Ecosystem Merged

Ecology
All living organism, whether plant or animal or

human being is surrounded by the environment, on which
it derive its needs for its survival.
Each living component interacts with non –living
components for their basic requirements form different
ecosystem.
V.S.Saravana Mani, Head & AP /

Chemistry, AEC Salem
Definition
Ecology is the study of interactions among organism
or group of organisms with their environment. The
environment consists of both biotic components (living
organisms) and abiotic components (non – living organisms).
or Ecology is the study of ecosystems.

Ecosystem is the basic functional unit of ecology. The term
ecosystem is coined form a Greek word meaning study of
home.
Definition
A group of organisms interacting among themselves
and with environment is known as ecosystem. Thus an
ecosystem is a community of different species interacting with
one another and with their non living environment and one
another and with their non- living environment exchanging
energy and matter.
Example
Animals cannot synthesis their food directly but
depend on the plants either directly or indirectly.
TYPES OF ECOSYSTEM- Natural ecosystem
Natural ecosystems operate themselves under natural conditions.
Based on habitat types, it can be further classified into three types.
1. Terrestrial ecosystem
This ecosystem is related to land.
Example
Grassland ecosystem, forest ecosystem, desert ecosystem, etc.,
2. Aquatic ecosystem
This ecosystem is related to water. It is further sub classified into
two types based on salt content.
•Fresh water ecosystem
(i)Running water ecosystems.
Examples
Rivers, Streams
(b) Standing water ecosystems
Examples
Pond, lake
(ii) Marine ecosystem
Example :
Seas and sea shoresV.S.Saravana Mani, Head & AP /
Man – made (or) Artificial ecosystems
Artificial ecosystem is operated (or) maintained by
man himself.
Example
Croplands, gardens

STRUCTURE (or) COMPONENTS OF AN ECOSYSTEM
The term structure refers to the various components.
So the structure of an ecosystem explains the relationship
between the abiotic (non –living) and the biotic (living)
components.
An ecosystem has two major components

•Biotic (living) components
•Abiotic (non living) components

Biotic components
The living organisms (or) living members in an
ecosystem collectively form its community called biotic
components (or) biotic community.
Examples
•Plants (producers),
•animals (consumers),
•microorganisms (decomposers).

Members of components of an ecosystem (or)
Classification biotic components
The members of biotic components of an

ecosystem are grouped in to three based on how they
get food.
•Producer (plants)
•Consumer (Animals)
•Decomposers (Micro-organisms)

1.Procedures (Autotrophs)
Procedures synthesize their food themselves through
photosynthesis
Example :
All green plants, trees.
Photosynthesis
The green pigments called chlorophyll, present in the
leaves of plants, converts CO2 and H2O in the presence of
sunlight into carbohydrates.
6CO2 + 12H2O ----> C6H12O6 + 6O2+6H2O
This process is called photosynthesis
Consumers (heterotrophs)
Examples
Plant eating species
Insects, rabbit, goat, deer, cow, etc.,
Classification of consumers
Consumers are further classified as
(i) Primary consumers (Herbivores) (Plant eaters)
Primary consumers are also called herbivores, they directly
depend on the plants for their food. So they are called plant
eaters.
Examples :
Insects, rat, goat, deer, cow,
V.S.Saravana horse,
Mani, Head & APetc.,
/
(ii) Secondary consumers (primary carnivores) (meat eater)
Secondary consumers are primary carnivores, they feed
on primary consumers. They directly depend on the
herbivores for their food.
Example
Frog, cat, snakes, foxes, etc.,
(iii) Tertiary consumers (Secondary carnivores) (Meat-eaters)
Tertiary consumers are secondary carnivores, they feed
on secondary consumers. They depend on the primary
carnivores for their food.
Examples
Tigers, lions, etc., Chemistry, AEC Salem
3. Decomposers
Examples
Microorganisms like bacteria and fungi. Decomposers
attack the dead bodies of producers and consumers and
decompose them into simpler compounds. During the
decomposition inorganic nutrients are released.
The inorganic nutrients together with other organic
substances are then utilized by the procedures for the
synthesis of their own food.

Abiotic (non-living) components
The non-living components (physical and chemical) of
ecosystem collectively form a community called abiotic
components (or) abiotic community.
Examples
Climate, soil, water l air, energy, nutrients, etc.,
1. Physical components
They include the energy, climate, raw materials and
living space that the biological
community needs. They are useful for the growth and
maintenance of its member.
Examples
Air, water, soil, sunlight, etc.,
2. Chemical Components
They are the sources of essential nutrients
Examples
•Organic substances : Protein, lipids, carbohydrates, etc.,
•Inorganic substances: All micro (Al, Co, Zu, Cu) and macro
elements (C,H, O, P, N, P, K) and few other elements.

FUNCTION OF AN ECOSYSTEM
To understand clearly the nature of ecosystem its
functioning should be thoroughly understood.
The function of an ecosystem is to allow flow of
energy and cycling of nutrients.

Types of Functions
Functions of an ecosystem are of three types.
1. Primary function
The primary function of all ecosystem is
manufacture of starch (photosynthesis).
2. Secondary function
The secondary function of all ecosystem is
distribution energy in the form of food to all consumers.

Tertiary Function
All living systems diet at a particular stage. These dead
systems are decomposed to initiate third function of
ecosystems namely “cycling”.
The functioning of an ecosystems may be understood
studying the following terms.
•Energy and material flow.
•Food chains
•Food webs
•Food pyramids

ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEMS
Energy is the most essential requirement for all living
organism. Solar energy is the only source to our planet earth. Solar
energy is transformed to chemical energy in photosynthesis by the
plants (called as primary producers). Though a lot of sunlight falls on
the green plants, only 1% of it is utilized for photosynthesis. This is the
most essential step to provide energy for all other living organisms in
the ecosystem.
Some amount of chemical energy is used by the plants for
their growth and the remaining is transferred to consumers by the
process of eating.
Thus the energy enters the ecosystems through photosynthesis
and passes through the different tropic levels feeding levels.
Energy flow and Thermodynamics
The flow of energy through an ecosystem follows the two laws of thermodynamics.
1. I law of thermodynamics
not
It states chat “energy can be created nor destroyed, but it can be considered from one from to
another”.
Illustration
Energy for an ecosystems comes from the sum. It is absorbed by plants, herein it is converted
into stored chemical energy i.e., solar energy in converted into chemical energy.
2. II law of thermodynamics
Statement
It states that, “Whenever energy is transformed, there is a loss of energy through the
release of heat”.
Illustration
This occurs when energy is transferred between tropic levels. There will be a loss of
energy (about 80-90%) in the form of heat as it moves from one tropic level to another tropic
level. The loss of energy takes place through respiration, running, hunting etc.,
Relationship between structure and function (flow model)
From the above it is clear that, the biotic components
and abiotic components are linked together through energy
flow and nutrient cycling as shown in the following figure.

Nutrient Flow (OR) Nutrient Cycling (Or) Biogeochemical Cycle In The
Ecosystem
Nutrients
The elements, which are essential for the survival of both plants and
animals are called are called nutrients.
Macronutrients
The elements needed in large amounts are called macronutrients
Examples
Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, calcium, magnesium and phosphorus.
Micronutrients
The elements, needed in small amounts are called micronutrients.
Example
Boron, cobalt, strontium, zinc, copper
Nutrient Cycles
The cyclic flow of nutrients between the biotic and abiotic
components is known as nutrient cycle (or) biogeochemical cycles.
The nutrients enter into procedures and move through the
food chain and ultimately reach the consumer. The bound nutrients
of the consumers, after death, are decomposed and converted into
inorganic substances, which are readily used up by the plants
(procedures) and again the cycle starts.
The major nutrients like C, H, O and N are cycled again and
again between biotic and biotic component of the ecosystem.

Hydrological Cycle
Movement of water in a cyclic manner is known
as hydrological cycle.

Carbon cycle
Carbon is the basic component in all the organic components. The
carbon is present in
all biotic components in different forms as food.
Examples:
Carbohydrates, proteins, fats and amino acids. Carbon is present
in the atomosphere as CO2. The CO2 taken up by the green palnts as a
raw material for photosynthesis of different food. This food moves
through food chain, finally the carbon present in the dead matter is
returned to the atmosphere as CO2 by microorganisms.
Sources of CO2 in atmosphere
•During respiration, plants and animals liberates CO2 in the atmosphere.
•Combustion of fuels also release CO2.
•Volcanic eruptions also release CO2.Mani,
V.S.Saravana
Chemistry,
Head & AP /
AEC Salem
Nitrogen cycle
Nitrogen is present in the atmosphere as nN2 in large amounts (78%). The
nitrogen is present in all biotic components in different forms as food.
Examples
Proteins, vitamins, amino acids, etc.,
The N2 from the atmosphere is taken up by the green plants as a raw material
for biosynthesis of different foods (amino acids, proteins, vitamins) and used in
metabolism. These food move through the food chain. After death of the plants
and animals, the organic nitrogen in dead tissues in decomposed by several
micro organisms ammonifying and nitrifying bacteria) into ammonia, nitrites
and nitrates, which are again used by the plants. Some bacteria convert nitrates
into molecular nitrogen (N2) which is again released back into atmosphere and
the cycle goes on.

Nitrification
The conversion of ammonia into nitrates is termed as nitrification.
This is brought about by nitrifying bacteria.
Examples
Nitrobacter, Nitrosomonas.
Denitrification
The conversion of nitrates into nitrogen (N2) is termed
dentrification.
This process is brought about by centrifying bacteria.
Examples
Pseudomonas, flurescence.

Phosphorus cycle
Phosphorus is mainly present in the rocks and fossils. The
phosphorus is present in all biotic components in different forms.
Examples
Bones, teeths, guano deposits. Phosphate rocks is excavated by
man for using it as a fertilizers. Farmers use excess of fertilizers for the
crops. The excess phosphate fertilizers move with the surface run-off
reaches the oceans and are lost into the deep sediments. Sea birds eat
sea – fishes, which are phosphorus rich, and the excreta of the birds
return the phosphorus to the land. Thus the sea birds, are playing an
important role in phosphorus cycling animals and plants use these
dissolved phosphates during the biosynthesis.

ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION
In an area one community may be replaced by
another community or by a series of communities.
Thus the progressive replacement of one
community by another till the development of stable
community in a particular area is called ecological
succession.

Stages of ecological succession
1. Pioneer community
The first group of organism, which establish their
community in the area is called ‘Pioneer’ Community.
2. Seres (or) Seral stage

The various developmental stages of a community is
called ‘seres’.
Community
It is the age group of plants or animals living in an area

Types of ecological succession
Ecologists recognize two types of ecological succession,
used on the conditions present at the beginning of the process.
1. Primary succession
It involves the gradual establishment of biotic
communities on a lifeless ground.
a. Hydrarch (or) Hydrosere
Establishment starts in a watery area like pond and lake.
b. Xerarch or Xerosere
Establishment starts in a dry area like, desert and rock
2. Secondary succession
It involves the establishment of biotic communities in the
area, where some type of biotic community is already present.

Process of Ecological Succession
The process of ecological succession can be explained in the following steps.
1. Nudation
It is the development of a bare area without any life form
2. Invasion
It is the establishment of one or more species on a bare area through migration followed by
establishment.
Migration -Migration of seeds is brought about by wind, water or birds.
b. Establishment
The seeds then germinate and grow on the land and establishes their pioneer communities.
3. Competition
As the number of individual species grows, there is a competition with the same species and
between different species for space, water and nutrients.
4. Reaction
The living organisms take water, nutrients and grow and modify the environment is known as
reaction. This modification becomes unsuitable for the existing species and favour some new species,
which replace the existing species this leads to seral communities.
5. Stabilizations
It leads to stable community, whichV.S.Saravana
is in equilibrium with
Mani, Head the/ environment
& AP
FOOD CHAINS
Definition
“There sequence of eating and being eaten in an ecosystem is known as food
chain”
(or)
“Transfer of food energy from the plants through a series of organisms is
known as food chain”
When the organisms die, they are all decomposed by microorganism
(bacteria and fungi) into nutrients that can again be used by the plants. At
each and every transfer, nearly 80-90% of the potential energy gets lost as
heat. A food chain always starts with plant life and ends with animal.
Herbivores
Animal that eat only plants are called herbivores.
Carnivores
Animals that eat other animals are called carnivores.

Food chain in a pond
Food chain in a forest
Tropic Levels (T1,T2, T3, T4, T5) (or) Feeding levels
The various steps through which food energy passes in an
ecosystem is called as tropic levels.
The tropic levels are arranged in the following way as
Where ,
The green plants or producers represent first tropic level T1,
The herbivores or primary consumers represent second tropic level T2.
The carnivores or secondary consumers represent third tropic level T3.
The tertiary consumers are fourth tropic level T4.
Finally decomposers represent last tropic level T5
Types of food chain
Food chains are classified into two main types
1. Grazing food chain
2. Detritus food chain
1.Grazing food chain

Found in Grassland ecosystems and pond ecosystems. Grazing food chain
starts with green plants (primary procedures) and goes to decomposer food chain
or detritus food chain through herbivores and carnivores.
2.Detritus food chain

Found in Grassland ecosystems and forest ecosystems. Detritus food chain
starts with dead organic matter (plants and animals) and goes to decomposer food
chain through herbivores and carnivores.

Flow diagram
The following flow diagram of grazing food
chain and detritus food chain shows that they are
interconnected to each other but are not isolated.

FOOD WEB
Definition
The interlocking pattern of various food chains in an ecosystem
is known as food web. In a food web many food chains are
interconnected, where different types of organisms are connected at
different tropic levels, so that there is a number of opportunities of
eating and being eaten at each tropic level
Example
Grass may be eaten by insects, rats, deer's, etc., these may be eaten by
carnivores (snake, tiger).
Thus there is a interlocking of various food chains called food webs

Difference between food chains and food web
In a linear food chains if one species gets affected (or)
becomes extinct, then the species in the subsequent tropic levels are
also affected. But, in a food web, if one species gets affected, it doest
not affect other tropic levels so seriously.
There are number of options available at each tropic level.

Significance of food chains and food webs
1. Food chains and food webs play a very important role in the
ecosystem. Energy flow and nutrient
2. cycling takes place through them.
3. They maintain and regulate the population size of different
tropic levels, and thus help in maintaining ecological balance.
4. They have the property of bio-magnification. The non –
biodegradable materials keep on passing from one tropic level
to another. At each successive tropic level, the concentration
keep on increasing. This process is known as bio-magnification.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
Definition
“Graphical representation of structure and function of tropic levels
of an ecosystem, starting with producers at the bottom and each
successive tropic levels forming the apex is known as an ecological
pyramids.”
In food chain starting from the producers to the consumers,
there is a regular decrease in the properties
(ie.,, biomass and number of the organisms). Since some energy is
lost as heat in each tropic levels, it becomes progressively smaller
near the top.

Types of Ecological pyramids
1. Pyramid of numbers.
2. Pyramid of energy.
3. Pyramid of biomass.

Pyramids of Biomass
It represents the total amount of biomass (mass o weight
biological material or organism) present in each tropic levels.
A forest ecosystem
The above figure shows that there is a decrease in the biomass
from the lower tropic level to the higher tropic level. This
because the trees (producers) are maximum in the forest, which
contribute a huge biomass. The next tropic levels are herbivores
(insects, birds) and carnivores (snakes, foxes). top of the tropic
level contains few tertiary
consumers S and tigers), the biomass of which is very low.
It represents the number of individual organisms present ach tropic levels.
A grassland Ecosystem
Example
• The producers in the grasslands are grasses, which are in size and large
in numbers. So the producers occupy lower tropic level (1St tropic level).
The primary consumers (herbivores) •are rats, which the 11rid tropic level.
Since the number of rats are lower Compared to the grasses, the size of
which is lower.
The secondary consumers (carnivores) are snakes, which occupy the 1I1
tropic levels. Since the number of snakes are1 lower when compared to the
rats, the size of which is 1ower.The tertiary consumers (carnivores) are
eagles, which the next tropic level. The number and size .of the last

FOREST ECOSYSTEM
Introduction
A forest ecosystem is the one in which a tall and trees grow that support many
animals and birds. The forest are found in undisturbed areas receiving
moderate to hi rainfall. The forest occupies nearly 40%
of the world’s land area. In India it occupies only 19% of its total land area.
Types of forest ecosystem
Depending upon the climate conditions, forests can be classified into the
following types.
1. Tropical Rain forests.
2. Tropical deciduous forests.
3. Tropical scrub forests.
4. Temperate rain forests.
5. Temperate deciduous forests.
Features of different. types of Forests
1. Tropical Rain forests
They are foi.ind near the equator. They are characterized by high temperature. They
have broad leaf trees like teak and 1. and the animals like lion, tiger and monkey.
2. Tropical deciduous forests
They are found little away from the equator. They are characterized by a warm climate
and rain is only during monsoon. They have different types of deciduous trees like
maple, oak and hickary and animals like deer, fox, rabbit and rat.
3. Tropical Scrub forests
These are characterized by a dry climate for longer time. They small deciduous trees
and shrubs and animals like maple, oak and hickory and animals like deer, fox, etc.,
4. Temperate Rain Forests
They are found in temperate areas with adequate rainfall. They are characterized by
coniferous trees like pines, firs, red wood etc., and animals like, squirrels, fox, cats, bear
etc.,
5. Temperate deciduous forests
They are found in areas with moderate temperatures. have major trees
including broad leaf deciduous trees like oak, hickory and animals like
deer, fox, bear, etc.,
Characteristics of forest ecosystems

1. Forests are characterized by warm temperature and adequate rainfall,
which make the
2. generation of number of ponds, lakes etc.,
3. The forest maintains climate and rainfall.
4. The forest support many wild animals and protect biodiversity.
5. The soil is rich in organic matter and nutrients which support the
growth of trees.
6. Since penetration of light is so poor, the conversion of organic matter
into nutrients is very fast.

Structure and Function of forest ecosystem
I. Abiotic components
Climatic factors (temperature, light, rainfall) and minerals The abiotic

components are inorganic and inorganic and organic substances found in the soil
and atmosphere. In addition minerals, the occurrence of litter is characteristic
features, majority of forests.
II. Biotic components
1. Producers: The plants absorb sunlight and produce photosynthesis
Trees, shrubs and ground vegetation..

2. Consumers
(a) Primary consumers (herbivores) :They directly depend on the plants for
their food.
Example : Ants, flies, insects, mice, deer, squirrels.
b. Secondary consumers (primary carnivores):They directly depend on the

herbivores for their food
Examples: Snakes, birds, fox.
c. Tertiary consumers :They depend on the primary carnivores for their food
Examples : Animals, like tiger, lion, etc.,
3. Decomposers
Bacteria and fungi.
They decompose the dad plant and animal matter., of decomposition in
tropical and subtropical forests is in rapid
V.S.Saravana than
Mani, Head & APin
/ the temperate forests.
GRASSLAND ECOSYSTEM.
Introduction
Grassland occupies about 20% of earth’s surface addition to grass
species, some trees and shrubs are/also pre in grasslands. Limited
grazing helps to improve the net primary production of the grasslands.
But, overgrazing leads degradation of these grasslands resulting in
desertification
Types of grassland ecosystem
Depending upon the climate conditions grassland cal classified into
three types
1. Tropical grasslands.
2. Temperate grasslands.
3. Polar grasslands. V.S.Saravana Mani, Head & AP /
Features of different types of grassland
1. Tropical grasslands
They are found near the borders of tropical rain . forests. are characterized
by high temperature and moderate rainfall (40 to 100 cm). It is also
known as Savanna type. They ye tall grasses with scattered shrubs and
stunted trees and animals like zebras, giraffes, antelopes, etc.,
2. Temperate grasslands
They are usually found in the centers of continents, oil sloped hills.. They
are characterized by very cold winters and hot summers: Intense grazing
and summer fires, do not W shrubs or trees to grow.

