Nervous System outside the CNS (nerves and

Chapter 9 – Human Anatomy and ganglia)

Physiology o Functions to link the CNS with the
Chapter Sections various parts of the body
 Functions of the Nervous System o Carries information about the
 Divisions of the Nervous System different tissues of the body to the
 Cells of the Nervous System CNS and carries commands from the
 Electrical Signals and Neural CNS that alter body activities
Pathways
 Central and Peripheral Nervous DIVISIONS OF THE PERIPHERAL
Systems
 Spinal Cord
 Spinal Nerves
 Chapter Sections
 Brain
 Sensory Functions
 Motor Functions
 Other Brain Functions
 Meninges, Ventricles, and
Cerebrospinal Fluid
 Cranial Nerves
 Autonomic Nervous System
 Chapter Sections
 Enteric Nervous System NERVOUS SYSTEM (PNS)
 Effects of Aging on the Nervous Sensory division, or afferent division
System o Conducts action potentials from
 Functions of the Nervous System sensory receptor to the CNS
o Neurons that transmit action
Section 9-1 potentials from the periphery to the
Functions of the Nervous System CNS are called sensory neurons
1. Receiving sensory input Motor division, or efferent division
2. Integrating information o Conducts action potentials from the
3. Controlling muscles and glands CNS to effector organs, such as
4. Maintaining homeostasis muscles and glands
5. Establishing and maintaining mental o Neurons that transmit action
activity potentials from the CNS toward the
periphery are called motor neurons
Section 9-2
Divisions of the Nervous System Subdivisions of the Motor Division of
Two Major Divisions of the Nervous the Peripheral Nervous System
System: o Somatic nervous system transmits
1. Central nervous system (CNS) action potentials from the CNS to
consists of the brain and spinal skeletal muscles
cord o Autonomic nervous system
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS) transmits action potentials from the
consists of all the nervous tissue
 CNS to cardiac, smooth muscle, and also project from the peripheral ends
glands of some sensory axons
 Sympathetic division o Usually receive information from
 Parasympathetic division other neurons or from sensory
receptors and transmit the
Enteric Nervous System information toward the neuron cell
o It is a unique subdivision of the body
peripheral nervous system Axon
o It has both sensory and motor o Each neuron has a single axon, a
neurons contained wholly within the single long cell process extending
digestive tract from the neuron cell body
o It can function without input from o The axon hillock is the area where
the CNS or other parts of the PNS, the axon leaves the neuron cell body
although it is normally integrated o Each axon has a uniform diameter
with the CNS by sensory neurons and may vary in length from a few
and autonomic nervous system millimeters to more than a meter
(ANS) motor neurons o Axons of sensory neurons conduct
action potentials toward the CNS
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM o Axons of motor neurons conduct
Section 9-3 action potentials away from the CNS
Neurons o Also conduct action potentials from
o Or nerve cells, receive stimuli, one part of the brain or spinal cord to
conduct action potentials, and another part
transmit signals to other neurons or o May remain unbranched or may
effector organs branch to form collateral axons
o Parts of a neuron: a cell body, o Axons can be surrounded by a highly
dendrites, and axons specialized insulating layer of cells
Cell body or soma called myelin sheath
o Contains a single nucleus (fish eye in
appearance), which serves as the TYPES OF NEURONS
source of information for gene Neurons can be classified on the basis of
expression their structure or their function (e.g., sensory
o Extensive rough ER, a Golgi neuron versus motor neuron)
apparatus, and mitochondria In structural classification, three categories
surround the nucleus of neurons exist based on the arrangement of
o Large numbers of neurofilaments their processes:
(intermediate) microtubules organize  Multipolar neurons
the cytoplasm  Bipolar neurons
Dendrites  Pseudo-unipolar neurons
o Short, often highly branching  Neurons
cytoplasmic extensions that are
tapered from their bases at the Multipolar Neurons
neuron cell body to their tips
o Have many dendrites and a single
o Most are extensions of the neuron
axon
cell body, but dendrite-like structures
 o Most of the neurons within the CNS form a permeability barrier, called
and nearly all motor neurons are the blood-brain barrier, between
multipolar the blood and the CNS
Bipolar Neurons o Help limit damage to neural tissue;
o Have two processes: one dendrite however, the repair process can form
and one axon a scar that blocks regeneration of
o Located in some sensory organs, damaged axons
such as the retina of the eye and in Ependymal Cells
the nasal cavity o Line the fluid-filled cavities
Pseudo-unipolar Neurons (ventricles and canals) within the
o Most other sensory neurons are CNS
pseudo-unipolar neurons o Some ependymal cells produce
o Have a single process extending cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
from the cell body o Other ependymal cells with cilia on
o One process extends to the their surface help move CSF through
periphery, and the other extends to the CNS
the CNS Microglia
o The two extensions function as a o Act as immune cells of the CNS
single axon with small, dendrite-like o Possess phagocytic properties, thus
sensory receptors at the periphery also known as macrophages of the
o The axon receives sensory CNS
information at the periphery and o Help protect the CNS by removing
transmits it in the form of action bacteria and cell debris
potentials to the CNS Oligodendrocytes and Schwann Cells
o Oligodendrocytes in the central
GLIAL CELLS nervous system (CNS) and Schwann
