Bren Na 2021

4
Anatomy of Intraplate Monogenetic Alkaline Basaltic Magmatism:

Clues From Magma, Crystals, and Glass
Marco Brenna1, Teresa Ubide2, Alexander R. L. Nichols3, Silvio Mollo4,5, and Alessio Pontesilli1
ABSTRACT
Intraplate basaltic systems, often occurring as fields of small monogenetic volcanoes, are dominated by eruption
of alkaline basaltic rocks, ranging from nephelinite/basanite to transitional/subalkaline. Their primitive erupted
compositions imply limited crustal modification, thus providing an important probe into deep, lithospheric
mantle processes. The whole-rock chemical variability within single eruptions is controlled by the characteristics
of the primary melting source, as well as near-source percolative/reaction processes. Complex crystal textures
and compositions have so far demonstrated that basaltic magmas are principally processed and modified within
the lithospheric mantle with minor modification en route through the crust. Fractional crystallization and
magma mixing modify melts throughout ascent, and can imprint secondary chemical intra-eruptive variability.
Quantifiable temperature and pressure parameters constrain the depth of formation, and hence provide infor-
mation about the role of different mineral phases in deep versus shallow chemical evolution. Volatile compo-
nents in the melt can be quantified on glass and melt inclusions. These analyses may help to reconstruct initial
dissolved volatile content to further constrain the source characteristics and magmatic ascent dynamics.
Integrated studies of crystals and melt paint a picture of extended lithospheric mantle to minor crustal process-
ing resulting from the complex deep plumbing of monogenetic basaltic systems. This highlights the need for
improved resolution to characterize true primary signatures and hence elucidate the formation of intraplate
alkaline basalts.
4.1. INTRODUCTION therefore fundamental for developing our understanding

of processes of magma formation and evolution. Mid‐
Basalt is the most common rock in Earth’s crust, oceanic ridge basalts (MORBs) are generated where
although it is admittedly mostly submerged as the oceanic tectonic plates diverge and new crust is formed. Melting
floor. Basalts (sensu lato) also represent the compositions in these settings occurs by adiabatic decompression
of partial melts forming in the mantle (Green, 1973), and (Langmuir et al., 1992; Oxburgh & Turcotte, 1968), and
hence primary magmas from which many intermediate despite local and regional variability (Shimizu et al., 2016;
and silicic igneous rocks are derived. Basaltic rocks are Wood, 1979), MORBs have a restricted compositional
1
Department of Geology, University of Otago, Dunedin,
3
Department of Geological Sciences, University of
New Zealand Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
2
School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, The University
4
Department of Earth Sciences, Sapienza – University of
of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia Rome, Rome, Italy
5
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Rome, Italy
Crustal Magmatic System Evolution: Anatomy, Architecture, and Physico-Chemical Processes, Geophysical Monograph 264, First Edition.
Edited by Matteo Masotta, Christoph Beier, and Silvio Mollo.
© 2021 American Geophysical Union. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
DOI: 10.1002/9781119564485.ch4
79
80 CRUSTAL MAGMATIC SYSTEM EVOLUTION
range compared to intraplate oceanic island basalts netic alkaline basaltic rocks a useful tool to investigate
(OIBs) (e.g., Pilet, 2015). Despite the misleading appella- deep processes of partial melting and melt modification.
tion of these latter magma types, rocks with OIB charac- Their generally elementary crystal cargo, often consisting
teristics occur in continental as well as oceanic settings. of only olivine and clinopyroxene, is another beneficial
Our understanding of the generation of these intraplate aspect to help the reconstruction of primitive and paren-
rock suites, and the associated mantle plume theory tal melt characteristics. Occasional complex zonation
(Morgan, 1971), was originally developed using intra‐ patterns of crystals can help resolve deep to shallow
oceanic islands as type localities, notably Hawaii plumbing processes (Coote & Shane, 2018; Duda &
(Wilson, 1963), and hence the name. OIBs are predomi- Schmincke, 1985; Jankovics et al., 2013; Jankovics
nantly understood to be produced by adiabatic decom- et al., 2016) and hence improve the resolution of petroge-
pression (Cawthorn, 1975; Green & Ringwood, 1967). If netic models. Here we summarize current geochemical
exotic (metasomatic) amphibole and/or phlogopite are and petrological tools employed in the interpretation of
present, they may break down and cause melting upon continental alkaline basaltic suites to elucidate the mag-
compression, such as during lithospheric delamination matic processes within the plumbing system of intraplate
(Allen et al., 2013). OIBs may also not be derived directly monogenetic volcanoes.
from the partially molten portion of an upwelling mantle
diapir, with post‐melting processes such as chromato-
graphic percolation, reactions with overlying lithosphere, 4.2. ORIGIN OF INTRAPLATE MONOGENETIC
and re‐melting due to thermal perturbation contributing BASALTIC SYSTEMS
to final basalt magma formation (Godard et al., 1995;
Harte et al., 1993; Mallik & Dasgupta, 2012; Menzies & Within the framework of the plate tectonic theory,
Murthy, 1980; Pilet, 2015). The wide compositional spec- intraplate volcanoes erupt away from the direct influence
trum (major and trace elements and isotopes) of OIBs of either convergent or divergent plate boundaries. In this
implies that the process of melting and melt modification context, subduction‐related and intraplate volcanoes (arc
through crystallization involve a greater number of vari- versus OIB magmas) bear distinct chemical signatures
ables than those governing MORB generation. As a con- (Pearce & Peate, 1995). Due to the input of fluids and
sequence, the tectonic and petrogenetic processes of residual mineralogy from subducting slabs, the former
intraplate rock suites are still hotly debated (Foulger & are enriched in large‐ion‐lithophile elements (LILEs),
Jurdy, 2007; Foulger et al., 2005; Herzberg, 2010; Pilet depleted in high‐field‐strength elements (HFSEs) and
et al., 2008). have generally flat patterns of rare earth elements (REEs)
Systems with OIB‐like characteristics are associated (Elliott et al., 1997; Hawkesworth et al., 1994; Kessel
with magma spanning a broad compositional spectrum et al., 2005; Tatsumi et al., 1986). By contrast, magmas
from subalkaline (tholeiitic) basalt to basanite/nephelinite erupted in intraplate settings tend to be enriched in
(and some lamprophyre), with rhyolite to phonolite being HFSEs and LILEs, also showing relatively high light/
their evolved derivatives. They also occur in a variety of heavy REE ratios (LREEs/HREEs), frequently inter-
tectonic settings from oceanic and continental intraplate preted to indicate residual garnet in the source of the
to some back‐arc environments. In this chapter, we will melts (Clague & Frey, 1982; Floyd, 1991; Sun &
focus particularly on continental intraplate basaltic suites McDonough, 1989). Where the spatial distinction
consisting of multiple monogenetic magma batches with between these different rock suites is not obvious, the
OIB‐like alkaline basalt/basanite associations. We will chemical characteristics become paramount for interpret-
extend the discussion to subalkaline basalts where they ing their genetic origins. For instance, intraplate alkaline
occur in the context of their alkaline correlatives. The volcanism due to variable asthenospheric flow and
rationale for focusing our attention on monogenetic alka- decompression occurs in the immediate vicinity of the
line basaltic rocks is that they generally provide a direct volcanic arc in North Island, New Zealand (Briggs &
probe into the processes involved with magma generation McDonough, 1990; McGee et al., 2013; Smith
and evolution, and they are ubiquitous in most continen- et al., 1993), Kyushu, Japan (Mahony et al., 2011;
tal intraplate settings. Intraplate monogenetic alkaline Mashima, 2009; Sakuyama et al., 2009), the trans‐
basalts often host inclusions of lithospheric peridotite, Mexican volcanic belt (Ferrari et al., 2001; Márquez
indicative of their relatively rapid ascent from the man- et al., 1999), and the Cascades, western United States
tle (O’Reilly & Griffin, 2011; Spera, 1984). The lack of (Strong & Wolff, 2003). For the purpose of this chapter,
complex plumbing and storage has implications in terms we consider continental intraplate basalts (sensu lato) as
of minimizing the potential processes of magma modifi- those rocks with the following chemical characteristics:
cation en route to the surface (McGee & Smith, 2016). (a) whole‐rock compositions in the fields of basalt‐
The relatively limited crustal interaction makes monoge- trachybasalt‐basanite/tephrite plotted on the total‐alkali
MAGMA, CRYSTALS, AND GLASS IN ALKALINE BASALTS 81
versus silica (TAS) diagram (Le Maitre et al., 2005) and other basaltic rock types (such as subalkaline, tholeiites,
(b) lack of negative Nb‐Ta anomalies on a trace element or rocks related to hydrous melting), possibly due to
normalized diagram, otherwise interpreted as direct sub- poor preservation and/or non‐ideal mantle conditions
duction signatures (Sun & McDonough, 1989). for their generation, such as high mantle potential tem-
It is noteworthy that some continental intraplate peratures and high degrees of melting (Blichert‐Toft
suites occurring in association with OIB volcanism et al., 1996). Mantle metasomatism (Menzies &
display an arc‐like signature (e.g., Nb‐Ta depletion)
Hawkesworth, 1986) derived from subduction and
even when there is no proximal active subduction, thus recycling of ancient crustal components is likely to be a
revealing the characteristics of lithologies involved in prerequisite to form alkaline basalts because of their
magma genesis (Menzies et al., 1991). However, these commonly enriched mantle isotopic signatures (Davies
are rare occurrences and will, therefore, not be treated in & Rawlinson, 2014; Menzies & Murthy, 1980; Wass &
detail here. Roge, 1980), consequently explaining the paucity of
Magmatic intraplate systems generally occur as fields of such magma types early in the Precambrian. The origin
small monogenetic volcanoes on both continental and of the recycled crustal component is still a matter of
oceanic crust (Smith & Németh, 2017). Because of the debate. It may be linked to either mantle cycling of sub-
spatially and temporally dispersed nature of eruptions ducted plates (Kogiso & Hirschmann, 2006; Xu, 2014)
and their relatively short duration (weeks to a few years), or delaminated lower crustal material (Homrighausen
such systems do not generally construct large volcanic et al., 2018; Weiss et al., 2016), and is increasingly recog-
edifices. The lack of burial of early eruptions means that nized to involve a carbonated component (Zeng
field‐scale eruptive histories can be investigated compre- et al., 2010). The mineralogical make‐up of the melting
hensively from the onset of activity (Condit & material is another aspect that has as yet not met con-
Connor, 1996; Leonard et al., 2017), revealing changes sensus. This is in part due to heterogeneities in chemical
occurring within the magma source area over the lifetime signatures that, given the lack of well‐constrained
of the volcanic field (Brenna et al., 2012a; Valentine & parameters (such as modal mineralogy and partitioning
Perry, 2006). Individual small volcanoes often form single values), can be accounted for by different models.
scoria or phreatomagmatic cones or maars with small lava Deep melting, reactions, and crystallization processes
fields (Valentine and Gregg, 2008) and erupted volumes that involve principally pyroxenes and hydrous mineral
<<1 km3 (Kereszturi et al., 2013), implying low magmatic phases (Condamine & Médard, 2014; Robinson
flux from the mantle (Valentine & Hirano, 2010; Valentine et al., 1998; Späth et al., 2001) produce competing
& Perry, 2007). Historical examples (with scientific chemical trends, and it may be impossible to distinguish
reports) of monogenetic eruptions, albeit in arc settings, them with confidence. For instance, Pilet (2015) pro-
are the Ukinrek maars, Aleutian arc, Alaska (Kienle posed a model whereby primitive basanites/alkaline
et al., 1980), the generation of Teishi Knoll during subma- basalts melts are derived from the melting of metaso-
rine eruptions off the Izu Peninsula, Japan (Yamamoto matically derived hornblendite and react with orthopy-
et al., 1991), and the basaltic andesite to andesite Paricutin roxene in the lithosphere to produce a trend toward
cone and lava field in the Trans‐Mexican volcanic belt subalkaline compositions. Conversely, Mallik and
(Larrea et al., 2017; Segerstrom, 1966). Recent examples Dasgupta (2012) formed alkaline compositions starting
of actual intraplate monogenetic basaltic eruptions, from eclogite‐derived subalkaline melts and through
though without direct observational records, include reaction‐crystallization of orthopyroxene in peridotite.
Laoheishan and Huoshaoshan (1719–1721 CE), Moreover, deep clinopyroxene crystallization during
Wudalianchi Volcanic Field, China (Feng & Whitford‐ early magma ascent may generate trends toward an
Stark, 1986), Rangitoto (ca. 1500 CE), Auckland Volcanic increasing apparent alkaline character (decreasing SiO2
Field, New Zealand (Needham et al., 2011), and the Al‐ and increasing Na2O and K2O) (Re et al., 2017; Smith
Madinah eruption (1256 CE), Kingdom of Saudi Arabia et al., 2008).
(Camp et al., 1987). Due to the long recurrence times, In addition to mantle metasomatism/reaction and/or
such eruptions are not perceived as major hazards, and deep crystallization affecting the composition of primi-
hence human settlements are constructed on volcanic tive alkaline magmas, other models advocate for melts
fields (e.g., Auckland). Nevertheless, even relatively small derived from distinct lithologies and different degrees of
eruptions could result in considerable loss of life and partial melting within the asthenosphere/lithosphere
infrastructure (McDonald et al., 2017). (Beccaluva et al., 2007; Harangi et al., 2015; Kim
Alkaline basalts are not just a modern occurrence et al., 2019; McGee et al., 2013; Peters et al., 2008; Timm
and have been erupted throughout Earth’s history et al., 2010). There is general consensus that the mantle is
(Manikyamba & Kerrich, 2011). In the Archean, heterogeneous on all scales. Distinct lithologies, however,
however, alkaline basaltic rocks are less abundant than have very different solidus curves, separated by several
Temperature (°C)
900 1000 1200 1400 1600
0
100 mWm–2
60 mWm–2 50%
50
2 %
0%
40 mW –2
m 0% 100
OH-F
Pressure (GPa)
OH F
Depth (km)
4
MOR a
6 200
Plume
diabat
a
8
diabat
300
10
Eclogite + CO2 (Dasgupta et al 2004)

