Geochimetry of Mafic Dyks India

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Lithos 104 (2008) 306 – 326

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Geochemistry of the mafic dykes in the Prakasam Alkaline Province of

Eastern Ghats Belt, India: Implications for the genesis of
continental rift-zone magmatism
K. Vijaya Kumar ⁎, K. Rathna
School of Earth Sciences, SRTM University, Nanded-431 606, Maharashtra, India
Received 20 April 2007; accepted 23 December 2007
Available online 19 January 2008
Abstract
Mesoproterozoic rift-zone magmatism in the Prakasam Alkaline Province of Eastern Ghats Belt, India is represented by three geochemically
distinct primary mafic magmas and their plutonic differentiates. The three mafic magmas correspond to the alkali basaltic dykes, gabbroic dykes
and lamprophyric dykes. The dyke activity is synchronous with the host plutons and belongs to the 1350–1250 Ma period Mesoproterozoic
magmatism. Geochemical signatures suggest that the alkali basaltic dykes have a source in the thermal boundary layer, which has a history of prior
melt extraction followed by enrichment. Both the gabbroic and lamprophyric dykes are derived from lithospheric sources and their geochemical
variation can be explained by “vein-plus-wall-rock melting model”. Vein/wall-rock ratio is low for the sources of gabbroic dykes, whereas it is
high for the lamprophyric dykes. Geochemistry of the gabbro dykes further indicates preservation of previous arc-signals by the lithosphere
beneath the Prakasam Alkaline Province during the Mesoproterozoic. Geochemical signatures of lamproite, which could be a cratonic expression
of the rift-triggered magmatism in the Prakasam Province, suggest a general increase in the metasomatic imprint with increasing lithosphere
thickness from cratonic margin towards interior. It is found that geochemistry of continental rift-zone magmatism of the Prakasam rift is
remarkably similar to that of the Gardar rift of South Greenland. It appears that the geodynamic conditions under which melting occurred in the
Prakasam Alkaline Province are similar to that of a propagating rift with variable contributions from the convective mantle and subcontinental
lithosphere mantle to the rift-zone magmas. The present study illustrates how fertility and chemical heterogeneity of the lithosphere play
significant roles in the creation of enormous geochemical diversity characteristic of continental rift-zone magmatism.
© 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Rift-zone; Mafic magmatism; Asthenosphere; Lithosphere; Geochemistry
1. Introduction 1990; Wedepohl et al., 1994; Hegner et al., 1995; Aldanmaz et al.,
2006), 2) thermal boundary layer that was enriched by mantle
Continental rift-zone (CRZ) magmatism initiated by either plume/asthenospheric melts (Haase and Devey, 1994; Wilson
plume impinging or lithosphere stretching (Turcotte and Emerman, et al., 1995; Haase et al., 2004; Thompson et al., 2005), 3) deep
1983; Zeyen et al., 1997) produces by far the widest range mantle plumes (Nicholson and Shirey, 1990; Latin et al., 1993;
of magmatic rocks on the Earth in a single tectonic setting. Ebinger and Sleep, 1998; Goes et al., 1999; Wedepohl and
CRZ magmatism includes basaltic rocks of variable Si-saturation, Baumann, 1999; Rogers et al., 2000; Johnson et al., 2005),
nephelinites, lamprophyres, carbonatites and A-type rhyolites, and 4) enriched pockets in the subcontinental lithospheric mantle
their differentiates. The possible sources that can contribute to the (Hawkesworth et al., 1990; Bradshaw et al., 1993; Paslick et al.,
geochemical spectrum of melts in a continental rift setting include 1995; Bedini et al., 1997; Kalt et al., 1997; Goodenough et al.,
1) metasomatically enriched asthenospheric mantle (Altherr et al., 2002), 5) delaminated subcontinental lithosphere mantle that
recycled into the asthenosphere (Zindler and Hart, 1986) and 6)
underplated and/or metasomatized lower continental crust,
⁎ Corresponding author. Tel.: +91 2462 259657; fax: +91 2462 229245. especially in the production of A-type granitic magmas (Frost
E-mail address: vijay_kumar92@hotmail.com (K. Vijaya Kumar). et al., 2001; Martin, 2006).
0024-4937/$ - see front matter © 2008 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2007.12.012
K. Vijaya Kumar, K. Rathna / Lithos 104 (2008) 306–326 307
One of the fundamental problems related to the CRZ Province of Dobmeier and Raith (2003). It is suggested that the
magmatism is identifying the relative contributions of different domain has experienced arc-related magmatism (Vijaya Kumar
sources. Although the asthenospheric mantle has distinct trace and Leelanandam, 2006; Leelanandam and Vijaya Kumar,
element characteristics (Fitton and Dunlop, 1985; Sun and 2007) possibly during the period 1.72–1.70 Ga (Kovach et al.,
McDonough, 1989; Weaver, 1991), the superimposition of the 2001) followed by a prolonged polyphase granulite facies
lithosphere signatures makes the detection of asthenosphere metamorphism between 1.65 and 1.55 Ga (Mezger and Cosca,
signals a difficult task (Wilson and Downes, 1991; Baker et al., 1999). A second major igneous event, associated with exten-
1997; Macdonald et al., 2001; Späth et al., 2001; Bertrand et al., sive tholeiitic, A-type and alkaline magmatism in the Ongole
2003; Shaw et al., 2003; Xu et al., 2005; Jung et al., 2006; Tang domain (designated as Prakasam Alkaline Province; Fig. 1)
et al., 2006). The subcontinental lithospheric mantle itself may occurred between 1.35 and 1.2 Ga (Sarkar and Paul, 1998;
have had a complex geological history experiencing previous Upadhyay et al., 2006; Vijaya Kumar et al., 2007; Fig. 1), and
depletion events followed by later enrichment either by subduc- possibly related to continental rifting in Mesoproterozoic. Evi-
tion-related fluids or melts or low degree asthenospheric partial dences put forth for rifting include physical disposition of the
melts, or even both. The enrichment could be geologically recent plutons (elliptical shapes and their linear array) and rock asso-
possibly related to melting process or an ancient event in a dif- ciations (alkaline rocks and carbonatite) (Leelanandam, 1989),
ferent tectonic setting. Subduction-modified lithospheric mantle decompression metamorphic mineral assemblages (Dasgupta
may provide a source for subsequent CRZ magmatism either et al., 1997), geochemical signatures of the intrusive mafic
immediately after subduction or even after a prolonged time gap rocks (Rathna et al., 2000; Vijaya Kumar and Ratnakar, 2001),
(Johnson et al., 1978; Goodenough et al., 2002). Delamination of and presence of dense mantle-derived material in the mid- and
the lower continental crust into the lithospheric mantle may add to lower-crust (Kaila et al., 1987). The PAP, which straddles the
the heterogenic recipe of the latter (Arndt and Goldstein, 1989; margin between a Proterozoic mobile belt (EGB) and Dharwar
Glazner, 1994; Fan et al., 2004; Gao et al., 2004). Crustal con- craton, represents a “rift-zone” within the thickened continental
tamination and crystal fractionation (Duda and Schmincke, 1985; crust (Ratnakar and Leelanandam, 1989; Vijaya Kumar and
Davies and Macdonald, 1987; Haase et al., 2004; Krienitz et al., Ratnakar, 2001). The PAP follows the broad structural trend of
2006) further modify the primitive magmas in the intraplate the mobile belt similar to the disposition of continental rifts
setting. elsewhere — for example East African rift follows the trend of
In the present paper, we synthesize the published and Mozambique mobile belt (Smith and Mosley, 1993) and Gardar
unpublished geochemical data (Tables 1 and 2) on the mafic rift in South Greenland follows the trend of Ketilidian mobile
dykes of the Mesoproterozoic Prakasam Alkaline Province (PAP), belt (Windley, 1991).