Glial cells, or neuroglia, are the primarily cells in the peripheral nervous
supportive cells of the CNS and PNS system (PNS) provide an insulating
o These cells do not conduct action material that surrounds axons
potentials o This insulating material is known as
o Far more numerous than neurons the myelin sheath
o Most neuroglia retain the ability to
divide, whereas neurons do not MYELIN SHEATHS
o There are five types of glial cells – Myelin sheaths are specialized layers that
astrocytes, ependymal cells, wrap around the axons of some neurons
microglia, oligodendrocytes, and o These are formed by the cell
Schwann cells processes of oligodendrocytes in the
CNS and Schwann cells in the PNS
Astrocytes o Axons with myelin sheaths are called
o Serve as the major supporting cells myelinated axons
in the CNS o Each oligodendrocyte process or
o Can stimulate or inhibit the signal Schwann cell repeatedly wraps
activity of nearby neurons around a segment of an axon to form
o In addition, astrocytes participate a series of tightly wrapped cell
with the blood vessel endothelium to membranes
o Myelin is an excellent insulator that propagate action potentials from one
prevents almost all ion movement area of the CNS to another
across the cell membrane o In the PNS, bundles of axons and
o Gaps in the myelin sheath, called associated connective tissue form
nodes of Ranvier, occur about every nerves
millimeter between the
oligodendrocyte segments or ELECTRICAL SIGNALS AND
between individual Schwann cells NEURAL PATHWAYS
o Ion movement can occur at the nodes Section 9-4
of Ranvier
o Myelination of an axon increases the Resting Membrane Potential
speed and efficiency of action o Please refer to Chapter 6 –
potential generation along the axon Membrane Potential and Action
o Unmyelinated axons lack the myelin Potential
sheaths; however, these axons rests Action Potential
in indentations of the o Please refer to Chapter 6 –
oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Membrane Potential and Action
Schwann cells in the PNS Potential
o A typical small nerve, which consists
of axons of multiple neurons, usually Action Potential
contains more unmyelinated axons
o Action potentials occur in an all-or-
than myelinated axons
none fashion
o That is, if threshold is reached, an
ORGANIZATION OF NERVOUS
action potential occurs; if the
TISSUE
threshold is not reached, no action
o Both the CNS and the PNS contain potential occurs
areas of gray matter and areas of o Action potentials in a cell are all of
white matter the same magnitude – in other words,
o Gray matter consists of groups of the amount of charge reversal is
neuron cell bodies and their always the same
dendrites, where there is very little o Stronger stimuli produce a greater
myelin frequency of action potentials but do
o In the CNS, gray matter on the not increase the size of each action
surface of the brain is called the potential
cortex, and clusters of gray matter o Thus, neural signaling is based on
located deeper within the brain are the number of action potentials
called nuclei o Action potentials are conducted
o In the PNS, a cluster of neuron cell
slowly in unmyelinated axons and
bodies is called a ganglion more rapidly in myelinated axons
o White matter consists of bundles of o In unmyelinated axons, an action
parallel axons with their myelin potential in one part of a cell
sheaths, which are whitish in color membrane stimulates local currents
o White matter of the CNS forms in adjacent parts of the cell
nerve tracts (fiber tracts), or membrane
conduction pathways, which
o The local currents in the adjacent o Much less energy is therefore
membrane produce an action required for the sodium-potassium
potential pump to maintain the ion distribution
o By this means, the action potential is
conducted along the entire axon cell SYNAPSE
membrane o A synapse is a junction where the
o This type of action potential axon of one neuron interacts with
conduction is called continuous another neuron or with cells of an
conduction effector organ, such as a muscle or a
o In myelinated axons, an action gland
potential at one node of Ranvier o The end of the axon forms a
causes a local current to flow presynaptic terminal
through the surrounding extracellular o The membrane of the dendrite or
fluid and through the cytoplasm of effector cell is the postsynaptic
the axon to the next node, membrane
stimulating an action potential at that o The space separating the presynaptic
node of Ranvier and postsynaptic membranes is the
o By this means, action potentials synaptic cleft
“jump” from one node of Ranvier to o Chemical substances called
the next along the length of the axon neurotransmitters are stored in
o This type of action potential is called synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic
saltatory conduction terminal
o Saltatory conduction greatly o When an action potential reaches the
increases the conduction velocity presynaptic terminal, voltage-gated
because the nodes of Ranvier make it Ca2+ channels open, and Ca2+ moves
unnecessary for action potentials to into the cell
travel along the entire cell membrane o The influx of Ca2+ causes the release
o Medium-diameter, lightly myelinated of neurotransmitters by exocytosis
axons, characteristic of autonomic from the presynaptic terminal
neurons, conduct action potentials at o Neurotransmitters diffuse across the
the rate of about 3-15 meters per synaptic cleft and bind to specific
second (m/s) receptor molecules on the
o Large-diameter, heavily myelinated postsynaptic membrane
axons conduct action potentials at a o The binding of neurotransmitters to
rate of 15-120 m/s these membrane receptors causes
o These rapidly conducted action chemically gated channels for Na+,