3. Polar grasslands
They are found in arctic polar regions. They are characterized by
severe cold and strong winds along with ice and snow. In summers
several small annual plants grow. They ‘e animals like arctic wolf,
weasel, arctic fox, etc.,
Characteristics of Grassland Ecosystems

Grassland ecosystem is a plain land occupied by grasses. Soil is very
rich in nutrients and organic matter. Since it has tall grass, it is ideal
place for grazing animals. It is characterized by low or uneven rainfall.

Structure and function of the grassland Ecosystems
Nutrients, , H, 0, A, P, S, etc.,
These abiotic components are supplied by C02, H2, C, Nitrate, phosphates and
sulphates.
II. Biotic Components
1. Producers: They produce food.
Example :Grasses, forbs and shrubs.
2. Consumers:.
Primary consumers (herbivores) :They depend on grasses for their food
Examples: Cows, buffaloes, deer, sheep, etc.,
Secondary consumers (carnivores) :They feed on herbivores.
Examples: Snakes, lizards, birds, Jackals, fox, etc.,
Tertiary consumers: They feed on secondary consumers
Examples :Hawks, eagle, etc.,
3. Decomposers :They decompose the dead organic matter
Examples :Fungi and bacteria.
DESERT. ECOSYSTEMS
Introduction
Desert occupies about 35% of our world’s land area. It is
characterized by less than 25 cm rainfall. The atmosphere is dry and
hence it is a poor insulator .
Types of desert ecosystems

Based on the climatic conditions, deserts are classified three types.
1. Tropical deserts.
2. Temperate deserts.
3. Cold deserts.

Features of different types of deserts
1. Tropical deserts: Tropical deserts are found in
•Africa: Sahara desert.
•Rajasthan: Thar desert.
They are characterized by only few species. Wind blow sand dunes are
very common.
2. Temperate deserts
They are found in
South California: Majave.
They are characterized by very hot summer and very Winter time.
3. Cold deserts
They are found in -
China: Gobi desert.
They . are characterized byV.S.Saravana
cold winters and
Mani, Head & APwas
/ summers.
Characteristics of Desert ecosystem
The desert air is dry and the climate is hot. Annual rainfall is less
than 25 cm. The soil is very poor in nutrients and organic matter,
Vegetation is poor.
Structure and functions of the desert systems ecosystems

1. Abiotic Components
Examples : Temperature, rainfall, sunlight, water, etc.,
The temperature is very high and the rainfall is very low. The
nutrient cycling is also very low.

Procedures
Examples :Shrubs, bushes, some grasses and few trees .In deserts
mostly Succulent (e.g., cacti) plants are found available. They have water
inside them to stay alive. They have. r on the outside to protect them
from the sun.
Consumers
Examples :Squirrels, nice foxes, rabbits, deer and reptiles.
These animals dig holes in the ground to live in. They come out at night
to find food. Most of the animals can extract water from the seeds they
eat.
Decomposers
Examples : Fungi and bacteria
Desert has poor vegetation with a very low amount of dead
organic mater. They are decomposed by few fungi and bacteria.
AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS
The aquatic ecosystem deals with water bodies. The major types
of organism found in aquatic environments are determined by the
water’s salinity.
Types of aquatic life zone

Aquatic life zones are divided into two types.
•Fresh water life zones
Examples :Pounds, streams, lakes, rivers.
•Salt water life zones
Examples :Oceans, estuaries.

FRESH WATER ECOSYSTEM
POND ECOSYSTEMS
Introduction
A pond is a fresh water aquatic ecosystems, where water is stagnant. It
receives enough water during rainy season. It contains several types of algae,
aquatic plants, insects, fishes and birds.
Characteristics of pond
• Pond is temporary, only seasonal.
• It is a stagnant fresh water body.
• Ponds get polluted easily due to limited amount of water.

Structure and functions of pond ecosystems
Examples
Temperature, light, water and organic and inorganic compounds
• Producers
These include green photosynthetic organism. They are of two types.
• Phytoplankton
These are microscopic aquatic plants, which freely float on the surface of
water.
Example :Algae, small floating plants like volvox, pandorina anabaena,
consmarium.
Microphytes
Examples: Large floating plants and submerged plants like hydrilla,
Jussiaea, wolfia, demna. Chemistry, AEC Salem
Consumers
• Primary consumers (Zooplanktons): These are microscopic animals which
freely float on the surface of water. Zooplanktons are found along with
phytoplankton. They feed on plants (phytoplankton).
Examples :Protozoa, very small fish, ciliates, flagelaltes and protozoans.
• Secondary consumers (Carnivores):They feed on zooplankton
Examples :Insects like water beetles and small fish.
• Tertiary consumers :They feed on smaller fish
Examples :Large fish like game fish.
Decomposers: They decompose the dead plant and animal matter and their
nutrients are released and reused by the green plants.
Examples :Fungi, bacteria and flagellates

LAKE ECOSYSTEM
Lakes are large natural shallow water bodies. Lakes are used for
various purposes. Lakes are supplied with water from rainfall, melting snow
and streams.
Types of lakes
Some important types of lake are
• Oligotrophic lakes : They have low nutrient concentrations
• Eutrophic lakes : They are overnourished by nutrients like N and P
• Dystrophic lakes : They have low pH, high humic and content and
brown waters.
• Volcanic lakes : They receive water from magma after volcanic

Zones of Lake
Depending upon their depth and distance from the shore, likes
consists of four distinct zones.
1. Liftoai zones: It is the top layer of the Lake. It has a shallow water.
2. Lininetic zone: Next to the littoral zone is limnetic zone, where

effect penetration of solar. light takes place.
3. Préfundal zone: The deep open water, where it is too dark.
4. Benthic zone: This zone is found, at the bottom of the lake.

Characteristics of lake ecosystem
1. Lake is a shallow fresh water body;
2. It is a permanent water body with large Water resources.
3. It helps in irrigation and drinking.
Structure and function of lake ecosystem

Temperature, light, proteins and lipids, O2 CO2
II. Biotic Consumers
Producers: They are green plants, may. be submerged, free floating
ad amphibious plants.
Examples: Phytoplanktons, algae and flagellates.

2. Consumers
(a). Primary Consumers (Zooplanktons): They feed on
phytopankton
Examples: Cilictes, protozoans, etc.,
(b) Secondary consumers (carnivores) : They feed on zooplankton.
Examples: Insects and small fishes.
(c) Tertiary consumers: They feed on smaller fish
Examples: Large fishes like game fish.
3. Decomposers
They decompose the dead plants ad animals
Examples: Bacteria, fungi and aclinonrcetes.
.
RIVER (or) STREAM ECOSYSTEM
Introduction
The running water of a stream or a river is usually well
oxygenated, because it absorb’s oxygen from the air. The number of
animals are low in river or stream.
Characteristics of River or Stream.

• It is a fresh water, and free flowing water systems.
• Due to mixing of water, dissolved oxygen content is. more.
• River deposits large amount of nutrients.

Structure and function of River or Stream Ecosystem
Examples : River, Light, Temperature, Chemistry, Substrate
Producers: Phytoplankton, algae, water grasses, aquatic masses

other amphibious plants.
Consumers
(i) Primary consumers: They feed on phytoplankton.
Examples : Water insects, snails, fishes:
(ii) Secondary consumers: They feed on primary consumers

Examples : Birds
Decomposers: They decomposes the dead animals and plants.

Examples : Bacteria and fungi.
SALT WATER ECOSYSTEMS.
OCEAN (MARINE) ECOSYSTEMS
Introduction
Oceans cover more than two thirds of the earth’s surface. ocean
environment is characterized by its high concentration of salts and minerals.
It supplies huge variety of products and drugs. It also provides us iron,
magnesium, iron, natural gas.
Zones of Oceans
The oceans have two major life zones.
(a) Coastal zone: It is relatively warm, nutrient rich shallow water. It has
high primary productivity because of high nutrients and sunlight.
(b) Open sea: It is the deeper part of the ocean. It is vertically divided into
three regions.
(i) Euphotic zone: It receives abundant light and shows high
photosynthetic
(ii) Bathyal zone: It receives dim light and is usually geologically active.
(iii) Abyssal zone: It is the dark zone and is very deep (2000 to metres).

Characteristics of Ocean Ecosystem
1. It occupies a large surface area with saline water.
2. Since ship, submarines can sail in ocean, commercial activities
may be earned out.
3. It is rich in biodiversity.
4. It moderates the- temperature

Structure and function Ecosystems
Examples
Temperature, light, NaCl, K, Ca, and Mg Salts alkalinity
II. Biotic components

1. Producers :
Phytoplanktons (diatoms, unicellular algae, etc., ) and marine
plants (sea weeds, chlorophycela, phaeophyceae).

2. Consumers
These are heterotrophic macro consumers. They depend on
producers for their nutrition.
• Primary consumers (herbivores) :They feed on producers
Examples :Crustaceans, moiluscs, fish
• Secondary consumers (carnivores) : They feed on herbivores
Examples :Herring sahd, mackerel, etc.,
• Tertiary Consumers: They are the top consumers. They feed on small
Examples :Cod, Haddock, -etc.,
3.Decomposers: They decompose the dead organic matter.

Example s:Bacteria and some fungi.

ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
Introduction
An estuary is a partially enclosed coastal area at the’ mouth of a
river, where sea water mixes with freshwater. It is strongly affected by
tidal action. Estuaries are generally : abundant of nutrients. Estuaries
are useful to human beings due to their high food potential. It is
essential to protect the estuaries from pollution.
Characteristics of Estuarine ecosystem
1. Estuaries are transition zones, which are strongly affected by tides
of the sea.
2. Water characteristics are periodically changed.
3. The living organism in estuarine ecosystems have wide tolerance.
4. Salinity remains highest during the summer and lowest during the
winter. Chemistry, AEC Salem
Structure and function of Estuarine Ecosystem
I. Abiotic Components
Examples :Temperature, pH, sodium and potassium salts and
various nutrients.
•Producers
Examples :Marsh grasses, seaweeds , sea-grasses and
phytoplankton.
•Consumers
Examples :Oysters, crabs, seabirds, small fishes
•Decomposers
Examples :Bacterias, fungi and actenomycetous.

