The American Association of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin

V. 71, No. 3 (March 1987), P. 281-297,19 Figs., I Table

Seismic Interpretation of Carbonate Depositional Environments^

J. M. FONTAINE/ R. CUSSEY,' J. LACAZE,' R. LANAUD/ and L. YAPAUDJIAN'

ABSTRACT INTRODUCTION

Most seismic stratigraphic or seismic lithologic interpre- Current seismic interpretations use three principal
tations have been applied to clastic depositional systems. approaches. The first method, structural mapping,
Because of their unique sedimentoiogic and mineraiogic involves picking seismic horizons and analyzing seismic
characteristics, carbonate rocks are more difficult to study velocities to determine geologic structure. Most of the
using seismic data. Increased knowledge of carbonate hydrocarbon reserves known in the world today were dis-
deposits and their petrophysical parameters, and higher covered using this approach. The second method, seismic
quality geophysical tools now permit a better understand- stratigraphy, is an analytical technique, developed during
ing of carbonate rocks using seismic images. the 1970s, that permits the extraction of stratigraphic
In this paper, seismic facies of carbonate rocks are char- information from seismic data. In this approach, seismic
acterized, step by step, from the basin to the supratidal sequences and seismic facies are analyzed to recognize
environment. (1) Pelagic deposits (shales and micritic depositional sequences and, in turn, to predict gross lithol-
limestone layers) exhibit continuous, parallel reflections ogy and hydrocarbon potential throughout a basin. Meth-
with an apparentiy high frequency. Chalk deposits display ods and applications were presented in Payton (1977). In
continuous high-amplitude reflections at the top and base the third method, seismic lithology, individual seismic
with an internal reflection-free zone. (2) Talus deposits are reflections are analyzed to determine acoustic and elastic
characterized by discontinuous, oblique reflections of parameters at the seismic interface. This method requires
high amplitude. Carbonate debris flow generates chaotic high-quality reflection data, thus permitting a better char-
reflections with hummocky surfaces. Channels exhibit acterization of the lithology and secondary factors such as
erosional truncations. (3) Reef barriers are mound-shaped porosity, fluid content, and reservoir thickness (Ostran-
biogenic deposits that display marginal onlapping reflec- der, 1983).
tions. Overlying reflections drape the reefs, and underly- Most advances in seismic stratigraphy and seismic
ing reflections exhibit pull-up or pull-down effects. lithology have involved the study of clastic rocks. Less
Hyperbolic diffractions also may occur. (4) Platform bor- attention has been given to similar analyses of carbonate
der sands are mound-shaped oblique reflections of moder- rocks. This paper summarizes our knowledge of seismic
ately high amplitude. (5) Inner shelf strata are interpretation of carbonate strata.
characterized by parallel, continuous reflections typically
displaying low frequency. Patch reefs may be distin-
guished within the inner shelf system (mound shape, drape GEOLOGIC AND GEOPHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
of overlying reflections, velocity anomalies, and spurious OF CARBONATE ROCKS
events). (6) Where dolomitized, the intertidal to supratidal
facies exhibit a "marbled" zone—a practically reflection-
free zone with a few discontinuous reflections. Diagenetic In comparison with clastic rocks, carbonate rocks
events, such as paleokarst zones, may be delineated using exhibit particular geologic characteristics, ranging from
special analyses involving amplitude offset variations. sedimentation processes to mineraiogic states. Carbonate
rocks are normally generated in situ, except for turbidites
The study of carbonate depositional environments and
and carbonate mass flows. Carbonate rocks are autoch-
petrophysical characteristics provides a more complete
thonous, whereas clastic sediments are totally allochtho-
geologic insight, including relative changes in sea level,
nous. As a result, the depositional environment and its
within a sedimentary basin. Such studies are fundamental
modifications directly affect the nature of the deposit and
in analyzing carbonate reservoirs and their paleogeo-
its postdepositional diagenesis. The nature and homoge-
graphic settings.
neity of the deposits are affected by climate. In the world
today, carbonate platforms are located between lat. 30°N
©Copyright 1987. The American Association of Petroleum Geologists. All
and 30° S. Gradual relative variations in sea level generally
rights reserved. cause vertical geometric changes in carbonate platforms.
^ Manuscript received, January 3,1986; accepted, October 28,1986. For example, a reefal structure will display considerable
^Elf Aquitalne, Tour Elf, 92078 Paris-la-D6fense, France.
%lf Aquitalne, Centre Micouleau, 64000 Pau, France. vertical accretion to adapt to a gradual relative sea level
^Elf Aquitalne, Avenue des Lilas, 64000 Pau, France. rise (Kendall, 1981). This vertical growth contrasts with
^Ell Aquitalne, Ets Boussens, 31360 Salnt-Martory, France.
We thanl< the Socldtd Nationale Elf Aquitalne for permission to publish this
the essentially horizontal displacement that relative eusta-
paper; S. Jardine, P. Masse, P. Louis, and L. F Brown for critically reading the tism imposes on clastic deposition. Subsequent to their
manuscript and offering many suggestions; and M. I^^orice, P Arditty, and G. deposition, carbonates may undergo diagenetic transfor-
Drullion for their contributions. Several figures have been modified from
unpublished Ell Aquitalne studies by J. Dumay, J. P Bancelln, M. Coulon, and mations that modify their mineraiogic nature and alter
others. their original texture by means of recrystallization, dolo-