potentials, carried by sensory and K+, or Cl- to open or close in the
motor neurons, allow for rapid postsynaptic membrane, depending
responses to changes in the external on the type of neurotransmitter in the
environment presynaptic terminal and the type of
o In addition, several hundred times receptors on the postsynaptic
fewer ions cross the cell membrane membrane
during conduction in myelinated o The response may be either
cells than in unmyelinated cells stimulation or inhibition of an action
potential in the postsynaptic cell
o For example, if Na+ channels open, o Cocaine and amphetamines increase
the postsynaptic cell becomes the release and block the reuptake of
depolarized, and an action potential norepinephrine, resulting in
will result if threshold is reached overstimulation of postsynaptic
o If K+ or Cl- channels open, the inside neurons and deleterious effects on
of the postsynaptic cell tends to the body
become more negative, or o Drugs that block serotonin reuptake
hyperpolarized, and an action are particularly effective at treating
potential is inhibited from occurring depression and behavioral disorders
o Best known examples of
neurotransmitters are acetylcholine REFLEXES
and norepinephrine A reflex is an involuntary reaction in
o Other neurotransmitters include response to a stimulus applied to the
serotonin, dopamine, glycine, periphery and transmitted to the CNS
γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and o Reflexes allow a person to react to
endorphins stimuli more quickly than is possible
o Neurotransmitters are rapidly broken if conscious thought is involved
down by enzymes within the o A reflex arc is the neuronal pathway
synaptic cleft or are transported back by which a reflex occurs
into the presynaptic terminal o The reflex arc is the basic functional
o If K+ or Cl- channels open, the inside unit of the nervous system because it
of the postsynaptic cell tends to is the smallest, simplest pathway
become more negative, or capable of receiving a stimulus and
hyperpolarized, and an action yielding a response
potential is inhibited from occurring
o Best known examples of Five Basic Components of a Reflex Arc
neurotransmitters are acetylcholine 1. Sensory receptor
and norepinephrine 2. Sensory neuron
o Other neurotransmitters include 3. In some reflexes, interneurons,
serotonin, dopamine, glycine, which are neurons located between
γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and and communicating with two other
endorphins neurons
o Neurotransmitters are rapidly broken 4. Motor neuron
down by enzymes within the 5. Effector organ (e.g., muscles or
synaptic cleft or are transported back glands)
into the presynaptic terminal
o Neurotransmitters are removed from o The simplest reflex arcs do not
the synaptic cleft so that their effects involve interneurons
on the postsynaptic membrane are o Most reflexes occur in the spinal
very short-term cord or brainstem rather than in the
o The release and breakdown or higher brain centers
removal of neurotransmitters occur
so rapidly that a postsynaptic cell can NEURONAL PATHWAYS
be stimulated many times a second
o Drugs can modulate the action of
neurotransmitters at the synapse
Neurons are organized within the CNS to rapidly, which allows the
form pathways ranging from relatively resulting local potentials
simple to extremely complex. to overlap briefly
Two simplest pathways are converging and o Spatial and temporal summation can
diverging pathways lead to stimulation or inhibition,
 In a converging pathway, two or depending on the type of signal
more axons synapse with (converge o Collectively, this integration of
on) the same neuron. This allows multiple inputs determines whether
information transmitted in more than the postsynaptic neuron will fire an
one neuronal pathway to converge action potential
into a single pathway
 In a diverging pathway, the axon CENTRAL AND PERIPHERAL
from one neuron divides (diverges) NERVOUS SYSTEMS
and synapses with more than one Section 9-5
other neuron. This allows CNS and PNS
information transmitted in one
neuronal pathway to diverge into two Central Nervous System
or more pathways o The central nervous system (CNS)
o Within the CNS and in many PNS consists of the brain and spinal cord
synapses, it takes more than a single o The brain is housed within the
action potential to have an effect braincase
o A single presynaptic action potential o The spinal cord is in the vertebral
usually does not cause a sufficiently column
large postsynaptic local potential to Peripheral Nervous System
reach threshold and produce an o The peripheral nervous system
action potential in the target cell (PNS) consists of all the nerves and
o Instead, many presynaptic action ganglia outside the brain and the
potentials are needed in a process spinal cord
called summation o It collects information from
o Summation of signals in neuronal numerous sources both inside and on
pathways allows integration of the surface of the body, and relays it
multiple subthreshold local potentials by way of sensory neurons to the
o Summation of the local potentials CNS, where one of three results is
can bring the membrane potential to possible:
threshold and trigger an action  Information is ignored
potential
o Spatial summation occurs when the
local potentials originate from
different locations on the
postsynaptic neuron - for example,
from converging pathways
o Temporal summation occurs when
local potentials overlap in time
 This can occur from a
single input that fires
  Information triggers a
reflex
 Information is evaluated
more extensively
o Motor neurons in the PNS relay
information from the CNS to
muscles and glands in various parts
of the body, regulating activity in
these structures
The nerves of the PNS can be divided into
two groups:
1. 12 pairs of cranial nerves
2. 31 pairs of spinal nerves

SPINAL CORD
Section 9-6

BRAIN
Section 9-8
Brainstem
o The brainstem connects the spinal
cord to the remainder of the brain
o It consists of the medulla oblongata,
the pons, and the midbrain

SPINAL NERVES
Section 9-7
 o The brainstem contains several o Several nuclei of the medulla
nuclei involved in vital body oblongata extend into the lower part
functioning, such as the control of of the pons
heart rate, blood pressure, and o Functions such as breathing,
breathing swallowing, and balance are
o Damage to small areas of the controlled in the pons, as well as in
brainstem can cause death the medulla oblongata
o Nuclei for all but the first two cranial o Other nuclei in the pons control
nerves are also located in the functions such as chewing and
brainstem salivation
Medulla Oblongata Midbrain
o It is the most inferior portion of the o The midbrain, just superior to the
brainstem and is continuous with the pons, is the smallest region of the
spinal cord brainstem
o It extends from the level of the o The dorsal part of the midbrain
foramen magnum to the pons consists of four mounds, called the
o In addition to ascending and colliculi
descending fiber tracts, the medulla o The two inferior colliculi are major
oblongata contains discrete nuclei relay centers for the auditory nerve
with specific functions, such as pathways of the CNS
regulation of heart rate and blood o The two superior colliculi are
vessel diameter, breathing, involved in visual reflexes and
swallowing, vomiting, coughing, receive touch and auditory input
sneezing, balance, and o The midbrain contains nuclei
coordination involved in coordinated eye
o On the anterior surface, two movements and controlling the
prominent enlargements called pupil diameter and lens shape
pyramids extend the length of the o The midbrain also contains a black
medulla oblongata nuclear mass, called substantia
o The pyramids consist of descending nigra, which is part of the basal
nerve tracts, which transmit action nuclei and is involved in regulating
potentials from the brain to motor general body movements
neurons of the spinal cord o The rest of the midbrain consists
o Pyramids are involved in the largely of ascending tracts from the
conscious control of skeletal muscles spinal cord to the cerebrum and
Pons descending tracts from the cerebrum
o Immediately superior to the medulla to the spinal cord and cerebellum
oblongata is the pons, which Reticular Formation
contains ascending and descending o Scattered throughout the brainstem is
tracts, as well as several nuclei a group of nuclei collectively called
o Some of the nuclei in the pons relay the reticular formation, which plays
information between the cerebrum important regulatory functions
and cerebellum o It is particularly involved in
regulating cyclical motor functions,
 such as respiration, walking, and o It is a small area superior and
chewing posterior to the thalamus
o The reticular formation is a major o Consists of a few small nuclei,
component of the reticular which are involved in the
activating system, which plays an emotional and visceral response
important role in arousing and to odors, and the pineal gland
maintaining consciousness, and in o The pineal gland is an endocrine
regulating the sleep-wake cycle gland that may influence the
Cerebellum onset of puberty and may play a
o The cerebellum is attached to the role in controlling some long-
brainstem by several large term cycles that are influenced by
connections called cerebellar the light-dark cycle
peduncles Hypothalamus
o These connections provide routes of o It is the most inferior part of the
communication between the diencephalon and it contains several
cerebellum and other parts of the small nuclei that are very important
CNS in maintaining homeostasis
Diencephalon o Plays a central role in the control of
o The diencephalon is the part of the body temperature, hunger, and
brain between the brainstem and the thirst
cerebrum o Sensations such as sexual pleasure,
Its main components are the following: rage, fear, and relaxation after a meal
 Thalamus are related to hypothalamic functions
 Epithalamus o Emotional responses that seem
 Hypothalamus inappropriate to the circumstances,
such as “nervous perspiration” in
Thalamus response to stress or hunger as a
o Largest part of the diencephalon result of depression, also involve the
o Consists of a cluster of nuclei and is hypothalamus
o Plays a major role in controlling the
shaped somewhat like a yo-yo, with
two large, lateral parts connected in secretion of hormones from the
the center by a small interthalamic pituitary gland
adhesion o Mammillary bodies form externally
o Most sensory input that ascends visible swellings on the posterior
through the spinal cord and portion of the hypothalamus and are
brainstem projects to the thalamus, involved in emotional responses to
where ascending neurons synapse odors and in memory
with thalamic neurons
o Thalamic neurons, in turn, send their Cerebrum
axons to the cerebral cortex o It is the largest part of the brain and
o The thalamus also influences mood is divided into left and right
and registers an unlocalized, hemispheres by a longitudinal
uncomfortable perception of pain fissure
Epithalamus o The most conspicuous features on
the surface of each hemisphere are
 numerous folds called gyri, which o Sensory input to the brainstem and
greatly increase the surface area of diencephalon helps maintain
the cortex, and intervening grooves homeostasis
called sulci o Sensory input to the cerebrum and
o Each cerebral hemisphere is divided cerebellum keeps us informed about
into lobes, which are named for the our environment and allows the CNS
skull bones overlying them to control motor functions
