To create an employee table with Unique key, the query would be like,
Unique Key at column level:
CREATE TABLE employee
( id number(5) PRIMARY KEY,
name char(20),
dept char(10),
age number(2),
salary number(10),
location char(10) UNIQUE 
);
or
CREATE TABLE employee
( id number(5) PRIMARY KEY,
name char(20),
dept char(10),
age number(2),
salary number(10),
location char(10) CONSTRAINT loc_un UNIQUE 
);
Unique Key at table level:
CREATE TABLE employee
( id number(5) PRIMARY KEY,
name char(20),
dept char(10),
age number(2),
salary number(10),
location char(10),
CONSTRAINT loc_un UNIQUE(location) 
);
5) SQL Check Constraint :

This constraint defines a business rule on a column. All the rows must satisfy this rule. The
constraint can be applied for a single column or a group of columns.
Syntax to define a Check constraint:
[CONSTRAINT constraint_name] CHECK (condition)
For Example: In the employee table to select the gender of a person, the query would be
like
Check Constraint at column level:
CREATE TABLE employee  
( id number(5) PRIMARY KEY, 
name char(20), 
dept char(10), 
age number(2), 
gender char(1) CHECK (gender in ('M','F')), 
salary number(10), 
location char(10) 
); 
Check Constraint at table level:
CREATE TABLE employee  
( id number(5) PRIMARY KEY, 
name char(20), 
dept char(10), 
age number(2), 
gender char(1), 
salary number(10), 
location char(10), 
CONSTRAINT gender_ck CHECK (gender in ('M','F')) 
); 

SQL Joins
SQL Joins are used to relate information in different tables. A Join condition is a part of the
sql query that retrieves rows from two or more tables. A SQL Join condition is used in the
SQL WHERE Clause of select, update, delete statements.
The Syntax for joining two tables is:
SELECT col1, col2, col3...
FROM table_name1, table_name2 
WHERE table_name1.col2 = table_name2.col1; 
If a sql join condition is omitted or if it is invalid the join operation will result in a Cartesian
product. The Cartesian product returns a number of rows equal to the product of all rows in
all the tables being joined. For example, if the first table has 20 rows and the second table
has 10 rows, the result will be 20 * 10, or 200 rows. This query takes a long time to execute.
Lets use the below two tables to explain the sql join conditions.
database table "product";
product_id product_name supplier_name unit_price
100 Camera Nikon 300
101 Television Onida 100
102 Refrigerator Vediocon 150
103 Ipod Apple 75
104 Mobile Nokia 50
database table "order_items";
order_id product_id total_units customer
5100 104 30 Infosys
5101 102 5 Satyam
5102 103 25 Wipro
5103 101 10 TCS
SQL Joins can be classified into Equi join and Non Equi join.
1) SQL Equi joins
It is a simple sql join condition which uses the equal sign as the comparison operator. Two
types of equi joins are SQL Outer join and SQL Inner join.
For example: You can get the information about a customer who purchased a product and
the quantity of product.
2) SQL Non equi joins
It is a sql join condition which makes use of some comparison operator other than the equal
sign like >, <, >=, <=
 SQL Views
A VIEW is a virtual table, through which a selective portion of the data from one or more
tables can be seen. Views do not contain data of their own. They are used to restrict access
to the database or to hide data complexity. A view is stored as a SELECT statement in the
database. DML operations on a view like INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE affects the data in
the original table upon which the view is based.
The Syntax to create a sql view is
CREATE VIEW view_name 
AS 
SELECT column_list 
FROM table_name [WHERE condition]; 
 view_name is the name of the VIEW.
 The SELECT statement is used to define the columns and rows that you want to
display in the view.
For Example: to create a view on the product table the sql query would be like
CREATE VIEW view_product 
AS 
SELECT product_id, product_name 
FROM product; 

SQL Subquery
Subquery or Inner query or Nested query is a query in a query. A subquery is usually added
in the WHERE Clause of the sql statement. Most of the time, a subquery is used when you
know how to search for a value using a SELECT statement, but do not know the exact
value.
Subqueries are an alternate way of returning data from multiple tables.
Subqueries can be used with the following sql statements along with the comparision
operators like =, <, >, >=, <= etc.
 SELECT
 INSERT
 UPDATE
 DELETE
For Example:
1) Usually, a subquery should return only one record, but sometimes it can also return
multiple records when used with operators like IN, NOT IN in the where clause. The query
would be like,
SELECT first_name, last_name, subject  
FROM student_details 
WHERE games NOT IN ('Cricket', 'Football'); 
The output would be similar to:
first_name last_name subject

