VERSION 2016

CAUSES OF CRIME

CHAPTER 3

UTAH STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION

CAREER AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION
 CHAPTER THREE: EXPLANATIONS OF CRIME

INTRODUCTION
It is best to start this unit by emphasizing that there is no single cause of crime. In addition,
there is no single explanation for criminal behavior that is agreed upon by even a majority of
criminologists, those individuals who study the causes of crime. However, it is still important to study
this particular subject so that society can attempt to properly deal with the most important law
enforcement task, that of crime prevention. Only by learning why certain people commit certain crimes
can a society or a community act to stop them. There are reasons for all crimes, though the person who
commits the crime may not know the reason. The police and the public may not know either, but if
such causes can be determined through study, then prevention or rehabilitation becomes much easier
to accomplish.
The following material is arranged into categories, depending on where it is generally believed
that criminal behavior originates. Some of these ideas are no longer widely accepted, but are interesting
examples of how crime has been explained in the past.

PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS
Psychological explanations for crime are based on the mind and its mental processes. Many of
the explanations for criminal behavior are based on the pioneering theories of Sigmund Freud and the
treatment known as psychoanalysis. Freud taught that there are three mental processes: id, ego, the
super-ego. The id is the source of drives to gratify certain basic needs, such as food, sex, power, etc.
The super-ego equates to a person's conscience. The ego is the integrating process that tries to find a
balance between the id and the super-ego. Freud believed that there are three different interactions
between id, ego, and super-ego that lead an individual to commit a crime. First, some individuals fail
to develop proper super-ego controls. In other words, an individual is not taught or does not learn what
parents, teachers, religious leaders, and others offer regarding what society considers right and wrong.
Second, some individuals have very strong obsessive-compulsive actions, a part of the id they are
unable to control. Because the individual is unable to control his or her desire for a specific
gratification, he or she commits a crime to satisfy the desire. Third, Freud taught that people often have
extreme mental conflicts that produce guilt. In order to rid himself or herself of the unwarranted guilty
feeling, an individual may commit a criminal act so that he will be punished, thus resolving the feeling
of guilt.
Harrison G. Gough, a noted applied psychologist, focused much of his research on the study
of individuals’ personality characteristics. He defined some criminals as psychopaths, describing them
as having too much concern for immediate gratification, no concern for the rights of others, and poor
planning and judgment skills, and as always blaming others for their mistakes. Gough believed that
psychopaths are a result of broken homes, where there is inconsistent discipline, child abuse, and no
strong male figure in the home.
American courts currently give considerable credibility to psychological theories of crime
causation. The courts have been receptive to defendant claims of uncontrollable drives or mental
illness. If proven, the law allows a person to be found not guilty by reason of insanity. It is the
responsibility of the defense to prove that the accused was unable to differentiate between right and

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wrong, and therefore did not understand the consequences of his or her actions. Sometimes all that
need be proven is that the crime was the result of an irresistible impulse.
Courts will not conduct a trial if the accused is deemed to be incompetent, meaning that the
accused is unable to understand the trial process. Such individuals are usually committed to an
institution for the treatment of their mental disorder until they are adjudged to be sane. There is
considerable evidence that individuals committed to such institutions actually spend longer in custody
than those committed to prison for similar crimes.
There is much confusion in society regarding the mental illness or insanity plea. Trials such as
John Hinckley’s attempted assassination of President Reagan have left many people with doubts about
the justice involved. Many individuals perceive that expert witnesses offer contradictory and biased
testimony, and that no one really knows what goes on in another person's mind.
A recent book, Inside the Criminal Mind (Stanton E. Samenow, Ph.D.) argues that “...criminals
choose to commit crimes. Crime resides within the person and is caused by the way he thinks, not by
his environment. Criminals think differently from responsible people.” Samenow rejects traditional
psychological theories as excusing crime, and argues that changing criminal behavior must be
accomplished by “insisting that they be treated as responsible for their behavior and held accountable.”

SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS
Sociological explanations of crime are based on the assumption that criminal activity can be
produced or stimulated by a person's environment, the interaction of an individual with other
individuals and groups with whom a person associates. The field of sociology examines how and why
an individual develops those beliefs, attitudes, and values that are so important to the decisions that an
individual chooses to make on a daily basis. Of particular concern to sociologists are the formative
pre-adult years.
Emile Durkheim, whom many consider to be the father of sociology, was the first to point out
that, for some individuals, crime may actually be normal. He stated that normlessness (the lack of
shared standards of expected social behaviors), characterized by an absence of social values, can cause
individuals to commit crime. He emphasized that crime can be caused by a breakdown in society’s
norms or expected social behavior because individuals do not see crime as being wrong.
Sociologists have come up with numerous other theories to explain why an individual may
become involved in crime. Frank Tannenbaum, who was instrumental in developing the labeling
theory, stated that individuals tend to respond to the labels that they are given. If a juvenile is labeled
a delinquent, the juvenile’s own self-perception may be to accept the label and to respond as defined.
This particular theory receives great attention in the field of education, where teachers are continually
reminded to be positive in any circumstance in which a student may feel that he is being labeled.
Travis Hirschi, author of Causes of Delinquency, was a major proponent of the social control
theory. He suggested that individuals have a bond with society composed of four different factors:
attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief. If an individual has a weakened bond with society
and a lack of commitment to its rules, there is a possibility of criminal activity. Because our American
society is becoming more mobile, wealthier, and less in contact with family, churches, schools, and
other groups, the social bond is weakening, and breaking the law may become more acceptable and
prevalent.
Edwin Sutherland, in his book Principles of Criminology, proposed the theory known as
differential association. Sutherland stated that criminal behavior results from significant differential
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association with valued sources who accept criminal behavior as a valid alternative. The key element
of this theory is that criminal behavior is learned. Sutherland suggested that such learning comes from
valued sources such as family, friends, and peers, and that person-to-person contacts are most
important. He stated further that the importance of a contact will vary depending upon frequency,
duration, priority, and intensity of the contact. The individual will then adopt acceptable or
unacceptable actions based upon these valued sources.
Robert K. Merton developed another popular theory known as the strain theory. He stated that
all persons are reaching for goals of success, especially in a culture like America’s. However, not
everyone can be successful by conforming to society's rules. Some individuals, frustrated by their lack
of success in reaching the goals that they have set, consider other possible options. One of these options
may be turning to criminal activity in order to attain their set objectives. They pursue the same goals
as other Americans, but turn to illegal means to reach them.

INTEGRATION OF THEORIES
In a 1985 publication, Crime and Human Nature, James Q. Wilson and Richard J. Herrnstein
offered a theory for criminal behavior based on their study of the causes of crime. Their study drew on
many academic fields, including psychology, political economy, and political science, in an
intentionally interdisciplinary approach. They argued that in order to establish the causes of crime, one
must understand human nature, which is influenced at least in part by physique, intelligence, and
personality. Their analysis of the research data suggested that inherited traits of an individual combine
with environmental surroundings to produce someone who is susceptible to criminal behavior. They
stated that the most important factor in turning a potential criminal from a life of crime is his family
life. If the family is strong, with appropriate role models, the child is able to counter the negative factors
to become a law-abiding citizen.
The theory of crime causation that they offered is based on the premise that people, when offered
choices, choose a preferred course of action. Preference does not necessarily imply a totally rational
thought process, however. Preferences result from reinforcers, conditioning, delay or uncertainty,
equity or inequity, and context reinforcement.
“The larger the ratio of the rewards (material and nonmaterial) of non-crime to the rewards
(material and nonmaterial) of crime, the weaker the tendency to commit crimes. The bite of conscience,
the approval of peers, and any sense of inequity will increase or decrease the total value of crime; the
opinions of family, friends, and employers are important benefits of non-crime, as is the desire to avoid
the penalties that can be imposed by the criminal justice system. The strength of any reward declines
with time, but people differ in the rate at which they discount the future. The strength of a given reward
is also affected by the total supply of reinforcers.”
Obviously, there is no consensus on why someone becomes involved with criminal activity. It
is likely that aspects of heredity, environment, and mental processes all interact to produce a criminal.
The field of criminology is a fascinating endeavor that is open to many other disciplines, such as
biology, psychology, psychiatry, and sociology, as the challenge to find out what causes crime
continues.