o The frontal lobe is important in the o A small portion of sensory input
control of voluntary motor functions, results in perception, the conscious
motivation, aggression, mood, and awareness of stimuli
olfactory reception
o The parietal lobe is the principal SENSORY AREAS TO THE
center for receiving and consciously CEREBRAL CORTEX
perceiving most sensory information, o Ascending tracts project to specific
such as touch, pain, temperature, and regions of the cerebral cortex, called
balance primary sensory areas, where
o The frontal and parietal lobes are sensations are perceived
separated by the central sulcus o The primary somatic sensory
o The occipital lobe functions in cortex, or general sensory area, is
receiving and perceiving visual input located in the parietal lobe posterior
and is not distinctly separate from to the central sulcus
other lobes o Sensory fibers carrying general
o The temporal lobe is involved in sensory input, such as pain, pressure,
olfactory and auditory sensations, and temperature, synapse in the
and plays an important role in thalamus, and thalamic neurons relay
memory the information to the primary
o The anterior and inferior portions of somatic sensory cortex
the temporal lobe, called the o Other primary sensory areas include
“psychic cortex,” are associated with the visual cortex of the occipital
function such as abstract thought and lobe, the primary auditory cortex
judgment of the temporal lobe, and the taste
o Most of the temporal lobe is area in the insula
separated from the rest of the o Cortical areas immediately adjacent
cerebrum by the lateral fissure, and to the primary sensory areas, called
deep within the fissure is the insula, association areas, are involved in
often referred to as the fifth lobe the process of recognition
o Examples include somatic sensory
SENSORY FUNCTIONS association area, visual association
Section 9-9 area, and the auditory association
o The CNS constantly receives a area
variety of stimuli originating both
inside and outside the body MOTOR FUNCTIONS
o We are unaware of a large part of Section 9-10
this sensory input, but it is vital to o The motor system of the brain and
our survival and normal functions spinal cord is responsible for
 maintaining the body’s posture and o Action potentials from the premotor
balance, as well as moving the trunk, area are passed to the upper motor
head, limbs, tongue and eyes, and neurons of the primary motor cortex,
communicating through facial which initiate each planned
expressions and speech movement
o Reflexes mediated through the spinal o The motivation and foresight to plan
cord and brainstem are responsible and initiate movements occur in the
for some body movements without anterior portion of the frontal lobes,
conscious thought called called the prefrontal area
involuntary movements o This region of association cortex is
o Voluntary movements, on the other well developed only in primates,
hand, are consciously activated to especially in humans
achieve a specific goal, such as o It is involved in motivation and
walking or typing regulation of emotional behavior and
o Although consciously activated, the mood
details of most voluntary movements o The large size of this area in humans
occur automatically may account for our emotional
o Voluntary movements result from complexity and our relatively well-
the stimulation of upper and lower developed capacity to think ahead
motor neurons and feel motivated
o Upper motor neurons have cell
bodies in the cerebral cortex and BASAL NUCLEI
their axons form descending tracts The basal nuclei are a group of functionally
that connect to lower motor neurons related nuclei
o Lower motor neurons have cell o Two primary nuclei are the corpus
bodies in the anterior horn of the striatum, located deep within the
spinal cord gray matter or in cranial cerebrum, and the substantia nigra,
nerve nuclei and their axons leave a group of darkly pigmented cells in
the CNS and extend through spinal the midbrain
or cranial nerves to skeletal muscles o Important in planning, organizing,
and coordinating motor movements
MOTOR AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL and posture
CORTEX o Complex neural circuits link the
o The primary motor cortex is basal nuclei with each other, with the
located in the posterior portion of the thalamus, and with the cerebral
frontal lobe, directly anterior to the cortex
central sulcus o These connections form several
o Action potentials initiated in this feedback loops, some of which are
region control voluntary movements stimulatory and others inhibitory
of skeletal muscles o The stimulatory circuits facilitate
o The premotor area of the frontal muscle activity, especially at the
lobe is where motor functions are beginning of a voluntary movement,
organized before they are actually such as rising from a sitting position
initiated in the primary motor or beginning to walk
complex
 o Inhibitory circuits facilitate the motor cortex and the peripheral
actions of the stimulating circuits by structures
inhibiting muscle activity in o Action potentials from the cerebral
antagonist muscles motor cortex descend into the spinal
o In addition, inhibitory circuits inhibit cord to initiate voluntary movements
random movements of the trunks and o Collateral branches are also sent
limbs, and decrease muscle tone from the motor cortex to the
when the body, limbs, and head are cerebellum, giving information
at rest representing the intended movement
Disorders of the basal nuclei result in the o In addition, simultaneously, reaching
following: the cerebellum are action potentials
 Difficulty rising from a sitting from proprioceptive neurons,
position which innervate joints, tendons, and
 Difficulty initiating walking muscles and provide information