281
282 Carbonate Depositional Environments

Table 1. Elastic Moduli and Velocities of Nonporous Sedimentary Rocks*

Velocities
ModuU (megabar) Poisson's (ft/sec)
Rock Young's Bulk Shear Ratio Density (p) Compresslonal Shear
Type (E) (k) (P) io) (g/cm3) (Vp)
Dolomite 1.129 0.801 0.446 0.265 2.84 23,000 13,000
Limestone 0.805 0.709 0.307 0.311 2.73 21,000 11,000
Sandstone 0.772 0.408 0.326 0.185 2.65 18,500 11,500
Anhydrite 0.54 0.31 0.260 2.% 20,000 11,300
"Compiled from Domenico (1983) and Gardner et al (1974).

mitization, creation of porous networks, and leaching To obtain the best possible seismic representation of car-
(Choquette and Pray, 1970; Bathurst, 1971; Murray, 1979; bonate facies, specific precautions must be taken regard-
Wanless, 1979). These processes may profoundly change ing sequences of seismic processing, essentially those of
the characteristics of the depositional sequence by super- amplitude control (gain recovery, equalization window).
imposing diagenetic effects on primary characteristics. Care also must be taken when dealing with demultiplica-
Consequently, diagenesis can either modify petrographic tion processing programs.
fabrics and mineralogy or create new ones.
Mineralogy, petrophysical characteristics, and mechan-
ical behavior of carbonates result from their sedimenta-
tion and diagenesis. The mineralogic and lithologic CARBONATE DEPOSITIONAL PALEOENVIRONMENTS
AND THEIR SEISMIC ANALYSIS
parameters may be determined by analyzing physical
properties. Table 1 lists obvious differences in the physical
and mechanical properties of carbonate and other rocks. In this study, we examine several carbonate depositional
Such parameters may be determined in situ using EVA environments using the Wilson (1975) theoretical model
(evaluation of velocity and attenuation), an acoustic full (Figure 4), to produce plausible seismic criteria for recog-
waveform logging tool developed and operated by Elf nizing the facies deposited in each. Seismic examples are
Aquitaine. EVA data are processed to give P, S, and Stone- associated to each depositional environment from basinal
ley wave characteristics such as velocity and amplitude. to supratidal deposits.
These parameters enable us to compute, for example, the
elastic moduli (E, K, /*, a) and the petrophysical parame-
ters (porosity, shale content of the formation, p), and to Basinal Pelagic Deposits
obtain a fully automatic lithologic interpretation as repre-
sented in Figure 1. This information may be obtained in Deposited in a low hydrodynamic energy environment
open or cased holes. below wave base, carbonate pelagic sediments normally
Because of their physical differences, carbonate beds in occur either as homogeneous micritic limestones (chalk) or
a sedknentary series produce an extremely high reflectiv- as interlayered carbonate and shale beds. TVvo parallel,
ity, five to ten times greater than the average reflectivity of continuous, high-amplitude reflections bound the chalk
clastic rocks. On the basis of this contrast, carbonate rocks and are uniform in frequency, phase, and amplitude. A
can be analyzed independently within a sedimentary suc- virtually reflection-free zone exists between the two reflec-
cession (Figure 2). Conversely, the multiples created by tions. Two examples are the Upper Cretaceous of Louisi-
carbonate beds will be of an amplitude comparable to the ana (Bally, 1983), and the Upper Cretaceous chalk of the
primary amplitude generated by the clastic strata. There- North Sea (Figure 5). Hydrocarbons generally reduce the
fore, these multiples are difficult to remove during seismic amount of porosity lost in the chalk. Then particular seis-
processing without distorting the seismic information gen- mic effects can be detected such as several amplitude
erated by the clastic strata. anomalies (Van den Bark and Thomas, 1980, Ekofisk
Within a carbonate succession, considerable differences field; Munns, 1985, Valhall field) or a distinct reflection
in velocity related to different lithologies can be distin- below the top of the chalk reflector. The reflection corres-
guished. Velocities within Middle Jurassic rocks of the ponds to the decrease in porosity between porous and non-
Paris basin (Figure 3) are shown as an example. In a porous chalk. No such reflection occurs where the chalk is
regressive carbonate sequence, from shallow marine shoal unproductive (nonporous). An example is given by a seis-
deposits to restricted lagoonal fades, velocities range from mic section through the Harlingen field, northern Nether-
13,780 ft/sec (4,200 m/sec) in oolitic limestone at the base lands (Figure 6). Harlingen field produces gas from the
to 18,050 ft/sec (5,500 m/sec) in sublithographic hme- uppermost part of the Upper Cretaceous chalk (Van den
stone at the top (Dumay and Kenaan, 1983). Differences Bosch, 1983). Thin interlayered beds of limestone and
in petrophysical properties resulting from sedimentation shale typically yield continuous parallel reflections with an
and diagenetic phenomena help differentiate carbonate apparent frequency related to the bed-thickness to signal-
depositional facies from seismic data (Delaplanche and wavelength ratio. An apparently high frequency is com-
Michon, 1978; Maureau and Van Wijne, 1979; Angeleri monly observed (signal derivation due to thin layers)
and Carpi, 1982). (Figure 7). In contrast, a predominantly shaly zone will
 J. M. Fontaine etal 283