Peridotite + CO2 (Dasgupta and Hirschmann 2006)
Peridotite + H2O (Wylie 1995)
Pyroxenite to 50% melting (Pertermann and Hirschmann 2003)
Dry peridotite to 50% melting (Hirschmann 2000, Lee and Chin 2014)
OH and/or fluor-(F) Pargasite stability (Foley 1991, Green 2015)
Carbonated silicate melting of peridotite
and pyroxenite (Dasgupta et al 2007)
Carbonatitic and CO2 fluids from melting carbonated lithologies
Figure 4.1 Summary of the solidus conditions of different mantle lithologies. It should be emphasized that
distinct lithologies have very different melting temperatures and pressures. In the absence of clear indicators
of thermal anomalies (i.e., mantle plumes), or vigorous mantle convection or upwelling, it is unlikely that
unmetasomatized primitive mantle will partially melt because the base of continental lithosphere (e.g.,
60 mWm−2 geotherm) intersects the mid‐ocean ridge (MOR; normal) mantle adiabat at temperatures lower than
the peridotite solidus.
hundreds of temperature degrees (Brey et al., 2009; a lkaline basaltic systems. Often, decompression melting
Dasgupta & Hirschmann, 2006; Dasgupta et al., 2004; is associated with upwelling in mantle plumes (Davies &
Kogiso & Hirschmann, 2006) (Figure 4.1). For instance, Bunge, 2006; Kimura et al., 2018; Ritter et al., 2001).
at 3 GPa, the solidus of carbonated eclogite is at <1100 Peridotite upwelling can also result from other processes.
°C, whereas that of dry peridotite is >1400 °C, and melt- For example, lithospheric delamination may lead to
ing would generate widely differing liquids (Dasgupta upwelling of asthenosphere, causing it to melt (Hoernle
et al., 2004). Therefore, models advocating for melting of et al., 2006; Lustrino, 2005). Edge‐driven asthenospheric
different lithologies ought to be verified for consistency flow may cause localized upwelling and decompression
with the petrological and thermodynamic properties of melting (Ballmer et al., 2015; Demidjuk et al., 2007) as
the lithologies involved, and whether these can melt con- could asthenospheric flow around slab tears (Rosenbaum
temporaneously (and to the required degree) within a et al., 2018). “Petit spots” resulting from lithospheric flex-
restricted spatial and temporal interval. Metasomatism ures and deformation could facilitate the ascent of exist-
and melt/mantle reactions may represent a continuum ing asthenospheric melts (Harangi et al., 2013; Hirano
solution to explain distinct compositions (Pilet et al., 2005), et al., 2006; Valentine & Hirano, 2010) potentially formed
often erupted within single small‐volume monogenetic by asthenospheric shear (Conrad et al., 2011). Alternative
events (Brenna et al., 2010; Needham et al., 2011). models require a multi‐step process, whereby partial
Uncertainty remains large, and further and more melts from the asthenosphere metasomatize the lower
advanced data‐handling techniques may be necessary to lithosphere, with subsequent thermodynamic destabili-
produce models that can be applied generally. zation of the latter generating alkaline magmas (Pilet
The mechanisms responsible for the destabilization of et al., 2008; Pilet et al., 2005; Rooney et al., 2014). All
the mantle source and its partial melting require further models have their merits and flaws, but they are mostly
attention to better elucidate the origin of intraplate based on the chemical characteristics of the erupted lavas.
The rheological and physical mechanisms involved in the et al., 2018; Demouchy et al., 2006; Harangi et al., 2013;
upwelling of mantle peridotite have also been broadly Jankovics et al., 2013). Consequently, the effect of assimi-
constrained and provide an additional perspective to lation and crustal contamination do not generally plague
evaluate the feasibility of melting models. For instance, the interpretation of chemical signatures in alkaline
upwelling rates relating to continental intraplate volcanic basalts, particularly those related to small‐volume erup-
areas have been estimated to be <1 cm a−1 in eastern tions (McGee & Smith, 2016). Far from being dominated
Australia, New Zealand, and Northeast China (Demidjuk only by near‐primary magmas, however, intraplate alka-
et al., 2007; McGee et al., 2011; Zou et al., 2008), and line systems have often undergone considerable magmatic
10% partial melting of peridotite requires adiabatic evolution to form trachyte/phonolite/rhyolite associa-
decompression of ~35 km (Lee & Chin, 2014). Even con- tions (Ablay et al., 1998; Brenna et al., 2012b; Crossingham
ceding that alkaline basalts are likely to be generated by et al., 2018; Harangi, 2001; Harangi et al., 1995; Melluso
only a small percentage of peridotite partial melting, it et al., 2018; Moufti et al., 2012). Such magma composi-
would require >10 km upwelling over >1 Myr to form an tions generally occur in larger‐volume central volcanoes
alkaline melt. These timeframes are longer than the life- that are associated with complex, multi‐stage plumbing
time of some volcanic fields, and U‐series indicate that systems and result from magma stalling and evolving
partial melting is generally a fast process (Bourdon through fractional crystallization and assimilation pro-
et al., 2005; Cohen & O’Nions, 1993; Williams & cesses. Nevertheless, nominally evolved magmas, such as
Gill, 1989), making decompression melting an unlikely trachyte and phonolite, can form broadly “monogenetic”
sole and direct driver of intraplate volcanism. This is fur- eruptions, such as isolated domes, lava flows, and pyro-
ther emphasized in the case of contemporaneous erup- clastic cones (Brenna et al., 2019; Paulick & Franz, 1997;
tion of alkaline and subalkaline magmas. Subalkaline Wörner & Schmincke, 1984). These could in some cases
magmas are generally modelled to require a greater result from direct extraction of lithospheric peridotite
degree of partial melting at a shallower level. If both melts (Laporte et al., 2014; Loges et al., 2019), particu-
compositions are erupted together (e.g., Brenna larly where they host mantle xenoliths (Irving &
et al., 2010), it would imply that they had existed as inde- Price, 1981), although crustal storage and mixing may
pendent magma batches for millions of years because fast also explain unusual associations (Abratis et al., 2015;
contemporaneous melting is unlikely. In the case of melts Schmitt et al., 2017). Because of the complexities intro-
generated by delamination or edge‐driven flows, they duced in the system by crustal storage, which end up
would imply some serious irregularities (several tens of obscuring primary magmatic signatures, we will not con-
kilometers) in the lower lithosphere that ought to be sider evolved intraplate alkaline series in this chapter.
reflected in surface topography. Hence, a robust model of The TAS (Figure 4.2) diagram (Le Maitre et al., 2005)
the petrogenesis of intraplate alkaline basalts needs to provides a first‐order visualization of the whole‐rock
marry chemical signatures with physical and timescale chemical character of igneous suites. Considering single
constraints. intraplate volcanic fields as whole magmatic entities, it is
Primarily, the study of intraplate basalts has obvious apparent that the range of erupted magmas spans a very
practical ramifications for society and the economy, in broad spectrum, often from foidite/nephelinite to subal-
terms of the potential hazards associated with magma kaline basalt, as exemplified by the Auckland Volcanic
ascent and eruption. In this respect, post‐sourcing differ- Field (New Zealand; Figure 4.2a). Not every volcanic
entiation processes have a more direct bearing on final field, however, displays the same range and distribution
eruption dynamics compared to the source mineralogy of erupted compositions, likely reflecting heterogeneities
and mechanics. In the following we will focus on inter- in the primary melting mantle material, the degree of
preting these processes based on rock, mineral, and glass partial melting, the degree of percolative interaction,
chemistries. and the reacting lithologies. To constrain the deep pro-
cesses that are occurring, focusing on single eruptions
4.3. INSIGHTS FROM WHOLE‐ROCK may facilitate greater sampling resolution and hence pro-
CHEMICAL DATA vide insightful information unattainable at the scale of
entire fields.
Intraplate alkaline basaltic rocks are the most common The availability and interconnectivity of fertile mate-
hosts of mantle xenoliths (Chen et al., 2007; Dalton rial to produce melt and allow melt to percolate and be
et al., 2017; Pearson et al., 2003; Vaselli et al., 1995). extracted (Katz et al., 2006) influence the volumes of
Quantitative studies of magma ascent rates reveal that individual melt pockets that eventually coalesce to pro-
intraplate alkaline basalts rise from near‐source mantle duce a magma batch sufficient to sustain the opening and
depths, where some storage may be involved, and ascend propagation of a dike to the surface (Rubin, 1995; Taisne
rapidly through the crust (Albert et al., 2015; Brenna & Tait, 2009). Such deep magma processing is recorded in
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