 Increased muscle tone about the position of body parts
 Exaggerated, uncontrolled movement o The cerebellum compares
when they are at rest information about the intended
 Resting tremor, which is a slight movement from the motor cortex to
shaking of the hands when a person sensory information from the moving
is not performing a task structures
o Parkinson disease, Huntington o If a difference is detected, the
disease, and cerebral palsy are basal cerebellum sends action potentials to
nuclei disorders motor neurons in the motor cortex
Cerebellum and the spinal cord to correct the
o It is attached by cerebellar peduncles discrepancy
o The result is smooth and coordinated
to the brainstem
o The cerebellar cortex is composed of movements (e.g. finger-to-nose test
with eyes closed)
gray matter and has gyri and sulci,
o One effect of alcohol is to inhibit the
but the gyri are much smaller than
those of the cerebrum function of the cerebellum
o Internally, the cerebellum is o Another function of the cerebellum
composed of gray matter and white involves participating with the
nerve tracts cerebrum in learning motor skills,
o The cerebellum is involved in such as playing the piano
o Once the cerebrum and cerebellum
maintaining balance and muscle
tone, and in coordinating fine “learn” these skills, the specialized
motor movement movements can be accomplished
o If damaged, muscle tone decreases, smoothly and automatically
and fine motor movements become
very clumsy OTHER BRAIN FUNCTIONS
o A major function of the cerebellum Section 9-11
is that of a comparator, which is a RIGHT AND LEFT HEMISPHERIC
sensing device that compare data COMMUNICATION
from two sources – in this case, the o The right cerebral hemisphere
receives sensory input from and
 controls muscular activity in the left BRAIN WAVES AND
half of the body CONSCIOUSNESS
o The left cerebral hemisphere receives o Electrodes placed on a person’s scalp
input from and controls muscles in and attached to a recording device
the right half of the body can record the brain’s electrical
o Sensory information received by one activity, producing an
hemisphere is shared with the other electroencephalogram (EEG)
through connections between the two o EEG patterns can be detected as
hemispheres called commissures wavelike patterns known as brain
o The largest of these commissures is waves
the corpus callosum, a broad band o The different levels of consciousness
of nerve tracts at the base of the in an awake and a sleeping person
longitudinal fissure are marked by different types of
o Researchers believe the left brain waves
hemisphere is the more analytical o Alpha waves are observed in a
hemisphere, emphasizing such skills normal person who is awake but in a
as mathematics and speech quiet, resting state with the eyes
o The right hemisphere is more closed
involved in functions such as three- o Beta waves have a higher frequency
dimensional or spatial perception and than alpha waves and occur during
musical ability intense mental activity
o During the beginning of sleep, a
SPEECH rapid transition takes place from a
In most people, the speech area is in the left beta rhythm to an alpha rhythm
cerebral cortex o As sleep deepens, progressively
Two major cortical areas are involved in more delta waves occur
speech: o Delta waves occur during deep
1. The sensory speech area (Wernicke sleep, in infants, and in patients with
area), located in the parietal lobe, severe brain disorders
functions in understanding and o A fourth type of brain waves, theta
formulating coherent speech waves, are usually observed in
2. The motor speech area (Broca children, but they can also occur in
area), located in the frontal lobe, adults who are experiencing
controls the movement necessary for frustration or who have certain brain
speech disorders
o Damage to these parts of the brain or o Neurologists use these patterns to
to associated brain regions may diagnose and determine the treatment
result in aphasia, absent or defective for the disorders
speech or language comprehension
o The most common cause is a stroke MEMORY
o It is estimated that 25 to 40 percent Storage of memory can be divided into three
of stroke survivors exhibit aphasia stages:
I. Working
II. Short-term
III. Long-term
 o Length of time memory stored may
Long-term memories depend on how often it is retrieved
o can also be subdivided based on the and used
type of the memory: o Declarative memory, or explicit
 Those dealing with facts memory, involves the retention of
(declarative) facts, such as names, dates, and
 Those dealing with skills places, as well as related emotional
(procedural) undertones
Working Memory o Emotion and mood apparently serve
o Task-associated memory as gates in the brain and determine
o Brain briefly stores information what is stored in long-term
required for the immediate declarative memory
performance of a task o Procedural memory, or reflective
o Lasts only a few seconds to memory, involved the development
minutes of motor skills, such as riding a
o Occurs mostly in the frontal bicycle
o Only a small amount of procedural
cortex
o Limited primarily by the number memory is lost over time
o Long-term memory involves
of bits of information that can be
stored at one time structural and functional changes in
o When new information is neurons that lead to long-term
enhancement of synaptic
presented, old information
transmission
previously stored in working
o A whole series of neurons, called
memory is eliminated
Short-Term Memory memory engrams, or memory trace,
are probably involved in the long-
o Lasts longer than working memory
term retention of a given piece of
and can be retained for a few minutes
information, a thought, or an idea
to a few days
o Repeating the information and
o Stored by a mechanism involving