Figure 1—Lithologic columns obtained by automatic interpreta-

tion technique using either conventional logging data or EVA
data. AMPS = S-wave amplitudes; DTS = S-wave interval tran-
sit time; GR = gamma ray; and DT = interval transit time. See
text for more detailed discussion on EVA tool.

exhibit an apparently low frequency. Generally, the pelagic

reflections terminate by onlap against the paleoshelf edge.

Talus Deposits

Talus deposits typically mark the boundary of a carbon-

ate shelf. They define a transitional zone between gener-
ally neritic and pelagic deposition. IWo types of slopes
may occur at a carbonate platform margin. A gentle slope
(less than 1°) in a carbonate ramp (Read, 1981) is repre-
sented on seismic sections by low-angle sigmoid or shin-
gled reflections becoming tangential to, or downlapping
at, the base of the sequence. These reflections commonly
have a low frequency (Figure 8). A steep slope (from a few
degrees to over 45°), as in a rimmed carbonate shelf
(Read, 1981), will normally exhibit gravity phenomena
(sliding, slumping). On seismic sections, such periplat-
form talus is represented by oblique, discontinuous, and
in places, chaotic reflections with high amplitudes (Figure
9). Seismic examples of rimmed shelves were shown by
Vail et al (1977) (western Africa), Bubb and Hatlelid
(1977) (Gulf of Papua, offshore west Africa), and Gam-
boa et al (1985) (Jurassic System of Bahimore Canyon
Trough).
Slumping effects may be identified by sUghtly discontin-
uous reflections of irregular geometry. Where substantial
debris flows occur, seismic sections exhibit chaotic reflec-
tions interposed between the parallel continuous reflec-
tions of pelagic deposits (Ravenne et al, 1985). Where
these debris deposits become more regular, structures are
created (submarine cones) that may have varying mor-
phologies, thus disturbing the more uniform pelagic
deposits. On seismic sections, these turbiditic structures
can be recognized by high-amplitude, mound-shaped
reflections; therefore, the envelope of the fades is an
important recognition criterion. Sediments may be trans-
ported from shallow to deep environments through chan-
nels, which on seismic lines are represented by erosional
CODE FIGURE truncations of underlying reflections (Brown and Fisher,
SALTY SAM ) S r O ' ^ f
1980). The channels may be filled by clastic carbonates
(chaotic reflections) or pelagic sediments (onlap fill, paral-
LIMESTOIV! lel reflections).
SANDY LIMESTOWf

DOLOIVIITIC LiMESrONfc Shelf Deposits

DOLOMITl
Typically, the shelf lies beneath shallow water, from 0 to
SHALY D O l >y'!in
200 m (615 ft) deep. Consequently, the sea floor is sub-
DOLOIVIITIC SMAl jected to various hydrodynamic conditions. In the low-
energy zones (inner shelf, lagoon), continuous, horizontal
strata are deposited, such as shales and limestones or lime-
stones only. Accordingly, seismic reflections are continu-
ANHYDRITE ous, parallel, and horizontal with little change in
amplitude, frequency (quite low), and phase (Figures 8,9).
In the high-energy zones, sediments should be analyzed
according to their particular sedimentologic criteria, such
284 Carbonate Depositional Environments

B
Figure 2—Presence of carbonate deposits within clastic series (east Africa). (A) Migrated section. (B) Image processing: same section
(with one of every two traces) with amplitude codification. Green and yellow (highest amplitude values) show limestone layers. (Image
processing developed by N. Keskes, 1982-1984; G. Sibille, 1985.)
 J.M. Fontaine etal 285