Figure 4.2 (a) TAS diagram with data from four representative intraplate basaltic volcanic fields (data from the
GEOROC database: http://georoc.mpch‐mainz.gwdg.de/georoc/). The illustrated portion of the TAS diagram is
shown in the inset on top right. tb is trachybasalt, bta is basaltic trachyandesite, and ba is basaltic andesite. The
distinctions between alkaline and subalkaline basalts and the field of overlap are as shown in Le Maitre et al.
(2005) after Bellieni et al. (1983). (b) Possible mechanisms related to the compositional variability within the
basaltic spectrum. Hornblendite (hbl) partial melts and melt/peridotite reactions (Pilet, 2015; Pilet et al., 2008).
Eclogite (ecl) partial melts and melt/peridotite reactions (Mallik & Dasgupta, 2012). High‐pressure clinopyroxene
(acmite, Cr‐diopside, and Al‐augite) fractional crystallization (FC), compositional field from Duda and Schmincke
(1985). Olivine FC, Fo 85 is representative of olivine crystallizing in primitive basaltic magmas. (c) and (d)
Compositional variation within single monogenetic eruptions: (c) continuous trends from strongly alkaline to
mildly alkaline or subalkaline compositions; and (d) alkaline/subalkaline compositional bimodality. Pupuke data
from McGee et al. (2013), Motukorea data from McGee et al. (2012), Kissomlyó data from Jankovics et al. (2015),
Mount Rouse data from Boyce et al. (2015), Udo data from Brenna et al. (2010), Rangitoto data from Needham
et al. (2011), and Mount Gambier data from Van Otterloo et al. (2014). Sources: (a) Data from GEOROC data-
base. (b) Pilet (2015); Pilet et al. (2008); Mallik and Dasgupta (2012); Duda and Schmincke (1985); (c) Data from
McGee et al. (2012, 2013); Jankovics et al. (2015); Boyce et al. (2015); Brenna et al. (2010); Needham et al.
(2011); Van Otterloo et al. (2014).
the chemical composition of the eruption products. For Auckland Volcanic Field (McGee et al., 2012). This has
instance, it is not uncommon that single monogenetic traditionally been interpreted to indicate that two distinct
eruptions show a continuous transition from strongly primary magma sources, such as peridotite and eclogite,
alkaline compositions (nephelinite/basanite) to mildly or lithospheric and asthenospheric, exist and interact
alkaline or subalkaline basalt, or subsets of this spectrum through mixing. However, the thermodynamics and ther-
(Figure 4.2c). The extremes of the compositional spec- mal budget considerations involved in the independent
trum within these eruptions generally have distinct trace melting of distinct lithologies make such a process
element and isotopic characteristics, as seen, for instance, unlikely, as noted earlier (Figure 4.1). Instead, in a meta-
at Mount Rouse in the Newer Volcanic Province of somatic percolation scenario (Mallik & Dasgupta, 2012;
Australia (Boyce et al., 2015) or Motukorea in the Pilet, 2015), the spectrum may indicate melt extraction
from porous mantle with interconnected melt channels. cut through cones by, for instance, wave erosion (Brenna
Complexly zoned olivine, clinopyroxene, and spinel phe- et al., 2011; McGee et al., 2012; Sohn et al., 2012)
nocrysts and xenocrysts of Kissomlyó (Pannonian Basin, (Figure 4.3). Stratigraphically ordered chemical variabil-
Hungary) (Jankovics et al., 2015) or olivine xenocrysts at ity can elucidate the sequence of magma input in the
Pupuke, Auckland Volcanic Field (Brenna et al., 2018), shallow plumbing and conduit of the ongoing eruption.
provide evidence that melts with diverse alkaline affinities Volcanic conduits are nevertheless very dynamic environ-
interacted. These melts were proposed to have undergone ments, and volcanic particles often fall back into the cra-
different degrees of percolation and deep accumulation ter area (Graettinger et al., 2016). Hence, distinguishing
resulting in the broad compositional spectrum of those truly juvenile particles can be challenging, particularly in
eruptions (Figure 4.2c). The extreme case of composi- phreatomagmatic deposits. Even so, there are physical
tional diversity within monogenetic volcanoes is where properties of lapilli and bombs that can be employed to
two very distinct magma batches with different degrees infer the degree of reworking and recycling of volcanic
of alkalinity are erupted within a single sequence particles (D’oriano et al., 2014; Houghton & Smith, 1993).
(Figure 4.2d). The Udo tuff cone and lava field (Jeju Particularly while sampling in the field, dense crystalline
Island, Korea) and Rangitoto scoria cone and lava or mud coated clasts ought to be avoided as they likely
(Auckland Volcanic Field) are two emblematic examples, represent recycled basement lithics or syn‐eruptive
where early erupted alkaline basalt was followed by sub- reworked lapilli and bombs.
alkaline basalt (Brenna et al., 2010; Needham et al., 2011). Identification of true chemical trends also require
Mount Gambier (Newer Volcanic Province, Australia) high‐resolution sampling of as many eruptive beds as
also erupted tephritic and trachybasaltic magmas with a possible. Plotting of stratigraphically ordered composi-
distinct compositional gap (Van Otterloo et al., 2014). tions will reveal whether consistent and systematic trends
Such compositional records have generally been inter- emerge (Figure 4.3). Systematic trends imply that juvenile
preted in terms of two distinct magma sources being material was collected, because sampling of recycled
tapped. This again raises the issue highlighted above of clasts would impose a randomness to the compositional
implausible contemporaneous melting at a range of sequence. Smooth changes in chemical composition indi-
degrees forming magmas with a range of alkalinity. The cate an eruption that was likely fed by a single magma
spatial and temporal constraints imposed by sequential batch through one isolated dike or a set of interconnected
eruption in a monogenetic volcano make a model involv- dikes, such as Udo (Jeju) and Motukorea (Auckland
ing melting of distinct portions of mantle or variable Volcanic Field; Figures 4.3b,d,e) (Brenna et al., 2010;
rates unlikely. Alternatively, the bimodality in the compo- McGee et al., 2012). Abrupt switches in chemical compo-
sition of eruption products may indicate the existence of sition may instead be indicative of renewed magma feed-
two distinct areas of accumulated melt that are more or ing by distinct dikes, such as at Ilchulbong and Songaksan
less percolated and reacted, and hence more or less alka- (Jeju; Figures 4.3a,c,e) (Brenna et al., 2011; Sohn
line in composition. One common characteristic of such et al., 2012). Such switches often occur in association
bimodal systems is that the more alkaline magma batch is with lithic‐rich horizons or evidence for brief eruption
erupted first, followed by the less alkaline or subalkaline breaks or vent shifts. These events tend to be short‐lived,
magma, likely indicating the opening of a path to the sur- recording single individual storm surges or tidal events,
face by the deeper‐derived (less percolated) alkaline melts such as at Songaksan (Sohn & Sohn, 2019). Irregular or
(Brenna et al., 2010). It is also observed that the initial saw‐toothed trends result from multiple dikes interacting
alkaline magma is erupted explosively (phreatomagmatic/ in a chaotic fashion or alternatively that sampling
Strombolian), whereas the subsequent subalkaline magma included recycled material or lithic fragments.
is erupted effusively with minor Strombolian activity A feature that is commonly observed in the chemical
(Brenna et al., 2010, 2015). The overall compositional stratigraphy of individual eruptions is that the relatively
variation of small‐volume eruptions can therefore pro- more evolved magma (SiO2‐rich and MgO‐poor) is
vide a wealth of information on the deep (lithospheric ejected at the onset of the eruption, as pointed out by
mantle) plumbing architecture of monogenetic alkaline Smith et al. (2008) at Crater Hill (Auckland Volcanic
system and could also be linked to shallow eruption Field). Data from Udo and Motukorea (Figures 4.3b,d)
dynamics. also show such a trend. This is likely to be related to the
Intra‐eruptive chemical variability is another aspect of dynamics of dike tapping during the eruption. The tip of
monogenetic volcanoes that can provide insights into the feeder dike undergoes high degrees of crystallization
magma processing and ascent dynamics (Blondes due to strong undercooling associated with the opening
et al., 2008; Reiners, 2002). For such investigations, it is of a path to the surface (Carrigan et al., 1992). Because
necessary to know the stratigraphic order of collected of this intra‐dike differentiation and the resulting tapping
sample suites, which is straightforward when sections are dynamics, a variety of chemical trends can be imposed on
(a) (b)
relative stratigraphy
2
10 20
2
1
54 56 58 60 62 28 32 36
Mg# La (ppm)
(c) 1
V V
V
3
S
S
S
50 54 58 62 30 35 40
2 Mg# La (ppm)
(d)
1
44 48 52 56 30 34 38 42 46
Mg# La (ppm)
(e)
COMPOSITIONAL TRENDS
eruption
end Within-batch primitive to evolved:
2
- dike tapping dynamics (core to rim)
Within-batch evolved to primitive:

- dike tapping dynamics (tip to core)
Smooth chemical change: 1
-continuous feeling by single
magma batch (dike tip-core-rim)
Segmented chemical change:
eruption
- eruption fed by distinct 60 65 70 30 50 70 90
onset
dikes or magma batches Mg# La (ppm)
more evolved composition more primitive
- variable trend within
(low Mg# (high Mg# ERUPTION
individual batches TUFF S
S SCORIA V V
LAVA
high incompatible) low incompatible) BREAK
S V
Figure 4.3 Trends in whole‐rock compositions of small‐volume alkaline basaltic eruptions. (a) Ilchulbong tuff
cone (Jeju) was formed by three magma batches with analogous evolutionary trends (Sohn et al., 2012). (b) Udo
tuff cone and lava field (Jeju) erupted alkaline and subalkaline magmas (Brenna et al., 2010). (c) Songaksan tuff
ring, scoria, and lava consist of individual magma batches with various degrees of evolution (Brenna et al., 2011).
(d) Motukorea (Auckland volcanic field) has constant variation from evolved to primitive compositions (McGee
et al., 2012). Numbering 1 to 3 indicates eruption packages separated by collapse features, small erosional sur-
faces, or shifts in eruption styles. (e) Summary and possible interpretation of observed trends. Sources: Based on
Sohn et al. (2011); Brenna et al. (2010, 2011); McGee et al. (2012).
the eruption products (Figure 4.3e). Relatively shallow olivine fractionation. Clinopyroxene fractionation may
effects on the magma composition are, however, distinct be cryptic in basalts with principally olivine phenocrysts.
from deep, near‐source crystallization and fractionation. This was observed at Crater Hill (Smith et al., 2008) and
Clinopyroxene tends to be the stable liquidus phase at Udo (Brenna et al., 2010), where the chemical trends
lithospheric mantle depths, whereas olivine takes over in within the olivine basalt tuff have decreasing CaO, V,
the crust (Bultitude & Green, 1971; Jakobsson & and Sc, with decreasing Mg# despite the lack of clinopy-
Holloway, 1986). The intra‐suite variability of CaO, V, roxene as a phenocryst phase. In relatively hydrous
and Sc (compatible in clinopyroxene but not in olivine) alkaline melts, amphibole may also be involved in petro-
usually indicates the involvement of clinopyroxene versus genetic processes producing distinct chemical signatures,
particularly in terms of the relative behavior of LILEs, Volcanic Field (New Zealand) (Coote et al., 2018). They
LREEs, and HFSEs (Francis & Ludden, 1995; Mayer also indicate relatively H2O‐poor melts or shallow degas-
et al., 2014). Plagioclase tends to be a late crystallizing sing and crustal processes, with deviation from purely
phase, generally only forming groundmass microlites or monogenetic basaltic systems (Crossingham et al., 2018;
microphenocrysts upon cooling and eruption, or else, if Giacomoni et al., 2014).
present as an important phenocryst phase, implies con- Detailed studies of the crystal cargo of alkaline basal-
siderable crustal processing (Giacomoni et al., 2014; tic rocks have, however, revealed a complex textural
Mollo et al., 2015; Ubide & Kamber, 2018). Early clino- architecture (Coote & Shane, 2018; Duda & Schmincke,
pyroxene and potentially amphibole fractionation implies 1985; Jankovics et al., 2012; Jankovics et al., 2019; Re
that those trace element ratios commonly employed to et al., 2017; Shane & Coote, 2018; Ubide et al., 2014a).
interpret source characteristics, such as LREEs/HREEs, For example, the occurrence of concentric zoning in
become unreliable. HREEs partition into both phases clinopyroxene, as well as the development of sieve‐tex-
preferentially compared to LREEs (refer to the GERM tured and partially resorbed phenocrysts (Figure 4.4b),
partition coefficients database https://earthref.org/KDD/ are indicative of disequilibrium processes including
for a comprehensive summary). The compositional magma recharge and mixing (de Maisonneuve et al., 2016;
changes that reflect clinopyroxene and amphibole crys- Streck, 2008; Ubide et al., 2014a; Ubide & Kamber, 2018),
tallization play a major role in controlling the OIB signa- whereas sector (hourglass) zoning is a response to crystal
ture of erupted magmas (Mollo et al., 2018; Scarlato growth rates and undercooling phenomena (Masotta
et al., 2014). Primary LREEs/HREEs ratios can be et al., 2020; Ubide et al., 2019). Concentric zonation can
changed, potentially imposing misleading “garnet signa- take on very different forms, from normal (more primi-
tures” on the melt (Bonadiman et al., 2005; Scott tive core) to reverse (more evolved core), to oscillatory,
et al., 2016). In order to investigate true source signatures, patchy, or stepped (Figure 4.4). This generally means that
it is therefore essential to unravel any near‐source modifi- antecrysts (crystals from preceding but genetically related
cation process, and focus on primitive (high‐MgO) sam- magma batches) can be reincorporated and transported
ples without crystal accumulation (Ubide et al., 2014b). multiple times by subsequent magmas during ascent, sim-
ilar to occurrences at more complex polygenetic volca-
4.4. INSIGHTS FROM CRYSTAL COMPOSITIONS noes (Davidson et al., 2007). Several detailed case studies
have been performed on the small alkaline volcanoes in
The relative contribution of melting/metasomatism the Carpathian‐Pannonian Basin. Jankovics et al.
and fractional crystallization processes remains an enig- (2015, 2019) identified up to five different types of olivine
matic aspect of the chemical variability in basaltic prod- based on compositions and textures within single small
ucts. Early‐formed phenocrysts, antecrysts, or xenocrysts, eruptions. These were interpreted to represent crystal
however, witnessed deep processes and hence provide a growth in storage areas within both the upper lithospheric
first‐hand look at the plumbing system of basaltic volca- mantle and the lower crust with subsequent magma mix-
noes. Alkaline basaltic rocks are relatively simple petro- ing and crystal recycling (Figure 4.4a). Clinopyroxene
graphically, consisting principally of a macrocryst crystals similarly display diverse zoning and distinct com-
assemblage dominated by olivine + clinopyroxene in a positions (Figure 4.4b) in the Pannonian Basin volcanoes
microlitic groundmass of olivine + clinopyroxene + pla- (Jankovics et al., 2016), as well as Eastern Austria (Dobosi
gioclase + oxide. Amphibole and phlogopite require et al., 1991), Jeju Island (Brenna et al., 2012a), the Hopi
H2O‐rich magmas, and with feldspathoids are confined Buttes Volcanic Field (United States) (Re et al., 2017),
to the SiO2‐poor end of the spectrum, as shown in H2O‐ and the Eifel Volcanic Field (Duda & Schmincke, 1985),
saturated experiments conducted on the melanephelinite for example. The occurrence of crystals derived from sev-
from Kakanui (Waiareka‐Deborah volcanics, New eral levels within the plumbing systems and that have
Zealand) (Merrill & Wyllie, 1975) and the nepheline interacted with diverse magma batches implies that the
mugearite of The Anakies (Newer Volcanic Province, plumbing system of even small‐volume basaltic volca-
Australia) (Irving & Green, 2008). Empirical hygrometry noes is not as simple as the rock petrography may super-
also suggests that H2O content >3 wt% is required for ficially suggest. Compositionally distinct accumulation
amphibole and mica to be stable in the basanites and and storage zones call into question the literal “monoge-
nephelinites with lamprophyric affinities at Jagged Rock netic” character of some basaltic volcanoes. The deep
(Hopi Buttes Volcanic Field, United States) (Re portions of these feeding systems still require accurate
et al., 2017) and the Catalonian Coastal Range (Spain) investigation, in order to better resolve the different role
(Ubide et al., 2014a). Plagioclase macrocrysts are preva- played by partial melting and metasomatic source‐related
lently segregated from SiO2 saturated (subalkaline) mag- processes. For this reason, integrated studies dealing
mas, such as those erupted in the Kaikohe‐Bay of Islands with bulk rock as well as phenocrysts and xenocrysts
(a) olivine
NORMAL ZONING
NORMAL ZONING
EUHEDRAL CORE
EUHEDRAL
EUHEDRAL RIM
SKELETAL
RESORPTION
=> MAGMA MIXING
lithospheric mantle
main phenocryst growth magmatic growth
REVERSE ZONING .6
COMPLEX ZONING NORMAL ZONING
.5
RESORPTION DIFFUSION
=> MAGMA MIXING .4 OVERGROWTHS
CaO
.3
.2
.1 mantle peridotite xenocrysts

