MODULE IN PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION

MODULE 9
Characteristics of Academic Writing

OBJECTIVES: At the end of the period, the students must be able

to: 1, Explain the characteristics of academic writing.
2. Apply the basic knowledge learned in formal writing.

What is academic writing?

Academic writing refers to a style of expression that researchers use to define the intellectual
boundaries of their disciplines and specific areas of expertise.

Academic writing is clear, concise, focused, structured and backed up by evidence. Its purpose is to
aid the reader's understanding. It has a formal tone and style, but it is not complex and does not require the use
of long sentences and complicated vocabulary.

What makes academic writing formal?

A number of language features make academic writing appear formal:

1. Vocabulary choice - you can develop a broader academic vocabulary by focusing on vocabulary as you
read: when you come across a word, you’re not sure of, google it or use a dictionary to find out its meaning and
use; think how you would use that word in speaking or if you were explaining it to someone; notice how often
that word or phrase is used in academic texts you are reading. If you come across it frequently, it’s worth
making sure you know how to use it.
Caution – writers are careful not to make claims that are too strong. Words like “may” and “might” are often
used to make claims less strong. Writers are also very precise about the circumstances in which a claim is valid.

2. Impersonality – with the exception of reflective writing, write in the 3rd person – do not use “I” and “you”.

3. Relevance – you should only include information that is relevant to the question. A common mistake is to
give too much unnecessary descriptive detail, which uses up too many words, while not demonstrating critical
understanding of the issue. You need to decide:
□ What is relevant?
□ How much detail do I need to give?

4. Precision – this relates to formality. Words and terms have very specific meanings and it is important
that you use them correctly. If you are not sure what a word means, do not use it without checking that it
makes sense, both in meaning and grammatical use. It is usually obvious to the reader when a writer has not
understood a word or an idea.
5. Conciseness – in order to write within the word count, you have to write concisely.
□ Avoid repeating yourself – do not repeat an idea because you think that will show its importance.
□ Use as few words as you can without losing meaning or complexity. We use more words in spoken
than written English, so writing often involves finding alternative words to the words we use in everyday
speech.
□ Edit your work carefully to find ways you can reduce word count

6. Grammatical complexity – in this context complexity refers to grammar structures not the difficulty of
understanding an idea.

A simple sentence expresses one grammatical idea

the dog attacked the man
a complex sentence contains more than one grammatical
idea. The sentences below increase in grammatical
complexity
 the dog attacked the man as he came into the house
 the dog attacked the man who lives opposite
 the dog attacked the man who lives opposite when he tried to give him a biscuit
Even though the dog knows the man well, he attacked him as he came into the house yesterday

The sentences in academic texts tend to be dense, in other words they contain lots of highly
grammatically complex sentences. A variety of grammatical structures are used to create complex sentences.
This is one of the reasons why academic reading is demanding – both the ideas and the sentence structures can
be complex. It is useful to be aware of this and to develop the range of grammatical structures and vocabulary
that you use by thinking about what they mean and trying to use them in your own writing.
However, don’t use words and phrases that you are not familiar with just because you think it will
make your writing more “academic”. If you don’t know what a word or phrase means, there’s a good chance
you’ll misuse the word and the reader/marker will know you don’t understand what you are reading.

What are the characteristics of academic writing?

Characteristics of academic writing include a formal tone, use of the third-person rather than first-
person perspective (usually), a clear focus on the research problem under investigation, and precise word
choice. Like specialist languages adopted in other professions, such as, law or medicine, academic writing is
designed to convey agreed meaning about complex ideas or concepts for a group of scholarly experts.

The accepted form of academic writing in the social sciences can vary considerable depending on
the methodological framework and the intended audience. However, most college-level research papers
require careful attention to the following stylistic elements:

I. The Big Picture

Unlike fiction or journalistic writing, the overall structure of academic writing is formal and
logical. It must be cohesive and possess a logically organized flow of ideas; this means that the various
parts are connected to form a unified whole. There should be narrative links between sentences and
paragraphs so that the reader is able to follow your argument. The introduction should include a
description of how the rest of the paper is organized and all sources are properly cited throughout the
paper.

