MODULE 4

Effects of soils
on ground
motion;
liquefaction
Allan B. Benogsudan
 MODULE 1 MODULE 2
Introduction to Measurement of
Earthquake Engineering earthquakes
(Week 1 ) (Week 2 )

Course MODULE 3
MODULE 4

Outline Dynamics of vibration

Effects of soils on
ground motion

(CHED)
(Week 3 )
(Week 4 )

MODULE 5 MODULE 6
Earthquake effects and Effects of Building
design of structures Configurations
(Week 5 ) (Week 6 )

2
 4.1 INTRODUCTION

• Structures come in different shapes, forms, and sizes.

However, all structures have at least one feature in common;
they all have a foundation.
• A foundation is the means by which the superstructure
interfaces with the underlying soil or rock.
• Under static conditions, generally only the vertical loads of a
structure need be transferred to the supporting soil or rock.
• In a seismic environment, the loads imposed on a foundation
from a structure under seismic excitation can greatly exceed
the static vertical loads or even produce uplift; in addition,
there will be horizontal forces and possibly moments at the
foundation level.

3
 4.1 INTRODUCTION

• Consideration must also be given to what

could happen to the supporting soil or rock
under seismic excitation.
• For example, an earthquake might cause the
phenomenon of liquefaction to occur in loose
sandy soils which would cause a virtually
complete loss of all bearing capacity of the
soil; needless to say, a structure founded on
such soils would suffer great distress and
upset.

4
 4.1 INTRODUCTION

• This module will attempt to identify those

phenomena that would affect the design of
foundations and structures in a seismic
environment.
• Some of these phenomena can be effectively
designed for by structural detailing, but some of
these phenomena are beyond the magic and
wizardry of the structural engineering profession
and geotechnical wizardry may also be needed.
• In some instances, there may not be an
economical engineering solution for the problem.

5
 4.1 INTRODUCTION

• In a seismic environment, there may exist a

potential for ground failures.
• It is obvious that if the ground should fail beneath
a structure, the structure could be severely or
totally damaged.
• Such an event would threaten real property and
life safety. Several different ground failure
mechanisms (e.g. soil liquefaction, settlement,
subsidence, differential compaction, landsliding,
and lurching, flooding, tsunamis and seiches) will
be discussed in this Module.

6
4.2 SITE AND SOIL CONDITIONS

Geotechnical investigation – soil conditions

• Soil types beneath the site and their physical characteristics (i.e., strength,
compressibility, permeability, etc.)
• Economical and feasible alternatives for the support of the structure
• functionality and purpose of the structure
• In a seismic environment, the geotechnical investigation would also need to
evaluate the behavior of the supporting soils under earthquake excitation
and determine or predict the impact and consequences upon the structure
and the foundation types recommended.

7
4.2 SITE AND SOIL CONDITIONS

Geotechnical investigation – Site conditions

• features near the building area and also distant features.
• Important nearby site features would include water levels, topographic
features, and the presence of other structures both above and below ground
• Offsite and even distant features could have some influence upon the
proposed structure, especially in a seismically active area.
• For example, there could be large bodies of water retained by earth dams
that could fail in an earthquake; if the structure is in the path of this potential
inundation, the consequences could be very grave indeed.

8
4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.1 Effects of Soils on Earthquake Loads on Structures

4.3.2 Uniform Building Code Recognition
4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC
4.3.4 Site Profile Examples–1994 UBC
4.3.5 Site Profile Examples–1997 UBC
4.3.6 Near-Source Factor Examples–1997 UBC

9
4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.1 Effects of Soils on Earthquake Loads on Structures

local site conditions have a very important role on the response of structures.
• soil and rock at a site have specific characteristics that can significantly
amplify the incoming earthquake motions traveling from the earthquake
source.
• For buildings of about the same height with similar construction, it was
observed that such buildings founded on deep soils were more damaged
than the similar buildings founded on rock.

10
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.2 Uniform Building Code

- Philippines adopted the Uniform Building Code (UBC)
provisions for earthquake design of structures.
- The 1997 UBC has some major changes from the earlier
editions. The first major difference is that it is a strength-based
code.
- From an earth science or geotechnical perspective, the 1997
UBC has tried to incorporate new understanding about
ground motion amplification and attempts to account for
near-source effects.