Eastern Ghats Belt, India and interpret the compositions of the At the present level of exposure, the PAP exposes a spectrum of
mafic dykes to evaluate the relative roles of asthenosphere and plutonic complexes formed at mid-crustal levels with emplace-
lithosphere in the generation of CRZ magmatism. At least three ment ages ranging from 1350–1250 Ma (Fig. 1). The province
types of mafic dykes are recognized in the PAP based on textures consists of Ultramafic–Mafic–Anorthosite (UMA) plutons and
and geochemistry. The first two types are broadly basaltic in alkaline intrusives with nepheline syenite as the dominant
nature, though texturally and chemically distinct, and the third one member. There is an apparent increase in the proportion of
is lamprophyric. First type is alkali basaltic in composition with mafic rocks among the alkaline plutons from Uppalapadu in the
prominent porphyritic textures; second type is gabbroic with a SW to Elchuru in the NE (Fig. 1; Leelanandam, 1989). Ultrahigh
range of equigranular textures; third mafic dyke variety is temperatures are recorded in contact aureoles around some of these
lamprophyric with characteristic porphyritic and panidiomorphic rift-related plutons (Dasgupta et al., 1997). Leelanandam et al.
textures defined by hydrous mineral phenocrysts. All the dykes (2006) have categorized the PAP alkaline plutons as deformed
are relatively primitive (MgO = 5% to 20%) and show only trace alkaline rocks and carbonatites (DARCs) that have a history of
levels of crustal contamination. It is found that the mafic dykes of compression in a collision front during continent–continent su-
PAP are geochemically similar to the 1350–1280 Ma basaltic- turing. Upadhyay et al. (2006) have recorded an amphibolite facies
lamprophyre dykes of Gardar Alkaline Province of South overprint on the PAP intrusives. Presently available age data
Greenland (see Section 6.5). suggests that the rift-related Mesoproterozoic alkaline magmatism
of the PAP (Upadhyay et al., 2006; Vijaya Kumar et al., 2007) has
2. Geology and geochronology experienced deformation and low-grade metamorphism during
Grenvillian and Pan-African times (Mezger and Cosca, 1999;
The study area falls in the southern segment of the Eastern Upadhyay et al., 2006). Detailed mineralogical, geochemical and
Ghats Belt, India (see inset in Fig. 1). Based on a recent syn- isotopic studies suggest that the tholeiitic and alkaline plutons have
thesis of the geological and isotopic data, Dobmeier and Raith different parentage and possibly different sources (Leelanandam,
(2003) have proposed a subdivision of the Eastern Ghats Belt 1993; Leelanandam, 1994; Vijaya Kumar et al., 2007).
into four crustal provinces with distinctly different geological The latest igneous episode of Mesoproterozoic magmatism
evolutions. These four provinces are further divided into a in the PAP is marked by the emplacement of dykes of diverse
number of domains based on lithology, structure and meta- compositions. The dykes intrude and extend beyond the mafic–
morphic grade (see Dobmeier and Raith, 2003). The present ultramafic and alkaline plutons. Most of the alkali basalt and
study area falls within the Ongole domain of the Krishna gabbro dykes are restricted to the mafic–ultramafic complexes,
308 K. Vijaya Kumar, K. Rathna / Lithos 104 (2008) 306–326
Table 1
Representative major (wt.%) and trace (ppm) element composition of primitive mafic dykes from the Prakasam Alkaline Province, Eastern Ghats Belt, India
Rock type Alkali basalt dykes Gabbro dykes Lamprophyre dykes
Sample no. RKV97 RKV168 RKV249 RKV241 RKV299 RKV328 RKV103 P41 Pt49C Pt10E
SiO2 45.44 44.68 43.98 45.90 44.22 45.98 41.27 47.09 46.24 46.51
TiO2 2.12 1.14 1.89 0.74 0.63 0.50 1.66 1.39 2.34 2.55
Al2O3 16.66 14.66 15.11 13.51 12.65 17.95 12.12 9.41 11.98 13.06
Fe2O3 a 8.34 8.02 8.65 8.41 8.39 6.12 8.41 7.91 7.23 7.87
MnO 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.15 0.15 0.12 0.16 0.13 0.11 0.12
MgO 10.63 14.13 12.86 15.41 19.58 11.82 17.83 19.93 13.26 10.51
CaO 10.41 11.89 10.56 11.38 10.09 12.63 12.07 10.05 5.57 5.55
Na2O 2.93 2.63 2.78 2.61 2.24 2.77 1.94 2.65 4.01 4.33
K2O 1.83 0.88 2.00 0.35 0.29 0.39 2.36 1.45 5.25 4.65
P2O5 0.46 0.23 0.35 0.11 0.02 0.03 0.57 0.36 0.76 0.84
LOI 1.42 1.32 1.85 0.84 1.20 1.32 1.60 0.74 2.98 3.24
Total 100.39 99.73 100.19 99.41 99.46 99.63 99.99 101.11 99.73 99.23
Sc 25.0 31.6 29.8 27.6 23.7 22.0 32.3 25.5 14.1 13.6
V 351 410 413 172 259 260 387 188 131 131
Cr 602 618 730 836 1191 771 922 1129 439 295
Co 51.3 55.2 51.0 64.4 68.1 42.3 55.4 48.0 34.1 32.4
Ni 195 381 274 346 462 222 279 201 175 103
Cu 44.1 52.9 45.8 68.2 59.4 63.8 88.8 58.4 83.9 100
Zn 143 107 111 90.1 95.0 83.4 103 72.4 113 145
Ga 19.3 16.1 18.0 13.5 13.0 15.0 14.3 10.4 13.3 17.0
Rb 30.0 16.8 32.4 4.71 2.57 2.90 37.6 38.3 118 107
Sr 504 368 573 200 264 431 870 417 1029 1077
Y 18.5 14.5 20.9 12.3 8.99 8.42 19.9 14.8 19.5 23.8
Zr 97.8 108 151 23.6 26.1 30.2 246 61.3 168 311
Nb 44.8 27.6 84.9 3.47 2.11 3.29 130 62.1 169 43.8
Ba 950 400 871 153 160 218 1270 1092 2872 2963
Hf 2.41 2.32 3.49 0.09 0.84 0.92 4.68 2.48 5.92 8.36
Ta 8.04 5.82 43.4 0.07 1.09 0.81 14.8 17.9 49.1 11.2
Pb 12.5 11.5 15.1 3.80 14.7 8.08 15.5 19.5 19.5 25.0
Th 2.82 3.44 3.38 0.35 0.21 0.28 7.72 6.93 13.7 19.5
U 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.02 0.13 0.10 0.78 1.72 2.88 3.82
REE
La 21.8 15.3 26.3 4.48 2.82 4.39 72.1 67.0 96.9 122
Ce 41.4 28.6 49.4 10.5 6.02 8.52 125 72.6 163 207
Pr 4.57 3.12 5.48 1.14 0.81 1.05 12.4 8.18 17.0 21.6
Nd 22.1 14.8 26.0 6.87 4.84 5.63 50.6 33.8 69.1 84.8
Sm 4.35 2.95 4.95 1.91 1.39 1.39 7.24 5.55 9.64 11.7
Eu 1.90 1.07 1.98 0.77 0.68 0.68 2.18 2.11 3.61 4.24
Gd 4.22 2.94 4.82 2.00 1.50 1.46 7.00 5.34 9.56 10.9
Tb 0.55 0.38 0.58 0.40 0.23 0.22 0.70 0.54 0.82 0.99
Dy 3.29 2.51 3.65 2.06 1.54 1.46 3.65 2.94 4.23 4.84
Ho 0.63 0.49 0.72 0.41 0.31 0.28 0.69 0.48 0.61 0.73
Er 1.55 1.24 1.72 1.25 0.75 0.70 1.74 1.25 1.70 1.93
Tm 0.17 0.14 0.19 0.19 0.09 0.08 0.19 0.19 0.23 0.27
Yb 1.02 0.88 1.17 1.04 0.55 0.51 1.12 1.29 1.61 1.80
Lu 0.21 0.19 0.24 0.14 0.12 0.11 0.24 0.18 0.21 0.26
K2O/Na2O 0.62 0.33 0.72 0.13 0.13 0.14 1.22 0.55 1.31 1.07
Zr/Nb 2.18 3.91 1.78 6.78 12.36 9.19 1.89 0.99 0.99 7.11
Y/Nb 0.41 0.53 0.25 3.53 4.26 2.56 0.15 0.24 0.12 0.54
Zr/Y 5.28 7.42 7.21 1.92 2.90 3.59 12.36 4.15 8.61 13.05
La/Nb 0.49 0.56 0.31 1.29 1.34 1.33 0.55 1.08 0.57 2.79
Nb/Nb a 1.29 1.37 2.13 0.51 0.43 0.46 1.82 1.15 1.37 0.33
Ce/Pb 3.30 2.50 3.28 2.77 0.41 1.05 8.07 3.72 8.38 8.28
Ce/Y 2.23 1.97 2.37 0.86 0.67 1.01 6.29 4.91 8.34 8.69
(Ce/Yb)N 10.35 8.34 10.80 2.60 2.82 4.27 28.59 14.40 25.90 29.44
(Dy/Yb)N 2.06 1.83 1.99 1.49 1.27 1.30 2.08 1.46 1.68 1.72
Analytical methods.
Major elements by XRF; trace and REE on ICP-MS. Analytical uncertainty was around 1% for Al2O3, MgO, Fe2O3, CaO, Na2O, K2O and 2% for SiO2 and P2O5; 5%
for trace elements and for REE the uncertainty was better than 10% of the amount present.
a
Total Fe as Fe2O3.
Table 2
Average major (wt.%) and trace element (ppm) compositions a of the mafic dykes in the Prakasam Alkaline Province, Eastern Ghats Belt, India
Alkali basalt dykes Gabbro dykes Lamprophyre dykes
[N = 12] [N = 8] [N = 27 (major); N = 17 (trace)]
Range Average Range Average Range Average
Min Max Min Max Min Max
SiO2 43.98 48.92 45.93 42.00 49.60 46.29 41.27 48.79 45.69
TiO2 1.13 2.52 1.83 0.39 1.94 0.93 1.39 3.11 2.20
Al2O3 12.93 16.67 14.62 12.65 17.95 14.80 9.41 17.52 14.07
Fe2O3 8.02 16.05 12.24 6.12 15.98 11.27 7.23 16.00 10.83
MnO 0.15 0.21 0.17 0.12 0.21 0.16 0.04 1.07 0.28
MgO 5.37 14.13 9.22 5.62 19.58 11.12 5.01 19.93 8.62
CaO 9.14 12.53 11.03 9.75 13.26 11.78 5.55 12.07 8.42
Na2O 0.89 3.75 2.68 2.13 2.77 2.35 1.94 5.84 3.86
K2O 0.62 2.07 1.28 0.23 0.39 0.30 1.45 6.91 4.46
P2O5 0.01 0.46 0.13 0.02 0.11 0.05 0.26 1.14 0.60
LOI 1.18 2.50 1.69 0.30 1.69 1.15 0.03 3.24 1.38
Sc 19.2 31.6 25.0 22.0 37.0 30.1 5.45 32.3 16.1