associating it with existing memories
increased synaptic transmission
help us transfer information from
o Susceptible to brain trauma, such as
short-term to long-term memory
physical injury or decreased oxygen
o Susceptible to certain drugs that
LIMBIC SYSTEM AND EMOTIONS
affect neural function, such as
o The olfactory cortex and certain deep
general anesthetics
cortical regions and nuclei of the
cerebrum and the diencephalon are
Long-Term Memory
grouped together under the limbic
o Short-term memory is transferred to system
long-term memory, where it may be o The limbic system influences long-
stored for only a few minutes or term declarative memory,
become permanent by consolidation, emotions, visceral responses to
a gradual process involving emotions, motivation, and mood
formation of new and stronger o A major source of sensory input to
synaptic connections
the limbic system is the olfactory
nerves
 o The limbic system responds to o In contrast, within the vertebral canal
olfactory stimulation by initiating is an epidural space between the
responses necessary for survival, dura mater and the vertebrae
such as hunger and thirst o The epidural space is clinically
o The limbic system is connected to, important as the injection site for
and functionally associated with, the epidural anesthesia of the spinal
hypothalamus nerves, which is often given to
o Lesions in the limbic system can women during childbirth
result in voracious appetite, Arachnoid Mater
increased (often perverse) sexual o The second meningeal membrane is
activity, and docility (including loss very thin and wispy
of normal fear and anger responses o The space between the dura mater
and the arachnoid mater is the
MENINGES, VENTRICLES, AND subdural space, which is normally
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID only a potential space containing a
SECTION 9-12 very small amount of serous fluid
MENINGES o The spinal cord extends only to
Three connective tissue membranes, the approximately the level of the second
meninges, surround and protect the brain lumbar vertebra
and the spinal cord o Spinal nerves surrounded by
1. Dura mater meninges extend to the end of the
2. Arachnoid mater vertebral column
3. Pia mater o Because there is no spinal cord in the
inferior portion of the vertebral
Dura Mater canal, a needle can be introduced
o Most superficial and thickest of the into the subarachnoid space at that
level without damaging the spinal
meninges
cord
o Around the brain, it consists of two
o Physicians use such a needle to inject
layers, which function as a single
anesthetic into the area as a spinal
layer but are physically separated
block or to take a sample of CSF in a
into several regions to form dural
spinal tap
folds and dural venous sinuses
o The CSF can then be examined for
o Folds of dura mater extend into the
infectious agents (meningitis) or for
longitudinal fissure between the two
blood (hemorrhage)
cerebral hemispheres and between
Pia Mater
the cerebrum and cerebellum
o These folds help the brain in place o The third membrane, called the pia
within the skull mater, is very tightly bound to the
o The dural venous sinuses collect surface of the brain and the spinal
cord
blood from the small veins of the
o Between the arachnoid mater and the
brain and empty into the internal
jugular vein, which exit the skull pia mater is the subarachnoid
o Within the skull, the dura mater space, which is filled with CSF and
contains blood vessels
adheres tightly to the cranial bones
 o CSF fills the brain ventricles, the
VENTRICLES central canal of the spinal cord, and
o The CNS contains fluid-filled the subarachnoid space
cavities, called ventricles, which are
quite small in some areas and large Flow of CSF
in others o The CSF flows from the lateral
o Each cerebral hemisphere contains a ventricles into the third ventricle via
relatively large cavity called the the foramina of Monroe, and then
lateral ventricle through the cerebral aqueduct of
o The third ventricle is a smaller, Sylvia into the fourth ventricle
midline cavity located in the center o A small amount of CSF enters the
of the diencephalon between the two central canal of the spinal cord
halves of the thalamus and connected o The CSF exits the fourth ventricle
by an interventricular foramen through small openings in its walls
(holes) or foramina of Monroe to (aperture of Magendie) and roof
the lateral ventricles (aperture of Luschka) and enters the
o The fourth ventricle is located at the subarachnoid space
base of the cerebellum and connected o Masses of arachnoid tissue, called
to the third ventricle by a narrow arachnoid granulations, penetrate
canal, called the cerebral aqueduct the superior sagittal sinus, a dural
or Sylvian aqueduct venous sinus in the longitudinal
o It is continuous with the central fissure, and CSF passes from the
canal of the spinal cord, and it also subarachnoid space into the blood
opens into the subarachnoid space through these granulations
through foramina in its walls and o Blockage of the openings in the
roof fourth ventricle or the cerebral
 Median aperture of aqueduct can cause CSF to
Magendie (subarachnoid accumulate in the ventricles, a
space via the cisterna condition known as hydrocephalus
magna) o The accumulation of fluid creates
 Right and left lateral increased pressure that dilates the
apertures of Luschka ventricles and compresses the brain
(subarachnoid space via tissue, which usually results in
the cistern of great irreversible brain damage
cerebral vein of Galen o If the skull bones are not completely
ossified when the hydrocephalus
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID occurs, as in a fetus or newborn, the
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) bathes the brain pressure can also cause severe