crustal .0 Pupuke xenocryst core
magmatic 70 80 90
Pupuke xenocryst
growth Fo# diffusion rim
(b) clinopyroxene
SPONGY CORES GREEN CORES ZONED PHENOCRYST
0.0 => RECYCLING => MAGMA MIXING => MAGMA
JRC UNDERCOOLING
0.2
rims
0.4 WVF
0.6 CVF
rims
0.8
Pressure (GPa)
JRC
1.0 mantles .5
PANNONIAN BASIN
+/– cores
1.2 .4 Mantle
CVF Lower crust

1.4 .3 Megacrysts
cores &
megacrysts AI Phenocrysts
1.6 .2
JEJU
JRC
1.8 cores & .1 Green cores
megacrysts Phenocryst cores
2.0 .0 Rims and groundmass
Relative proportion .00 .05 .10 .15 subalkaline
Ti
Figure 4.4 Summary of zoning patterns on olivine and clinopyroxene crystals in monogenetic alkaline basaltic
systems. (a) Olivine textures and compositions indicative of complex magmatic processes involving diffusion and
overgrowths (Shea et al., 2015). Grayscale olivine sketches indicate BSE response (dark = high Fo#, light = low
Fo#). Compositional fields are from Jankovics et al. (2015), and Pupuke data are from Brenna et al. (2018). (b)
Clinopyroxene textures and compositions are clear indicators of the conditions of crystallization, with spongy
and green cores indicating crystal recycling and magma mixing (Duda and Schmincke, 1985; Ubide et al., 2014a)
and sector zoning indicative of undercooling conditions (Masotta et al., 2020; Ubide et al., 2019). Ti and Al rep-
resent atoms per formula unit (considering 6 O). Pannonian Basin data from Jankovics et al. (2016), Jeju data from
Brenna (2012). Clinopyroxene can be a useful geobarometer indicative of crystallization at various levels within
the lithosphere. Jagged Rock Complex (JRC) pressures from Re et al. (2017), Calatrava Volcanic Field (CVF) pres-
sures from Villaseca et al. (2019), and Whangarei Volcanic Field (WVF) pressures from Shane and Coote (2018).
Sources: Shea et al. (2015); Jankovics et al. (2015); Brenna et al. (2018); Duda and Schmincke (1985); Ubide et al.
(2019); Ubide et al. (2014a); Masotta et al. (2020); Jankovics et al. (2016); Brenna et al. (2012); Re et al. (2017);
Villaseca et al. (2019); Shane and Coote (2018).
(or xenoliths) are necessary to elucidate the complex the Springerville Volcanic Field (United States), Putirka
interplay between the original genetic signature of mag- and Condit (2003) found that clinopyroxene crystalliza-
mas and their differentiation through the upper mantle tion principally occurred at two levels in the crust (lower
and crust. and upper), reflecting density and rheology boundaries.
Most of the open‐system processes that can signifi- Crystallization may also be continuous during magma
cantly change the compositions of magmas by shifting ascent from mantle depths, such as in the case of the
them toward intermediate and evolved terms are con- Jagged Rock Complex, Hopi Buttes Volcanic Field
fined to crustal depths. For example, in the monogenetic (United States) (Re et al., 2017). Here, clinopyroxene
volcanoes of the Kaikohe‐Bay of Island Volcanic Field, cores mostly formed within the mantle, with crystal man-
intra‐crystal isotopic zoning provides clues to the poten- tles forming from mantle to crust, and crystal rims formed
tial contribution of crustal contamination during the within the crust.
geochemical evolution of magmas (Coote et al., 2018). Such variability bears similarities with active compos-
Complexly zoned plagioclase testifies to a crustal storage ite volcanoes, for which most thermobarometric models
zone where assimilation occurred, contaminating the Sr that apply to alkaline basaltic systems have been devel-
isotopic signature of the mantle‐derived magma. This oped. For example, Mt. Etna (Sicily, Italy) is one of the
can be compounded by mixing with stalled batches of most active and monitored volcanoes in the world, and
magma from preceding diking events related to failed although it is not sensu stricto a basaltic system (histori-
eruptions or unerupted magma from previous eruptions cally erupted compositions range up to trachyte) (Ferlito
(Coote & Shane, 2018; Jankovics et al., 2019). Indeed, & Lanzafame, 2010), its ongoing basalt‐dominated erup-
such crustal processing may be a precondition for the tions provide an outstanding opportunity to probe the
development of large volcanoes erupting trachytes and plumbing dynamics on human timescales. The present‐
phonolites (Brenna et al., 2012b). day activity at the volcano consists of trachybasaltic
Different mineral phases have different stabilities in explosive and effusive products sharing a common min-
alkaline magmas, with clinopyroxene, rather than olivine, eral assemblage of plagioclase + clinopyroxene + olivine
being the liquidus phase at >1.5–2 GPa (Bultitude & + titanomagnetite (Mollo et al., 2015). Mantle‐derived
Green, 1971; Irving & Green, 2008; Jakobsson & magmas ascend toward shallower crustal reservoirs
Holloway, 1986). This also allows crystallization and through complex crystallization‐recharge processes (Kahl
fractionation within the lithospheric mantle to be distin- et al., 2011; Ubide & Kamber, 2018, and references
guished from crystallization and fractionation within the therein). The crystallization of clinopyroxene is ubiqui-
crust (Dobosi et al., 1991). For a more quantitative tous within the entire plumbing system, recording the
approach concerning the depth of crystallization, there entire decompression and cooling path of ascending
are now several updated thermometers, barometers, and magmas (Perinelli et al., 2018). On the other hand, the
hygrometers calibrated specifically for alkaline/subalka- stability of olivine and plagioclase is restricted to the
line basaltic systems (Table 4.1), which can assist in con- shallower portion of the plumbing system under the con-
straining the crystallization conditions of magmas and trol of H2O‐saturated melt conditions and further degas-
identifying potential depths of magma storage. Several sing mechanisms (Mollo et al., 2015; Vetere et al., 2015),
crystallization scenarios have been observed in intraplate analogous to small‐volume monogenetic basaltic centers
monogenetic basaltic systems. Shane and Coote (2018) in intraplate volcanic fields worldwide. Clinopyroxene
and Coote and Shane (2018) found that in the Whangarei compositional changes are dominantly controlled by the
and Kaikohe‐Bay of Islands Volcanic Fields clinopyrox- substitution of Mg + Fe2+ + Na with Ca + Fe3+ + Ti in
ene crystallization occurs prevalently within the crust octahedral sites, accounting for the replacement of Si by
(Figure 4.4b). This is consistent with their investigation T
Al in tetrahedral coordination (Figure 4.5a). These dif-
of plagioclase zoning, which also revealed a well‐devel- ferent crystallochemical configurations lead to variable
oped crustal storage system (Coote et al., 2018). However, proportions of jadeite (Jd), diopside (Di), hedenbergite
in different systems, storage and crystallization may occur (Hd), and Ca‐Tschermak (CaTs) components in clinopy-
over a variety of different levels. Clinopyroxene thermo- roxene (Figure 4.5b). Importantly, Jd‐melt, Jd‐Di+Hd
barometry revealed a bimodal distribution in the and CaTs‐Di+Hd equilibria define P‐T‐H2O‐sensitive
Calatrava Volcanic Field (Spain) (Villaseca et al., 2019). exchange reactions governed by the physicochemical
These authors interpreted the formation of cumulates state of the system (Mollo et al., 2018; Perinelli
within the lithospheric mantle as well as crystallization et al., 2016). Thus, the geochemical evolution of clinopy-
within the crust. Ubide et al. (2014a) obtained similar roxene enables accurate tracking of the decompression,
results, with principally two depths of storage within the cooling, and degassing paths of mafic alkaline magmas
upper mantle and lower crust in lamprophyres from the rising from deep mantle regions to very shallow crustal
Catalonian Coastal Range (Spain). On the other hand, in levels (Figures 4.5c–d).
Table 4.1 Use of Different Minerals in Alkaline Basaltic Rocks to Interpret Magmatic Processes
Mineral Technique Interpretable mechanisms References
Olivine Thermometry Crystallization temperature Beattie (1993), Putirka (2008)
Diffusion Timing of crystallization and Costa et al. (2008), Girona and Costa
residence, magma ascent rates (2013)
Mineral/melt Estimate equilibrium melt GERM partition coefficients database
partitioning compositions
Oxygen isotopes Magma genesis, ascent and Bindeman (2008)
timing
Clinopyroxene Thermobarometry Crystallization temperature and Putirka (2008), Neave and Putirka (2017),
pressure Mollo et al. (2018)
Hygrometry Magma water content Perinelli et al. (2016)
Diffusion Timing of crystallization Brady (1995) and references therein
Zoning Magma mixing, crystallization Streck (2008), Ubide and Kamber (2018)
dynamics
Mineral/melt Estimate equilibrium melt GERM partition coefficients database,
partitioning compositions Mollo et al (2010), Putirka (1999)
Plagioclase Thermometry Crystallization temperature Putirka (2005, 2008)
Hygrometry Magma water content Waters and Lange (2015)
Zoning Magma mixing, assimilation, Ustunisik et al. (2014), Coote et al. (2018)
crystallization dynamics
partitioning compositions Namur et al. (2012)
Amphibole Thermobarometry Crystallization temperature and Ridolfi and Renzulli (2012), Putirka (2016)
pressure
Hygrometry Magma water content Ridolfi and Renzulli (2012), Putirka (2016)
partitioning compositions Putirka (2016)
Ti‐magnetite Thermometry Crystallization temperature Aryaeva et al. (2018)
Oxy‐barometry Magma oxygen fugacity Aryaeva et al. (2018)
Geospeedometry Cooling rates during Mollo et al. (2013)
crystallization
Mantle‐derived xenoliths and xenocrysts provide infor- fluid percolation. The refractive nature of zircon makes it
mation on the deep magma dynamics of monogenetic a useful tracer of such processes in the mantle over Myr
volcanoes. These rock/crystal fragments give information timescales (Siebel et al., 2009). However, with respect to
on the lithological properties of the lithospheric mantle, the original melting lithology, it is not clear how mantle
testifying to heterogeneities on a range of scales. Mantle metasomatic and chromatographic melt percolation may
xenolith suites from broadly adjacent areas may have change the isotopic signatures of magmas. Isotopic zon-
overall similar trace element and isotopic characteristics, ing within mantle peridotite crystals, particularly clino-
but regional distinctions can be made, such as in north‐ pyroxene, may help to unravel some of these processes,
east Asia, where there are spatial domains dominated by but improved analytical techniques are required to pur-
different types of enriched mantle (Choi et al., 2005). sue such an avenue.
These result from metasomatic re‐enrichment of depleted Mantle‐derived xenocrysts and deep plumbing phe-
mantle (DMM) from asthenosphere‐derived fluids. The nocrysts and antecrysts displaying compositional zoning
signature can be imposed cryptically, such as in the (elemental and/or isotopic) can also provide clues to the
Zealandia lithosphere recorded by LREEs re‐enrichment dynamics of magma ascent (Jankovics et al., 2013; Oeser
of REE‐depleted clinopyroxene in harzburgite and et al., 2015). For example, intra‐crystal elemental diffu-
dunite xenoliths in the Dunedin Volcanic Group (Dalton sion modeling on crystal cargoes (Costa & Morgan, 2011;
et al., 2017), or explicitly such as in metasomatized, Girona & Costa, 2013; Kahl et al., 2015) is a powerful tool
amphibole‐veined peridotite in Transylvania (Vaselli to estimate the timescales of magma residence and ascent
et al., 1995) or Antarctica (Coltorti et al., 2004). Isotopic of alkaline basalts (Albert et al., 2015; Demouchy
zoning in xenocrysts may indicate heterogeneities imposed et al., 2006). Timescales of ascent from the last storage site
by magmatic, hydro‐, and carbothermal (CO2‐dominated) within the upper mantle/lower crust for monogenetic
(a) (b)
1.43 0.15
cpx cation exchange cpx components
1.34 0.12
[TAl] + [Ca + Fe3+ + Ti] (apfu)
CaTs + Jd (mol.%)
1.25 0.09
1.16 0.06
1.07 0.03
0.98 0.00
0.04 0.09 0.14 0.19 0.24 0.66 0.70 0.74 0.78 0.82 0.86
[Si] + [Mg + Fe2+ + Na] (apfu) Di + Hd (mol. %)
(c) (d)
0.1 0.1
200 200
magma
degassing
400 magma 400