V 137 413 273 164 351 249 35.2 387 202
Cr 105 730 509 127 1191 553 19.5 1129 343
Co 45.5 61.9 54.2 42.3 93.2 62.7 16.4 59.0 37.5
Ni 86.1 381 218 74.8 462 234 35.4 279 121
Cu 36.3 199 71.3 59.4 105 75.4 19.0 100 42.7
Zn 61.7 190 120 46.6 106 83.5 71.0 145 103
Ga 12.6 19.8 16.2 10.7 15.0 13.1 10.4 17.0 14.2
Rb 3.50 67.1 24.2 0.90 5.00 2.87 37.6 220 117
Sr 342 616 452 126 648 344 103 1890 942
Y 12.3 24.8 16.8 4.70 21.2 11.4 14.0 33.0 22.0
Zr 33.1 151 73.7 7.70 41.0 22.6 61.3 311 178
Nb 7.50 84.9 32.9 0.60 3.47 2.22 22.0 169 68.5
Ba 137 1152 557 78.0 273 143 636 2990 1778
Hf 0.70 3.49 1.86 0.09 0.92 0.56 2.27 11.9 4.40
Ta 0.30 43.4 5.70 0.07 1.09 0.39 1.54 49.1 8.54
Pb 0.70 15.1 4.37 0.80 14.7 5.04 6.01 25.0 13.8
Th 0.20 4.20 1.80 0.10 2.00 0.57 3.38 22.1 12.2
U 0.00 1.00 0.27 0.00 0.13 0.06 0.74 4.11 2.37
La 4.38 27.5 15.2 1.48 7.00 3.73 21.0 122 56.9

Ce 10.1 68.4 31.5 3.97 14.0 8.30 35.7 273 105
Pr 1.27 5.90 3.57 0.58 2.00 1.15 3.26 25.0 10.0
Nd 6.11 26.0 15.9 3.11 10.0 5.81 15.1 84.8 39.7
Sm 1.98 4.99 3.40 0.70 2.38 1.55 1.95 11.7 5.43
Eu 0.69 1.98 1.23 0.44 1.07 0.73 0.83 4.24 2.00
Gd 1.86 4.82 3.06 0.87 3.00 1.73 2.65 10.9 5.44
Tb 0.24 0.60 0.42 0.11 1.00 0.36 0.29 0.99 0.50
Dy 1.73 3.67 2.71 0.80 3.00 1.80 1.85 4.84 3.11
Ho 0.32 0.72 0.50 0.14 1.00 0.42 0.30 0.73 0.51
Er 0.95 2.04 1.30 0.33 2.00 1.03 0.75 1.99 1.40
Tm 0.13 0.32 0.18 0.05 0.30 0.13 0.14 0.95 0.25
Yb 0.78 1.90 1.16 0.32 2.00 0.92 0.82 1.99 1.29
Lu 0.12 0.24 0.18 0.05 0.30 0.14 0.13 0.28 0.20
K2O/Na2O 0.21 0.92 0.50 0.11 0.16 0.13 0.55 2.19 1.19
Zr/Nb 1.02 5.80 2.72 2.57 21.00 12.26 0.99 7.11 3.61
Y/Nb 0.25 1.64 0.68 2.56 10.00 5.59 0.12 1.00 0.48
Zr/Y 2.28 7.42 4.33 0.36 3.59 2.36 4.15 13.05 8.09
La/Nb 0.31 0.70 0.51 1.23 3.50 1.81 0.50 2.79 0.96
Nb/Nb⁎ 0.99 2.13 1.32 0.18 0.51 0.38 0.33 1.82 0.82
Ce/Pb 2.50 26.94 15.06 0.41 6.01 3.26 3.72 34.69 14.91
Ce/Y 0.82 3.37 1.81 0.48 1.01 0.78 1.37 12.84 4.98
(Ce/Yb)N 2.51 10.80 6.89 1.41 4.27 2.84 10.57 36.44 19.02
(Dy/Yb)N 1.08 2.06 1.54 0.96 2.11 1.40 1.20 2.08 1.54
a
Data sources are given in the explanation in Fig. 3.
Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of the Prakasam Alkaline Province (PAP), Eastern Ghats Belt, India (C; after Rao et al., 1987; Leelanandam, 1989) showing the
distribution of mafic–ultramafic, nepheline syenite and granitoid intrusives. Location of intrusives with respect to the Cuddapah Basin (B) and the setting of the
Cuddapah Basin and the Eastern Ghats Belt within Peninsular India (A) are also shown. Age data are from Upadhyay et al. (2006) and Vijaya Kumar et al. (2007).
whereas the lamprophyre dykes are mostly confined to the features such as sinuosity and offsetting of the dykes indicate
alkaline plutons; a rare example of lamprophyre intruding that they were emplaced when the host was not fully solidified
gabbroic pluton is recorded at Kellampalle. The dykes trend in (Rathna et al., 2000).
different directions and have vertical to steep dips. In addition to
the three principal types of mafic dykes many unusual dykes are 3. Petrography
reported from PAP including anorthosite, plagioclase–perido-
tite and hercynitite among others (Babu et al., 1997; Rathna Classification of the PAP dykes into three categories
et al., 2000 and reference cited therein). Although dykes proper is mainly based on their distinct mineralogy and textures.
are not dated, petrological and geochemical similarities with the Alkali basaltic dykes exhibit porphyritic, glomeroporphyritic
host plutons and field relations suggest that the dyke activity is and panidiomorphic textures with phenocrystic assemblages of
simultaneous with the host plutons, i.e. belongs to the 1350– olivine–clinopyroxene (± plagioclase) and olivine–plagioclase
1250 Ma period rift-related igneous activity (Subba Rao et al., set in a groundmass of plagioclase–clinopyroxene–olivine–
1989; Upadhyay et al., 2006; Vijaya Kumar et al., 2007). Field biotite–magnetite (Fig. 2A and B); locally nepheline is present
Fig. 2. Photomicrographs of alkali basaltic (A–B), gabbroic (C–D) and lamprophyric (E–F) dykes from the Prakasam Alkaline Province. (A) Phenocrysts of euhedral
olivine and plagioclase set in a groundmass composed of plagioclase–clinopyroxene–olivine–biotite–magnetite; (B) euhedral to subhedral olivine and clinopyroxene
phenocrysts set in a groundmass of plagioclase–clinopyroxene–magnetite. Note a few grains of orthopyroxene in the groundmass. Eutectic crystallization of olivine,
plagioclase, clinopyroxene and orthopyroxene resulted in the equigranular (C) and ophitic/sub-ophitic (D) texture in the gabbroic dykes. (E) Phenocrysts of olivine,
clinopyroxene and biotite set in a groundmass of clinopyroxene, biotite, magnetite and orthoclase; (F) amphibole and biotite phenocrysts set in a groundmass of second
generation mafic minerals and orthoclase; note the swirling of groundmass material around phenocrysts and presence of subrounded ocellus of orthoclase. Length of
the bar is 1 mm in all the photomicrographs.
in the groundmass. Range in the size of phenocrystic minerals In contrast to the porphyritic nature of the alkali basaltic
resulted in seriate texture in some of the dykes. Olivine is dykes, gabbroic dykes show a variety of textures that include
euhedral to subrounded and locally resorbed to iron oxides. medium-grained equigranular, ophitic–subophitic and intergra-
Orthopyroxene phenocrysts are absent, but the dykes that show nular (Fig. 2C and D). Olivine, zoned plagioclase, clinopyroxene
geochemical signatures of crustal contamination (see Petroge- and orthopyroxene are essential minerals with biotite and oxide
netic discussion) contain few grains of orthopyroxene in the minerals forming the accessory phases. Olivine is absent in the
groundmass (Fig. 2B). Rhomb-shaped clinopyroxene pheno- geochemically evolved dykes. Olivine–plagioclase interface is
crysts contain exsolved blebs of plagioclase indicating their generally marked by the presence of orthopyroxene coronas.
original high-pressure crystallization. Euhedral plagioclase Presence of hydrous mafic phenocrysts and absence of felsic
phenocrysts of variable sizes show alignment in the direction phenocrysts, absence of olivine in groundmass and absence of
of magma flow. modal or normative orthopyroxene characterize lamprophyre
dykes. The lamprophyre dykes are marked out by a variety of Lamprophyres with phenocrysts of amphibole (kaersutite) and
phenocrystic mafic minerals set in a groundmass of second biotite without olivine and clinopyroxene are geochemically
generation mafic minerals and feldspar (plagioclase/orthoclase) more evolved. Some of the very coarse resorbed olivine mega-
and/or feldspathoid (nepheline/analcite). Euhedral phenocrysts crysts could possibly be xenocrysts of mantle rocks. Spectacular
of olivine, clinopyroxene, biotite and amphibole define zoning is illustrated by some of the clinopyroxene phenocrysts.
porphyritic and panidiomorphic textures (Fig. 2E and F), though Lamprophyres with ocelli of felsic minerals are not uncommon
all of them do not coexist in a single dyke. For example, the (Fig. 2F), which are possibly formed by silica liquid
Elchuru lamprophyres are dominated by clinopyroxene, Pur- immiscibility. According to the classification of Rock (1977),
imetla and Settupalle by olivine–clinopyroxene–biotite and the PAP lamprophyres belong to sannite, camptonite and minette
Kellampalle by amphibole–biotite phenocrysts respectively. categories.
Fig. 3. Zr vs. incompatible element variation in the mafic dykes of the Prakasam Alkaline Province (PAP). Strong positive correlations for Nb, Hf and La suggest little
mobility of HFS elements due to metamorphism in the PAP dykes. In contrast, Sr, Ba and Rb (LIL elements) do show some scatter in the plots, which possibly reflects
mobility of these elements by low-grade metamorphism. For explanation, see the text. Geochemical data used in this and all other figures is compiled from Nag et al.
(1984), Madhavan and Leelanandam (1988), Subba Rao et al. (1989), Madhavan and Mallikarjun Rao (1990), Madhavan et al. (1990), Madhavan et al. (1992),
Ratnakar et al. (1995), Rathna et al. (2000), Upadhyay et al. (2006), Vijaya Kumar et al. (2007) and present study.
A good correlation exists between the phenocrystic and/or (Tables 1 and 2). The basaltic dykes are alkaline (Ne-normative),
liquidus phases in the dykes and the cumulus phases of the host primitive in terms of major element compositions; The gabbroic
primitive cumulate rocks. Specifically, primitive cumulate rock dykes are tholeiitic to high-Al basaltic (Hy-normative), and have
associated with alkali basaltic dyke is a wehrlite adcumulate high Al2O3 and Sr contents and relatively lower abundances of
with cumulus clinopyroxene and olivine with intercumulus incompatible element concentrations; lamprophyres of the PAP
plagioclase; primitive cumulate associated with the gabbroic are alkaline to calc-alkaline and are typified by lower CaO, and
dykes is a gabbroic orthocumulate containing cumulus K2O/Na2O ratios N1 for majority of the dykes (Tables 1 and 2;
plagioclase, olivine, orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene reflect- Madhavan et al., 1992). For similar SiO2 contents, the lamprophyre
ing multiple saturation of parental magma to gabbroic dykes; dykes have two and three times more alkalis than the alkali basaltic
clinopyroxene–biotite–(olivine)–(amphibole) cumulate is the and gabbroic dykes respectively (Table 1). Average CaO contents
most primitive cumulate found in the alkaline plutons traversed are in the order: CaOgabbro N CaOalkali basalt ≫ CaOlamprophyre, so
by the lamprophyric dykes. This systematic relationship do the CaO/Al2O3 ratios (Fig. 4A). Trace element abundances and
between the dykes and host plutons indicate that the former ratios also distinguish the three types of dykes: for comparable Ni
are geochemically similar to the parental liquids that formed the contents, La concentrations show an order of magnitude higher in
latter. This episodic emplacement of primitive liquids is the lamprophyre dykes when compared to the gabbro dykes; the
characteristic of an evolving rift (Holm and Prægel, 2006). alkali basalt dykes have intermediate values (Fig. 4B). The
enrichment in the incompatible elements is positively correlated
4. Potential problems with elemental mobility to the K2O content of the rock (Tables 1 and 2). In general, for
similar compatible trace elements (Ni, Cr etc.), the incompatible
It is well established that geochemical mobility of elements is elements (La, Ba etc.) are systematically higher in the
commonly associated with alteration and metamorphism of the lamprophyre dykes than in the alkali basaltic and gabbroic
rocks of basaltic composition (Sun and Nesbitt, 1978; Thompson, dykes (Tables 1 and 2). The compositional diversity of the rift-
1991). Since the PAP intrusives have undergone low-grade
metamorphic effects (Upadhyay et al., 2006) it is mandatory to
assess the relative mobility of elements to avoid pitfalls in the data
interpretation. We have assessed the relative mobility of elements
in the PAP dykes using Harker-type binary plots with Zr on X-
axis, since it is considered that Zr is immune to mobility under
most metamorphic conditions (Pearce and Cann, 1973; Weaver
and Tarney, 1981; Sheraton, 1984). It is generally assumed that
the elements which behave incompatibly under mantle melting
and basaltic magma crystallization conditions share positive
correlations with Zr. But one should be cautious that the co-
linearity in the element–element plots even among high-field
strength elements is not a general rule especially when the melts
are generated by polybaric melting of the mantle and when mantle
sources contain variable proportions of garnet and rutile (Vijaya
Kumar et al., 2006). Both high filed strength (Nb, Hf and La;
Fig. 3A, B and C) and large ion lithophile (Sr, Ba and Rb; Fig. 3D,
E and F) elemental abundances are plotted against Zr to assess
their relative mobility in the PAP dykes. The HFS elements share
strong positive correlations with Zr suggesting that they retained
original magmatic relationships. Nb values for the lamprophyres
exhibit some scatter (Fig. 3A) which is due to their derivation
from multiple sources (see Discussion below) but not due to
metamorphic imprints. The LIL elements do show some scatter in
the plots which possibly reflects mobility of these elements by
low-grade metamorphism. Even the plots that show scatter have
retained the inherent distinctive grouping of the three types of
dykes. In the present study we have utilized only those elements
which are not affected by metamorphism to evaluate source
regions.
Fig. 4. (A) CaO (wt.%) vs. CaO/Al2O3 diagram for the mafic dykes of the
5. Compositional diversity of the PAP dykes Prakasam Alkaline Province. Gabbro and alkali basalt dykes have consistently
higher CaO and CaO/Al2O3 than that in lamprophyres. Note the linear trend
defined by the samples. (B) Ni (ppm) vs. La (ppm) variation in the PAP dykes.
The mineralogical distinctions among the three types of mafic Lamprophyres show an order of higher abundances in La with respect to
dykes of the PAP are amply reflected in their geochemistry gabbroic dykes for comparable Ni contents.
related mafic magmatism in the PAP is distinctly brought out by