11
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.2 Uniform Building Code

- The Uniform Building Code (UBC)
acknowledged the importance of local site
effects and the concept of a “Soil Factor”
was added to the lateral force design
procedure in the 1976 edition of the UBC.

12
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

Uniform Building Code, 1994 Edition

The 1994 UBC(3-4) specifies the design base shear in a given direction
to be:
𝑍𝐼𝐶𝑊
𝑉=
𝑅𝑤
Where
1.25𝑆
𝐶=
𝑇 2/3
I = Importance Factor
Z= Seismic Zone Factor
The value of C need not exceed 2.75 and may be used for any
structure without regard to soil type or structure period. The value of
the Seismic Zone Factor, Z, is given in Table 3-1: 13
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

Table 3-1. — Seismic Zone Factor

The Site Coefficients, S, for the four soil types

in the 1994 UBC are given in Table 3-2:

14
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

Table 3-2. — Site Coefficients, S

15
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

• The site factor is to be established from properly

substantiated geotechnical data.
• In locations where the soil properties are not
known in sufficient detail to determine the soil
type, soil profile S3 is to be used.
• Soil profile S4 need not be assumed unless the
building official determines that soil profile S4 may
be present at the site, or in the event that soil
profile S4 is established by geotechnical data. 16
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

Uniform Building Code, 1997 Edition

The 1997 UBC has some major changes from the
earlier editions.
• The first major difference is that it is a strength-
based code.
• From an earth science or geotechnical
perspective, the 1997 UBC has tried to
incorporate new understanding about ground
motion amplification and attempts to account
for near-source effects.
17
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

Uniform Building Code, 1997 Edition

• The 1997 UBC contains a number of very significant changes
affecting the seismic design of buildings. The code was developed
by the Seismology Committee of the Structural Engineers
Association of California (SEAOC) over a period of three years and is
contained in Appendix C of the 1996 Recommended Lateral Force
Requirements and Commentary, also known as the SEAOC Blue
Book.
• In addition to converting the code from a working stress to a
strength basis, it was intended to advance the seismic provisions in
several important areas. The Seismology Committee developed the
proposal in coordination with a parallel effort by the Building Seismic
Safety Council (BSSC) for the 1997 NEHRP Provisions.(3-7) (NEHRP is
an acronym for the National Earthquake Hazards Reduction
Program.)
18
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

Uniform Building Code, 1997 Edition

• The NEHRP Provisions serve as the source document for other
United States model building codes (BOCA and Southern Building
Code).
• Therefore, this change is seen not only as an important advancement
in seismic design requirements, but as a critical step toward the
cooperative development of a single national building code for the
United States by the year 2000.
• he 1997 UBC code incorporates a number of important lessons from
recent earthquakes and recent advances from other sources. In
general it is intended to provide parity with previous requirements,
except for longer period buildings in near-field locations and for
structural systems with poor redundancy.

19
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC

The following key concepts are contained in the 1997
UBC:
1. The adoption of ASCE-7 load factors for strength-based
load combinations. In addition, working stress load
combinations are maintained as an alternative.
2. The incorporation of a Redundancy/Reliability Factor
(ρ), which is intended to encourage redundant lateral
force resisting systems by penalizing non-redundant ones
through higher lateral force requirements.

20
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC

3. The incorporation of near-source factors (Na and Nv ) in
Seismic Zone 4 which are intended to recognize the
amplified ground motions which occur at close distances
to the fault.
4. The adoption of a new set of soil profile categories
(from 1994 NEHRP) which are used in combination with
Seismic Zone Factors (Z) and near-source factors, to
provide site-dependent ground motion coefficients (Ca
and Cv) defining ground motion response within the
acceleration and velocity-controlled ranges of the
spectrum.
21
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC

5. Substantial revisions to lateral force requirements
for elements of structures, nonstructural components
and equipment supported by structures.
6. A simplified design base shear calculation
permitted for one- and two-story dwellings, one to
three-story light frame construction and other one-
and two-story buildings as permitted.
7. The R-factor has been adjusted to provide a
strength level base shear. 22
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC

• An important concept in the 1997 UBC code is the use
of elastic response parameters to define unreduced
forces and displacements (R=1) for calculations
involving drift and deformation compatibility and in
dynamic analysis.
• In addition, the parameter 𝐸𝑀 has been introduced to
represent the maximum earthquake force that can be
developed in the structure for use in addressing non-
ductile conditions, similar to the 3RW/8 parameter in
the 1994 UBC. 𝐸𝑀 is used to define collector strength
requirements.
23
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC

Near-Source Factors and Code Elastic Design
Response Spectra
• The design base shear, as determined in the 1994 and
earlier editions of the UBC, is a function of an assumed
level of ground motion.
• In Seismic Zone 4, this level of ground motion has been
taken as being an effective peak ground acceleration
(EPA) of 0.4g.
• While no formal relationship exists between the EPA and Figure 1: Construction of linear displacement spectra
the peak ground acceleration (PGA), it may be taken for a record from the 1986 North Palm Springs
earthquake. The displacement histories are shifted to
that the EPA is about two-thirds of the PGA. make the peak displacements coincide with the time
origin.
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC

Near-Source Factors and Code Elastic Design Response Spectra
• Strong motion measurements in recent large earthquakes, such as the
1994 Northridge and 1995 Kobe events, showed that ground motions
are significantly greater near the earthquake source.
• These events had near-source ground motions that greatly exceeded the
EPA level for Zone 4 in the 1994 UBC codes. It has also been observed
that the amplification of long-period ground motions is also greater with
less competent site soil conditions.
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC

Near-Source Factors and Code Elastic Design Response Spectra
• These near-source factors apply only to Seismic Zone 4 because it is believed that the near-
source effect is only significant for large earthquakes.
• Research of the ground motions from Northridge, Kobe, and other events have indicated that
the amount of near-source effect is greater at the long periods than the short periods.
• Therefore, two near-source factors were introduced that result in a greater amplification of the
ground motions for long periods than for those for short periods.
• The near-source factors were introduced in the 1997 UBC strength-based seismic code to
account for this increase as a function of the earthquake potential of a known earthquake
source and the distance from source to the given site.
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC Table 3-3. — Soil Profile Types, 1997 UBC

Near-Source Factors and Code Elastic Design

Response Spectra
• These soil profile types are based on the average
soil properties for the upper 100 feet (30.48 M) of
the soil profile.
• An abbreviated description as a function of the
average shear wave velocity in the upper 100 feet
(approximately 30 meters) is given in Table 3-3 for
five “stable” profile types, designated as SA
through SE; there is a sixth profile type (SF) which
require a site-specific evaluation.
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS
Table 4-4. — Seismic Source Type

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC

Near-Source Factors and Code Elastic
Design Response Spectra
• The near-source factor, Na, for short
periods is shown in Table 4-4 as a
function of the three seismic source Table 4-5. Near-Source Factor for Short Periods, Na

types;
• The near-source factor, Nv, for long
periods is shown in Table 4-5 for the
different seismic source types.
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC

Near-Source Factors and Code Elastic Design Response Spectra
The types of soils requiring site-specific evaluation in Soil Profile Type SF are:
1. Soil vulnerable to potential failure or collapse under seismic loading such as
liquefiable soils, quick and highly sensitive clays, collapsible weakly
cemented soils.
2. Peats and/or highly organic clays [H > 10 feet of peat and/or highly organic
clay, where H = thickness of soil].
3. Very high plasticity clays [H > 25 feet with Plasticity Index > 75].
4. Very thick soft/medium stiff clays [H > 120 feet].
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC

Near-Source Factors and Code Elastic Design Response Spectra
• The closest distance to the seismic source is to be taken as the
minimum distance between the site and the area described by the
vertical projection of the source on the ground surface (i.e., surface Figure 4-1. Treatment of Dipping Faults
projection of the fault plane).
Table 4-6. — Near-Source Factor for Long Periods, Nv
• For dipping faults, the surface projection is to include those portions
of the source within 10 km of the surface as illustrated in Figure 4-1.
The definitions of the seismic source types are shown in Table 4-6.
• For seismic sources capable of larger earthquakes and having a higher
seismicity or slip rate, the near-source factors are higher than for faults
capable of lesser maximum earthquakes or with lower slip rates. Faults
or seismic sources with lower maximum moment magnitude and low
slip have N-factors with the value of unity (1.0).
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC Table 4-7. — Seismic Coefficient, Ca