P (MPa)
P (MPa)
decompression
and cooling
600 600
crust crust
800 800
mantle mantle
1000 1000
1050 1075 1100 1125 1150 1175 0.00 0.85 1.70 2.55 3.40 4.25
T (°C) H2O (wt.%)
Figure 4.5 Clinopyroxene compositions from 2011–2013 trachybasaltic eruptions at Mt. Etna volcano, showing
compositional changes in terms of (a) cations and (b) clinopyroxene components. Compositional variations
record magma decompression and cooling (c), and degassing paths (d) (Mollo et al., 2018). Source: Based on
Mollo et al. (2018).
basalts is generally estimated to be on the order of few the rate of ascent of single magma batches, one insight
hours to days or weeks depending on the method applied arising from diffusion studies is that not all magmas rise
(Jankovics et al., 2013; Ray et al., 2016). A word of cau- from their source in one pulse. In the Perşani Volcanic
tion is warranted here regarding the technique used. Field (Romania), Harangi et al. (2013) found short
Brenna et al. (2018) found that water diffusion time esti- diffusion rims and longer diffusion “mantles” in olivine
mates tend to be faster than elemental (Fe‐Mg) diffusion xenocrysts. They interpreted these to represent a pro-
estimates, and attributed the discrepancy and fast time- tracted period (>1 year) of magma stalling within the
scales in the water signature to shallow degassing. They mantle followed by rapid ascent (few days) through the
proposed that water loss from the melt starts the water crust. In the Auckland Volcanic Field, Brenna et al. (2018)
diffusion chronometer instead of xenocryst entrainment found hooked profiles in olivine xenocrysts, and implied
within the mantle. Besides the attempted quantification of that interaction between magmas with different degrees of
alkalinity occurred within the deep plumbing also over H 2O‐CO2 solubilities and exsolved vapor compositions
protracted timeframes (months–years) prior to final in basalts based on the parameterization of Dixon (1997),
ascent (days). These case studies provide evidence for the while also adding the other volatiles S and Cl. This model
complex geometry of nominally simple deep plumbing is calibrated for subalkaline basalts and alkaline basalts
systems. Undoubtedly, advances in analytical resolution to nephelinites (<52 wt% SiO2), and requires the seven
will open new opportunities for multifaceted investiga- oxide components in Π.
tions accounting for the compositional changes recorded An alternative solubility model developed by Papale
by the crystal cargo of intraplate basaltic magmas. (1999) and Papale et al. (2006) is based on the multivari-
ate regression of published H2O and CO2 solubility data,
4.5. INSIGHTS FROM GLASS COMPOSITIONS and produced a 29‐component compositional and P‐T
parameterization. This allows the major oxides SiO2,
The last component of basalts that records plumbing TiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, FeO, MnO, MgO, CaO, Na2O, and
system and eruptive processes is volcanic glass, that is, the K2O to be varied. H2O solubilities are better constrained
portion of magma that was still liquid (i.e., the silicate than CO2 or mixed solubilities in this model due to the
melt) and carrying solids (crystals and xenoliths) at the calibration dataset, and Moore (2008) concludes that
time of eruption. Glass in volcanic products retains most although the Dixon (1997) model is the best option for
of the physicochemical features of the melt, such as tholeiitic melts, the Papale et al. (2006) model works bet-
largely incompatible dissolved volatile species (e.g., H2O, ter for calc‐alkaline melts. The Papale et al. (2006) model
CO2, SO2) that do not partition strongly into anhydrous can also deal with compositions that contain more than
minerals, thus concentrating in the melt. The solubility of 52 wt.% SiO2 and agrees more closely with high‐pressure
volatiles in silicate liquids is largely controlled by depth data (>300 MPa) in alkaline basalts (Witham et al., 2012),
changes, as it decreases with decreasing pressure, but also although the Dixon (1997) and Witham et al. (2012)
depends on composition and temperature. Different vola- parameterization is better at lower pressures. Following
tile species and different mixtures of volatiles have differ- similar principles to the Papale et al. (2006) model, Duan
ent solubilities. For instance, CO2‐bearing melts become (2014) developed a thermodynamically based H2O‐CO2
vapor‐saturated at higher pressures than those in which solubility model for silicate melts using the chemical
CO2 is absent. The higher the initial CO2 and H2O con- potential of volatile species in the melt and vapor phases
tent, the deeper the pressure at which vapor saturation and the Duan and Zhang (2006) equation of state for the
will be achieved (Dixon & Stolper, 1995). CO2 solubility, vapor phase. The model is compared to existing experi-
in particular, is strongly dependent on composition in mental H2O and CO2 solubility data and calculates solu-
basaltic melts (Blank & Brooker, 1994; Dixon, 1997; bilities over a wide range of temperatures (660 to 1730
Holloway & Blank, 1994). In alkaline basalts, the solubil- °C), pressures (up to 3 GPa), and compositions (ultra-
ity of CO2 is higher (Dixon, 1997), meaning vapor satura- mafic to silicic, metaluminous to peraluminous and sub-
tion occurs at lower pressures compared to subalkaline alkaline to peralkaline).
melts with the same initial volatile contents. Dixon (1997) Another H2O‐CO2 solubility model developed around
used a seven‐component empirical parameter, termed Π the same time as SolEx was presented by Iacono‐
[–6.50×(Si+Al) + 20.17×(Ca + 0.8×K + 0.7×Na + 0.4× Marziano et al. (2012), who provided experimental data
Mg + 0.4×Fe)], with each element in its molar concentra- on a range of mafic melts (alkaline basalt, lamproite, and
tion, to model the compositional dependence of H2O‐ kamafugite) and used them to develop a semi‐empirical
CO2 solubility. The calculations of mixed H2O‐CO2 model. They showed that alkalis bonded to non‐bridging
saturation pressures for basaltic melts in the computer oxygens strongly enhance CO2 solubility and that CO2
program VolatileCalc (Newman & Lowenstern, 2002) are solubility in mafic melts is more strongly affected by melt
based on this solubility model. This is to date the most composition and silicate structure than H2O solubility,
widely used program to calculate mixed H2O‐CO2 satura- which supports earlier studies (Blank & Brooker, 1994;
tion pressures in basalts and rhyolites, largely owing to Dixon, 1997; Holloway & Blank, 1994). Most recently,
its ease of use, but it simplifies the compositional Burgisser et al. (2015) developed the D‐Compress soft-
parameter in basalts to just SiO2. However, neglecting the ware, which models the pressure control of volatiles
effect of alkalis on CO2 solubility has been shown to (H2O, CO2, and S in the systems O–H, S–O–H, C–S–
severely overestimate CO2 saturation pressures in alka- O–H, C–S–O–H–Fe, and C–O–H) in the vapor and melt
line basalts (Lesne et al., 2011; Vetere et al., 2011), mak- phases. The model was calibrated for basaltic, phonolitic,
ing VolatileCalc not ideal for intraplate alkaline basaltic and rhyolitic compositions. The major oxides can be
systems. In response to these discrepancies, Witham et al. varied, and the solubility laws depend on the predefined
(2012) developed the program SolEx to calculate (i.e., basalt, phonolite, rhyolite) composition selected.
D‐Compress is intended to be used to model the chemical 2000