Introduction
The term Biodiversity was first coined by Walter G. Rosen in
1986.
The biosphere comprises of a complex collections of innumerable
organisms, known as the Biodiversity, which constitute the
vital life support for survival of human race.
Biological diversity, abbreviated as biodiversity, represent the sum
total of various life forms such as unicellular fungi, protozoa,
bacteria, and multi cellular organisms such as plants, fishes,
and mammals at various biological levels including gens,
habitats, and ecosystem .
Concept of Biodiversity & its Types
• Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth.
• For any kind of animal or plant – each
individual is not exactly the same as any other;
nor are species or ecosystems.
• Biodiversity is generally described at three
levels: genetic diversity, species diversity and
ecosystem diversity.
Types of Biodiversity
• There are three types of biodiversity:-
– Genetic Biodiversity
– Species Biodiversity
– Ecosystem Biodiversity
Genetic Biodiversity
Species Biodiversity
Ecosystem Biodiversity
Ecosystem or Habitat Biodiversity
• Ecosystem is the structural and the functional
unit of the biosphere.
• Ecosystem diversity is defined as,“ the
aggregation of various habitats, community types
and abiotic environment in a given area.”
• India has one of the biggest ecosystem diversity,
ranging from the deserts, plains, hills, mangroves,
rainforests to cold Himalayas.
Distribution of Biodiversity
• Biodiversity is not evenly distributed, rather it
varies greatly across the globe as well as
within regions.
• Terrestrial biodiversity is thought to be up to
25 times greater than ocean biodiversity.
• The study of the spatial distribution
of organisms, species and ecosystem, is the
science of biogeography.
AND THREATS TO IT….
Threats to Biodiversity
• Habitat Destruction- Important to protect habitat in order to
protect biodiversity within it. Huge pressure from the World’s rapidly
increasing population.
• Global Climate Change- Change in a biotic elements of ecosystems
leading to biotic change.
• Habitat Fragmentation- From human activity. Reduces ability of
habitat to support species.
• Pollution- Introduction of pollutants such as nutrient overloading with
nitrate fertilizer as well as more immediately harmful chemicals.
• Over-Exploitation- This includes the illegal wildlife trade as well as
overfishing, logging of tropical hardwoods etc.
• Alien Species- Introduced by humans to regions where there are no
natural predators.
• Disease- Reduction in habitat causing high population densities,
encourages spread of diseases.
Habitat loss
Habitat loss:-
Habitat loss can be described when an animal loses their

home. Every animal in the animal kingdom has a niche, a
their in their animal community and without their habitat
they no longer have a niche.
Reasons of habitat loss by humans:

~ agriculture, farming
~ harvesting natural resources for personal use
~ for industrial and urbanization development
Habitat destruction is currently ranked as the primary

causes of species extinction world wide…!!!
Example :
The impact upon china’s panda, ones found across
the nation. Now it’s only found in fragmented and
isolated regions in the south west of the country
as a result of wide spread deforestation in the
20th century.
There are natural causes too..

Habitat destruction through natural processes
such as volcanism, fire and climate change is
well documented in the fossil record. One
study shows that fragmentation of tropical
rainforest in euro 3000 million years ago lead
to a great loss of amphibian diversity.
Solutions on for this..
~ Protecting remaining intact section of natural habitat.
~ Reduce human population and expansion of urbanisation

and industries.
~ Educating the public about the importance of natural

habitat and bio diversity.
~Solutions to habitat loss can include planting trees, planting

home gardens so as to reduce need for man to need large lands
for agricultural farms which lead to habitat loss.
Poaching
• Poaching:-
• Poaching is the hunting and harvesting taking of
wild plants or animals, such as
through hunting, harvesting, fishing,
or trapping.
• History of poaching
• ~ Millions of years ago, in the Stone Age
• ~Followed through the ages, to even the
tribal natives
• ~but it was during the Late Middle Ages that
poaching became a punishable offense
• Why Poaching is done???
• ~ Poaching is done for large profits gained by
the illegal sale or trade of animal parts,
meat and pelts.
• ~ Exists because there is a demand for
these products, caused by a lack of
education or disregard for the law amongst
the buyers.
• ~ Many cultures believe that certain animal
parts have medicinal value.
Poaching is not limited to animals
its also for plants too…………!
Three of the most often poached species in the park

are galax, black cohosh, and ginseng.
GALAX BLACK COHOSH GINSENG

• How does poaching affect the
environment?
• ~Poaching or illegal hunting causes animals
endangered of being extinct. If more
animals becomes extinct there's
a disruption in the food chain, and that will
cause major problems in our ecosystem,
resulting eventually in new adaptations of
animals, and or species beyond human
control.
• ~Poaching results in animals being hunted
too soon for them to have time to
reproduce and repopulate.
Recent Issue on Biodiversity
• Some 75% of the genetic diversity of crop plants been
lost in the past century.
• Some scientists estimate that as many as 3 species per
hour are going extinct and 20,000 extinctions occur
each year.
• Roughly one-third of the world’s coral reef systems
have been destroyed or highly degraded.
• About 24% of mammals and 12% of bird species are
currently considered to be globally threatened.
• More than 50%of the world’s wetlands have been
drained, and populations of inland water and wetland
species have declined by 50% between 1970 and 1999.
Conservation of Biodiversity
• Restoration of Biodiversity
• Imparting Environmental Education
• Enacting, strengthening and enforcing
Environmental Legislation
• Population Control
• Reviewing the agriculture practice
• Controlling Urbanization
• Conservation through Biotechnology
Biodiversity in India
Categories No. of Indian % of Indian Species Species Threatened
Species Evaluated in India
Mammals 386 59 41%
Birds 1219 - 7%
Reptiles 495 73 46%
Amphibians 207 79 57%
Freshwater Fish 700 46 70%

The Ten Biography Regions of India
• The Trans-Himalayan
• The Himalayan
• The Indian Desert
• Semi-arid Zone
• Western Ghats
• Deccan Peninsula
• The Gangetic Plain
• North East India
• The Islands
• The Coasts
• India figured with two hotspots- The Western
Ghats & The Eastern Himalayas in an
identification of 25 of the world’s biological
richest and most threatened ecosystem
• These two hotspots that extends to India are
– The western Ghats/Sri Lanka
– The Indo-Burma region ( covering the Eastern
Himalayas)
• And they are included amongst the top eight
most important hotspots.
• The are the areas with higher concentration of
endemic species and which usually experience
rapid rate of habitat modification and loss.
Western Ghats
• Western Ghats faced with
tremendous population
pressure the forests of western
Ghats and Sri lanka have been
dramatically impacted by
demands for agriculture and
Timber.
• The region is home to rich
endemic assemblage of plants,
reptiles and amphibians as well
as elephants, tiger and
endangered lion tailed
Macaque.
The Eastern Himalayas
• Himalayas is the home to world’s highest mountains,

including Mt. Everest. Abrupt rise in rise of mountains
results in diversity of ecosystems that range from
alluvial grasslands and subtropical broad leaved forests
to alpine meadows above the tree line. It’s a home to
variety of large birds, mammals including tiger,
elephants, rhinos and wild water buffaloes.
Biodiversity in Maharashtra
• Flora of Maharashtra is heterogeneous in
composition.
• In 2012 the recorded thick forest area in the state
was 61,939 km2(23,915 sq mi) which was about
20.13% of the state's geographical area.
• There are three main Public Forestry Institutions
(PFIs) in the Maharashtra state: the Maharashtra
Forest Department (MFD), the Forest
Development Corporation of Maharashtra
(FDCM) and the Directorate of Social Forestry
(SFD).
Convention on biodiversity
• The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD),
known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is
a multilateral treaty. The Convention has three main
goals:
– conservation of biological diversity
(or biodiversity);
– sustainable use of its components; and
– fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising
from genetic resources
Conclusion
• Biodiversity is a concept that has no general
definition. Usually it is used in a context that
stresses the need for attention on our living
environment and the sustainable use of
natural resources.
• Biodiversity can be divided in different types
such as habitat, species and genetic diversity.
• The integrated approach used in coastal zone
management is an adequate method in
dealing with the matter of biodiversity.
Unit 5: Environmental Pollution
• Environmental pollution: types, causes, effects

and controls; Air, water, soil and noise pollution
• Nuclear hazards and human health risks
• Solid waste management: Control measures of
urban and industrial waste.
• Pollution case studies.
POLLUTION
Definition
Pollution is an undesirable change in
physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of our land, air or water
caused by excessive accumulation of
pollutants (i.e. Substances which cause
pollution).
KINDS OF POLLUTION
The pollution is of four major types namely
air pollution, water pollution, land
pollution and noise pollution.
In terms of origin it may be natural or

anthropogenic (man-made).
AIR POLLUTION
Degradation of air quality and natural
atmospheric condition constitute air
pollution. The air pollutant may be a gas or
particulate matter.
Air pollutants and their effects
Particulate matter – it comprises of small
suspended particles such as soot, dust, pesticides,
etc., and biological agents such as spores, pollen
and dust mites. It causes respiratory ailments such
as asthma, chronic bronchitis, etc.,
Carbon monoxide – is a product of incomplete

combustion of fossil fuels in automobiles. It is
highly poisonous to most animals. When inhaled,
carbon monoxide reduces the oxygen carrying
capacity of blood.
Air pollutants and their effects
Hydrocarbons – hydrocarbons such as methane,

are evolved from soil microbes (methanogens) in
flooded rice fields and swamps. They are also
generated during the burning of coal and petroleum
products.
Sulphur dioxide – is released from oil refineries

and ore smelters which use the sulphur containing
fuels. It causes harmful effects on plants and animals.
It causes chlorosis (loss of chlorophyll) and necrosis
(localised death of tissues). In human, it causes health
problems such as asthma, bronchitis and emphysema.
Nitrogen oxides – It causes reddish brown haze