1982; Mundt, 1982; Bally, 1983; Frost et al, 1983). Bubb

WELL A and Hatlelid (1977) proposed the following criteria for rec-
ognizing such deposits:
1. Direct criteria—boundary outhne (reflection config-
urations and onlap of overlying reflections) and seismic
facies changes defining the buildup.
2. Indirect criteria—drape, velocity anomalies (pull-up
and pull-down), spurious events, and basin architecture
(fault-block edges, structural highs).
Two types of reef complexes are indicated on Figure 10.
In the lower part of the seismic section, dolomitized reefal
units are developed on a fault-controlled uplifted block.
The reef extension is limited to the high zone, and the sur-
rounding sediments are of pelagic origin. This reefal con-
struction is seismically characterized by a mound shape
and onlap of surrounding reflections. Higher in the series,
a shelf-margin buildup separates shelf deposits (shallow
marine limestone) from basin sediments (shaly hmestone).
This shelf edge can be located seismically and controlled
by wells along a large continuous JU'ea. Shelf-margin
buildup is interpreted on the basis of: (1) seismic facies
pattern change from a zone of continuous, parallel reflec-
tors (back-reef lagoon) to a nearly reflection-free zone
(reef facies) to continuous, parallel reflectors (basin
deposits); and (2) onlap of basin units over the shelf edge.
Reef complexes could develop on ridges in a pelagic
environment if the ridges reach favorable bathymetric
conditions (Figure 11). Growth of this type of reefal
BAJOCIAN
buildup is controlled by relative movements of sea level
(essentially the results of diapirism, subsidence, and possi-
[SONIC LOG] bly eustatism). These movements can be analyzed in detail
using color display of the "instantaneous phase." The
VELOCITIES LITHOLOGY instantaneous phase is obtained by analyzing a seismic
trace as a component of an analytic signal (Taner and
Sheriff, 1977). Such processing and color displays help
Figure 3—Variations of velocities within a carbonate succession,
from Middle Jurassic, Paris basin, France (from J. Dumay and locate unconformities, pinch-outs, and seismic sequence
T. Keenan, 1983). boundaries (Figure 12).

Carbonate Sand Bank

as reefal constructions, oolites, or bioclastic sands. High-
energy zones may be continuous or discontinuous, and Because of their thinness in relation to the signal wave-
they may create a barrier that isolates paleogeographic length, carbonate sand facies are usually difficult to detect
regions OFriedman, 1969; Elf Aquitaine, 1975, 1977; Wil- on conventional seismic sections. Consequently, tools
son, 1975; Reading, 1978; Playford, 1980; Purser, 1980; especially suited to this problem must be used. The inver-
Scholle et al, 1983). The favorable location for a barrier is sion of seismic traces may be a feasible approach, if good
normally the shelf edge. With or without the presence of a quality seismic sections are obtained and rigorous method-
barrier, however, high-energy conditions can exist on the ology is ensured. The method involves the following steps:
shelf, creating patch reefs and submarine shoals. These
high hydrodynamic energy zones are important for hydro- 1. Model a "pseudo-sonic log" synthetic trace in the
carbon prospecting because of their good reservoir prop- seismic frequency domain using well logs (sonic, density),
erties. to determine whether the sedimentary phenomenon is visi-
ble at a seismic level and what type of pattern it produces
Reefal BuOdup on the trace.
2. Control the signal's lateral stability among various
Reefs in the neritic setting may develop either as a nearly wells.
continuous barrier or as patch reefs. Because they are sig- 3. Reprocess sections with operators extracted from
nificant in petroleum exploration, these structures have well data (zero-phase section followed by pseudo-sonic
been the subject of numerous seismic studies (McCUn- log).
tock, 1976; Burbury, 1977; Kenyon, 1977; Chevron Stand- 4. Interpret pseudo-sonic log sections, controlling
ard Limited, 1979; Hriskevich et al, 1980; Baria et al. interpretation by modeling.
286 Carbonate Depositional Environments

/ / / / / /iL,

Platform
Basin Internal Intertidal Supratidal
Reef barrier border
(pelagic deposits) platform zone zone
sand

Figure 4—Synthetic and theoretical geologic model of carbonate depositional environments (from J. L. WUson, 1975).

Such methodology has been used in the Paris basin to response of these sedimentologic features (Figure 13B).
delimit an oolitic shoal in Bathonian-lower Callovian Although they are difficult to recognize on the seismic
strata. A geologic (sedimentologic) model is proposed stack section (Figure 13C), these seismic events can be fol-
between wells A and B (Figure 13A). The sonic log and lowed on the pseudo-sonic log sections resulting from
lithostratigraphic data ofwell A are presented on Figure 3. trace integration* (by using Velog' processing) (Figure
On well A, the oolitic limestones are overlain by oncolitic 13D). Thus, the thick porous oolitic Umestone can be
limestones (back-shoal facies), which are absent in well B. mapped.
The restrictive lagoonal facies terminates the Bathonian As the depositional environments become increasingly
regressive sequence. Porous oolitic limestones are well restricted, sometimes undergoing temporary emergence
developed in well B, and restricted lagoonal facies lie (intertidal, supratidal zone), new sedimentologic and dia-
above. genetic factors are introduced (such as dolomitlzation and
The problem is to obtain a seismic representation of this karstification, possible presence of evaporites).
geologic model, recognize the different sedimentologic
events on the model and on real seismic Hnes, and map the
extension of the thick porous oolitic limestone (oolitic
^Use and methodology of trace integration are explained in detail in Sheriff
shoal). The synthetic pseudo-sonic log section, based on (1980).
well data and on the geologic model, shows the seismic ^Velog is a trademark of Compagnie G^n^rale de Geophysique.