and spinal cord, providing a protective enlargement of the head
cushion around the CNS o Hydrocephalus is treated by placing
o It is produced by the choroid a drainage tube (shunt) from the
plexuses, specialized structures ventricles to the abdominal cavity to
made up of ependymal cells, which eliminate the high internal pressures
are located in the ventricles
 o The first is called the preganglionic
CRANIAL NERVES neuron and the second is the
Section 9-13 postganglionic neuron
o The neurons are so named because
the preganglionic neurons synapse
with the postganglionic neurons in
the autonomic ganglia outside the
CNS
o An exception is the preganglionic
neuron that extends to the adrenal
gland
o There, the postganglionic neurons
are actually the hormone-secreting
cells of the adrenal medulla
o The ANS is composed of the
sympathetic division and the
parasympathetic division
o Increased activity in sympathetic
neurons generally prepares the
individual for physical activity,
whereas parasympathetic stimulation
generally activates involuntary
functions, such as digestion, that are
normally associated with the body at
rest
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
Section 9-14 ANATOMY OF THE SYMPATHETIC
Organization of ANS DIVISION
o The ANS comprises motor neurons o Cell bodies of sympathetic
that carry action potentials from the preganglionic neurons are in the
CNS to the periphery lateral horn of the spinal cord gray
o The autonomic neurons innervate matter between the first thoracic (T1)
smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and and the second lumbar (L2) segments
glands o Axons of the preganglionic neurons
o Autonomic functions are largely exit through ventral roots and project
controlled unconsciously to either the sympathetic chain
o Axons from autonomic neurons do ganglia or collateral ganglia
not extend all the way from the CNS o The sympathetic chain ganglia are
to target tissues connected to one another and are so
o This is in contrast to somatic motor named because they form a chain
neurons, which extend axons from along both sides of the spinal cord
the CNS to skeletal muscle o Some preganglionic fibers synapse
o In the ANS, two neurons in series with postganglionic fibers in the
extend from the CNS to the effector sympathetic chain ganglia
organs
 o The postganglionic axons form neurons of the vagus nerve
sympathetic nerves that innervate extending from the brainstem
structures of the thoracic cavity o The vagus nerve branches to provide
o The axons of those preganglionic parasympathetic innervation to the
fibers that do not synapse in the heart, the lungs, the liver, and the
sympathetic chain ganglia form stomach and other digestive organs
splanchnic nerves that extend to
collateral ganglia AUTONOMIC NEUROTRANSMITTERS
o Collateral ganglia are located nearer o All preganglionic neurons of both the
target organs and consist of the sympathetic and the parasympathetic
celiac, superior mesenteric, and divisions and all the postganglionic
inferior mesenteric ganglia neurons of the parasympathetic
o Preganglionic neurons synapse with division secrete the neurotransmitter
postganglionic neurons in the acetylcholine
collateral ganglia o Most postsynaptic neurons of the
o Postganglionic neurons in the sympathetic division secrete
collateral ganglia project to target norepinephrine
tissues in the abdominal and pelvic o Many body functions can be
regions stimulated or inhibited by drugs that
either mimic these neurotransmitters
ANATOMY OF THE or prevent the neurotransmitters from
PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION activating their target tissues
Preganglionic cell bodies of the
parasympathetic division are located either: ENTERIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
 Within the brainstem nuclei of the Section 9-15
oculomotor nerve (III), facial nerve The enteric nervous system (ENS) consists
(VII), glossopharyngeal nerve (IX), of plexuses within the wall of the digestive
or vagus nerve (X); or tract
 Within the lateral part of the central The plexuses include:
gray matter of the spinal cord in the  Sensory neurons that connect the
regions that give rise to spinal nerves digestive tract to the CNS
S2 through S4  Sympathetic and parasympathetic
o Axons of the preganglionic neurons neurons that connect the CNS to the
extend through spinal nerves or digestive tract
cranial nerves to terminal ganglia  Enteric neurons, located entirely
either located near effector organs in within the enteric plexuses
the head or embedded in the walls of A unique feature of enteric neurons is
effector organs in the thorax, that they are capable of monitoring and
abdomen, and pelvis controlling the digestive tract
o The axons of the postganglionic independently of the CNS through local
neurons extend a relatively short reflexes
distance from the terminal ganglia to
o For example, stretching of the
the target organ
o Most of the thoracic and abdominal digestive tract is detected by enteric
sensory neurons, which stimulate
organs are supplied by preganglionic
enteric interneurons
 o The enteric interneurons stimulate
enteric motor neurons, which
stimulate glands to secrete
o Although the ENS is capable of
controlling the activities of the
digestive tract completely
independently of the CNS, normally
the two systems work together
o CNS control of parasympathetic
branches of the vagus nerve and
sympathetic nerves (primarily the
splanchnic nerves) can override the
actions of the enteric neurons
o Hence, the ENS is an independent
subdivision of the PNS that is
integrated with the ANS

EFFECTS OF AGING ON THE

NERVOUS SYSTEM
Section 9-16
Read 8.16 - Effects of Aging on the Skeletal
System in 9th edition of Seeley’s Essentials
of Anatomy and Physiology