II. Tone
The overall tone refers to the attitude conveyed in a piece of writing. Throughout your paper, it
is important that you present the arguments of others fairly and with an appropriate narrative tone. When
presenting a position or argument that you disagree with, describe this argument accurately and without
loaded or biased language. In academic writing, the author is expected to investigate the research
problem from an authoritative point of view. You should, therefore, state the strengths of your
arguments confidently, using language that is neutral, not confrontational or dismissive.

III. Diction
Diction refers to the choice of words you use. Awareness of the words you use is important
because words that have almost the same denotation [dictionary definition] can have very different
connotations [implied meanings]. This is particularly true in academic writing because words and
terminology can evolve a nuanced meaning that describes a particular idea, concept, or phenomenon
derived from the epistemological culture of that discipline [e.g., the concept of rational choice in political
science]. Therefore, use concrete words [not general] that convey a specific meaning. If this cannot be
done without confusing the reader, then you need to explain what you mean within the context of how
that word or phrase is used within a discipline.

IV. Language
The investigation of research problems in the social sciences is often complex and multi-
dimensional. Therefore, it is important that you use unambiguous language. Well-structured
paragraphs and clear topic sentences enable a reader to follow your line of thinking without difficulty.
Your language should be concise, formal, and express precisely what you want it to mean. Do not use
vague expressions that are not specific or precise enough for the reader to derive exact meaning ["they,"
"we," "people," "the organization," etc.], abbreviations like 'i.e.' ["in other words,"], 'e.g.' ["for
example"], or 'a.k.a.' ["also known as"], and the use of unspecific determinate words ["super," "very,"
"incredible," "huge," etc.].

V. Punctuation
Scholars rely on precise words and language to establish the narrative tone of their work and,
therefore, punctuation marks are used very deliberately. For example, exclamation points are rarely
used to express a heightened tone because it can come across as unsophisticated or over-excited. Dashes
should be limited to the insertion of an explanatory comment in a sentence, while hyphens should be
limited to connecting prefixes to words [e.g., multi-disciplinary] or when forming compound phrases
[e.g., commander-in-chief]. Finally, understand that semi-colons represent a pause that is longer than
a comma, but shorter than a period in a sentence. In general, there are four grammatical uses of semi-
colons: when a second clause expands or explains the first clause; to describe a sequence of actions or
different aspects of the same topic; placed before clauses which begin with “nevertheless”, “therefore”,
“even so,” and “for instance”; and, to mark off a series of phrases or clauses which contain commas. If
you are not confident about when to use semi-colons [and most of the time, they are not required for
proper punctuation], rewrite using shorter sentences or revise the paragraph.

VI. Academic Conventions

Citing sources in the body of your paper and providing a list of references as either footnotes
or endnotes is a very important aspect of academic writing. It is essential to always acknowledge the
source of any ideas, research findings, data, paraphrased, or quoted text that you have used in your paper
as a defense against allegations of plagiarism. Equally important, the scholarly convention of citing
sources allow readers to identify the resources you used in writing your paper so they can independently
verify and assess the quality of findings and conclusions based on your review of the literature. Examples
of other academic conventions to follow include the appropriate use of headings and subheadings,
properly spelling out acronyms when first used in the text, avoiding slang or colloquial language,
avoiding emotive language or unsupported declarative statements, avoiding contractions, and using first
person and second person pronouns only when necessary.
VII. Evidence-Based Reasoning
Assignments often ask you to express your own point of view about the research problem.
However, what is valued in academic writing is that opinions are based on what is often termed, evidence-
based reasoning, a sound understanding of the pertinent body of knowledge and academic debates that
exist within, and often external to, your discipline. You need to support your opinion with evidence
from scholarly sources. It should be an objective stance presented as a logical argument. The quality of
your evidence will determine the strength of your argument. The challenge is to convince the reader
of the validity of your opinion through a well-documented, coherent, and logically structured piece of
writing. This is particularly important when proposing solutions to problems or delineating recommended
courses of action.

VIII. Thesis-Driven
Academic writing is “thesis-driven,” meaning that the starting point is a particular perspective,
idea, or position applied to the chosen topic of investigation, such as, establishing, proving, or disproving
solutions to the research questions posed for the topic. Note that a problem statement without the
research questions does not qualify as academic writing because simply identifying the research problem
does not establish for the reader how you will contribute to solving the problem, what aspects you believe
are most critical, or suggest a method for gathering data to better understand the problem.