------------- ------------- ----------

Shekar Gowda Badminton

Priya Chandra Chess

2) Lets consider the student_details table which we have used earlier. If you know the name
of the students who are studying science subject, you can get their id's by using this query
below,
SELECT id, first_name  
FROM student_details 
WHERE first_name IN ('Rahul', 'Stephen'); 
but, if you do not know their names, then to get their id's you need to write the query in this
manner,
SELECT id, first_name  
FROM student_details 
WHERE first_name IN (SELECT first_name 
FROM student_details 
WHERE subject= 'Science'); 
Output:
id first_name

-------- -------------

100 Rahul

102 Stephen
In the above sql statement, first the inner query is processed first and then the outer query is
processed.

3) Subquery can be used with INSERT statement to add rows of data from one or more
tables to another table. Lets try to group all the students who study Maths in a table
'maths_group'.
INSERT INTO maths_group(id, name)  
SELECT id, first_name || ' ' || last_name 
FROM student_details WHERE subject= 'Maths' 

4) A subquery can be used in the SELECT statement as follows. Lets use the product and
order_items table defined in the sql_joins section.
select p.product_name, p.supplier_name, (select order_id from order_items where
product_id = 101) as order_id from product p where p.product_id = 101
product_name supplier_name order_id

------------------ ------------------ ----------

Television Onida 5103

Correlated Subquery

A query is called correlated subquery when both the inner query and the outer query are
interdependent. For every row processed by the inner query, the outer query is processed as
well. The inner query depends on the outer query before it can be processed.
SELECT p.product_name FROM product p 
WHERE p.product_id = (SELECT o.product_id FROM order_items o 
WHERE o.product_id = p.product_id); 
NOTE:
1) You can nest as many queries you want but it is recommended not to nest more than 16
subqueries in oracle.
2) If a subquery is not dependent on the outer query it is called a non-correlated subquery.
 SQL Index
Index in sql is created on existing tables to retrieve the rows quickly.
When there are thousands of records in a table, retrieving information will take a long time.
Therefore indexes are created on columns which are accessed frequently, so that the
information can be retrieved quickly. Indexes can be created on a single column or a group
of columns. When a index is created, it first sorts the data and then it assigns a ROWID for
each row.
Syntax to create Index:
CREATE INDEX index_name  
ON table_name (column_name1,column_name2...); 
Syntax to create SQL unique Index:
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name  
ON table_name (column_name1,column_name2...); 
 index_name is the name of the INDEX.
 table_name is the name of the table to which the indexed column belongs.
 column_name1, column_name2.. is the list of columns which make up the INDEX.
In Oracle there are two types of SQL index namely, implicit and explicit.
Implicit Indexes:

They are created when a column is explicity defined with PRIMARY KEY, UNIQUE KEY
Constraint.
Explicit Indexes:

They are created using the "create index.. " syntax.

NOTE:
1) Even though sql indexes are created to access the rows in the table quickly, they slow
down DML operations like INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE on the table, because the indexes
and tables both are updated along when a DML operation is performed. So use indexes only
on columns which are used to search the table frequently.
2) Is is not required to create indexes on table which have less data. 
3) In oracle database you can define up to sixteen (16) columns in an INDEX. 

DCL commands are used to enforce database security in a multiple user database
environment. Two types of DCL commands are GRANT and REVOTE. Only Database
 Administrator's or owner's of the database object can provide/remove privileges on a databse
object.
SQL GRANT Command
SQL GRANT is a command used to provide access or privileges on the database objects to
the users.
The Syntax for the GRANT command is:
GRANT privilege_name  
ON object_name 
TO {user_name |PUBLIC |role_name} 
[WITH GRANT OPTION]; 
 privilege_name is the access right or privilege granted to the user. Some of the
access rights are ALL, EXECUTE, and SELECT.
 object_name is the name of an database object like TABLE, VIEW, STORED
PROC and SEQUENCE.
 user_name is the name of the user to whom an access right is being granted.
 user_name is the name of the user to whom an access right is being granted.
 PUBLIC is used to grant access rights to all users.
 ROLES are a set of privileges grouped together.
 WITH GRANT OPTION - allows a user to grant access rights to other users.
For Eample: GRANT SELECT ON employee TO user1;This command grants a SELECT
permission on employee table to user1.You should use the WITH GRANT option carefully
because for example if you GRANT SELECT privilege on employee table to user1 using
the WITH GRANT option, then user1 can GRANT SELECT privilege on employee table to
another user, such as user2 etc. Later, if you REVOKE the SELECT privilege on employee
from user1, still user2 will have SELECT privilege on employee table.
SQL REVOKE Command:

The REVOKE command removes user access rights or privileges to the database objects.
The Syntax for the REVOKE command is:
REVOKE privilege_name  
ON object_name 
FROM {user_name |PUBLIC |role_name} 
For Eample: REVOKE SELECT ON employee FROM user1;This commmand will
REVOKE a SELECT privilege on employee table from user1.When you REVOKE
SELECT privilege on a table from a user, the user will not be able to SELECT data from
that table anymore. However, if the user has received SELECT privileges on that table from
more than one users, he/she can SELECT from that table until everyone who granted the
permission revokes it. You cannot REVOKE privileges if they were not initially granted by
you.
Privileges and Roles:

Privileges: Privileges defines the access rights provided to a user on a database object. There
are two types of privileges.
1) System privileges - This allows the user to CREATE, ALTER, or DROP database
objects. 
2) Object privileges - This allows the user to EXECUTE, SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or
DELETE data from database objects to which the privileges apply. 
Few CREATE system privileges are listed below:
System
Description
Privileges

allows users to create the specified

CREATE object
object in their own schema.

CREATE ANY allows users to create the specified

object object in any schema.

The above rules also apply for ALTER and DROP system privileges.
Few of the object privileges are listed below:
Object
Description
Privileges

INSERT allows users to insert rows into a table.

allows users to select data from a

SELECT
database object.

UPDATE allows user to update data in a table.

allows user to execute a stored procedure

EXECUTE
or a function.

Roles: Roles are a collection of privileges or access rights. When there are many users in a
database it becomes difficult to grant or revoke privileges to users. Therefore, if you define
roles, you can grant or revoke privileges to users, thereby automatically granting or
revoking privileges. You can either create Roles or use the system roles pre-defined by
oracle.
Some of the privileges granted to the system roles are as given below:
System Role Privileges Granted to the Role

CONNECT CREATE TABLE, CREATE VIEW,

CREATE SYNONYM, CREATE
 SEQUENCE, CREATE SESSION etc.

CREATE PROCEDURE, CREATE

SEQUENCE, CREATE TABLE,
RESOURCE CREATE TRIGGER etc. The primary
usage of the RESOURCE role is to
restrict access to database objects.

DBA ALL SYSTEM PRIVILEGES

Creating Roles:

The Syntax to create a role is:

CREATE ROLE role_name  
[IDENTIFIED BY password]; 
For example: To create a role called "developer" with password as "pwd",the code will be
as follows
CREATE ROLE testing  
[IDENTIFIED BY pwd]; 
It's easier to GRANT or REVOKE privileges to the users through a role rather than
assigning a privilege direclty to every user. If a role is identified by a password, then, when
you GRANT or REVOKE privileges to the role, you definetely have to identify it with the
password.
We can GRANT or REVOKE privilege to a role as below.
For example: To grant CREATE TABLE privilege to a user by creating a testing role:
First, create a testing Role
CREATE ROLE testing
Second, grant a CREATE TABLE privilege to the ROLE testing. You can add more
privileges to the ROLE.
GRANT CREATE TABLE TO testing;
Third, grant the role to a user.
GRANT testing TO user1;
To revoke a CREATE TABLE privilege from testing ROLE, you can write:
REVOKE CREATE TABLE FROM testing;
The Syntax to drop a role from the database is as below:
DROP ROLE role_name;
For example: To drop a role called developer, you can write:
DROP ROLE testing;
SQL Tuning/SQL Optimization Techniques:

1) The sql query becomes faster if you use the actual columns names in SELECT statement
instead of than '*'.
For Example: Write the query as
SELECT id, first_name, last_name, age, subject FROM student_details;
Instead of:
SELECT * FROM student_details;
 
2) HAVING clause is used to filter the rows after all the rows are selected. It is just like a
filter. Do not use HAVING clause for any other purposes. 
For Example: Write the query as
SELECT subject, count(subject)  
FROM student_details 
WHERE subject != 'Science' 
AND subject != 'Maths' 
GROUP BY subject;
Instead of:
SELECT subject, count(subject)  
FROM student_details 
GROUP BY subject 
HAVING subject!= 'Vancouver' AND subject!= 'Toronto';
 