TYPOLOGICAL THEORY
Criminologists often find it useful to talk about patterns of criminal characteristics. This
particular field of study has become increasingly visible in today’s society. The Federal Bureau of
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Investigation (FBI) has focused on this area of expertise, and has a specialized group of agents trained
to identify the type of individual who would commit a specific type of crime.
Criminal profiling focuses on a number of aspects of a specific type of criminal offense. Of
major concern to the analyst is the offender’s behavior. It is also important to attempt to identify the
psychological motivation for the commission of the crime and the emotional needs that are met through
the commission of a crime. These needs and motives can be identified in order to provide the
characteristics of the individual being profiled.
Identifying these typologies makes it easier to study and investigate the causes and treatment
of different types of criminals. Of particular interest are the person’s social class, family background,
peer group associations, and contact with the criminal justice system. The following typologies are
drawn from Society, Crime and Criminal Careers by Don Gibbons.
Professional thief (con men, pickpockets, shoplifting rings): These criminals have group
activity, an education process, their own vocabulary, and a high self-concept as “elite”; they do not
associate with “lower-class” criminals, and they have pride in their criminal skills. They start at young
age (schooled). They tend to be lower-middle class, place high value on money as a goal, and leave
and their families when young. They associate with the criminal fringes of society, then succumb to
strong peer pressure. They are seldom caught, and have no strong feelings against police. They are
skilled in social interactions, which they may use to impress judge; they usually end up with a minor
fine when caught.
Professional heavy (armed robbery, strong-arm robbery, burglary): These criminals are highly
skilled in inducing fear, utilizing detailed planning and the element of surprise. They seldom work
alone, and have specialized roles. They are proud to be criminals; all others are amateurs. Police are
considered “clowns” or are to be respected, but the criminals are not necessarily hostile to them. They
are urban, lower working class, and belonged to gangs as teens. They see crime all around them. Often
they have suffered from parental neglect and little supervision. They “work,” then return home to
middle-class homes and families. They may have extensive arrest and jail records and consider
themselves “tough guys,” and may have learned crime while in prison.
Amateur shoplifter (adult women): These steal for personal use and work alone, usually in
large stores. They consider themselves honest citizens, not thieves. They usually continue until caught
and turned over to police; many have already been caught by store management several times and
released without police involvement. They are lower and middle class, mostly married, with children
but no peer support. The best therapy approach is to induce guilt.
Joyrider (male, 13-20): These criminals steal for short-term recreation. The majority look for
keys left in a car; some hot wire vehicles. They are slightly skilled and seldom involved in other
criminal activities. Joyriding is done in groups of guys casually associating. They consider themselves
“cool” or “tough” and view police as stupid, since the police drive by without stopping them. They are
repeat offenders who usually stop by 20 and never break the law again. They have a middle-class
background with close and strict parents, but no strong father figure. Peer group pressure is strong.
They have little contact with courts.
Psychopathic assaultist (violent, senseless assaults): These people don’t just hit, they attempt
to hurt people. They are “lone wolves.” With a defiant chip-on-the-shoulder attitude, they are very
suspicious and strike out first because they think others are out to get them. They undergo frequent
arrests, long sentences, and no rehabilitation, and come from all social classes. They have a family
rejection pattern, and usually come from an illegitimate or unwanted pregnancy. Most are placed in
foster homes or are runaways. They avoid group associations. They have contact with many police and
social service agencies, all of which are treated with hostility.
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 Rapist: These criminals use varying degrees of force to induce sexual activity. In some cases
this results from the extension of a voluntary association where sexual demands exceed the wishes of
the female (date rape). Other cases are of sexual activity deal with control and submission. They
rationalize that the victim “seduced” them, “asked for it,” engaged in provocative action or dress, or
“really wanted it.” They have no other criminal background. They are usually caught unless the rape
is a single episode. Most serve prison time when caught and are never involved in rape again. They are
lower or lower-middle class, and may consider domestic violence acceptable. They have normal family
backgrounds and experience affection, but minimal commitment.
Embezzler: This type of criminal violates a position of trust, takes advantage of an opportunity
to steal created by nature of his/her employment, and goes to great lengths to conceal crime. The crime
seldom involves or is known to others, and the embezzler develops elaborate rationalizations when
discovered. They come from relatively comfortable middle-class backgrounds, frequently from stable
a family background, but may need money to maintain a desired standard of living. They have minimal
contact with courts; private business losses are seldom handled criminally, although more recent
emphasis on “white-collar crimes” is increasing the potential for prosecution and civil sanctions.