(brown air) in traffic congested city air which
contributes to heart and lung problems.
Secondary effects of air pollution
Photochemical smog – Smog is a mixture of
smoke and fog. It is formed in the atmosphere
under the influence of sunlight by the
photochemical reactions of hydrocarbons, oxides
of nitrogen and oxygen, resulting in the formation
of PAN (Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate).
PAN damages the chlorophyll and thus reduces

photosynthesis and growth. It also causes acute
irritation of eyes and throat. Visibility of the
surrounding is reduced due to smog.
Acid rain – gases such as Sulphur di oxide and

Nitrogen oxides are oxidized to form sulphuric and
nitric acids along with water, and precipitate as
acid rain. It damages building materials, plants and
animals. It also makes the soil acidic.
Control of air pollution
1. The particulates emitted by industries should
be controlled by devices such as scrubbers,
precipitators and filters.
2. Use of unleaded or low sulphur fuel is to be
encouraged.
3. Shifting to non-conventional sources of
energy (e.g solar energy, hydel energy, tidal
energy, etc.,) in order to reduce the
dependance of conventional sources.
4. Smoking in public places should be
prohibited, because the cigarette smoke
contains carcinogens such as benzopyrene.
An average smoker runs the risk of
developing heart and lung diseases.
5. Planting of trees along the road sides and
around industrial areas.
WATER POLLUTION
Water pollution is defined as the
adding of unwanted substances or
the change of physical and
chemical characteristics of water in
any way which makes it unfit for
human consumption.
It is caused by waste products of

industries (effluents), domestic
sewage, oil spillage, agricultural
and industrial run off etc.,
Sources and effects of water pollution
Industrial wastes –The industrial
effluents containing heavy metals
and chemicals such as arsenic,
cadmium, copper, chromium,
mercury, zinc, nickel, etc,. are
directly released into the water
bodies such as lakes, ponds and
rivers without proper treatment.
These wastes contaminate the water

bodies and make them unsuitable
for human consumption.
Hot water is another noted pollutant

from industries.
Sources and effects of water pollution..
1. Many industries use water as a coolant
for the machinery and release of hot
waste water into the water bodies
causing thermal pollution which affect
both the plant and animal life.
2. The surface run off - the surface run off

from agricultural land is contaminated
with pesticides and residues of inorganic
fertilizers.
3. The run off from urban and industrial

are rich in organic and inorganic
compounds. These pollutants
contaminate both surface and ground
water resources.
Sources and effects of water pollution...
4. Oil spills – An oil spill is an accidental
discharge of petroleum products in oceans
and estuaries from capsized oil tankers,
offshore drilling and exploration operations.
It can cause drastic damage to the marine
and coastal bio diversity.
5. Domestic Sewage – It is rich in organic
matter and detergents. Decomposition of
organic matter increases the nutrient
content of the water bodies.
6. Availability of excess nutrients results in
algal bloom on the surface of water
resulting in the deficiency of oxygen content
(BOD – Biological Oxygen Demand). This in
turn leads to the death of aquatic
organisms. This process is known as
Eutrophication.
Control of water pollution
1. Sewage treatment plants should be
installed to treat sewage before
releasing into water bodies.
2. Excessive use of pesticides, herbicides
and fertilizers should be avoided.
3. Biological control of insect pests and
organic farming is to be followed in
order to reduce the dependence on
pesticides and inorganic fertilizers.
4. By legislation and strict enforcement.
5. By creating social awareness among
people about the water pollution and
the need for pure water.
SOIL POLLUTION
Soil pollution is the
unfavorable alteration of soil
by the addition or removal of
substances which decrease
soil productivity and ground
water quality.
It usually results from

different human activities like
dumping of waste, use of agro
chemicals, mining operations
and urbanization.
SOIL POLLUTION : Causes and effects
• The industrial solid waste and sludge
contain toxic organic and inorganic
compounds as well as heavy metals.
• The radio active waste from nuclear power
plants and nuclear explosions also
contaminate the soil.
• Fly ash contains fine particulates which are
released from thermal power plants. It
settle on the ground and cause pollution.
• The domestic waste is rich in organic
matter and undergo decomposition.
• The hospital waste contains a variety of
pathogens that can seriously affect human
health.
SOIL POLLUTION : Causes and effects
Agricultural chemicals such as
pesticides, insecticides and
inorganic fertilizers may pollute
drinking water and can change
the chemical properties of the
soil adversely affecting the soil
organisms.
CONTROL OF SOIL POLLUTION
• Management of soil wastes include
collection and categorization of wastes.
Recovery of resources like scrap metals,
plastics, etc., for recycling and reuse and
safe disposal with a minimum
environmental hazards is to be followed.
• Other notable methods of waste disposal
include incineration (burning in the
presence of oxygen) and pyrolysis
(burning in the absence of oxygen).
• Afforestation and reforestation should be
undertaken on a large scale to prevent
soil erosion and loss of soil nutrients.
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION
The emission of protons, electrons
and electromagnetic radiations
released by the disintegration of
radioactive substances such as
radium, thorium, uranium, etc,. cause
air, water and land pollution.
Effects :-
• The ionising radiations can cause
mutations.
• Strontium-90 accumulates in bones
causing bone cancer.
• Iodine-131 can damage bone
marrow, spleen, lymph nodes and
can cause leukemia (blood cancer).
RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION: PREVENTIVE MEASURES
• Care should be taken to prevent
the leakage of radioactive
substances from nuclear
reactors.
• Radioactive wastes should be
disposed off safely.
• Strict measures should be
followed in the construction
and maintenance of nuclear
power plants to prevent nuclear
accidents.
• Control or prevention of nuclear
tests.
NOISE POLLUTION
• Noise may be defined as an
unwanted and unpleasant
sound that may have
adverse effects on animals
and humans.
• The unit of sound level is

decibels (db).
• Noise level above 120 db is

considered harmful to
human beings.
NOISE POLLUTION..
Sources
• The different sources associated with
noise pollution are industrial machinery,
road, rail and air transport,
loudspeakers, construction equipments,
household appliances, crackers, etc,.
Effects
• Noise seriously affects heartbeat,
breathing, and can cause constriction of
blood vessels.
• It can cause headache, sleeplessness,
irritability and may seriously affect the
productive performance of human.
NOISE POLLUTION…
• Loud noises (above 130 db) can cause damage to the
ear drum, hair cells of cochlea (organ of hearing) and
thereby resulting in temperory or permanent loss of
hearing.
• It can also seriously affect the concentration of students
while learning.
NOISE POLLUTION: Control measures
• The industries should be established
away from residential areas.
• Trees should be planted along roadside
or highways to reduce noise levels.
• The industrial machinery and motor
vehicles should be properly maintained
in order to minimize the noise.
• The use of loudspeakers and bursting
of crackers should be restricted.
• Effort must be made to create
awareness among people about the
harmful effects of noise and the need
to control it.
Waste Generation in India
• India produces 55 million tons of municipal solid waste annually at
present.
• Per capita generation of waste varies from 200 gm to 600 gm per
capita / day.
• Average generation rate at 0.4 kg per capita per day in towns.
• Collection efficiency ranges between 50% to 90% of the solid waste
are generated.
WHAT IS SOLID WASTE?
• Solid or semi-solid material (including
WASTE is a any material,
gases and liquids in containers) which Thrown away” regarded as
are non soluble in nature are solid useless and unwanted
waste. (at a certain time and place)
• Solid waste includes agricultural

refuse, demolition waste, industrial
waste, mining residues, municipal
garbage, sewage sludge, etc.
Bio-degradable: can be degraded

paper, wood, fruits and others)
Non-biodegradable: cannot be
degraded plastics, bottles, old-
machines, containers and others)
TYPES OF SOLID WASTE
• Solid waste can be classified into different
types depending on their source:
• Household waste or municipal waste:
includes food, paper, cardboard, plastic,
textiles, leather, glass, metal, ashes,
electronics waste etc.
• Industrial waste: includes toxic chemicals,
oil, debris from construction site,
packaging waste, ashes etc.
• Biomedical waste or hospital waste:
medicine bottles, expired medicines,
syringes, medical instruments such as
scissors, blades etc.
TYPES OF SOLID WASTE
Agricultural waste: includes pesticides,
crops, water coming from the fields also
consists of small amount of toxic chemicals.
Nuclear waste: includes radioactive
substances coming from reactors, fuel
(uranium, thorium, plutonium etc). Its
highly dangerous and requires proper
disposal.
Hazardous waste: includes toxic chemical,
acids, corrosive, ignitable and reactive
materials, gases etc.
SOLID WASTE COMPOSITION
MAGNITUDE OF PROBLEM
• Per capita waste generation
increasing by 1.3% per annum
• With urban population increasing
between 3 – 3.5% per annum
• Yearly increase in waste generation is
around 5% annually India produces
42.0 million tons of municipal solid
waste annually at present.
• Per capita generation of waste varies
from 200 gm to 600 gm per capita /
day.
• Collection efficiency ranges between
50% to 90% of the solid waste
generated.
Municipal Solid Waste in India
• 30% - 55% Compostable / Bio-
degradable Matter
(can be converted into manure)
• 40% - 45% Inert material

(to go to landfill)
• 5% - 10% Recyclable materials

(Recycling)
• These percentages vary from

city to city depending on food
habits
New Delhi:
Capital of India
HOSPITAL WASTES
Non Infectious Infectious
Biodegradable Non Biodegradable Non Sharps Sharps
Solids Liquids
Incinerable Non Incinerable