500 m
_l
sonic log

TOP OF ^
CARBONATES

CHALK

MARLS

Figure 5—Seismic facies of pelagic carbonate deposits from homogeneous limestones of Upper Cretaceous chalk, western Europe.
Stacked section.
 J. M. Fontaine etal 287

SW km NE
Two-Way Traveltime
(sec)

i!!i!l|ii|i'!|i||!|;iH|i'

il!i!itiltMiyiiliiillll|all!iilii!i»i i!'ii!iili,:lililiiii'!ii:ii|iii|iJiri' i::" i ::!g.i':=i i-HH'iii' •!ii,!!;,iii'«;!ii::ii,::

::|:!i:!;;;gj^j:S:::gs;;".i»'::;i-!i.
'''iBgg;'it»;aai!Si!a!hJ!ia "** • ,11. H i»i»niiiiiiiiiwi^'|iwi.|.i, .i-i>H-; -*••#•!. .|nm,^L|i"ir.'i' ^i""''''ii(ki;,';"'"*i;"*^:.'mi«"rir"iiS"M •suim
iwnn" —i!!!"ii|[i!'nM'"iiHTII liiliiiBiii'iiiil II wimm M M M W M M W I
ilJIIB!lllllli|i|l|ili|Wl»l[||:|"ii;i)iJ|j;[|||j;iii|,,i.;^^^

Ssi SINGLE mwttS"

REFLECTION

Figure 6—Seismic stacked (zero-phase) section through Harlingen field (Netherlands). Double reflection developed at top of Upper
Cretaceous chalk is caused by presence of porous chalk.

1km

Continuous,
S ^ parallel reflections
=l^iSd:'''"^v' with an apparently S = CARBONATE E4CIES
|^^lg=highfrequmcy_ J = g = ^ OF BASIN

Figure 7—Seismic facies of pelagic carbonate deposits from alternating beds of shales and limestones of Lower Cretaceous, southern
Europe. Stacked section.
288 Carbonate Depositional Environments

l\IW MOUND-SHAPED SE
LOW-AMPLITUDE
DRAPING
II
Carbonate buildup

PARALLEL, CONTINUOUS = MOUND-SHAPED

REFLECTIONS — LOW-ANGLE
DISCONTINUOUS
— TO CHAOTIC SIGMOID
Shallow marine shelf ~ REFLECTIONS-DRAPING PROGRADATIONS

Shelf-margin buildup 4 Km

Figure 8—Seismic stacked section from east Africa, showmg low-angle carbonate progradations. Evolution, essentially made by pro-
gradation with no aggradation, occurs during period of constant relative sea level or slow fall.

Figure9—Seismic stacked section shovring high-angle oblique carbonate progradations. Evolution, made by progradation and aggra-
dation, occurred during slow rise of relative sea level (Miocene, offshore north Africa). (1) Sandstone; (2) shales with limestone layers;
(3) limestone; (3A) shelf deposits; (3B) pelagic shales and limestones; (4) shales; and (5) alternating beds of shales and limestone.
 J. M. Fontaine eta! 289

Figure 10—Seismic section (migrated) from Aquitaine basin (southwestern France). In lower part of section (Cretaceous sequences),
dolomitized reefal units developed on fault-controlled uplifted blocks. Units are seismically characterized by mound shape and onlaps
of surrounding reflections. Higher shelf-margin buUdup (Paleocene) is shown, interpreted on basis of: (1) seismic facies pattern
change from zone of continuous, parallel reflectors (platform deposits) to nearly reflection-free zone (reef facies) to continuous, par-
allel reflectors (basin deposits); and (2) onlap of basin units over shelf edge.
290 Carbonate Depositional Environments

(oas) 3ui!i|3AeJi ABM-OMI DIAGENESIS OF CARBONATE DEPOSITS

After sedimentation, carbonate sediments may undergo

diagenetic alterations closely connected to the physical
and chemical factors affecting the environment (Pray and
Murray, 1965). This physico-chemical action changes the
texture or mineralogy of the sediment. We discuss two
types of diagenetic evolution of carbonates: dolomitiza-
tion and karstification.