IX. Complexity and Higher-Order Thinking

Academic writing addresses complex issues that require higher-order thinking skills applied
to understanding the research problem [e.g., critical, reflective, logical, and creative thinking as opposed
to, for example, descriptive or prescriptive thinking]. Higher-order thinking skills include cognitive
processes that are used to comprehend, solve problems, and express concepts or that describe abstract
ideas that cannot be easily acted out, pointed to, or shown with images. Think of your writing this way:
One of the most important attributes of a good teacher is the ability to explain complexity in a way that
is understandable and relatable to the topic being presented. This is also one of the main functions of
academic writing--examining and explaining the significance of complex ideas as clearly as
possible. As a writer, you must adopt the role of a good teacher by summarizing a lot of complex
information into a well-organized synthesis of ideas, concepts, and recommendations that contribute to a
better understanding of the research problem.

Understanding Academic Writing and Its Jargon

The very definition of jargon is language specific to a particular sub-group of people.
Therefore, in modern university life, jargon represents the specific language and meaning assigned to
words and phrases specific to a discipline or area of study. For example, the idea of being rational may
hold the same general meaning in both political science and psychology, but its application to
understanding and explaining phenomena within the research domain of each discipline may have subtle
differences based upon how scholars in that discipline apply the concept to the theories and practice of
their work. Given this, it is important that specialist terminology [i.e., jargon] must be used accurately
and applied under the appropriate conditions. Subject-specific dictionaries are the best places to confirm
the meaning of terms within the context of a specific discipline.

Problems with Opaque Writing

It's not unheard of for scholars to utilize needlessly complex syntax or overly
expansive vocabulary that is impenetrable or not well-defined. When writing, avoid problems
associated with opaque writing by keeping in mind the following:

1. Excessive use of specialized terminology. It is appropriate for you to use specialist language and a
formal style of expression in academic writing, but it does not mean using "big words" just for the sake
of doing so. Overuse of complex or obscure words or writing complicated sentence constructions
gives readers the impression that your paper is more about style than substance; it leads the reader
to question if you really know what you are talking about. Focus on creating clear and elegant prose that
minimizes reliance on specialized terminology.

2. Inappropriate use of specialized terminology. Because you are dealing with concepts, research, and
data within your discipline, you need to use the technical language appropriate to that area of study.
However, nothing will undermine the validity of your study quicker than the inappropriate application of
a term or concept. Avoid using terms whose meaning you are unsure of--don't just guess or assume!
Consult the meaning of terms in specialized, discipline-specific dictionaries by searching the USC
Libraries catalog or reference database [see above].

Additional Problems to Avoid

In addition to understanding the use of specialized language, there are other aspects of academic
writing in the social sciences that you should be aware of. These problems include:

 Personal nouns. Excessive use of personal nouns [e.g., I, me, you, us] may lead the reader to believe
the study was overly subjective. These words can be interpreted as being used only to avoid presenting
empirical evidence about the research problem. Limit the use of personal nouns to descriptions of
things you actually did [e.g., "I interviewed ten teachers about classroom management
techniques..."]. Note that personal nouns are generally found in the discussion section of a paper
because this is where you as the author/researcher interpret and describe your work.

 Directives. Avoid directives that demand the reader to "do this" or "do that." Directives should be
framed as evidence-based recommendations or goals leading to specific outcomes.

 Informal, conversational tone using slang and idioms. Academic writing relies on excellent
grammar and precise word structure. Your narrative should not include regional dialects or slang
terms because they can be open to interpretation; be direct and concise using standard English.

 Wordiness. Focus on being concise, straightforward, and developing a narrative that does not
have confusing language. By doing so, you help eliminate the possibility of the reader misinterpreting
the design and purpose of your study.

 Vague expressions (e.g., "they," "we," "people," "the company," "that area," etc.). Being
concise in your writing also includes avoiding vague references to persons, places, or things. While
proofreading your paper, be sure to look for and edit any vague or imprecise statements that lack
context or specificity.