(Autoclave, Microwave)
COLOUR CODING
COLOUR TYPE OF WASTE TREATMENT OPTIONS

CODING CONTAINER CATEGORY as per Schedule I
Yellow Plastic Bag Cat.. 1, 2, 3 Incineration / deep
and 6 burial
Red Disinfected Cat. 3, 6, and 7 Autoclaving /
container / Microwaving / Chemical
Plastic Bag Treatment
Blue / White Plastic Bag / Cat. 4, Cat. 7 Autoclaving /
Translucent puncture proof Microwaving / Chemical
container treatment and
destruction shredding
Black Plastic Bag Cat. 5, 9 and Disposal in secured
10 (Solid) landfill
E-waste
• E-waste comprises of
waste electronics
goods which are not fit
for their originally
intended use.
• Such electronics goods

may be television,
telephones, radios,
computers, printers,
fax machines, DVDs
and CDs etc.
33
TOXIC CHEMICALS IN E-WASTE
• Lead – Affects Central and
Peripheral Nervous system, Kidney
Damage, Inhibits oxygen carrying
capacity of blood
• Cadmium – Toxic, stores in Kidney,
Neural damage
• Mercury – Chronic damage to brain,
Respiratory and skin disorders
• Chromium – DNA disorders, Asthma
• Barium – Muscle weakness, kidney
damage
• Beryllium – Lung cancer,
beryllicosis, skin diseases
• PVC – Hormonal problems,
Reproductive issues
• Massive awareness to consumers
• Setting up of more collection centers and collection points
• Manufactures responsibility to provide good standard materials and
assurance for recycling
• Fair Trade principles
• More recycling units by providing subsidized financial supports
• Proper training to Workers dealing recycling units
• Ban on importing e-waste from other countries
• Proper monitoring and evaluation system by the regulators in all levels
• Sell or dump of e-waste only to government authorized recyclers
• Green and energy efficient devices by the manufactures
• Donate used electronics to charitable organizations
• Recovery of valuable metals like Cu, Al, Au, and Ag through recycling
• Use of available best strategies
Methods of Waste Disposal
• Landfills
• Incineration
• Source reduction
• Composting
• Recycling
Land filling
• Most municipal solid waste in
India is deposited in landfills
• It is the most traditional method
of waste disposal
• Source of groundwater pollution
• Waste is directly dumped into
disused quarries, mining voids or
borrow pits.
• It is generally used for domestic waste
Incineration
l Prior to 1940, incineration was common in North America
and western Europe.
l Many incinerators were eliminated because of foul odors
and gritty smoke
l Currently, about 15% of municipal solid waste is
incinerated.
Incineration
Pros: Cons:
– Reduce volume 90%, • Create air pollution
weight 75% • Concentrates toxins in ash
– Heat from burning • More costly than landfills,
converted to electricity as long as space available
Composting
• Harnessing natural decomposition to
transform organic material into compost
• Materials such as plants, food scraps, and

paper products can be decomposed into
the organic matter.
• The organic matter that is produced from

recycling can be agricultural uses.
• Usually this method of recycling is done by

putting the materials in a container and let
to stay there until it decomposes.
OCEAN DUMPING
• Ocean dumping is the dumping or
placing of materials in the ocean,
often on the continental shelf.
• A wide range of materials is
involved, including carbage
construction and demolition debris,
sewage sludge, dredge material,
waste chemicals, and nuclear
waste.
• Sometime hazardous and nuclear
waste are also disposed but these
are highly dangerous for aquatic life
and human life also.
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Convenient • There are three main direct public
• Inexpensive health risks from ocean dumping:
• Source of nutrients for • Occupational accidents, injuries
fishes and marine and exposures
mammals. • exposure of the public to
• Vast amount of space is hazardous or toxic materials
available. washed up on beach sand.
• All type of wastes are • human consumption of marine
disposed. organisms that have been
contaminated by ocean disposal.
• Highly dangerous for aquatic life.
Recycling
• It is basically processing or
conversion of a waste item into
usable forms.
• Recyclable materials include
many kinds of glass, paper, metal,
plastic, textiles, and electronics.
• But recycling is not a solution to
managing every kind of waste
material.
• For many items like plastic bags,
plastic wrap, yogurt cups,
margarine container etc.
recycling technologies are
unavailable or unsafe.
Recycling
Benefits
l Saves money, raw materials, and
land.
l Encourages individual responsibility.
l Reduces pressure on disposal

systems.
l Japan recycles about half of all

household and commercial wastes.
l Lowers demand for raw resources.
l Reduces energy consumption and

air pollution.
Recycling Benefits, Incentives
• Recycling saves money, energy,
raw materials, and land space,
while also reducing pollution.
• Recycling encourages individual
awareness and responsibility.
• Japan - probably the most
successful recycling program in the
world
• Creating incentives for recycling -
public policies, consumer demand
• Some make a living by gathering
up recyclables!!
Radioactive Organic Inorganic
contaminants contaminants metal contaminants
Poplar tree Brake fern
Sunflower Willow tree Indian mustard
Landfill
Polluted Oil
groundwater spill
in Polluted
Soil Decontaminated leachate Soil
water out Groundwater
Groundwater
Rhizofiltration Phytodegradation Phytoextraction
Roots of plants such as Plants such as poplars Roots of plants such as Indian
Phytostabilization can absorb toxic organic mustard and brake ferns can
sunflowers with dangling Plants such as willow
roots on ponds or in green- chemicals and break absorb toxic metals such as
trees and poplars can
houses can absorb pollutants absorb chemicals and them down into less lead, arsenic, and others and
such as radioactive strontium- keep them from harmful compounds store them in their leaves.
90 and cesium-137 and various reaching groundwater which they store or Plants can then be recycled
organic chemicals. or nearby surface release slowly into the air. or harvested and incinerated.
water.
MAIN ISSUES
• ABSENCE OF SEGREGATION OF WASTE AT SOURCE
• LACK OF TECHNICAL EXPERTISE AND

APPROPRIATE INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENT
• UNWILLINGNESS TO INTRODUCE PROPER

COLLECTION, SEGREGATION, TRANSPORTATION
AND TREATMENT / DISPOSAL SYSTEMS
• INDIFFERENT ATTITUDE OF CITIZENS TOWARDS

WASTE MANAGEMENT DUE TO LACK OF AWARENESS
• LACK OF COMMUNITY PARTICIPATION TOWARDS

WASTE MANAGEMENT AND HYGIENIC CONDITIONS
ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
❑ Environmental Pollution can be defined as any undesirable

change in physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of any
component of the environment i.e. air, water, soil which can cause
harmful effects on various forms of life or property.
❑ Pollution: The term pollution can be defined as influence of any

substance causing nuisance, harmful effects, and uneasiness to
the organisms
❑ Pollutant:- Any substance causing Nuisance or harmful effects or

uneasiness to the organisms, then that particular substance may
be called as the pollutant.
TYPES OF POLLUTION
➢ WATER POLLUTION
➢ AIR POLLUTION
➢ LAND POLLUTION
➢ NOISE POLLUTION
WATER POLLUTION
❖ Water Pollution can be defined as alteration in
physical, chemical, or biological characteristics of
water through natural or human activities and
making it unsuitable for its designated use.
❖ Fresh Water present on the earth surface is put to

many uses. It is used for drinking, domestic and
municipal
uses, agricultural, irrigation, industries, navigatio
n, recreation. The used water becomes
contaminated and is called waste water.
SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION
❑ Most of Water Pollution is man made It may also occur
naturally by addition of soil particles through erosion animal
wastes and leaching of minerals from rocks
❑ The sources of water pollution can be classified as

 Municipal Waste Water
 Industrial Waste
 Inorganic Pollutants
 Organic Pollutants
 Agricultural Wastes
 Marine Pollution
 Thermal pollution
MUNICIPAL WASTE WATER
INDUSTRIAL WASTE
The major source of water pollution is

the waste water discharged from
industries and commercial bodies, these
industries are
chemical, metallurgical, food processing
industries, textile, paper industries. They
discharge several organic and inorganic
pollutants. That prove highly toxic to
living beings.
INDUSTRIAL WASTE
INORGANIC POLLUTANTS
 They include fine particles of different metals, chlorides,
sulphates, oxides of iron, cadmium, acids and alkalies.
ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
 They Include oils, fats, phenols, organic acids grease and

several other organic compounds
AGRICULTURAL WASTES
 Chemical fertilizers and pesticides have
become essential for present day high
yielding crops.
 Consequently , they have become a

potential source of water pollution.
These fertilizers contain major plants
nutrients mainly
nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium.
 Excess fertilizers may reach the ground

water by leaching or may be mixed with
surface water of rivers, lakes and ponds
by runoff and drainage.
MARINE POLLUTION
 Ocean are the final sink of all natural and manmade
pollutants. Rivers discharge their pollutants into the sea.
The sewage and garbage of costal cities are also dumped
into the sea. The other sources include, discharge of oils,
grease, detergents, and radioactive wastes from ships.
THERMAL POLLUTION
 Thermal Pollution of water is caused by the rise in
temperature of water. The main source of thermal pollution
are the thermal and nuclear power plants. The power
generating plants use water as coolants and release hot
water into the original source. Sudden rise in temperature
kills fish and other aquatic animals.
AIR POLLUTION
❖ Air pollution is the introduction of
chemicals, particulate matter, or biological
materials that cause harm or discomfort to humans
or other living organisms, or cause damage to the
natural environment or built environment, into the
atmosphere.
❖ A substance in the air that can cause harm to

humans and the environment is known as an air
pollutant.
CAUSES OF AIR POLLUTION
✓ Carbon dioxide-this happens because of
Deforestation and fossil fuel burning.
✓ Sulfur dioxide –Due to the burning of sulfur

containing compounds of fossil fuels.
✓ Sulfur oxides- very dangerous to humans at a

high concentration. Sulfur in the atmosphere
is responsible for acid rain.
CONSEQUENCES OF AIR POLLUTION
➢ CO2 is a good transmitter of sunlight, but it also

partially restricts infrared radiation going back
from the earth into space, which produces the so-
called greenhouse effect that prevents a drastic
cooling of the Earth during the night.
➢ CO2 in atmosphere --> GLOBAL WARMING