BIOLOGICAL THEORY
Biological explanations of criminal actions are based on the belief that the body itself is
responsible for a person’s behavior. In ancient times, people who acted strangely or did things that
were against society’s rules were believed to be under the control of evil spirits or fates. This belief
took responsibility for acting unacceptably away from the person. We still use the phrase “I don’t know
what got into me” when we are caught doing something wrong, as a way of claiming that it really isn’t
our fault. In more enlightened times, this belief has become less acceptable and has been replaced with
the belief that most people act rationally when deciding whether or not to commit a crime.
Cesare Beccaria, the author of On Crimes and Punishments (1764), believed that man is driven
by what he called a social contract—that is, that all individuals have a free will and a rational manner,
which leads each person to look out for his or her own best interests. He also believed in manipulability,
or the idea that an individual is predictable and can be controlled and manipulated by society to live
within the law, given the proper motivation. He described this motivation to obey the laws as swift
associative punishment in response to the commission of a crime. The method of punishment should
serve the greatest public good, rehabilitating the criminal while deterring others from committing the
crime. He also focused his writing on reformation of the criminal justice system. He called for
revamping the system by utilizing more humanitarian forms of punishment and equality in sentencing,
and by banning torture and capital punishment. His book was well accepted and was praised by such
leaders as Catherine the Great, Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and Voltaire.
Jeremy Bentham, influenced by Beccaria and others, was a founder of the philosophy of
utilitarianism. He authored Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789), which
explained his ideas of psychological hedonism. Bentham believed that personal pleasure was an
individual’s ultimate goal. He taught that an individual, using a rational analysis of his or her own self-
interest, would appraise a situation and base his or her decision on pleasure versus pain, in addition to
the conventional decision of right versus wrong. If the pleasure gained outweighed the pain involved
in the punishment process, the person would be willing to commit a crime. Bentham wrote that “nature
has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them
alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do. On the one hand the
standard of right and wrong, on the other the chain of causes and effects... They govern us in all we
do, in all we say, in all we think.”
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 A famous Italian physician and criminologist, Cesare Lombroso, had a different idea about
crime. In his book L’uomo Delinquente [Criminal Man] (1876), he postulated that criminals were
genetic throwbacks and stated that “In general, many criminals have outstanding ears, abundant hair,
a sparse beard, enormous frontal sinuses and jaws, a square and protruding chin, broad cheek bones,
frequent gestures.” He taught that as many as 40% of society’s criminals were evolutionary throwbacks
who were genetically inferior to others. Lombroso developed this theory by measuring the skulls of
numerous individuals, including the criminals of his time. His theory was loosely based on Charles
Darwin’s theory of evolution and became known as atavism, the reversion of man to evolutionarily
primitive traits. His ideas today strike many as racist, but they were based on beliefs common in his
society.
Franz Joseph Gall, a noted physician, physiologist, and neuroanatomist, believed that the brain,
or how it was formed, was the key to a person’s behavior. In his book, The Anatomy and Physiology
of the Nervous System in General, and the Brain in Particular (1819), he wrote of the principles of
cranioscopy, later to be known as phrenology. He believed that certain regions of the brain controlled
various aspects of an individual’s personality, morality, and mental faculties. Gall believed that the
contours of the skull or cranium reflected the interior shape of the brain, and that the contours could
be examined in order to diagnose the characteristics and traits of each individual. Gall was able to map
out various phrenological characteristics, such as destructiveness (behind the left area), wit (above the
right eye), and secretiveness (left side of head). His idea of cerebral localization was quite accurate, in
that various areas of the brain do control various aspects of individual behavior, but the contours or
shape of the cranium are not relevant.
Earnest A. Hooton, a noted physical anthropologist, argued that criminals were criminals
because they were biologically inferior. In his treatise The Asymmetrical Character of Human
Evolution (1923), he wrote that “Criminals as a group represent an aggregate of sociologically and
biologically inferior individuals.” Later in his career he conducted a twelve-year study of over 10,000
convicts in ten different states, measuring and comparing them with a group of over 3,000 non-criminal
volunteers. His study conclusions reinforced what he had already stated, that the inmates were found
to be physically inferior. The conduct of his study and its findings have been debated for many years
since, and have been discounted by many criminologists.
William Sheldon conducted a study involving juvenile delinquents and concluded that there
were three basic body types. He listed and defined them as follows:
Endomorphs: tend to be fat with short limbs and soft, smooth skin
Ectomorphs: lean, delicate body; small; fine hair
Mesomorphs: large muscles, bones, trunk, and hands
Sheldon concluded that most of the criminals in society were from the mesomorph body type,
because they behave very aggressively and thus get in trouble with the law more often. The study by
Sheldon and a similar study by Eleanor and Sheldon Glueck were based on examination of many
juveniles in reform schools. Critics of the two studies point out that the findings may not be valid, since
judges at the time resisted sending children to reform schools who did not look like they could take it.
More recently, studies have examined the XYY chromosome syndrome. Most people are either
female (XX) or male (XY). The last pair of a person's 23 pairs of chromosomes determines the sex of
the individual. On occasion, however, an unusual male pairing (XYY) occurs. Several studies have
deduced that a male with this characteristic tends to be taller and more prone to anti-social behavior
than normal. According to early studies, such persons are overrepresented in prison populations.