evolution of vapor and fluids phases when significant ETNA
amounts of H2O are present under moderately reducing
conditions from 790 to 1400 °C, depending on composi- 1500
tion and pressure up to 300 MPa. Currently, the models
CI (ppm)
for which links to the operating software are still active 1000
are VolatileCalc (Newman & Lowenstern, 2002, at https://
ARC VOLCANOES
volcanoes.usgs.gov/observatories/yvo/jlowenstern/other/ XITLE
VolatileCalc_2.0.xls), the Papale model (Papale et al., 2006, 500 RIO
GRANDE
at http://melts.ofm‐research.org/CORBA_CTserver/
Papale/Papale.php), and D‐Compress [Burgisser et al.,
2015, at https://ars.els‐cdn.com/content/image/1‐s2.0‐ 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
S0098300415000503‐mmc5.zip (Windows OS only)].
H2O (wt%)
Volatile exsolution and subsequent magma expansion
contribute to explosivity during eruption. The melt loses Figure 4.6 Volatile abundances in alkaline basalts related to
most of its volatiles during magma decompression and monogenetic intraplate systems in the Rio Grande Rift (Rowe
ascent prior to quenching to glass. Therefore, in most et al., 2015) and Xitle volcano (Cervantes & Wallace, 2003)
cases, melt inclusions within host macrocrysts are used to tend to be lower than those in basalts from subduction arc sys-
assess the volatile contents of melts prior to shallow tems (blue field; Métrich & Wallace, 2008). Etna data represent
degassing. Melt inclusions are portions of melts trapped high‐pressure, undegassed magma with >1000 ppm CO2
during phenocryst growth at depth in the plumbing sys- (Spilliaert et al., 2006). Sources: Rowe et al. (2015); Cervantes
tem. Volatile studies on alkaline basaltic rocks have and Wallace (2003); Métrich and Wallace (2008); Spilliaert
et al. (2006).
demonstrated that H2O and CO2 can be dissolved at
concentrations of several wt.% and thousands of ppm,
respectively, together with other potentially important required to constrain recycled and metasomatic input
volatile species, such as S and Cl (Kamenetsky & in continental intraplate monogenetic basalts. Another
Clocchiatti, 1996; Spilliaert et al., 2006). There is never- aspect to consider when attempting volatile species
theless a paucity of quantitative studies of the volatile quantification from melt inclusions is post‐entrapment
content of alkaline basalt melt inclusions in continental crystallization. This can significantly affect their concen-
intraplate monogenetic systems. Rowe et al. (2015) found trations with resulting discrepancies between pressures
<1 wt% H2O and S and <2000 ppm Cl and F dissolved in determined by volatile and mineral‐melt geobarometers
alkaline to subalkaline basalt melt inclusions related to (Maclennan, 2017).
the Rio Grande Rift (United States). Cervantes and Relying on the enhanced stability of olivine at lower
Wallace (2003) derived similar concentrations (1.3 wt% pressure in alkaline basaltic systems, systematic melt
H2O, <1000 ppm Cl and S, 370 ppm CO2) dissolved in inclusion studies can constrain the depth of magma stor-
melt inclusions from the monogenetic Xitle volcano, age and crystallization at shallow crustal levels (Spilliaert
which has OIB‐like composition but sits within the supra‐ et al., 2006). This is made more effective by integrating
subduction Trans‐Mexican Volcanic Belt. Such volatile whole‐rock and melt inclusion data to provide insights
abundances are lower than subduction‐related systems into magma source and crystallization processes, such as
(Figure 4.6); however, it is unclear to what degree these in the Hainan (China) intraplate system (Liu et al., 2015).
results represent partially degassed magmas. For exam- Rowe et al. (2011) identified shallow sedimentary base-
ple, Hidas et al. (2010) evaluated volatile content in melt ment contamination in the monogenetic Dotsero Volcano
inclusions hosted in clinopyroxenes from spinel lherzolite (United States) that shifted a basanitic magma composi-
xenoliths from the Bakony–Balaton Highland Volcanic tion (preserved in melt inclusions) toward alkaline basalt
Field, part of the Pannonian Basin (western Hungary). bulk compositions.
They calculated H2O contents of 3.1–4.5 wt% and CO2 Finally, the composition of glass shards in tephra sam-
contents of 9000–12000 ppm when considering the ples is used as a tool for fingerprinting tephra sources and
contribution of the vapor bubble in addition to the
cross‐correlating eruptive records across individual vol-
volatiles dissolved in the surrounding glass of the silicate canic fields (Hopkins et al., 2015; Shane & Smith, 2000).
melt inclusion. Such high volatile contents suggest entrap- This method was successfully applied to provide a revised
ment and crystallization under upper mantle conditions eruptive chronology in the Auckland Volcanic Field
and reinforce the notion that metasomatism may be a (Hopkins et al., 2017). In such investigations, compre-
precursor to intraplate volcanism. More studies are hensive sampling and glass analyses are needed, given
the potentially broad range of glass compositions found lava compositions range
within single eruptive sequences, as in the case of surface narrow broad broad
Maungataketake, Auckland Volcanic Field (Agustín‐ microlite
Flores et al., 2014). The glass compositions tend to be and glass
multiple mixed batch ascent (compostional range basanite-transitional basalt)