3) Sometimes you may have more than one subqueries in your main query. Try to minimize
the number of subquery block in your query. 
For Example: Write the query as
SELECT name  
FROM employee 
WHERE (salary, age ) = (SELECT MAX (salary), MAX (age) 
FROM employee_details)  
AND dept = 'Electronics'; 
Instead of:
SELECT name  
FROM employee
WHERE salary = (SELECT MAX(salary) FROM employee_details) 
AND age = (SELECT MAX(age) FROM employee_details) 
AND emp_dept = 'Electronics';
 
4) Use operator EXISTS, IN and table joins appropriately in your query. 
a) Usually IN has the slowest performance. 
b) IN is efficient when most of the filter criteria is in the sub-query. 
c) EXISTS is efficient when most of the filter criteria is in the main query.
For Example: Write the query as
Select * from product p 
where EXISTS (select * from order_items o 
where o.product_id = p.product_id)
Instead of:
Select * from product p 
where product_id IN 
(select product_id from order_items
 
5) Use EXISTS instead of DISTINCT when using joins which involves tables having one-
to-many relationship. 
For Example: Write the query as
SELECT d.dept_id, d.dept  
FROM dept d 
WHERE EXISTS ( SELECT 'X' FROM employee e WHERE e.dept = d.dept);
Instead of:
SELECT DISTINCT d.dept_id, d.dept  
FROM dept d,employee e 
WHERE e.dept = e.dept;
 
6) Try to use UNION ALL in place of UNION. 
For Example: Write the query as
SELECT id, first_name  
FROM student_details_class10 
UNION ALL 
SELECT id, first_name 
FROM sports_team;
Instead of:
SELECT id, first_name, subject  
FROM student_details_class10 
UNION 
SELECT id, first_name 
FROM sports_team;
 
7) Be careful while using conditions in WHERE clause. 
For Example: Write the query as
SELECT id, first_name, age FROM student_details WHERE age > 10;
Instead of:
SELECT id, first_name, age FROM student_details WHERE age != 10;
Write the query as
SELECT id, first_name, age  
FROM student_details 
WHERE first_name LIKE 'Chan%';
Instead of:
SELECT id, first_name, age  
FROM student_details 
WHERE SUBSTR(first_name,1,3) = 'Cha';
Write the query as
SELECT id, first_name, age  
FROM student_details 
WHERE first_name LIKE NVL ( :name, '%');
Instead of:
SELECT id, first_name, age  
FROM student_details 
WHERE first_name = NVL ( :name, first_name);
Write the query as
SELECT product_id, product_name  
FROM product 
WHERE unit_price BETWEEN MAX(unit_price) and MIN(unit_price)
Instead of:
SELECT product_id, product_name  
FROM product 
WHERE unit_price >= MAX(unit_price) 
and unit_price <= MIN(unit_price)
Write the query as
SELECT id, name, salary  
FROM employee 
WHERE dept = 'Electronics' 
AND location = 'Bangalore';
Instead of:
SELECT id, name, salary  
FROM employee 
WHERE dept || location= 'ElectronicsBangalore';
Use non-column expression on one side of the query because it will be processed earlier.
Write the query as
SELECT id, name, salary  
FROM employee 
WHERE salary < 25000;
Instead of:
SELECT id, name, salary  
FROM employee 
WHERE salary + 10000 < 35000;
Write the query as
SELECT id, first_name, age  
FROM student_details 
WHERE age > 10;
Instead of:
SELECT id, first_name, age  
FROM student_details 
WHERE age NOT = 10;
8) Use DECODE to avoid the scanning of same rows or joining the same table repetitively.
DECODE can also be made used in place of GROUP BY or ORDER BY clause. 
For Example: Write the query as
SELECT id FROM employee  
WHERE name LIKE 'Ramesh%' 
and location = 'Bangalore';
Instead of:
SELECT DECODE(location,'Bangalore',id,NULL) id FROM employee  
WHERE name LIKE 'Ramesh%';
9) To store large binary objects, first place them in the file system and add the file path in
the database.
10) To write queries which provide efficient performance follow the general SQL standard
rules.
a) Use single case for all SQL verbs
b) Begin all SQL verbs on a new line
c) Separate all words with a single space 
d) Right or left aligning verbs within the initial SQL verb