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However, more recent studies have tended to discount the negative effects of the XYY chromosome,
and further study is needed in order to draw a final conclusion.
In the 1970s, work started on examining the effect of genes on human behavior. Early studies
by R. J. Moyer have led him to believe that some genes may create brain structures leading to
aggression and hostility. Since genes are the building block of life and are likely to be artificially
modified in future years, such research holds promise for the biologically oriented criminologist.

MENTAL ILLNESS AND CRIME

Some criminologists theorize that mental illness is directly related to violence and crime. There
are studies that both support and disprove this to be the case, depending on other varying factors such
as drug or alcohol abuse or exposure to traumatic events. One thing that is agreed upon by mental
health professionals is that persons with mental illness have a higher probability of being victims of
crimes when compared to the general public. The table below is an overview of the most common
categories of mental illnesses that are likely to involve contact with law enforcement or EMS, along
with descriptions of each and specific examples.
Common Mental Illness General Description Example
Category
Anxiety disorders Anxiety disorders manifest Phobia: Phobia is the term
as fear and trepidation, as used to describe an irrational
well as physical signs of and extreme fear of a
uneasiness and anxiety that situation or object. There are
are characterized by many types of phobias,
increased heart rate and including the fear of spiders
perspiration. Anxiety (arachnophobia), the fear of
disorders are further being up high (acrophobia),
categorized based on their and the fear of being away
triggers. A person with an from home (agoraphobia).
anxiety disorder is unable to
control his or her response
to a trigger, to the degree Obsessive compulsive
that it interferes with his or disorder: People with OCD
her normal day-to-day are plagued by constant
functioning. thoughts or fears that cause
them to perform certain
“rituals” or routines. The
disturbing thoughts are called
obsessions, and the rituals
are called compulsions. An
example is a person with an
unreasonable fear of germs
who constantly washes his or
her hands.

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 Post-traumatic stress
disorder (PSTD) is a
condition that can develop
following a traumatic and/or
terrifying event, such as
sexual or physical assault,
the unexpected death of a
loved one, or a natural
disaster. People with PTSD
often have lasting,
frightening thoughts and
memories of the event, and
tend to be emotionally numb.

Panic disorder is typified by

frequent episodes of severe,
incapacitating anxiety
attacks, also known as panic
attacks. These panic attacks
may include symptoms such
as an accelerated heartbeat,
breathlessness, nausea, and
an inability to think clearly.
The diagnosis of panic
disorder is also dependent
upon the person being
worried about experiencing a
panic attack or worried about
the panic attack being a
symptom of a medical
condition, such as a heart
attack.