Dolomitization

Measurements made in the laboratory and from well

logs show that petrophysical qualities of dolomites differ
from those of calcitic carbonates (Gregory, 1977; Rafavich
an
•o et al, 1984); for example, dolomites have higher density
•c
and higher acoustic velocities. Therefore, we would
assume that a seismic section would reveal these differ-
rs ences as acoustic impedance contrasts at the limestone-
dolomite interface. Unfortunately, these differences are
not always visible, but occasionally dolomite and lime-
stone can be differentiated on seismic facies.
a,
3 An example from the Mesozoic carbonate shelf of
southern Europe shows distinctive facies calibrated by the
well data (Figure 14). Shallow marine limestone with con-
tinuous parallel reflections appears in the upper part.
Dolomitized beds in the lower part are represented by a
"marbled" zone—a practically reflection-free zone with a
few discontinuous reflections that imply original stratifi-
cation. This marbled seismic facies may be associated with
I the well-developed dolomitic layers throughout the basin
(see also Figure 7 below the reflector "top of dolomites")
and now seems to be recognized in other regions in large-
a scale postdepositional dolomitization.

Karstification

f Large-scale karstification results in caves within car-

bonate rocks. Thus, the karst can form a particular type of
reservoir, characterized by a high anisotropy and high per-

I
I
meabiUty. On two-dimensional seismic sections, karst
areas are commonly difficult to distinguish from compact
limestone. They generally do not have a distinct seismic
facies pattern. The first step in detecting karst zones is to
recognize paleotopographic highs or possible subaerial
exposure on seismic lines by determining (1) erosional
•a truncation (del Olmo and Esteban, 1983, their Figure 1
from offshore northeastern Spain), (2) structural highs
onlapped by overlying sediments (Figure 15), and (3)
abundant irregularities affecting the seismic marker (sug-
gesting local collapse features) (Jenyon, 1984). Horizontal
seismic sections, which are the normal product Of three-
:c dimensional seismic surveys, help reconstruct karst paleo-
topography. The utility of horizontal sections in karst
o areas was first demonstrated by Brown (1985), who pre-
Z sented examples from Mackerel field in offshore Gipps-
land basin, southeastern Austraha.
9
Amplitude analyses can be used to determine the lateral
OS
extension of a karst area. Vandenberghe et al (1983) noted
that the magnitude of the reflection as a function of offset
 J. M. Fontaine etal 291