Near-Source Factors and Code Elastic Design

Response Spectra
• The Seismic Coefficients, Ca and Cv, are shown in
Tables 4-7 and 4-8.
• the near-source factor is only applicable in Seismic
Zone 4, and only the seismic coefficients for Zone 4
Table 4-8. — Seismic Coefficient, Cv
are dependent on the near-source factors.
• The International Conference of Building Officials
has published a set of maps defining the near-
source zones in the state of California and adjacent
portions of Nevada. Please check NSCP for the
Philippines.
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC

Near-Source Factors and Code Elastic Design Response Spectra
The total design base shear, V, in a given direction is determined by the following equation:
𝐶𝑉 𝐼
𝑉= 𝑊
𝑅𝑇
Where I = importance factor
W = total seismic dead load
R = numerical coefficient representative of ductility and overstrength
T = fundamental period of vibration, in seconds

This formula defines the long period or constant velocity range.

 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC

Near-Source Factors and Code Elastic Design Response Spectra
For short periods (i.e., T < Cv / 2.5Ca), the following equation defines the
constant acceleration range:
2.5𝐶𝑎 𝐼
𝑉= 𝑊
𝑅
In addition, for Seismic Zone 4, the total base shear is also governed by a
minimum “floor” value at longer periods by the following equation:
0.8𝑍𝑁𝑉 𝐼
𝑉= 𝑊
𝑅
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS
4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC
Near-Source Factors and Code Elastic Design Response Spectra
• The elastic design response spectra, as defined by Ca and Cv, is shown in Figure 3-2.
• Figure 3-3 shows a comparison of the basic elastic design response spectra for UBC Seismic
Zones 1, 2A, 2B, 3 and 4 for Soil Profile Type SD; this profile type is probably the most
common soil profile in most of California.
• For this comparison, the near-source factors have both been assumed to have a value of unity
(1.0).
• The floor caused by the special Zone 4 restriction is misleading as the base shear computed
Figure 4-2. 1997 UBC Design Response Spectra.
from the design response spectrum will be greatly reduced when the “R” factor is divided
through.
• There is another long period minimum “floor” value (that is not reduced by “R”) that applies to
all seismic zones that the total base shear should not be less than the following:

𝑉 = 0.11𝐶𝑎 𝐼𝑊
With this additional minimum “floor,” the differences in the base shear for longer periods
between Zone 4 and the lesser zones at the longer structural periods are somewhat reduced.

Figure 4-3. Response Spectra, UBC 1997 Ed.

 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC

Site Categorization Procedure
• As mentioned in the previous section, there are six soil profile Table 4-9. — Additional Definitions for Soil Profiles SC through SE
types of the 1997 UBC as given in Table 4-3.
• Only an abbreviated definition in terms of shear wave velocity for
the soil profile types was given. The additional 1997 UBC
definitions for soil profiles SC through SE are given below in Table
4-9.
• When the soil properties are not known in sufficient detail to
determine the soil profile type, the Code specifies that Type SD be
used.
• Soil Profile Type SE need not be assumed unless the local building
official determines that Soil Profile Type SE may be present at the
site or in the event that Type SE is established by geotechnical
data.
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC

Determination of the Average Shear Wave Velocity
This assumes that the shear wave velocity profile will be known for the upper 100 feet (30.48
m).
The average shear wave velocity, vs, is determined by the following formula:
σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑑𝑖
𝑣𝑠ҧ =
𝑑
σ𝑛𝑖=1 𝑖
𝑣𝑠𝑖
Where:
di = thickness of Layer i in feet (or meters)
vsi = shear wave velocity in Layer i in feet/second (meters/second)
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC

Determination of the Average Standard Penetration Resistance
The 1997 UBC defines the average field standard penetration resistance, N, and theaverage
standard penetration resistance for cohesionless soil layers, NCH, by the following formula:
𝑛 𝑛
ഥ = σ𝑖=1 𝑑𝑑𝑖
𝑁 ഥ𝐶𝐻 = σ𝑖=1 𝑑𝑑𝑖
𝑁
𝑛
σ𝑖=1 𝑖 𝑛σ𝑖=1 𝑖
𝑁𝑖 𝑁𝑖

Where:
di = thickness of Layer i in feet (or millimeters)
ds = the total thickness of cohesionless soil layers in the top 100 feet (30,480 millimeters)
Ni = the standard penetration resistance of soil layer in accordance with approved nationally
recognized standards
4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC

Determination of Average Undrained Shear Strength.
The average undrained shear strength, Su, is to be determined by the following equation:
𝑑𝑐
𝑆𝑢ҧ = 𝑑𝑖
σ𝑛
𝑖=1𝑆𝑢𝑖