Mood disorders Mood disorders are affective Major depression: In order

disorders defined by a to be diagnosed with major
constant feeling of being sad depression, an individual
or periods of extreme must feel depressed for most
happiness, or by going back of the day and for most days
and forth between feeling over at least a two-week time
overly happy and overly sad. period. Additionally, he or
Typically a person who is she may experience
diagnosed with depression symptoms such as changes in
experiences feelings of appetite and weight,
sadness that preclude him or irritability, loss of interest
her from functionally and motivation for his or her
normally. These feelings of usual activities, hopelessness
sadness last longer than and, in some cases thoughts,
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 would be expected given the plans or attempts to cause
situation. Depressive harm to himself or herself.
disorders can be further Some women may
subcategorized as bipolar experience depression after
disorder, dysthymia, or having a child, which is
major depression. called postpartum
depression. The duration of
postpartum depression can
vary from weeks to months.

Bipolar disorder: In the

United States, over 1% of
adults, or up to 4 million
people, have been diagnosed
with bipolar disorder. Bipolar
disorder is sometimes
referred to as manic
depression. It is
characterized by extreme
changes in mood, recurring
depressive episodes, and at
least one manic episode.

Behavioral disorders Behavioral disorder is the Attention deficit

catchall term used to refer to hyperactivity disorder
the inability to display (ADHD): Symptoms of this
acceptable behavior in a disorder include inattention,
given situation. One of the hyperactivity (or restlessness
most commonly diagnosed in adults); disruptive
behavioral disorder is behavior and impulsivity are
attention deficit also common in ADHD.
hyperactivity disorder Academic difficulties are
(ADHD). Because ADHA frequent in those diagnosed
was initially more with ADHD, as are problems
commonly diagnosed in with relationships. However,
boys, it was thought to be a it can be hard to draw a line
disorder exclusive to boys. between normal levels of
However, now ADHD is inattention, hyperactivity,
also frequently diagnosed in and impulsivity and the more
girls. Interestingly, about significant levels that require
half the children who are intervention.
diagnosed with ADHD in
childhood continue to
display symptoms in Autism spectrum disorders
adulthood. The symptoms of (ASD) span many levels of
ADHD include the inability diagnosis, such as high-
to pay attention, in addition functioning autism (or
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 to hyperactive and impulsive Asperger’s syndrome).
behaviors. People who are diagnosed
with autism are characterized
by abnormalities of social
interaction and
communication that pervade
the individual’s functioning,
and by restricted and
repetitive interests and
behavior. Like other
psychological development
disorders, ASD begins in
infancy or childhood, has a
steady course without
remission or relapse, and
comes with impairments that
result from maturation-
related changes in various
systems of the brain. Lack of
nonverbal communication
skills, limited empathy for
others, physical clumsiness,
obsessive repetitive routines
are some possible symptoms
of ASD.

Psychotic disorders Psychotic disorders involve Schizophrenia is a mental

distorted awareness and disorder often characterized
thinking. Two of the most by abnormal social behavior
common symptoms of and failure to recognize what
psychotic disorders are is real. Common symptoms
hallucination—the include false beliefs, unclear
experience of images or or confused thinking,
sounds that are not real, auditory hallucinations,
such as hearing voices—and reduced social engagement
delusions, which are false and emotional expression,
fixed beliefs that the ill and inactivity. Diagnosis is
person accepts as true, based on observed behavior
despite evidence to the and the person’s reported
contrary. experiences.

Alzheimer’s is a
neurodegenerative disorder
that affects the elderly.
Symptoms include

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 disorientation, memory loss,
mood swings, and difficulty
with language.

Impulse control disorders The diagnosis of impulse Some examples of impulse

control disorders is used to control disorders are starting
describe the inability to fires (pyromania), stealing
resist impulses or urges and (kleptomania), and
performing acts that are uncontrollable gambling.
considered harmful to
oneself or to others. People
often become so wrapped up
in something that they can
no longer focus on anything
else, neglecting their
relationships and
responsibilities.