is affected by Poisson's ratio, and they theoretically Seismic stratigraphic analysis should not overshadow
proved that a relationship exists between values of Pois- the precise study of the elastic and acoustic parameters of
son's ratio and changes in limestone diagenesis. Also, the rocks. Seismic lithology appears to be particularly well-
relationship between the amplitudes of near and far traces, suhed to the seismic analysis of carbonates because of
on various offset stacks, typically highlights these differ- their postsedimentary diagenetic modifications. Dia-
ences (Figure 16). This process, involving analyses of near genesis alters the petrophysical nature of rocks and, hence,
and far traces, has been applied to a Barremian hydrocar- their seismic response. Many types of analyses may be
bon field "A" in the Mediterranean basin (Figure 17), conducted to define these phenomena better: e.g., ampli-
where the karst strata pass laterally into compact lime- tude variations with offsets (Vandenberghe et al, 1983);
stones (well C). S-wave reflection (Domenico, 1983; Arditty et al, 1985)
These carbonate strata are covered by a prograding clas- (Figure 1); laboratory measurements (Grady et al, 1979;
tic succession ranging in age from late Miocene to Larson, 1980; Rafavich et al, 1984); and downhole mea-
Pliocene-Quaternary. Along a seismic line joining the surements such as density, sonic, and EVA logs (Arditty et
hydrocarbon field to well C, we compared the amplitudes al, 1985) (Figures 1,3).
corresponding to the acoustic impedance contrasts in a By studying both depositional environments (seismic
200-msec window, with 6 partial coverings. CI covers the stratigraphic approach) and petrophysical characteristics
carbonate strata with near offsets, and C6 covers the strata (seismic lithologic approach), we can more completely
with far offsets. The C6/C1 and C2/C1 ratios clearly dif- define the geologic history and the variations in sea level
ferentiate between the karst and nonkarst zones (Figure by which a basin has been affected, which will help us
18). A similar study was conducted in northern Belgium to investigate and comprehend carbonate reservoirs and their
recognize karst in Dinantian limestones (Vandenberghe et paleogeography.
al, 1983).
SELECTED REFERENCES
CONCLUSION
Angeleri, G. P., and R. Carpi, 1982, Porosity prediction from seismic data;
Geophysical Prospecting, v. 30, p. 580-607.
The relationships between seismic facies and carbonate Arditty, P. C , G. Arens, and P. Staron, 1985, Improvement of formation
properties evaluation through the processing and interpretation results
depositional environments, based on the analysis of vari- of the EVA tool recordings (abs.): Geophysics, v. 50, p. 268.
ous examples, are summarized in Figure 19. Having mod- Bally, A. W., ed., 1983, Seismic expression of structural styles—a picture
eled the horizontal and vertical changes of the seismic and work atlas: AAPG Studies in Geology Series 15,3 volumes.
facies, we can attempt to identify the carbonate deposi- Baria, L. R., D. L. Stoudt, P. M. Harris, and P. E. CreveUo, 1982, Upper
Jurassic reefs of Smackover Formation, United States Gulf Coast:
tional sequences within sedimentary basins and evaluate AAPG Bulletin, v. 66, p. 1449-1482.
the relative changes in sea level, a fundamental parameter Bathurst, R. G. C , 1971, Carbonate sediments and their diagenesis:
in carbonate sedimentation and postsedimentary diagen- Amsterdam, Elsevier, Developments in Sedimentology 12,677 p.
etic transformations (Kendall, 1981). An example from Berg, O. R., and D. G. Woolverton, eds., 1985, Seismic stratigraphy II: an
integrated approach to hydrocarbon exploration: AAPG Memoir 39,
the African coast (Figure 12) shows the data that can be 276 p.
obtained by analyzing a seismic section in terms of relative Bosselini, A., 1984, Progradation geometries of carbonate platforms:
variations in sea level. For carbonates, the depositional examples from the Triassic of the Dolomites, northern Italy: Sedimen-
sequence concept must be linked to the diagenetic tology, v. 31, p. 1-24.
Brown, A. R., 1985, The role of horizontal seismic sections in stratigraphic
sequence concept because of diagenetic discontinuities interpretation, in O. R. Berg and D. G. Woolverton, eds., Seismic stra-
created in carbonate sediments. Several lithofacies charac- tigraphy II: an integrated approach to hydrocarbon exploration:
terized by specific diagenetic conditions may develop AAPG Memoir 39, p. 37^7.
Brown, L. E, Jr., and W. L. Fisher, 1980, Seismic stratigraphic interpreta-
between these discontinuities. tion and petroleum exploration: AAPG Continuing Education Course
Seismic sections provide an overall view of the vertical Note Series 16, p. 1-125.
evolution of these diagenetic sequences, and seismic facies Bubb, J. N., and W, G. Hatlelid, 1977, Seismic stratigraphy and global
changes of sea level, part 10: seismic recognition of carbonate buildups,
in a carbonate domain can be recognized on the basis of in C. E. Payton, ed.. Seismic stratigraphy—applications to hydrocar-
two often inseparable factors: sedimentation and dia- bon exploration: AAPG Memoir 26, p. 185-204.
genesis. Burbury, J. E., 1977, Expression of carbonate buildups, north-west Java
basin: Indonesian Petroleum Association 6th Armual Congress, p. 239-
Seismic facies analysis facilitates the interpretation of 268.
carbonate depositional environments. This seismic strati- Chevron Standard Limited, Exploration Staff, 1979, The geology, geophys-
graphic approach uses several geophysical tools in addi- ics, and significance of the Nisku reef discoveries. West Pembina area.
tion to conventional P-wave reflection data (two- or Alberta, Canada: Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology, v. 27, p.
326-359.
three-dimensional acquisition): e.g., velocity analysis; Choquette, P W., and L. C. Pray, 1970, Geological nomenclature and clas-
analysis of the seismic trace parameters such as instantane- sification of porosity in sedimentary carbonates: AAPG Btilletin, v. 54,
ous phase (see Figure 12B), and instantaneous amplitude p. 207-250.
Delaplanche, J., and D. Michon, 1978, Les carbonates en geophysique:
and frequency (Robertson and Nogami, 1984); zero-phase Petrole et Techniques, v. 254, p. 15-32.
seismic section, true-amplitude seismic sections (Figure Del Olmo, W. M., and M. Esteban, 1983, Paleokarst development, in R A.
13C), and seismogram inversion (Figure 13D); and Scholle, D. G. Bebout, and C. H. Moore, eds.. Carbonate depositional
computer-assisted interpretation such as modeling (for- environments: AAPG Memoir 33, p. 93-95.
Domenico, S. N., 1983, Sandstone and limestone porosity determination
ward or inverse) (Sheriff, 1980) and image processing (Fig- from shear and compressional wave velocity: Australian Society of
ure 2). Exploration Geophysics Bulletin, v. 14, no. 3-4, p. 81-90.
(References continued on p. 296.)
292 Carbonate Depositional Environments