LAND POLLUTION
➢ Land pollution is the demolition of Earth's land
surfaces often caused by human activities and
their misuse of land resources. It occurs when
waste is not disposed properly.
➢ Urbanization and industrialization are major

causes of land pollution.
CAUSES OF LAND POLLUTION
❑ Four Main causes of land pollution:
▪ Construction
▪ Agriculture
▪ Domestic waste
▪ Industrial Waste
CONSTRUCTION
❑ Buildings take up resources and land, the trees are
chopped down and used to make buildings.
❑ Takes away the places for animals and other
organisms to live.
AGRICULTURE
❑ As there are more and more people inhabiting the
earth, food is in higher demand and so forests are
chopped down and turned into farmland
❑ In addition, herbicides, pesticides, artificial

fertilizers, animal manure are washed into the
soil and pollute it.
DOMESTIC WASTE
❑ Tons of domestic waste is dumped every day. Some waste
from homes, offices and industries can be recycled or
burnt in incinerators .
❑ There is still a lot of garbage, such as refrigerators and

washing machines that are dumped in landfills simply
because they cannot be reused in anyway, nor recycled .
INDUSTRIAL WASTE
❑ Plastics factories, chemical plants, oil
refineries, nuclear waste disposal activity, large
animal farms, coal-fired power plants, metals
production factories and other heavy industry all
contribute to land pollution.
NOISE POLLUTION
❑ Noise pollution is excessive, displeasing
human, animal, or machine-created environmental
noise that disrupts the activity or balance of human
or animal life.
❑ Sound becomes undesirable when it disturbs the

normal activities such as working, sleeping, and
during conversations.
❑ World Health Organization stated that “Noise must

be recognized as a major threat to human well-
being”
SOURCES OF NOISE POLLUTION
❑ Transportation systems are the main source of noise
pollution in urban areas.
❑ Construction of buildings, highways, and streets cause a lot

of noise, due to the usage of air compressors, bulldozers,
loaders, dump trucks, and pavement breakers.
❑ Industrial noise also adds to the already unfavorable

state of noise pollution.
❑ Loud speakers, plumbing, boilers, generators, air

conditioners, fans, and vacuum cleaners add to the existing
noise pollution.
EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION
❑ According to the USEPA, there are direct links between
noise and health. Also, noise pollution adversely affects the
lives of millions of people.
❑ Noise pollution can damage physiological and

psychological health.
❑ High blood pressure, stress related illness, sleep disruption,

hearing loss, and productivity loss are the problems related
to noise pollution.
❑ It can also cause memory loss, severe depression, and panic

attacks.
SOLUTIONS FOR NOISE POLLUTION
❑ Planting bushes and trees in and around sound
generating sources is an effective solution for noise
pollution.
❑ Regular servicing and tuning of automobiles can

effectively reduce the noise pollution
❑ Social awareness programs should be taken up to educate

the public about the causes and effects of noise pollution.
❑ Workers should be provided with equipments such as ear

plugs and earmuffs for hearing protection.
❑ Similar to automobiles, lubrication of the machinery
and servicing should be done to minimize noise
generation.
❑ Soundproof doors and windows can be installed to

block unwanted noise from outside.
❑ Regulations should be imposed to restrict the usage

of play loudspeakers in crowded areas and public
places.
❑ Factories and industries should be located far from

the residential areas.
WAYS TO STOP POLLUTION
❑ We believe that it is the responsible thing to do to
increase recycling.
❑ It is just like doing laundry and separating blacks

and colors.
❑ The residents of the country should also try and do

their part and put in at least one day of litter picking
up.
GLOBAL WARMING AND THE
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN GLOBAL
WARMING AND THE GREENHOUSE
EFFECT
❖Global warming refers to a rise in the
temperature of the surface of the earth.
❖The Greenhouse Effect is a process by which

thermal radiation from a planetary surface is
absorbed by atmospheric greenhouse gases,
and is re-radiated in all directions.
SOME PROOF OF GLOBAL WARMING
PORTAGE GLACIER ALASKA PORTAGE GLACIER ALASKA
NOW….
THEN….
COLORADO RIVER, AS OF COLORADO RIVER, AS OF
JUNE 2002 DECEMBER 2003
THANK YOU
Concept of Ecosystem

 There are many supporting systems like Forests, oceans,
grasslands, deserts which have structural components
and functions.
 They all have living organisms interacting with their
surroundings exchanging matter and energy.
 The word Ecology was coined by Earnest Haeckel in
1869 from Greek Words:
Oikos (Home) + Logos(study)
 So ecology is study of organisms in their natural home
interacting with the biotic and abiotic components
(Surroundings)
1
What is Ecosystem???

An Ecosystem is a self regulating group of
biotic communities of species interacting
with one another with their non-living
environment exchanging energy and matter.
Therefore Ecology can be termed as---

“Study Of Ecosystems”
2
Continue…..

Ecosystem is a unit or a system which is
composed of no. of sub-units
They may exchange energy & matter from
outside – is an Open Ecosystem; or isolated
from outside in a closed one.
The Closed once are generally artificial. Eg.
Biosphere2, in Oracle, Arizona
Life on earth is sustained by the flow of
energy from sun & cycling of nutrients
3
Characteristics of an Ecosystem

 Structure of ecosystem
 Biotic Structure
 Abiotic Structure
 Functions of Ecosystem
 Trophic Structure
 Food Chains
 Food Web
 Ecological Pyramids
 Energy Flow
 Nutrient Flow
 Ecological Succession
 Types of Ecosystems
4
Structure of Ecosystems
5
Biotic Components

A) Producers- they produce their own food either by
process of Photosynthesis or by Chemical Process
 Plants produce food by Photosynthesis(using sun,
CO2 and water) in presence of Chlorophyll. Thus
they are also called as Autotrophs
 There are some micro-organisms which produce
organic matter to some extent by oxidation of certain
chemicals in absence of sunlight. They are called as
Chemosynthetic or Chemotrophs
6
Biotic Components

B) Consumers :All organisms which get their food by
feeding on other organisms are called as Consumers
 Herbivores- Feed on producers (plant eaters)also called as
Primary Consumers
 Carnivores- Feed on other consumers
 If they feed on Herbivores- Secondary Consumers – eg frog
 If they feed on Carnivores – tertiary Carnivores/ Consumers- eg.
Snake, Big Fish
 Omnivores- They feed on plants and animals- Man, many
birds, fox
 Detrivores- They feed on parts of dead organisms, wastes
of living organisms. Also known as Saprotrophs or
Detritus feeders
7
Biotic Components

C) Decomposers
They derive energy by breaking down complex
organic matter to simpler once.
E.g. Bacteria & Fungi
8

9
Abiotic Components

 They include various physical, chemical &
Geographical factors;
 Physical Factors:
 The sunlight & shade
 Intensity of Solar flux
 Average Temperature
 Annual Rainfall
 Wind
 Soil type, availability of water,
We can clearly see the difference in solar flux, temp., rainfall
pattern in desert , tropical & Tundra Ecosystem. While in
grassland and forest they also vary as per geographical location 10
Abiotic Components

Chemical Factors
 They include availability of nutrients like Nitrogen,
Phosphorus, Carbon, Hydrogen, potassium, Oxygen,
sulphur, levels of toxic substances, salts causing
salinity influence the function of ecosystem.
Geographical Factors
 Latitude, Longitude and altitude
11
Nutrient Cycling & Energy Flow
12
Functions of Ecosystems:
Trophic structure

In ecosystems energy and matter exchange
occurs in a definite pattern.
Nutrients and energy move along food chain
Producers, consumers are arranged in a
specific manner and their interaction along
with population size is called as Trophic
structure and the level as Trophic Level.
And the amount of living matter at each
level is called Standing Crop or Standing
Biomass 13
Food chain

The sequence of eating and being eaten is known
as food chain.
Someone is the food of other.
Two major food chains
 Grazing- Starts from producers that is green plants –
terrestrial, marine, pond ecosystem
 Detritus- Starts with dead organic matter- Mangrove
Ecosystem
14
Simple Grazing Food Chain

15
Grazing food chain
Terrestrial Food Chain
16
Marine Food Chain

17

18
Detritus food chain

19
Mangrove Ecosystem

20
Food web

No food chain is isolated.
Organisms act at various levels in different
food chains.
Feed on more than one type of organism.
Form a Complex Food Web.
Thus, “Food Web - is a network of food chains
where different types of organisms are
connected at different trophic levels”
so that there are a no. of options of eating and
being eaten at each trophic level
21

22

23
Significance: Food chain and Food Web
Energy and nutrient flow

Maintain population of different species and thus
maintain Ecological Balance
Bio magnification: a rather harmful phenomenon.

Eg: build up of DDT in higher animals.
(Case Study- Pesticides - Diclofenac in Vultures.)
24
Case Study

25
Ecological Pyramids

Graphic representation of trophic structure
and function of ecosystem
Starts with producers at the base and
consumers at successive levels towards apex
is called as an “Ecological Pyramid”
They are of 3 Types:
 Pyramids of Numbers
 Pyramids of Biomass
 Pyramid of Energy
26
Pyramid of Number
Represents Number of individual organism at
each level. 
May be Upright or Inverted.
Of Forest, grassland and parasitic food chain
27
Upright –
Grassland
& Pond
28
Inverted- Parasitic food Chain Narrow Pyramid- Forest

Pyramid of Biomass
Based on total biomass i.e dry matter at every

level in a food chain
Upright or Inverted.
29
Pyramid of Energy
Amount of energy
at each trophic
level.

Always Upright
Energy goes on
reducing at each
level.
Loss in the form of
heat, respiration.
 Shows sharp decline
from producers to top
carnivores.
30
Energy Flow
Energy flow in an ecosystem is Unidirectional
Source of energy is sun 
Plants convert this energy into chemical energy
Energy is lost in body functions like respiration
Available passes to next trophic level
Follows two laws of thermodynamics
 1st Law: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, it can be
converted from one form to another
 2nd Law: energy dissipates as it is used.
Energy flow models: explain the flow of energy
31

32
Universal energy flow model
Explained by ecologist E. P. Odum
Says, as flow of energy takes place there is a

gradual decrease in energy.
Thus less energy is available at each trophic level.
Loss occurs by use in locomotion, excretion,
respiration
Rest is stored as biomass and passes further
33
Single channel Energy flow
model:

Normal food chain…normal energy flow….
Grazing food chain
34
Y shaped or double channel flow model:

 Here entire biomass cannot be consumed as quantity
is high.
 Here major biomass enters detritus food chain along
with grazing food chain. Gives Y shape.
35
Nutrient Cycling
Nutrients are important functional attribute.