the ratios of the incompatible elements (Tables 1 and 2).
Since moderate degrees of fractionation (both by melting
and crystallization) do not alter ratios of highly incompatible
elements, variation in the immobile incompatible elemental ratios
(such as Zr/Hf, La/Nb, Y/Nb etc.) as illustrated by the PAP dykes
(Tables 1 and 2) may reflect heterogeneity of their mantle sources
and mixing between them (Fig. 4A; see Goodenough et al., 2002).
Fig. 6. NMORB-normalized incompatible element diagram for the alkali basalt

(A), gabbro (B) and lamprophyre (C) dykes from the PAP. Normalizing values
are after Sun and McDonough (1989). OIB and IAB incompatible element
compositions are taken from Wilson (1989).
The alkali basaltic dykes exhibit LREE-enriched patterns

[(Ce/Yb) N = 2.5–10.8)] in the Chondrite-normalized plots
(Fig. 5A) with minor positive Eu anomalies in some of the
dykes. The gabbroic dykes display slightly LREE-enriched
[(Ce/Yb)N = 1.4–4.2)] to flat REE patterns with conspicuous
positive Eu anomalies (Fig. 5B). In the absence of any cumulus
textures (see Fig. 2C and D) and positive correlation between
Al2O3 and Eu anomaly, we argue that the positive Eu anomalies in
these dykes are the original geochemical traits of the melts rather
than a result of plagioclase accumulation. The lamprophyres show
characteristic fractionated REE patterns [(Ce/Yb)N = 10.6–36.4)]
with gentle or without any Eu anomalies (Fig. 5C).
In the NMORB-normalized incompatible element diagram
(spidergram), alkali basaltic dykes show fractionation of
incompatible elements from left to right and conspicuous
Fig. 5. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns for the alkali basalt (A), gabbro negative spikes for K characteristic of OIB magmas (Fig. 6A).
(B) and lamprophyre (C) dykes from the PAP. Normalizing values are after In contrast the gabbroic dykes show distinct negative troughs
Hanson (1980). for Nb, Zr and Ti and positive spikes for Sr characteristic of arc-
related magmas (Fig. 6B). Lamprophyre dykes broadly exhibit (Fig. 6A and C). Additionally, if phenocrystic minerals are any
patterns similar to the trend of oceanic island basalt (Fig. 6C) indication, alkali basaltic dykes are produced from anhydrous
but Nb anomalies are both positive and negative. Negative Nb sources whereas lamprophyre dykes produced from hydrous
anomalies seem to be characteristic of lamprophyre dykes with sources. An implication of this observation is that the potential
lower incompatible element abundances (Fig. 6C). temperature of the sources to alkali basalts is higher than the
lithospheric sources of lamprophyres. Geochemical modeling
6. Petrogenetic discussion (see below) also suggests that the sources to PAP alkali basaltic
dykes are anhydrous and enriched. Based on these evidences,
Geochemical distinction in the primitive melts and distinctly we speculate that the thermal boundary layer (TBL; depleted
different liquidus mineralogy indicate that the mantle source lithospheric mantle that was metasomatized by asthenospheric
regions and parental liquid evolution paths for the three types of melt/fluid and later thermally converted as part of the
dykes are different. Although the alkali basaltic and lamprophyric convecting mantle), which can sustain its distinctive chemical
dykes show similar trace element characteristics (see Fig. 6A and identity and can contribute to basaltic magmatism that differs
C), they cannot be related to each other by different degrees of from lithospheric melts could be the ultimate source for PAP
melting of the same source. For comparable MgO contents, CaO alkali basaltic dykes. Such a source seems to explain genesis of
contents and CaO/Al2O3 ratios are much lower, and Ni, Cr and similar alkaline magmas elsewhere (Haase et al., 2004;
other compatible elements are variable in the lamprophyres with Thompson et al., 2005).
respect to alkali basaltic dykes. Different degrees of melting do We have calculated rare earth abundances of mantle source for
not change the CaO/Al2O3 ratios to the extent shown by alkali PAP alkali basalts assuming a two-stage model (McKenzie and
basaltic and lamprophyric dykes (Tables 1 and 2) and Ni, Cr and O'Nions, 1995). In stage one, a basaltic melt is extracted from the
other compatible element concentrations in the melts are inde- DMM (depleted MORB mantle) sources in the garnet–spinel
pendent of degrees of melting. Variable CaO/Al2O3 ratios mean stability filed; in stage two, this depleted source is enriched by low
contrasting source mineralogy and presumably different source
lithologies. Variable incompatible element concentrations and
ratios for comparable compatible element concentrations also
indicate that the dykes are probably related to each other by dif-
ferent degrees of melting of the same source or derivation from
different sources. Additionally, the gabbroic dykes with very high
La/Nb and Ba/Nb ratios require subduction-effected lithospheric
sources (see Dudás, 1991; Section 6.2). In the following sections,
we identify individual mantle sources for the three types of dykes
and demonstrate that the geochemical spectrum of the mafic
dykes in the PAP is due to interaction of contrasting mantle end-
members.
6.1. Sources for alkali basalt dykes
Although it is commonly agreed that the intraplate alkali