Where:
dc = the total thickness (100 – ds) of cohesive soil layers in the top 100 feet (30,480
millimeters)
Sui = the undrained shear strength in accordance with approved nationally recognized
standards, not to exceed 5,000 psf (250 kPa)
4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.3 Overview of 1997 UBC

Determination of Average Undrained Shear Strength.
The average undrained shear strength, Su, is to be determined by the following equation:
𝑑𝑐
𝑆𝑢ҧ = 𝑑𝑖
σ𝑛
𝑖=1𝑆𝑢𝑖

Where:
dc = the total thickness (100 – ds) of cohesive soil layers in the top 100 feet (30,480
millimeters)
Sui = the undrained shear strength in accordance with approved nationally recognized
standards, not to exceed 5,000 psf (250 kPa)
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.4 Site Profile Examples–1994 UBC

Please see the provided resources.

40
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.5 Site Profile Examples–1997 UBC

Example 1
The soil profile at a site of an industrial facility has
been investigated and the typical soil profile in the
100 feet (30.48 m) has been determined to be as
shown in the accompanying table. Determine the
appropriate soil profile type.
Solution: Based on the clay layer with a PI > 75 and H
> 25 ft (7.62 m), this profile type is SF, requiring site-
specific evaluation (From Table 4-3).

41
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS

4.3.5 Site Profile Examples–1997 UBC

Example 2
A site is underlain by bedrock having a measured shear wave velocity of
1,800 m/s in the upper 30 m (100 ft). Determine the appropriate soil
profile type.

Solution: Soil profile type is SA, since vS > 1,500 m/sec.(From Table 4-3).
42
 4.3 SITE EFFECTS Depth (m)
0–6
Soil Type
sand
N-value
3
6-12 sand 3.6
12-18 sand 4.6

4.3.5 Site Profile Examples–1997 18-30 sand 5.5

UBC
σ𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑑𝑖 6+6+6+12
Example 3 𝑑𝑖 = 6 6 6 12
σ𝑛 + + +
A soil profile has the following 𝑖=1𝑁
𝑖
10 12 15 18
description from the accompanying 30
30
boring logs. Determine the ഥ=
𝑁 =
appropriate soil profile type. 6 6 6 12 7.15
+ + +
Solution: Solution: Determine N , the 3 3.6 4.6 5.5
average field standard penetration = 4.19
resistance ഥ is < 15, soil profile type
Since 𝑁
is SE (Table 4-9). 43
4.4 SOIL LIQUEFACTION

4.4.1 Causes of Liquefaction

• Soil liquefaction during an earthquake is a
process that leads to loss of strength or
stiffness of the soil. This could result in the
settlement of structures, cause landslides,
precipitate failures of earth dams, or cause
other types of hazards.
• Soil liquefaction has been observed to occur
most often in loose saturated sand deposits.
Figure ___. Liquefaction-induced tilting of three-
story residential structure in Central Taiwan.
44
 4.4 SOIL LIQUEFACTION

4.4.1 Causes of Liquefaction

• "Sand boils" appearing at the ground surface
during an earthquake is evidence that
liquefaction has occurred.
• Liquefaction can have a significant and
sometimes devastating effect on buildings
supported on the upper soils without Sand boils that erupted during the 2011 Canterbury
earthquake.

consideration of the consequences of

liquefaction.
45
 Effects of soils on ground motion; liquefaction

• Secondary effects are defined as non-

tectonic surface processes that are directly
related to earthquake shaking.
• Examples of secondary effects are
liquefaction, earthquake-induced slope
failures and landslides, tsunamis and
seiches.
• Liquefaction occurs when the soil beneath
the surface actually behaves like a fluid
under strong shaking (Obermeier, 1994; S.
Obermeier, in McCalpin, 1996, pp. 331–
396).
46
 Effects of soils on ground
motion; liquefaction
• The typical subsurface soil condition that is
susceptible to liquefaction is loose sand, which
has been newly deposited or placed, with a
groundwater table near ground surface.
• During an earthquake, the propagation of shear
waves causes the loose sand to contract,
resulting in an increase in pore water pressure.
• Because the seismic shaking occurs so quickly,
the cohesionless soil is subjected to an
undrained loading. 47
Effects of soils on ground motion; liquefaction

• The increase in pore water pressure causes an upward flow of

water to the ground surface, where it emerges in the form of
mud spouts or sand boils.
• The development of high pore water pressures due to the
ground shaking and the upward flow of water may turn the sand
into a liquefied condition, which has been termed liquefaction.
• For this state of liquefaction, the effective stress is zero and the
individual soil particles are released from any confinement, as if
the soil particles were floating in water.