These nutrients are available to biotic components
through natural resources
Nutrients if not returned back would end up and
not be available for future use.
These nutrients are thus cycled through
BIOGEOCHEMICAL cycles.
Nutrients are decomposed, converted by micro-
organisms and ready to use again..thus cycle
continues.
Water, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon. 36

37
Carbon Cycle
38
Phosphorous Cycle
39
Primary Production

Primary productivity is the rate of energy captured
by producers. = the amount of new biomass of
producers, per unit time and space
40

 Net primary production is thus the amount of energy

stored by the producers and potentially available to
consumers and decomposers.
 Gross primary production (GPP)
= total amount of energy captured
 Net primary production (NPP)
= GPP - respiration 41
Secondary Production

 Secondary productivity is the rate of production
of new biomass by consumers, i.e., the rate at
which consumers convert organic material into
new biomass of consumers.
 Note that secondary production simply involves

the repackaging of energy previously captured
by producers--no additional energy is
introduced/produced into the food chain.
42
Ecosystem Regulation

 All ecosystems regulate and maintain themselves
under a set of environmental conditions
 If stress---- tries to resist and maintain balance is
known as Homeostasis
 Tolerance and resistance possible only within a min

and max range
 If stress is too high then balance lost and ecosystems

collapse.
43
Ecological Sucession
 An orderly process of changes in the community structure and

function with time mediated through modifications in the
physical environment and ultimately culminating in a
stabilized ecosystem
 Whole sequence of communities which are transitory are
known as Seral Stages
 Ecological Succession starting from different Substrata or areas
are named differently:
 Hydrach / Hydrosere – starting from water or pond
 Mesarch- Starting from adequate moist area
 Xerach/Xerosere – Starting in dry area or areas with less moisture
 They Can also be of following types:
 Lithosere- Starting on bare Rock
 Psammosere- Starting on sand
 Halosere- Starting on saline soil
44
Succession

45
Process of Succession

 Nudation- It is a development of bare area without
any life form.
 Invasion- Successful establishment of one or more
species by migration or dispersal leading to
establishment /ecesis. These are called Pioneer
Species
 Competition and co-action- As the no. of individuals
increase there developes a competition for space,
water, nutition. The competion is Inter-Specific
(within different Species) or Intra –Specific (within
the same species)
46
Process of Succession

Reaction – The living organisms grow, use
water & nutrients from substratum having
strong influence on Environment which is
modified to a large extent – is reaction
Stabilization- the succession ultimately
culminates in a stable community called as
Climax, which is in equilibrium with
environment
47
Succession : Seral stages
48
Hydrarch
49
Xerarch

50

51
Major Ecosystems

Forest ecosystems
Desert Ecosystems
Grassland Ecosystems
Aquatic Ecosystems
52
Forest Ecosystems

53
Forest Occupy roughly 40 % of the land.
The different components of forest ecosystem are as follows:

 Abiotic Components: These are organic & inorganic substances
present in the soil and atmosphere. In addition to minerals present
in forest we find the dead organic debris, moreover light condition
are different due to complex stratification in the plants.
 Biotic Components:
 Producers: These are mainly trees that show much species and
greater degree of stratification. Besides trees there are also
present shrubs, and ground vegetation.
 Consumers: Primary Consumers: These are herbivores that
include animals feeding on tree leaves, ants, beetles,
grass hoppers, etc., and large elephants, deers, squirrels, etc.
54
Continue..

 Secondary Consumers: These are carnivores, like snakes,
birds, lizards, fox, etc. feeding on herbivores.
 Tertiary consumers: These are top carnivores like lion tiger,
etc. that eat carnivores of secondary level.
 Decomposers: These are wide variety of micro organisms
including, fungi, bacteria.
 Also present are epiphytes, lianas
 Extremely diverse and productive
55
Layered structure
 Emergent layer
 Canopy layer

 Under storey
 Shrub layer
 Ground layer or forest
floor
56
Desert Ecosystem

57
Desert occupy 17 % of land.
 Abiotic components include, light, temperature,
minerals.

 Producers : These are shrubs, especially bushes, some grasses, and
few trees.
E.g. Cacti, Xerophytes, mosses
 Consumers: The most common animals are reptiles, and insects,
there are some rodents, and birds, and above all ship of desert
camels, feed on tender plants.
 Decomposers: These are very few as due to poor vegetation the
amount of dead organic matter is less. They are some fungi and
bacteria.
58
Types

 Tropical deserts: high heat, very dry
Eg : Sahara, Thar desert
 Temperate desert: day temperatures very hot in summer
and nights very cool in winter
Eg: Mojave in Southern California
 Cold deserts: Cold winters and warm summers
Eg : Gobi desert in China
59
Grassland Ecosystem

60
Grassland occupy comparatively fewer area roughly

19 % of the earth’s surface.
 Abiotic Components: These are nutrients present
in soil, and aerial environment, thus the
elements like, phosphates, sulphates, water,
carbon dioxide, present in soil and in air.
Moreover some trace elements are also present.
 Producers: They are mainly grasses as species of Cynadon,
Desmodium, besides them a few shrubs also contribute some
primary production.
61
 Consumers:

 Primary Consumers: The herbivores feeding on grasses are
grazing animals, as cows, goats, rabbit, etc. besides them
there are some insects as termites, millipedes that feed on
grasses.
 Secondary Consumers: These are carnivores feeding on
herbivores these include, animals like, fox, jackals, snakes, frogs,
birds.
 Tertiary Consumers: Some times hawks, vultures, feeding on
secondary consumer, thus occupy tertiary consumers.
 Decomposers: The microbes active in the decay of dead
organic matter of different form are fungi and some bacteria
62
Aquatic ecosystems

63
Pond Ecosystem

Producers are of following type
 Macrophytes: these are large rooted plants, which
include partly or completely submerged
hydrophytes, e.g. : Hydrilla, Trapha, Typha.
 Phytoplankton: These are minute floating or
submerged lower plants e.g.: algae.
 Consumers: They are heterotrophs which depends
for their nutrition on the organic food
manufactured by producers.
64
 Primary Consumers:
 Benthos: These are animals associated with living plants ,
detrivores and some other microorganisms

 Zooplanktons: These are chiefly rotifers, protozoans, they feed on
phytoplankton
 Secondary Consumers: They are the Carnivores which feed
on herbivores, these are chiefly insect and fish, most insects &
water beetles, they feed on zooplanktons.
 Tertiary Consumers: These are some large fish as game fish,
turtles, which feed on small fish and thus become tertiary
consumers.
 Decomposers: They are also known as micro-consumers. They
decompose dead organic matter of both producers and animal
to simple form. Thus they play an important role in the return of
minerals again to the pond ecosystem, they are chiefly bacteria,
& fungi.
65
Lake Ecosystem

 Big freshwater bodies with standing water
 Planktons, Nektons, Neustons, Benthos, Periphytons
 Stratification based on temperature differences
66

67

68
Ocean Ecosystems
 Ocean Ecosystem are more stable than pond
ecosystem, they occupy 70 % of the earth surface.

 Abiotic Components: Dissolved oxygen, light,
temperature, minerals.
 Producers: These are autotrophs and are also
known Primary producers. They are mainly,
some microscopic algae (phytoplanktons)
besides them there are mainly, seaweeds, as brown
and red algae also contribute to primary
production.
69
 Consumers: They are all heterotrophic macro
consumers

 Primary Consumer: The herbivores, that feed on
producers are shrimps, Molluscs, fish, etc.
 Secondary Consumers: These are carnivores fish
as Herring, Shad, Mackerel, feeding on herbivores.
 Tertiary Consumers: These includes, other
carnivores fishes like, Cod, Halibut, Sea Turtle,
Sharks etc.
 Decomposers: The microbes active in the decay of
dead organic matter of producers, and animals are
chiefly, bacteria and some fungi.
70

71

72
Estuarine ecosystems

 An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water
along the coast where fresh water from river and
streams meet and mix with salt water from oceans.
This Ecosystems are considered as most fertile
ecosystem.
 Abiotic Components: Nutrients such as phosphorus
and nitrogen, temperature, light, salinity, pH.
 This ecosystem experience wide daily and
seasonal fluctuations in temperature and Salinity
level because of variation in freshwater in flow.
73

 Producers: Phytoplankton's - these micro-organisms
manufacture food by photosynthesis and absorb nutrients
such as phosphorous and nitrogen, besides them,
mangroves, sea grass, weeds, and salt marshes.
 Consumers: Primary consumers, Zooplanktons that feed
on Phytoplankton, besides them some small
microorganisms that feed on producers.
 Secondary Consumer: Include worms, shellfish, small fish,
feeding on Zooplanktons
 Tertiary Consumer : Fishes, turtles, crabs, starfishes feeding
on secondary consumers.
 Decomposers: Fungi & Bacteria are the chief microbes active
in decay of dead organic matter.
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Thank You
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Ecosystem Merged

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Ecology

All living organism, whether plant or animal or

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An ecosystem has two major components

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The members of biotic components of an

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V.S.Saravana Mani, Head & AP /

V.S.Saravana Mani, Head & AP /

V.S.Saravana Mani, Head & AP /

V.S.Saravana Mani, Head & AP /

V.S.Saravana Mani, Head & AP /

V.S.Saravana Mani, Head & AP /

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2. Seres (or) Seral stage

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1.Grazing food chain

2.Detritus food chain

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Characteristics of forest ecosystems

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Climatic factors (temperature, light, rainfall) and minerals The abiotic

II. Biotic components

1. Producers: The plants absorb sunlight and produce photosynthesis

Trees, shrubs and ground vegetation..

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Example : Ants, flies, insects, mice, deer, squirrels.

b. Secondary consumers (primary carnivores):They directly depend on the

Examples: Snakes, birds, fox.

Examples : Animals, like tiger, lion, etc.,

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Characteristics of Grassland Ecosystems

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Types of desert ecosystems

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Structure and functions of the desert systems ecosystems

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Types of aquatic life zone

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