basalts with OIB-type geochemical characteristics are derived
from an enriched source, there is considerable disagreement Fig. 7. Primitive mantle-normalized plot showing the calculated mantle source
whether this source is conductive lithosphere or convective and melt REE abundances for the genesis of PAP alkali basalt dykes. REE
asthenosphere. McKenzie and O'Nions (1995) have argued that abundances of mantle sources to continental alkali basalts are shown for
the intraplate alkali basalts are formed from enriched litho- comparison. Calculation of the mantle source REE composition is similar to the
spheric sources that were previously depleted, and the one proposed by McKenzie and O'Nions (1995) and involves extraction of 11%
basaltic melt from a DMM (depleted MORB mantle) source within the garnet–
enrichment is due to addition of small melt fractions that were spinel stability field followed by enrichment of 8% of a melt formed by 0.4%
derived from MORB source mantle. They further suggested that melting of the DMM source in the garnet-stability field to produce sources for
the mantle source for these small-volume continental alkali the PAP alkali basalt magmas. Pre-extraction of basaltic magma is reflected in
basalts was wet rather than dry. On the contrary, Aldanmaz et al. the convex-downward pattern for the elements Tb to Lu in the normalized plots
(2006) have argued that the homogeneous convective mantle for alkali basalt mantle sources. Five percent melting of this metasomatized
DMM source within garnet–spinel stability field produces a melt with
was the source for the intraplate alkali basalts. concentrations similar to the PAP alkali basalt dykes. Melting in garnet-only
Unless there is a systematic decrease in the arc-signatures stability field produces much stronger fractionation trends. Amphibole was not
within the lithosphere mantle with depth, there is no reason for required in the source regions of PAP alkali basalts. Non-modal batch melting
the alkali basalts to show OIB-type signatures, though they have equation (Shaw, 1970) is used in all the calculations. Data sources: McKenzie
formed by higher degrees of melting than the lamprophyres. and O'Nions (1991) (primitive mantle), Workman and Hart (2005) (DMM),
McKenzie and O'Nions (1995) (sources of Aegean volcanics — mantle sources
With increasing degrees of melting the arc-type lithospheric to continental alkali basalt), Gurenko and Chaussidon (1995) (mantle
signatures should become prominent as shown by some of the mineralogy and melting proportions) and McKenzie and O'Nions (1991);
lamprophyres but not shown by the alkali basaltic dykes Shaw (2000) (partition coefficients).
degree partial melt that also derived from a DMM source but
within garnet-stability field. Scale of melt extraction and mag-
nitude of enrichment of low degree partial melt control the hybrid
source REE composition. Details of DMM composition, propor-
tions of melt extraction and addition are given in caption to Fig. 7.
The calculated rare earth abundances of mantle source to PAP
alkali basalt dykes are similar to that of the sources to continental
alkali basalts (McKenzie and O'Nions, 1995). Unlike OIB
sources which do not require any pre-extraction of magma,
sources for continental alkali basalts require melt extraction from
DMM sources prior to enrichment. Such a pre-extraction of
magma is reflected by convex-downward pattern for Tb–Lu
segment in the Chondrite-normalized abundances of the sources.
Five percent melt of a two-stage-mantle source generated within
garnet–spinel stability field explains the rare earth characteristics
of the PAP alkali basaltic dykes (Fig. 7).
6.2. Sources for gabbro dykes Fig. 8. La/Nb vs. Ba/Nb plot showing that the gabbro dykes are characterized by
higher La/Nb and Ba/Nb ratios similar to that in arc volcanics and supposedly
The geochemistry of the gabbroic dykes indicates subduction delaminated arc-cumulates/residues. Data sources: Le Roux (1986) (MORB,
OIB and Dupal OIB), Sun and McDonough (1989) (primitive mantle), Jahn
influence in their source regions, whereas they are emplaced in
et al. (1999) (arc volcanics) and Garrido et al. (2006); Lee et al. (2006) (arc-
an extensional regime during Mesoproterozoic rifting. This cumulates/residues).
contradiction can be reconciled if the source regions have
retained subduction signatures that were acquired in a previous
tectonic environment. For example Dudás (1991) has argued that
the arc-signatures shown by rift-related Eocene magmatism of different from the OIB or MORB sources (Fig. 8). For com-
North America are due to ancient lithospheric enrichment parison, Al-websterites/pyroxenites and granulites, considered as
events. Paleosubduction-related lithospheric mantle beneath the delaminated arc-cumulates, are also shown in Fig. 8. The gabbroic
central North China Craton was indicated by Cretaceous dykes of the PAP are indistinguishable from lower crustal arc-
gabbroic rocks of the Taihang Mountains (Wang et al., 2006). cumulates/residues. Continental signatures for the mantle-derived
Long geochemical memories of subcontinental lithospheric gabbroic dykes imply that crustal signatures are acquired within
mantle are also proposed by Goodenough et al. (2002) based on the mantle itself. Vijaya Kumar and Leelanandam (2006) and
their studies on the Mesoproterozoic Gardar dykes. They have Leelanandam and Vijaya Kumar (2007) have argued that
shown that the lithospheric mantle has acquired subduction- delamination of mafic–ultramafic cumulates was necessary to
related geochemical signatures around 1.8 Ga, but this enriched make the arc crust stable during the formation of Andean-type
mantle was melted during 1.3 Ga Gardar rifting. Lithospheric continental margin in the area. The geochemical signatures of the
mantle beneath PAP might have been enriched by subduction- gabbroic dykes are consistent with the presence of lower crustal
related events around 1750–1800 Ma, which is the timing of arc-cumulates in their source regions.
formation of Andean-type continental margin in the area
(Leelanandam and Vijaya Kumar, 2007 and references therein). 6.3. Sources for lamprophyre dykes
Subsequent to enrichment, the lithosphere mantle was quiescent
for 400 Ma and has undergone melting around 1350 Ma during Originally it was thought that the lamprophyres with OIB-like
continental rifting. incompatible element patterns were derived from astheno-
Based on the geochemistry of the gabbroic rocks of PAP, sphere mantle (Thompson, 1985). But later it was realized that
Vijaya Kumar and Ratnakar (2001) have argued that they require the MORB-type or OIB-type asthenosphere is not capable of
mantle sources which are relatively Ca–Al-enriched than the producing the ultrapotassic magmas and they are ultimately
normal mantle peridotite. One way of making a Ca–Al-rich produced in the subcontinental lithospheric mantle (Foley,
mantle source is to add gabbroic component to the peridotitic 1992). Lithospheric mantle sources for potassic magmas can be
source. Foundering of dense lower crustal gabbroic cumulates, generated by 1) addition of melts and/or fluids derived from
with positive Eu anomalies, into the mantle lithosphere produces a subducted lithosphere (Thompson et al., 1990), and 2) inter-
mantle source that is less magnesian and more aluminous than the action of the lithosphere with small melt fractions of volatile-rich
peridotite and significantly a source with positive Eu anomalies liquids leaked from the underlying asthenosphere as veins,
(Ulianov et al., 2006; Yang, 2006). Melting of such a lithospheric lenses and pockets (McKenzie, 1989). Both positive and slightly
source (see Jahn et al., 1999; Xu, 2002) produces Ca–Al-rich negative Nb–Ta anomalies in the spidergrams for the lampro-
melts with positive Eu anomalies. Evidence for such a mechanism phyres of the PAP (Fig. 6C) suggest contribution from both
is illustrated in Fig. 8. La/Nb and Ba/Nb values for gabbroic dykes asthenospheric melts and subducted components in generation
are quite high and comparable with the arc volcanics but distinctly of their sources.
Primitive lamprophyric magmas show CaO/Al2O3 ratios less lamprophyres and gabbroic dykes show such a transition from
than 0.5 suggesting that the source regions for these dykes are OIB to IAB signatures with increasing lithospheric compo-
either depleted in Ca-bearing phase (mostly clinopyroxene) or nent. Vein-plus-wall-rock mixing mechanism for the genesis of
clinopyroxene was residual during melting. Liquidus miner- lamprophyres is tested assuming the sample with highest La con-
alogy of the lamprophyres (phlogopite, amphibole and clin- centrations and La/Yb and Tb/Yb ratios as a representative of
opyroxene with little olivine) also indicates that the source asthenosphere-derived vein component (Fig. 9). Arc-peridotite as
regions for lamprophyres are enriched Ol-poor mantle sources. other end-member does not produce the chemical variation shown
Experimental evidence and geochemical modeling suggest that by the PAP lamprophyres (Fig. 9). But a mixture of arc-peridotite
the mafic potassic magmas are derived from depleted lherzolite and arc-cumulates/residues is more suited as an end-member
or harzburgitic sources (Foley, 1990; Tainton and McKenzie, representing wall-rock composition. Compositions of end-
1994) in which clinopyroxene is the first phase to melt. This members considered in the calculations are shown in Fig. 9.
contradiction regarding the behavior of clinopyroxene during Gabbroic dykes do indicate presence of delaminated arc-
mantle melting is elegantly explained by Foley (1992) through cumulates/residues in the lithospheric source regions beneath
his vein-plus-wall-rock melting model. During the early stages the PAP (see discussion in Section 6.2). A shift from alkaline to
of continental rifting small fractions of melts of ultrapotassic calc-alkaline nature of the lamprophyres with increasing degrees
compositions derived from deeper asthenosphere are added to of melting reflects the progressive involvement of arc-lithosphere.
the subcontinental lithosphere in the form of veins. The veins are It is the calc-alkaline lamprophyres which show slight positive Eu
rich in clinopyroxene and mica. As the rifting proceeds, these anomalies in the normalized REE plots (Fig. 5C). A possible
veins within lithosphere specifically undergo melting due to outcome of increased degrees of melting of vein-plus-wall-rock is
decompression and heat supplied by the upwelling astheno- witnessed by the increasing mafic component but decreasing
sphere (plume?). Melts thus derived from these enriched mantle abundances of incompatible elements in the alkaline plutons of
veins acquire the geochemical characteristics of the small melt the PAP from SW to NE. In summary, lamprophyres are formed
fractions in terms of incompatible element abundances, but could by low degree melting of the enriched veins and vein-plus-wall-
retain clinopyroxene as a residual phase during very low per- rock whereas the gabbroic dykes are formed by extensive melting
centage of melting. With increasing degrees of melting more of the lithosphere wall-rocks, thereby eliminating the astheno-
wall-rock (peridotite) component would enter the melt. An impli- sphere signals and retaining the subduction-related lithosphere
cation of this scenario is that low degree partial melting of the signatures.
metasomatized subcontinental lithosphere sources would produce
lamprophyric melts with the OIB-like trace element signatures, 6.4. Implications for rift-zone magmatism in terms of SCLM
but as the degrees of melting increases the subduction-related thickness
signatures of the wall-rock become prominent. Indeed, the
Lamproite dykes that intrude the sedimentary rocks within
the Cuddapah basin and granitic gneisses close to the northern
corner of the basin could be a cratonic expression of the rift-
triggered magmatism within the PAP. The incidence of
lamproites in and around Cuddapah basin also increases from
south to north similar to that of lamprophyres in the PAP.
Further, there seems to be a spatial variation in the phenocrystic
and groundmass mineralogy of the Cuddapah lamproites similar
to that in the PAP lamprophyres. Published age data, based on a
variety of isotopic techniques, on the Cuddapah lamproites
ranges from 1410 Ma to 1050 Ma (Chalapathi Rao et al., 1996,
1999; Anil Kumar et al., 2001), and are mostly isotopic method
dependent. It is possible that the geodynamic setting of an
extensional regime related to Mesoproterozoic rifting that has
produced the craton-margin PAP magmatism is also responsible
for the production of on-craton lamproite magmas.
Geochemical variation in the craton-margin mafic magmas
and craton interior lamproites is depicted in Fig. 10A and B.
Fig. 9. La/Yb vs. Tb/Yb plot illustrating vein-plus-wall-rock melting model for
the genesis of PAP lamprophyre dykes. X and Y components are binary mixing
CaO/Al2O3 and K2O/Na2O ratios in primitive mafic magmas
end-member compositions. X, representing most enriched lamprophyre, is are essentially controlled by source mineralogy and melting
considered as vein component and Y, representing wall-rock component, is conditions. Lamproite magmas that are derived from deeper
denoted by a mixture of arc-peridotites and delaminated arc-cumulates/residues. depths contain relatively higher values for CaO/Al2O3 and
Arc-peridotite alone cannot reproduce the chemical variation shown by the PAP K2O/Na2O mostly controlled by stability of pyrope-rich garnet
lamprophyres. PAP gabbro dykes are shown for comparison. For discussion, see
the text. Data sources: Takazawa et al. (2000) (fertile arc-peridotite; samples BZ- and jadeite-rich clinopyroxene respectively (Mitchell, 1996;
201, BZ-203, BZ-120 and BZ-134) and Garrido et al. (2006); Lee et al. (2006) Edgar and Mitchell, 1997). Average CaO/Al2O3 ratios in the
(arc-cumulates/residues). lamproites are higher and Al2O3/TiO2 ratios much lower than
including delaminated arc-cumulates. Progressive decrease in