broader than whole‐rock analyses of analogous products, minor crustal
single batch ascent (restricted alkaline composition)

storage?
mostly due to shallow, syn‐eruptive microlite crystalliza-
multiple batch ascent (bimodal alkaline-subalkaline)

tion (Verolino et al., 2018). Devitrification of older glass
may also affect analytical precision.
stalled dikes (failed eruptions)

4.6. SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING REMARKS
+ antecryts
phenocryts
There is currently a breadth of knowledge that enables
us to paint a conceptual picture of the complex plumbing
architecture of continental intraplate monogenetic vol- crust
canic fields (Figure 4.7). The primary source area of mag- mantle
matism is likely to contain fertile lithologies, such as 30 km
recycled material from past subduction events or related
to delamination. Localized slow upwelling due to broad
can vary from system to system
lithospheric mante
heterogeneous
asthenospheric circulation (or thermal anomalies) may
depths are indicative and

cause these domains to partially melt. The derived fluids
(silicate and/or carbonate melts) migrate through the lith-
ospheric mantle and react, particularly with previously
ol phenocrysts
metasomatized domains. These processes cause the pri-
accumulation
mary melts to undergo chemical contamination/differen- diking and
tiation through metasomatic/chromatographic processes ascent
peridotite xenoliths
altering their composition and alkaline character
complex zoning
(Figure 4.7). Melt aggregation areas may form at differ- liquidus phase
phenocryts
ent levels within the lithosphere, thus controlling the olivine
cpx phenocrysts
overall alkaline signature of ensuing magma batches. clinopyroxene

60 km
These percolation/aggregation volumes match the low‐
velocity anomalies that are generally identified beneath protracted
monogenetic volcanic systems (e.g., Horspool et al., 2006). percolation
=> transitional and
Magma batches can be extracted without further interac- subalkaline basalt
brief
tion, or may mix and mingle with coeval or previously percolation heterogeneous
injected magmas to form bimodal or broad chemical => basanite mantle lithologies
melt percolation
spectra within single monogenetic eruptive episodes and alkaline
and metasomatism
(Figure 4.7). Crustal involvement and contamination basalt
(cpx, amph, opx
are essentially restricted to systems that show chemical signature) lithosphere
evolution to intermediate compositions. asthenosphere
To better understand the origin and time/space evolu- partial melting
of fertile
tion of monogenetic volcanoes, and their potential haz- lithologies
ards, further constraints are needed, particularly regarding localized
upwelling
the deeper portion of the system and the percolation reac- 90 km
tions that modify the sensu stricto primary partial melts.
Magmas are complex mixtures of liquid, crystals, and Figure 4.7 Conceptual model of continental intraplate monoge-
netic basaltic plumbing systems. In small volcanoes, the storage
gases. It is only through the integration of detailed studies
areas are not necessarily connected to the surface by conduits.
of all these components that we will be able to gain a com- A large portion of generated magmas may not actually erupt.
prehensive understanding of natural magmatic systems.
Future studies will need to employ a holistic approach
focusing on the physicochemical mechanisms controlling feed surface eruptions. In this context, the ensuing erup-
the final textures and compositions of crystals and their tion characteristics are the consequence of the close inter-
host rocks. Additional studies are also needed to better play between deep (magma generation, fluid percolation,
constrain the deep storage portions of the plumbing sys- and metasomatism) and shallow (mixing, mingling, and
tems that, in turn, control the availability of magmas to fractionation processes) plumbing system dynamics.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Blichert‐Toft, J., Arndt, N. T., & Ludden, J. N. (1996).

Precambrian alkaline magmatism. Lithos, 37, 97–111.
We thank Szabolcs Harangi and Abigail Barker for Blondes, M. S., Reiners, P. W., Ducea, M. N., Singer, B. S., &
constructive reviews and Matteo Masotta for editorial Chesley, J. (2008). Temporal‐compositional trends over short
handling. and long time‐scales in basalts of the Big Pine Volcanic Field,
California. Earth and Planetary Science Letters, 269,
140–154.
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4

Anatomy of Intraplate Monogenetic Alkaline Basaltic Magmatism:

4.1. INTRODUCTION therefore fundamental for developing our understanding

Eclogite + CO2 (Dasgupta et al 2004)

Within-batch evolved to primitive:

.1 mantle peridotite xenocrysts

CVF Lower crust

400 magma 400

D‐Compress is intended to be used to model the chemical 2000

multiple mixed batch ascent (compostional range basanite-transitional basalt)

single batch ascent (restricted alkaline composition)

multiple batch ascent (bimodal alkaline-subalkaline)

stalled dikes (failed eruptions)

can vary from system to system

depths are indicative and

overall alkaline signature of ensuing magma batches. clinopyroxene

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Blichert‐Toft, J., Arndt, N. T., & Ludden, J. N. (1996).

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