48
Effects of soils on ground motion; liquefaction

• Because liquefaction typically occurs in soil with a high

groundwater table, its effects are most commonly observed
in low-lying areas or adjacent rivers, lakes, bays and oceans.

49
 4.5 SEISMIC SETTLEMENT, SUBSIDENCE AND
DIFFERENTIAL COMPACTION

Seismic settlement and subsidence are two

terms used to describe surface subsidence
which is a result of compaction or
densification of granular soils from
earthquake-induced vibrations, which may
occur over large areas. Sand boils that erupted during the 2011 Canterbury
earthquake.

50
 4.6 LANDSLIDING AND LURCHING

4.6.1 Landsliding

• Earthquakes may trigger landslides or other

forms of slope instability.
• Slope failures may occur as a result of the
development of excess pore pressures which Sliding Failure of Soil
will reduce the shear strength of the soils or
cause loss of strength along bedding or
joints in rock materials.
51
 4.6 LANDSLIDING AND LURCHING

4.6.2 Lurching
• Lurching is a phenomena where there is
movement of soil or rock masses at right
angles to a cliff or steep slope.
• Structures founded either in part or whole
on such masses may experience
significant lateral and vertical
deformations.
52
 4.7 FLOODING, TSUNAMIS AND SEICHES4

4.7.1 Flooding
• Seismic activities may cause some calamity
elsewhere which could result in flooding at the
site under consideration.
• An important part of the site investigation should
include the identification of any bodies of water
or structures that contain water that are located Indonesia flash flood due to earthquake
above or upstream of the site.
• The consequences of failure of these bodies or
structures should be evaluated to determine
what are the probable flood limits and depths of
inundation that could be expected.
53
 4.7 FLOODING, TSUNAMIS AND SEICHES
4.7.2 Tsunamis
• A tsunami is a long sea wave that could be generated by
a rapidly occurring change in seafloor topography
caused by tectonic displacement.
• Such tectonic displacements may be caused by
earthquakes, undersea landslides or volcanic eruptions.
• It is believed that strike-slip earthquakes are less likely to
cause tsunamis and that a substantial vertical offset
caused by a dip-slip earthquake mechanism is necessary
to generate large tsunamis. Waves approach Miyako City after a 9.0 magnitude earthquake
hit Japan. This tsunami led to more than 15,000 deaths.
• A tsunami may be caused by a nearby fault rupture, or by
distant earthquakes which may be thousands of miles
away.

54
 4.7 FLOODING, TSUNAMIS AND SEICHES
4.7.3 Seiches
• A seiche may occur when earthquake ground
motion causes water in closed or partially closed
body (such as a bay, lake, reservoir, or even a
swimming pool) to oscillate from one side to the
other.
• Large seiches may occur when the frequency of the
in-coming earthquake waves are the same as the
natural frequency of the water body and causes
resonant oscillation. Waves can be generated in lakes and other bodies of water when
seismic energy travels through land

• This oscillation could cause overtopping of dams A 'seiche' wave can outpace a tsunami and both can be
and damage to structures located near the water, triggered by meteorites and earthquakes

and could continue for hours.

 4.8 FAULT RUPTURE

• Fault rupture and the associated ground

deformation can have extremely severe
consequences to structures and systems
that cross the fault plane.
• The fault displacements can range from a
few millimeters to several meters.
• If ground surface rupture due to
earthquake faulting were to occur beneath
a structure, there would be substantial
damage.
Fault ruptures in the Philippines
Homework

1. What are the methods for evaluating liquefaction potential of a soil?

2. What are the various methods and strategies to mitigate the effects of soil liquefaction and its merits?
3. Prepare for multiple choice or fill-in the blank format assessment from the resources provided.
4. Name the two lateral seismic earth pressures on retaining walls.

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References

LEW, M. 2008. Chapter 03-Geotechnical Design Considerations. In: NAEIM, F. (ed.) The Seismic Design
Handbook. US: US Springer.

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