garnet proportion in the mantle sources from cratonic
lamproites to PAP magmas is consistent with if not suggestive
of varying lithosphere thickness. K2O/Na2O and La/Yb ratios
(Fig. 10B) further reflect variable depths of derivation of
cratonic and craton-margin magmas. Lamproites, derived
from deeper depths, contain higher values for both the ratios
and gabbro dykes, derived from shallow mantle sources, show
lower values. During partial melting of the mantle in exten-
sional regimes melt proportion increases as pressure decreases
(Ahern and Turcotte, 1979; Asimow et al., 1997). Therefore, it
is reasonable to assume that lamproites are derived from deeper
depths but by lower degrees of melting and gabbro dykes from
shallower depths but by higher degrees of melting as controlled
by subcontinental lithosphere mantle thickness.
6.5. Continental rift-zone magmatism: similarities and

contrasts
If the continental rift-zone magmatism has typical geochem-

ical signatures, then they should be manifested in the rifts of
different spatio-temporal relationships. For this purpose, we
have compared the Mesoproterozoic mafic magmatism in the
PAP with the mafic magmatism in the Mesoproterozoic Gardar
Alkaline Province in Greenland — considered as a “type” area
for intracontinental rift-related magmatism. Similar to the Prakasam
Province, the Gardar Province also represents a continental rift
Fig. 10. (A) CaO/Al2O3 vs. Al2O3/TiO2 variation in the alkali basalt, gabbro and along the contact between an Archaean craton and a Proterozoic
lamprophyre dykes of craton margin and lamproites from craton interior. Note the mobile belt within an Andean-type lithosphere (Windley, 1991).
contrasting variation trends between lamproites and other rocks. Increasing CaO/ Present study suggests that the three distinct types of mafic magmas
Al2O3 values suggest increasing residual garnet during partial melting possibly
represented by Ne-normative basaltic, Hy-normative basaltic and
related to depth of melting. For explanation, see the text. (B) Positive correla-
tion between K2O/Na2O and La/Yb ratios in the PAP mafic dykes and cratonic lamprophyric dykes in the Gardar Province (Goodenough et al.,
lamproites is consistent with increasing depth of melting as controlled by 2002) characteristically correspond to the alkali basaltic, gabbroic
lithosphere thickness. For discussion, see the text. Data sources for lamproites: and lamprophyric dykes respectively of the PAP. The Hy-normative
Reddy et al. (2003), Chalapathi Rao et al. (2004), Chakrabarti et al. (2007), Paul basaltic dykes of the Gardar retain the subduction signatures
et al. (2007).
possibly originated during Ketilidian orogeny at least 500 Ma
earlier than the Gardar rifting, suggesting the long memories of the
that of the alkali basalts and lamprophyres (Fig. 10A) and are subcontinental lithosphere (Goodenough et al., 2002).
similar to Al-depleted komatiites (Sun and Nesbitt, 1978; We have used Zr/Nb and Y/Nb ratios to compare with Gardar
Rajamani et al., 1993). Contrasting CaO/Al2O3 and Al2O3/TiO2 magmatism (Upton and Emeleus, 1987; Larsen and Rex, 1992;
variation in the PAP magmas and cratonic lamproites brings Goodenough et al., 2002; Coulson et al., 2003; Halama et al.,
out the differences in source mineralogy, especially proportion 2003; Upton et al., 2003; Halama et al., 2007; Tappe et al.,
of aluminous phases. It is evident that the garnet was domi- 2007) and to recognize variable contributions from different
nantly retained in the residue during the melting of lamproite mantle sources in the generation of PAP mafic magmas. Gardar
sources, but not so for alkali basalt and lamprophyres. Experi- dykes and related mafic magmas are geochemically similar to
mental work on olivine lamproites (Foley, 1993) indicates their the PAP dykes but contain slightly higher Zr/Nb and lower Y/Nb
derivation from mica harzburgite in the presence of C–O–H ratios (Fig. 11A). Chemical variation in the PAP dykes can be
fluids at pressures greater than 5 GPa. Based on thermo- modeled by mixing of melts derived from OIB-like and IAB-like
barometry on mantle xenoliths and inversion of rare earth ele- mantle sources. Compositions of mantle end-members used in
ments, Chalapathi Rao et al. (2004) have also suggested the calculations are shown in the Fig. 11A. Gabbro dykes have
derivation of Cuddapah lamproites from a depth of ~ 130 km. up to 70% contribution from lithosphere mantle sources whereas
In contrast, geochemical signatures of alkali basalts and alkali basalts and lamprophyres have less than 20% contribution
lamprophyres indicate their derivation from garnet–spinel for Zr and Y coming from lithosphere sources. Zr/Nb and Y/Nb
stability field (b 3 GPa; see caption to Figs. 7 and 9) consistent ratios for PAP gabbro dykes are much higher than the average
with experiment evidences (Hirose, 1997). Gabbro dykes continental crust (Fig. 11A); therefore the high ratios in the
contain much higher Al2O3/TiO2 ratios indicating derivation gabbroic dykes may reflect source characteristics but not due to
from shallow Al-rich and Ti-poor arc-lithosphere sources crustal contribution. However, it is possible that some of the
Due to intrinsic differences in Nb/Nb⁎ ([(Nb/√K x La)N], where