The following two considerations regarding mentally ill individuals are important for police:
Credibility. Symptoms of mental illness may cause individuals, including police officers, to
perceive situations inaccurately. Officers would be wise to verify questionable information. However,
assuming that a person who has mental illness is incapable of providing credible information could
lead to the loss of valuable information and the neglect of persons who have been victimized.
Risk of Violence. Although persons with mental illness, particularly those who are
experiencing particular psychotic symptoms and abusing drugs and alcohol, have increased rates of
violent behavior, most are not violent. At the same time, police officers must assume that all citizens
they encounter may be dangerous, because the price of letting down their guard is too high.
Unfortunately, exaggerated perceptions of dangerousness may lead to behaviors that escalate the
situation. Addressing these perceptions through education and opportunities for positive contact with
persons with mental illness who are stable in the community can improve officers’ comfort in
approaching a person with mental illness. Skills training in the recognition of mental illness, coupled
with effective communication and de-escalation strategies, will assist officers in successfully resolving
situations with mentally ill persons who are in crisis.

CRISIS INTERVENTION TRAINING (CIT)

Many police departments today recognize that not all officers are equally skilled in de-
escalation or with interacting with mentally ill persons in crisis. The Memphis Police developed a
program that is now used by many police departments across the nation to more effectively use
resources and guide law enforcement when dealing with mental illness/crisis situations. This program
is known as Crisis Intervention Training (CIT).
The CIT program provides additional training for police officers that covers the different types
of mental illnesses, medications, public resources, and scenario-based training that enables officers to
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be certified for specialized in dealing with these cases. When patrol officers encounter situations
involving individuals with mental illness, they may request a CIT officer to respond and assist with the
individual or family members. Ideally, CIT officers are officers who are interested and want to
specialize in this element of training. Oftentimes they know someone or have relatives who suffer from
a mental illness, and therefore have an increased level of empathy or understanding with these
individuals. Safety is always paramount for police, whether they are CIT trained or not.

SUICIDE PREVENTION
Law enforcement officers often deal with situations involving an individual who is suicidal.
These include:
• A person is communicating a desire or intent to attempt suicide.
• A person has just made a suicide attempt.
• A person has died by suicide.

In a significant number of cases, officers receive a call that is not described as a suicidal
crisis, but rather as a general disturbance, domestic violence, or similar type of situation. Upon
arriving at the scene, the officers need to determine whether the situation involves someone who is
suicidal.
The officer has an important role to play in all of these situations. It is generally considered to
be within the scope of a law enforcement officer’s duty to protect the safety of the community as a
whole, as well as individuals. The officer’s first responsibility is to deal with any safety issues that
may affect law enforcement personnel, the person who is suicidal, or others present at the scene,
especially if the person has immediate access to lethal means. The officer can also provide clarity and
support to the person who is suicidal and the other people who are there. After the crisis, the role of
the officer, along with EMS providers and mental health professionals if they are present, is to ensure
the suicidal person receives an evaluation as soon as possible.

FACTS ABOUT SUICIDE

• Suicide touches everyone—all ages and incomes; all racial, ethnic, and religious groups, and
in all parts of the country.
• Suicide takes the lives of about 38,000 Americans each year (CDC, 2010).
• About 465,000 people per year are seen in hospital emergency departments for self-injury
(CDC, 2010).
• Each year, over eight million adults think seriously about taking their life, and over one
million make an attempt (NSDUH, 2011). However, there is help and hope when individuals,
communities, and professionals join forces to prevent suicide.

PREPARING AHEAD OF TIME

Review the protocols and standard operating procedures required by your law enforcement
agency and in your state and local area for responding to a person with suicidal thoughts, a person
who has made a suicide attempt, or a death by suicide.
Learn how you should deal with a suicidal person who refuses to be transported for an
evaluation.
Meet with your local emergency medical services (EMS) providers to discuss how you can
work together to help people who are suicidal, including those who refuse to be transported.

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 The following are warning signs that a person may be suicidal:
• Acting anxious or agitated; behaving recklessly
• Sleeping too little or too much
• Withdrawing or feeling isolated
• Showing rage or talking about seeking revenge
• Displaying extreme mood swings

(Adapted from National Suicide Prevention Lifeline, [n.d.])

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