 Numbered lists and bulleted items. The use of bulleted items or lists should be used only if the
narrative dictates a need for clarity. For example, it is fine to state, "The four main problems with
hedge funds are:" and then list them as 1, 2, 3, 4. However, in academic writing, this must then be
followed by detailed explanation and analysis of each item. Given this, the question you should ask
yourself while proofreading is: why begin with a list in the first place rather than just starting with
systematic analysis of each item arranged in separate paragraphs? Also, be careful using numbers
because they can imply a ranked order of priority or importance. If none exists, use bullets and
avoid checkmarks or other symbols.

 Descriptive writing. Describing a research problem is an important means of contextualizing a study.

In fact, some description or background information may be needed because you cannot assume the
reader knows everything about the topic. However, the content of your paper should focus on
methodology, the analysis and interpretation of findings, and their implications as they apply to the
research problem rather than background information and descriptions of tangential issues.
 Personal experience. Drawing upon personal experience [e.g., traveling abroad; caring for someone
with Alzheimer's disease] can be an effective way of introducing the research problem or engaging
your readers in understanding its significance. Use personal experience only as an example, though,
because academic writing relies on evidence-based research. To do otherwise is simply story-telling.

NOTE: Rules concerning excellent grammar and precise word structure do not apply when quoting
someone. A quote should be inserted in the text of your paper exactly as it was stated. If the quote is
especially vague or hard to understand, consider paraphrasing it or using a different quote to convey the
same meaning. Consider inserting the term "sic" in brackets after the quoted word or phrase to indicate
that the quotation has been transcribed exactly as found in the original source, but the source has
grammar, spelling, or other errors. The adverb sic informs the reader that the errors are not yours.

Improving Academic Writing

To improve your academic writing skills, you should focus your efforts on three key areas:

1. Clear Writing. The act of thinking about precedes the process of writing about. Good writers spend
sufficient time distilling information and reviewing major points from the literature they have reviewed
before creating their work. Writing detailed outlines can help you clearly organize your thoughts.
Effective academic writing begins with solid planning, so manage your time carefully.

2. Excellent Grammar. Needless to say, English grammar can be difficult and complex; even the best
scholars take many years before they have a command of the major points of good grammar. Take the
time to learn the major and minor points of good grammar. Spend time practicing writing and seek
detailed feedback from professors. Proper punctuation and good proofreading skills can significantly
improve academic writing.

3. Consistent Stylistic Approach. Whether your professor expresses a preference to use MLA, APA or
the Chicago Manual of Style or not, choose one style manual and stick to it. Each of these style
manuals provide rules on how to write out numbers, references, citations, footnotes, and lists. Consistent
adherence to a style of writing helps with the narrative flow of your paper and improves its readability.
Note that some disciplines require a particular style [e.g., education uses APA] so as you write more
papers within your major, your familiarity with it will improve.

Evaluating Quality of Writing

A useful approach for evaluating the quality of your academic writing is to consider the following
issues from the perspective of the reader. While proofreading your final draft, critically assess the
following elements in your writing.
 It is shaped around one clear research problem, and it explains what that problem is from the outset.
 Your paper tells the reader why the problem is important and why people should know about it.
 You have accurately and thoroughly informed the reader what has already been published about this
problem or others related to it and noted important gaps in the research.
 You have provided evidence to support your argument that the reader finds convincing.
 The paper includes a description of how and why particular evidence was collected and analyzed, and
why specific theoretical arguments or concepts were used.
 The paper is made up of paragraphs, each containing only one controlling idea.
 You indicate how each section of the paper addresses the research problem.
 You have considered counter-arguments or counter-examples where they are relevant.
 Arguments, evidence, and their significance have been presented in the conclusion.
 Limitations of your research have been explained as evidence of the potential need for further study.
 The narrative flows in a clear, accurate, and well-organized way.
 Considering the Passive Voice in Academic Writing
Use the passive voice when:
 You want to focus on the person, place, or thing affected by the action, or the action itself;
 It is not important who or what did the action;
 You want to be impersonal or more formal.

Form the passive voice by:

 Turning the object of the active sentence into the subject of the passive sentence.
 Changing the verb to a passive form by adding the appropriate form of the verb "to be" and
the past participle of the main verb.

Breathe, Ponder then Answer!

1. Explain the basic characteristics of academic writing.

2. What are some important points that you have to consider in academic writing?