N represents normalization by NMORB values) values in the
subduction-effected lithosphere sources (Nb/Nb⁎ b 1) and in the
asthenosphere sources (Nb/Nb⁎ N 1), it should be possible to
evaluate the relative contributions of asthenosphere and litho-
sphere in the CRZ magmatism in general and PAP magmatism in
particular. Alkali basaltic dykes represent melts dominated by the
OIB component and gabbroic dykes represent end-members of
IAB-like lithosphere sources (Fig. 11B). Depending on the
degrees of melting of the source, the lamprophyres exhibit
signatures dominated by either asthenosphere or lithosphere. We
found that the Purimetla and Kellampalle lamprophyres, formed
by very low degrees of melting, show signatures dominated by
asthenosphere (higher Nb/Nb⁎), where as the Elchuru lampro-
phyres, formed by relatively higher degrees of melting, show
signatures dominated by lithosphere (lower Nb/Nb⁎; Fig. 11B).
This systematic spatial variation in the lamprophyre melt
chemistry may point to progressive propagation of rift and
northward migration of thermal regime. Geochemical similarities
between Prakasam and Gardar rifts are much more discernible in
Fig. 11B. Some of the PAP and Gardar dykes (ultramafic
lamprophyres and carbonatite) have Y/Nb values lower
(Fig. 11A) and Nb/Nb⁎ values much higher (Fig. 11B) than
OIB–end-member, which can be correlated to lower degrees but
greater depth of melting and higher enrichment of the sources, i.e.,
with higher vein component than the OIB sources. The complete
spectrum of the CRZ magmatism in the PAP can be explained by
the mixing of melts derived from OIB-like asthenospheric sources
and IAB-like lithospheric sources (Fig. 11A and B).
One fundamental difference between the Prakasam and
Gardar rifts is near absence of ultramafic lamprophyres and
carbonatites in the former and their abundant presence in the
latter. A sole example of carbonatite presence from the PAP
comes from Elchuru pluton and is possibly a residual
immiscible liquid to the Si-undersaturated nepheline syenite
magma (Leelanandam, 1989). We believe that the absence of
these rocks is controlled by the nature of the rifting and whether
Fig. 11. Zr/Nb vs. Y/Nb (A) and La/Nb vs. Nb/Nb⁎ (B) plots for the mafic dykes the rifting has finally culminated into an oceanic margin or
from the Prakasam and Gardar Alkaline Provinces. Nb/Nb⁎ ([(Nb/√K x La)N], not. In the case of PAP, Mesoproterozoic rifting has finally
where N represents normalization by NMORB values) quantifies Nb anomaly in culminated into an Atlantic-type oceanic margin (Upadhyay
the rocks. X and Y components represent binary end-member compositions of et al., 2006); on the contrary Gardar rift retained its continental
mixing hyperbola represented by IAB and a composition slightly enriched than
status. This has profound influence on the geodynamics of
OIB respectively. Entire geochemical spectrum of the PAP mafic magmas can be
explained by mixing of OIB-like and IAB-like mantle sources. Note that some of mantle melting (see Tappe et al., 2007). In the case of the PAP
the Prakasam and Gardar magmas have Y/Nb lower and Nb/Nb⁎ values higher due to continuous and possibly faster rifting rate, the geothermal
than that in OIB. For discussion, see the text. Data sources: Upton and Emeleus gradient and consequently the depth of melting would be
(1987), Larsen and Rex (1992), Goodenough et al. (2002), Coulson et al. (2003), shallower resulting in the dominance of alkali basalts, gabbros
Halama et al. (2003), Upton et al. (2003), Halama et al. (2007), Tappe et al.
and lamprophyres in the areas of advanced continental rifting
(2007) (Gardar dykes and basalts), Wilson (1989) (OIB and IAB), Sun and
McDonough (1989) (NMORB) and Taylor and McLennan (1985) (continental (within PAP); more Mg-rich magmas such as lamproites are
crust). restricted to mild continental extensional regimes towards the
interior of the craton. Whereas Mesoproterozoic melting needs
alkali basalts with relatively higher Zr/Nb and Y/Nb ratios might to be much deeper in the Gardar rift for producing ultramafic
have undergone some proportion of continental crust contam- lamprophyres and carbonatites (Upton et al., 2003; Tappe et al.,
ination, which is strongly evidenced by the presence of modal 2007). Relative enrichment differences in the parental mafic
orthopyroxene (see Section 3). magmas of both the rifts are more profoundly illustrated in the
We have further used Nb/Nb⁎, which quantifies the size of residual syenitic liquids: nepheline syenites of the Prakasam rift
Nb anomaly, to characterize the contribution of Andean-type are miaskitic in nature (Ratnakar and Leelanandam, 1989)
lithosphere and asthenosphere in the CRZ magmatism (Fig. 11B). whereas they are highly enriched agpaitic varieties in the Gardar
In spite of the broad geochemical similarities between the