NW SE

NW SE

o
0 Et

Ik s
180°
I
6

B
Figure 12—North Africa reefal buildup developed on diapiricridge:(A) seismic stacked section; (B) instantaneous phase section; (C)
chronostratigraphic interpretation based on instantaneous phase section analysis; and (D) interpretation of successive phases of
building. (1) Ridge reaches favorable bathymetric conditions, and growth of reef buildup occurs. (2) Diapirism is dominant; no
deposits appear on top of diapir, but buildup extends laterally. (3) Reef buildup extends. (4) Diapirism is dominant Oast diapiric event
occurs, and some erosion appears). (S) Deposits accumulate because of continued subsidence, and sea level may rise. (6) Sea level
probably drops, and erosion occurs. Downslope deposits accumulate. (7) Deposits accumulate because of continued subsidence, and
sea level mayrise.(8) Sea level drops, and erosion occurs. (9) Final diagram of section.
 J. M. Fontaine etal 293

O:ONLAP Fr^BOUNDSTONE EMJ SHALES

D : DOWNLAP I LIMESTONE EROSIONAL PRODUCTS
E : EROSION
1

D FINAL DIAGRAM
Figure 12—Contintted.
294 Carbonate Depositional Environments

WELL A WELLB

UPPER CALLOVIAN Shales

(shales)

» -'^ -^ '^ / Restrictive lagoon facies (limestone)-

Oolitic Hmestone

WELL A WELLB
Restrictive lagoon facies and bioclastic formation
Oncolilic hmestone
Oolitic limestone (shoal)

aso «
E

WELLB
200m

Figure 13—Seismic interpretation of submarine oolitic shoal using trace integration processing and modeling. (A) Geologic (sedimen-
tologic) model between wells A and B. (B) Synthetic pseudo-sonic log sections. (C) Migrated section (true amplitude). (D) Pseudo-
sonic log sections obtained from trace integration, Paris basin (France), Bathonian to lower Callovian strata. See text for more
detailed discussion.
 .•>i?2i.r:„,.3,iii.

•yl'^ft Shallow marine, u

f'il^ llmestone_ji| a>
w
0)
E
>
(B

Figure 14—Seismic facies of large-scale postdepositional dolomites (stacked section), Jurassic to Cretaceous strata, southern Europe.

Figure 15—Seismic stacked section throughout Bresse basin (France) showing an uplifted block onlapped by Eocene<?)-Oligocene
sediments. Wells 1 and 2 encountered Jurassic karst limestone below Oligocene sediments. Well 3 encountered unkarstified Mesozoic
limestone. Karst area seems to correspond to upper part of tectonic high, the last zone onlapped by Tertiary sediments. H3 = Intra-
Oligocene reflector; H4 = top of Mesozoic carbonates; H5 = intra-Jurassic reflector; Fl, F2, F3 = faults. (Reprinted with permis-
sion of Gaz de France.)
296 Carbonate Depositional Environments

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NW SE
1 Km

SILTS
AND
SHALES

PROGRA-
DATIONS
(FORESET)

SHALES

CARBONATES

F ^ r e 17—Seismic section tlirough hydrocarbon field producing from Barremian karst limestone. Well C encountered Barremian
compact limestone, offshore southern Europe.
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dolomitization: Journal of Sedimentology Petrology, v. 49, p. 437-462.
Wilson, J. L., 1975, Carbonate fades in geological history: New York,
Springer-Verlag, 471 p. Figure 18—Relative amplitude analysis along seismic line of Fig-
ure 17 from near offset (CI) to far offsets (C6). C6/C1 and C2/
CI ratios clearly differentiate between karst and compact
limestone, offshore southern Europe.

. A /^ A / \ ^ A

BASIN TALUS REEF Pi-;^!?™'^ INTERNAL INTER- SUPRA-

TIDAL
TIDAL
(Pelagic deposits) BARRIER BORDER
SANDS PLATFORM ZONE ZONE
Terminations of reflections: Onlaps on the talus Discontinuous, Mound-shaped Mound'Shaped Parallel, continuous reflections Dolomitization:
HomogeneoDs limestones: Continuous reflec- oblique reflec- draping of oblique reflec- generally with an apparently low "Marbled
tions at the top and base with high-amplitude, tions with high overlying tion with high frequency zones"
reflector-free zone between these two reflections amplitude reflections amplitude Patch Reef: Mound-shaped
Shale and carbonate layers: Continuous, paral- Slomplag: Pull-up and Back Reef: rcf lector-free zone
lel reflections with an apparently high frequency Reflections pull-down Discontimious Draping of overlying reflections
ShiJy layers: Apparently low frequency with hum- effects reflections, Pull-up and pull-down effects
l^rbidites: High-amplitude, discontinuous mocky and Onlaps at the beginning of Onlaps at the edges
reflections, mound shaped irregular edges bedding Diffraction hyperbola
envelope Diffraction
Chanael: hyperbola
Erosional
truncations,
chaotic reflec-
tions

Figure 19—Seismic facies of carbonate depositionai enyironments (geologic model modified from J. L. Wiison, 1975).