Mesoproterozoic Prakasam and Gardar rifts, CRZ magmatism
elsewhere seems to differ in many ways (Fig. 12A and B). Both
the OIB- and subduction-related signatures shown by the rift-
related magmatism of PAP and Basin and Range Province (Fitton,
1995) are not depicted by East African Rift magmatism possibly
due to dominant contribution by plume and absence of subduction-
related lithosphere (Fig. 12A; Macdonald et al., 2001). Although,
alkali basaltic and gabbroic dykes of the PAP are restricted to
plume- and subduction-related fields respectively, lamprophyric
dykes plot in both in plume- and subduction-related fields. As
discussed above, lamprophyres representing small melt fractions
have retained asthenospheric signatures but with increasing
degrees of melting subduction signals of the lithosphere became
prominent. Geochemical diversity of CRZ magmatism is further
illustrated through Zr/Y and Nb/Y variation (Fig. 12B). Colorado
rift lamprophyres, dominantly influenced by the lithosphere with
subduction memories (Thompson et al., 1990), hugely differ from
PAP magmatism. It is evident that the CRZ magmatism produces
basaltic melts with widest range of compositions in spite of similar
melting conditions. Past history of the lithosphere, absence or
presence of a plume and composition of metasomatizing melt/fluid
could be some of the factors that contribute to this wide variation in
the rift-zone magmatism. Evidently, mixing between distinct
sources is fundamental to the genesis of continental rift-zone
magmatism.
Fig. 12. La/Nb vs. Ce/Pb (A) and Zr/Y vs. Nb/Y (B) plots showing the
similarities and contrasts in the continental rift-zone magmatism. Note that in 7. Model for rift-zone magmatism in the Prakasam
(A) the PAP alkali basalt and gabbro dykes are restricted to plume- and Alkaline Province
subduction-related fields respectively, where as the PAP lamprophyre dykes
transcend both the fields. For discussion, see the text. Data sources: Fitton
Fig. 13 illustrates a schematic model (Fig. 13A), accompanied
(1995) (Basin and Range Province), Macdonald et al. (2001) (East African rift),
Thompson et al. (1990) (Colorado rift). by geochemical (Fig. 13B) and isotopic (Fig. 13C) signatures of
magmatic rocks, for the genesis of rift-zone magmatism in the
environs of the Prakasam Alkaline Province. Our favored model
infers that incipient rifting has initiated melting of enriched
rift (Upton and Emeleus, 1987). The contrasting rift-culmina- portions of thermal boundary layer to produce alkali basaltic
tions (oceanic vs. continental in the PAP and Gardar dykes of the Prakasam Alkaline Province. Asthenosphere
respectively) have further influenced the later histories rift- upwelling related to lithospheric stretching may likely to have
margin magmatic rocks. The alkaline rocks and carbonatites heated the overlying lithospheric mantle initiating melting of the
(ARCs; Burke et al., 2003) of the PAP were converted to metasomatized portions (vein portions), which will melt readily
deformed alkaline rocks and carbonatites (DARCs) due to due to their low solidii; these melts are lamprophyric in
ocean closure (Leelanandam et al., 2006) during the Grenvillian composition. Melting of vein portions beneath cratonic interior
and Pan-African collision events (Mezger and Cosca, 1999; at greater depths has produced lamproite magmas. Further rifting
Upadhyay et al., 2006), whereas the Mesoproterozoic alkaline has resulted in the extensive melting of the lithosphere (wall-rock
rocks of the Gardar rift retained their ARC status without peridotite + delaminated arc-cumulates/residues) producing gab-
converting to DARCs, since oceanic margin along the Gardar broic magmas, thereby eliminating the asthenosphere signals and
rift was developed only during Cenozoic extension related to retaining the subduction-related lithosphere signatures. Melts
the formation of Labrador Sea (Tappe et al., 2007). derived from the convective thermal boundary layer and
Fig. 13. Schematic diagram illustrating the sources for a spectrum of continental rift-zone magmas in the environs of Prakasam rift (A). Geochemical (B) and isotopic
(C) signatures of the four types of dykes are consistent with variable sources and lithospheric control on magma genesis. Incipient rifting has initiated melting of
enriched portions of thermal boundary layer to produce alkali basaltic dykes; whereas melting of enriched lithospheric pockets produced lamprophyric dykes.
Lamproites are also derived from low degrees melting of lithospheric sources but at greater depths within cratonic interior. Advanced stages of rifting led to large scale
melting of lithosphere producing gabbroic dykes. Presence of delaminated arc-cumulates/residues, within the mantle source, is an integral part of the model and
consistent with the compositions of gabbro and lamprophyre dykes. The vein-plus-wall-rock melting model of Foley (1992) elegantly explains the genesis of the
lamprophyre and gabbro dykes from the lithosphere. Geochemical signatures of the gabbroic dykes indicate that the Mesoproterozoic lithosphere beneath the PAP has
undergone an earlier subduction-related enrichment. For discussion, see the text.
conductive lithosphere sources are presently represented by the Such a mechanism is strongly supported by geochemical and
three types of mafic dykes and their differentiates along cratonic isotopic signatures of the magmas. A conspicuous decrease in
margin (within the Prakasam rift) and lamproites in the craton the rare earth element abundances and La/Lu slopes in the dykes
interior (within the Cuddapah basin). from cratonic interior to cratonic margin is evident (Fig. 13B) —
probably related to source enrichment and depth of melting as 3) Gabbro dykes show geochemical signatures of arc-related
controlled by lithosphere thickness. Both magnitudes of magmas and are derived from lithospheric sources that have
enrichment and depth of melting decrease from craton interior retained the previous subduction-related geochemical signa-
to craton margin. Model ages (Depaolo, 1981) based on Nd tures. The presence of arc-related magmas in a rift setting
isotopic data for the Mesoproterozoic magmatic rocks of the further indicates that the generation of mantle sources and their
PAP and the lamproites of Cuddapah basin are around 2 Ga subsequent melting could be two independent and unrelated
(Chalapathi Rao et al., 2004; Upadhyay et al., 2006; Vijaya events with a large time gap. The 1.75 Ga tectonothermal
Kumar et al., 2007; Fig. 13C), suggesting that their mantle events in the EGB were subduction-related and could possibly
sources were enriched by incompatible elements in a single late be the timing of imprinting subduction-related signatures on
Paleoproterozoic event. The geodynamic setting responsible for the subcontinental lithosphere.
this regional metasomatic enrichment of the Eastern Dharwar 4) Lamprophyre dykes also display OIB-type geochemical sig-
carton and its margin is yet to be identified. Available isotopic natures similar to the alkali basalt dykes but show litho-
data shows an unambiguous lithosphere signature for the spheric character with increasing degree of partial melting.
lamprophyres and related undersaturated alkaline rocks (εNd = Vein-plus-wall-rock melting model explains the geochemical
− 3), whereas primitive cumulates related to basaltic magmas variation in the lamprophyres. Modeling suggests that the
have εNd values near zero. The positive epsilon Nd values for mantle wall-rock component is a mixture of arc-peridotite
the basaltic series (Vijaya Kumar et al., 2007; Fig. 13C) indicate and delaminated arc-cumulates/residues. We observe that the
that their sources are distinctly different from the subcontinental lithosphere wall-rock contribution to lamprophyric melts
lithosphere sources, which produced the lamprophyric melts increases from SW to NE in the Prakasam Alkaline Province
(Upadhyay et al., 2006). Lamproites – also derived from possibly with increasing degrees of melting. Lamprophyres
lithospheric sources (εNd = −7), – show much stronger metaso- with higher contribution from wall-rock (peridotite–cumu-
matic imprints and are restricted to zones of small-scale extensions late mixture) are calc-alkaline in nature whereas the ones with
within the craton. Increasing metasomatic imprint with depth is higher contribution from vein component are alkaline in
also recorded from alkaline magmas of Labrador Sea margin nature.
(Tappe et al., 2007). 5) Geochemical signatures of lamproites, which are possibly the
An extended time span for the alkaline and tholeiitic cratonic expression of the rift-triggered magmatism within the
magmatism (~ 50 Ma; Fig. 13C) in the PAP calls for elevated PAP, suggest a general increase in the metasomatic imprint
temperatures to sustain magmatism for a prolonged time. This is with increasing lithosphere thickness from the cratonic margin
the classic rift scenario of upwelling asthenosphere but argues towards the interior.
against a plume because one would expect a hotspot track to be 6) It appears that progressive melting of convective thermal
developed over 50 Ma plume activity. However, in the absence boundary layer and conductive lithosphere sources, for dif-
of systematic age data along the strike of the rift, the role of a ferent degrees and at varied depths, in an evolving continental
mantle plume in the origin of mafic magmatism of the PAP is an rift produced alkali basalt, gabbro and lamprophyre magmas in
open question. The CRZ magmatism in the PAP reflects how the Prakasam rift along craton margin and lamproites in craton
nature achieves such large scale geochemical variation in a interior.
limited time and space scale. The present study illustrates how 7) It is found that the Mesoproterozoic mafic magmatism in the
past history and fertility of lithosphere, in addition to the Prakasam rift is geochemically similar to that in the Gardar
tectonic environment, play significant roles in the creation of rift of South Greenland but differs in not having ultramafic
unusual geochemical diversity in primitive magmas character- lamprophyres and carbonatites. The depth of melting seems
istic of continental rift-zone magmatism. to be shallower in the case of Prakasam rift due to faster
rifting rate and final culmination of the rift into an Atlantic-
8. Conclusions type oceanic margin.
8) The present study illustrates how the fertility of lithosphere
1) Three distinct types of mafic (alkali basaltic, gabbroic and and its past history play a significant role in the creation of
lamprophyric) dykes are recognized in the Prakasam Alkaline enormous geochemical diversity characteristic of continental
Province of the Eastern Ghats Belt, India, which show different rift-zone magmatism.
liquidus mineralogy and distinct geochemical signatures.
2) Alkali basalt dykes exhibit geochemical traits similar to that Acknowledgements
of oceanic island basalts and are possibly derived by low
degree partial melting of thermal boundary layer. Sources to We thank Prof. C. Leelanandam for reviewing an earlier
alkali basalt dykes of PAP are produced by a two-stage version of the manuscript, and Dr. Sebastian Tappe and an
mechanism: extraction of basaltic magma from depleted anonymous reviewer for offering constructive comments, which
MORB mantle sources in the first stage followed by addition helped in improving the manuscript. Encouragement from Prof.
of small degree partial melt also derived from DMM sources Stephen Foley is greatly appreciated. Prof. J. Ratnakar provided
in the second stage. Low degree partial melting of these access to his unpublished geochemical data on Purimetla
hybrid sources explains the geochemical characteristics of lamprophyres, which is gratefully acknowledged. We thank
the PAP alkali basalt magmas. the Director, NGRI (Hyderabad, India) for his help in obtaining
geochemical analyses. We acknowledge DST for funding (ESS/ Depaolo, D.J., 1981. A neodymium and strontium isotopic study of the Mesozoic
16/165/2002). calc-alkaline granitic batholiths of the Sierra Nevada and Peninsular Ranges,
California. Journal of Geophysical Research 86, 10470–10488.
Dobmeier, C.J., Raith, M.M., 2003. Crustal architecture evolution of the Eastern
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Geochimetry of Mafic Dyks India

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Lithos 104 (2008) 306 – 326

Geochemistry of the mafic dykes in the Prakasam Alkaline Province of

Keywords: Rift-zone; Mafic magmatism; Asthenosphere; Lithosphere; Geochemistry

Sc 19.2 31.6 25.0 22.0 37.0 30.1 5.45 32.3 16.1

La 4.38 27.5 15.2 1.48 7.00 3.73 21.0 122 56.9

related mafic magmatism in the PAP is distinctly brought out by

Fig. 6. NMORB-normalized incompatible element diagram for the alkali basalt

The alkali basaltic dykes exhibit LREE-enriched patterns

6.1. Sources for alkali basalt dykes

Although it is commonly agreed that the intraplate alkali

including delaminated arc-cumulates. Progressive decrease in

6.5. Continental rift-zone magmatism: similarities and

If the continental rift-zone magmatism has typical geochem-

Due to intrinsic differences in Nb/Nb⁎ ([(Nb/√K x La)N], where

In spite of the broad geochemical similarities between the

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